Durham E-Theses Water scarcity in the Maltese islands: geopolitics and management issues Birdi, Narinder Singh How to cite: Birdi, Narinder Singh (1997) Water scarcity in the Maltese islands: geopolitics and management issues, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4721/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Water Scarcity in the Maltese Islands: Geopolitics and Management Issues Volume 1 of two volumes Narinder Singh Birdi Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author and information derived from it should be acknowledged. University of Durham Department of Geography !997 0 iOV IBS? ABSTRACT The Maltese Islands have a history of water resource problems. A high proportion of the Maltese population has suffered over the past few years from water scarcity caused mainly by: (a) a shortage in water production and escalating water demands; (b) rising salinity levels in groundwater and tap water; (c) an undersized and deteriorating distribution system; and (d) increasing levels of groundwater pollution. There is a spatial variation in the intensity of these problems. They are greatest in the south of Malta and it has been suggested that this is due to geopolitical, as well as social, economic and physical, factors. This inequity in water supply has, for many years, been blamed on the politicisation of water. The causes of the water problems are presented and the problems, themselves, are analysed. The link between the water problems and the politicisation of water and conflicts over water resources, is established and discussed. Finally, solutions, through water management and future planned developments, are presented. Social and geopolitical information was gathered mainly through qualitative interviews with water consumers, water suppliers, decision makers, academics and members of non-Governmental organisations, in Malta. Quantitative data on hydrology and the entire water management system was collected and analysed. An extensive literary search to support the physical, social, economic and geopolitical aspects of the research and to obtain legal information, was also undertaken. In conclusion, although the water problems have been enhanced by unsustainable management, they are a part of a wider geopolitical problem, especially the inequitable water supply. In particular, settlements with an affiliation to the political party in Government are better supplied than settlements that support the Opposition. In addition, water conflicts, at all scales, arise due to water scarcity and a lack or absence of water sharing regulations and, of course, human nature. CONTENTS Page VOLUME 1 LIST OF FIGURES i LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF PLATES xi LIST OF ACRONYMS 1 STATEMENT OF COPYRIGHT 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 10 1.1. WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS 10 1.2. WATER RESOURCE GEOPOLITICS AND CONFLICTS 13 1.3. WATER SCARCITY IN MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS..18 1.4. AUTHOR'S BACKGROUND 28 1.5. METHODOLOGY 29 1.6. ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS 40 1.7. RESEARCH AIMS 41 CHAPTER 2 A PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO WATER RESOURCES IN THE MALTESE ISLANDS 44 2.1. PHYSICAL BACKGROUND: INTRODUCTION 44 2.1.1. Geology 44 2.1.1.1. Lower Coralline limestone 52 2.1.1.2. Globigerina limestone 52 2.1.1.3. Blue Clay 53 2.1.1.4. Greensand 53 2.1.1.5. Upper Coralline limestone 54 2.1.2. Hydrogeology 54 2.1.2.1. The perched aquifer 55 2.1.2.2. The mean sea level aquifer (MSLA) 56 2.1.2.3. Other aquifers 57 2.1.3. Hydrology 58 2.1.3.1. Catchment characteristics 59 2.1.3.1.1. Widien 59 2.1.3.1.2. Soil cover 63 2.1.3.1.3. Vegetation cover 64 2.1.3.2. The water balance and dynamics of the hydrological cycle 68 2.1.3.2.1. Classification of the climate of the Maltese Islands 70 2.1.3.2.2. Atmospheric pressure 73 2.1.3.2.3. Rainfall 76 2.1.3.2.4. Run-off 85 2.1.3.2.5. Evapotranspiration 88 2.1.3.2.5.1. Potential and real evapotranspiration....90 2.1.3.2.5.2. Geographical variation in evapotranspiration 94 2.1.3.2.5.3. The effect of temperature on evapotranspiration 102 2.1.3.2.5.4. The effect of radiant energy on evapotranspiration 102 2.1.3.2.5.5. The effect of wind on evapotranspiration 109 2.1.3.2.5.6. Relative humidity and evapotranspiration 113 2.1.3.2.5.7. Vapour pressure and evapotranspiration 114 2.1.3.2.6. Water surplus and water deficit 117 2.1.3.2.7. Rainwater infiltration and aquifer recharge 127 2.1.3.2.8. Aquifer discharge 132 2.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES 135 2.3. CONCLUSION 154 CHAPTER 3 WATER SUPPLY 157 3.1. INTRODUCTION 157 3.2. THE WATER SERVICES CORPORATION 157 3.3. WATER RESOURCES LEGISLATION 160 3.4. WATER TARIFFS 166 3.4.1. Revision of the domestic water tariff...168 3.5. SOURCES OF FIRST CLASS WATER SUPPLY 174 3.5.1. Small scale open reservoirs and treatment plants 182 3.5.2. Distillation 182 3.5.3. Reverse osmosis (RO) 184 3.5.3.1. Ghar Lapsi RO plant 192 3.5.3.2. Marsa RO plant 192 3.5.3.3. Tigne RO plant 192 3.5.3.4. Cirkewaa RO plant 193 3.5.3.5. Pembroke RO plant 193 3.5.3.6. Locational factors 195 3.5.3.7. Tourist, industrial and agricultural RO plants 196 3.5.4. Groundwater from Government pumping stations, boreholes and springs 201 3.5.5. Bottled water 205 3.5.6. Provision of a minimum quantity of first class water 205 3.5.7. First class water supply prioritisation 207 3.6. SOURCES OF SECOND CLASS WATER 210 3.6.1. Groundwater extraction 216 3.6.1.1. Groundwater extraction in agriculture... 218 3.6.2. Surface run-off water 222 3.6.3. Domestic cisterns 226 3.6.4. Recycled sewage effluent 226 3.7. WATER DISTRIBUTION 241 3.7.1. Government distribution of first class water supply 242 3.7.1.1 Distribution patterns 246 3.7.1.1.1. The north-west 250 3.7.1.1.2. The south 250 3.7.1.1.3. The central region 251 3.7.1.1.4. The north-east 251 3.7.1.1.5. GOZO 252 3.7.1.1.6. Inter-island transfers 252 3.7.2. The distribution of water in agriculture 253 3.8. CONCLUSION 258 CHAPTER 4 WATER DEMAND 263 4.1. INTRODUCTION 263 4.2. WATER CONSUMPTION 263 4.3. INCREASES IN DOMESTIC WATER DEMANDS 272 4.3.1. Increasing standards of living and the rise of consumerism 273 4.3.2. Increased development 276 4,3.3. Changing perceptions towards conservation 280 4.4. THE INCREASE IN THE WATER DEMANDS 280 OF THE TOURIST SECTOR 4.4.1. The geography of tourism and water demand 285 4.4.2. Seasonality of tourism and water demand 286 4.4.3. Tourism related water consuming activities 292 4.5. AGRICULTURAL WATER DEMANDS 293 4.5.1. Agricultural demands in the north• west and west 295 4.5.2. Agricultural demands in the south-east 296 4.6. INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL WATER DEMANDS 297 4.7. THE DEMAND FOR BOTTLED WATER 303 4.8. FUTURE DEMANDS 304 4.9. CONCLUSION 306 CHAPTER 5 WATER PROBLEMS 311 5.1. INTRODUCTION 311 5.2. THE SECURITY OF WATER SUPPLIES: PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS 312 5.2.1. RO plant security and vulnerability 313 5.2.2. The lack of emergency reserves 316 5.2.3. The loss of rainwater and run-off water 316 5.2.3.1. The decline in the use of cisterns 317 5.2.3.2. Urbanisation as a cause of rainwater loss 319 5.2.4. Production problems at the SASTP 325 5.2.5. Inadequate water management and funding 326 5.3. WATER SCARCITY 328 5.3.1. Water scarcity and the domestic sector 330 5.3.1.1. The distribution system as a cause of water shortages in the domestic sector 331 5.3.1.1.1. Access scarcity and water cuts in the south of Malta 331 5.3.1.1.2. Production shortages and water cuts in the north and central settlements 3 36 5.3.1.1.3. Water cuts and shortages in Gozo 339 5.3.2. Water shortages and the tourist sector 341 5.3.3. Water shortages in the industrial sector 344 5.3.4. Supply shortages in the agricultural sector 346 5.3.4.1. Water supply problems in the SASTP irrigation project 347 5.3.4.2. Groundwater shortages in agriculture in the west 355 5.3.4.3.