Different Generations of Manufacturing Processes: a Critical Review

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET) Volume 7, Issue 5, September–October 2016, pp.250–271, Article ID: IJMET_07_05_026 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJMET?Volume=7&Issue=5 Journal Impact Factor (2016): 9.2286 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359 © IAEME Publication

DIFFERENT GENERATIONS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES: A CRITICAL REVIEW

Akshay Sanghavi, Utsav Khan, Snehaditya Sen, Eashan Sikder and Dr.Sushanta Tripathy Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

ABSTRACT This paper attempts to form a chronological record of the various manufacturing processes from their period of origin to their modern iterations, including the various stages of evolution undergone by these.This attempt has been made in order to highlight the particular necessities which led to upgrading of each process from its former iteration so as to provide a line of thought for modern inventors to exploit and come up with ideas to further optimize and modernise these manufacturing processes. This would help to break new grounds in the field of manufacturing and hence enable more efficient use of available resources and also obtain more precise and accurate products. Cite this Article: Akshay Sanghavi, Utsav Khan, Snehaditya Sen, Eashan Sikder and Dr. Sushanta Tripathy, Different Generations of Manufacturing Processes: A Critical Review. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 7(5), 2016, pp. 250–271. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJMET?Volume=7&Issue=5 1. INTRODUCTION The subject matter of this paper is to present the development and change of Manufacturing Process in different generations.We shall represent various developments and innovations in the time distinguishing different possibilities of growth and research. The processes from the beginning have been divided into various sections and to be specific it is being cleaved into 8 generations with a decade making up a generation.In total 8 generations are illustrated from the origin of production and until the future. We have taken into consider the commonly used methods as the overheads and gave way to branching as the timeline proceeded and approached towards the modern methods.The noteworthy aspect in the content below, is the fact that the new methods have emerged as solutions to some problems faced with the preceding methods.Any succeeding method comes with some advantage in terms of resource utilisation and/or utility. Some of the methods have come to existence in order to achieve highly specific requirements and find less extensive use, however, these cannot be completely done away with.As new materials are being discovered or synthesised and new technologies are being implemented, the sphere of manufacturing processes is also changing its characteristics.Not only are the older root processes undergoing branching, but also some new root processes are coming into existence, which hardly bear much significance with the older processes.This only indicates that the possibilities of the future are endless and this fact is fairly motivating for the researchers in this field of study.

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Generation 8

Generation 7

Generation 6

Generation 5

Generation 4

Generation 3

Generation 2

Generation 1

Figure 1 Schematic Illustration of different generations

Generation 1

• Investment Casting • Rolling • ARC WELDING: • Composite material • Grist Mill - 71 BC • Sand Casting • Smith Forging 1881(PARIS) :1907 • Hammer Mill - 4th • Centrifugal Casting • Thermoforming • Shielded metal arc Century • Die Casting • Stamping welding (SMAW):Around • first boring machine 1900 • Continous Casting • Press Forging tool in 1775. • OXY-FUEL WELDING: • Power Metallurgy • Turning - 1850s 1903 • Drop Forging • Ball Mill - 1870s • LOW-FREQUENCY • true milling machine- ELECTRIC RESISTANCE 1912. WELDING: 1920s until • 1940, automation via 1970 cams • Submerged arc welding • Ultrasonic Machining - (SAW): IN 1935 1945 • Electroslag welding

(ESW): February 1940 JOINING CASTING (patent 2191481)

• Gas tungsten arc welding MACHINING (GTAW): 1941 • Gas metal arc welding

(GMAW):In 1948

MOLDING AND FORMING AND MOLDING ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING ADDITIVE

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Generations 2 and 3

• Full Mould Casting • Vaccum Forming - • Flux-cored arc • 1950s, servomechani and Lost Foam 1950 welding (FCAW): sms were applied to Casting - 1958. 1950s ) computerized • Spray Forming - numerical control • Rheo Casting - 1970. • Ultrasonic (CNC). 1971 • Hot isostatic Welding (USW): • 1952, numerical • Counter Gravity pressing (HIP)- 1965 control reached the Casting - 1972 1970s developmental stage of laboratory reality • Metal injection • electron System - 1970s beam processing • Rapid prototyping machine - 1952. • 1970s gas-assisted • Rotary ultrasonic injection molding machining was

invented by Legge JOINING CASTING (1964). MACHINING • 1965, the first production laser cutting machine • 1967, laser-assisted

oxygen jet cutting MOULDING AND FORMING AND MOULDING ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING ADDITIVE • NC evolved into CNC - 1970

Generations 4-8

• 1990 Aluminum • Friction Stir welding - • Selective Laser • Integrated plasma, a 1991 Sintering (SLS): mid- system that closely molds first used • Introduction of magnetic 1980s widely in injection coupled the CNC, the pulse welding. • Fused deposition plasma power moulding • Development of laser- modelling (FDM) : 1980 arc-hybrid welding • 3D PRINTING :1984 supply, the gas flow • Development of Gas • Stereolithography (SLA): control, the CAM Metal Arc Welding- 1986 software, and the Brazing, an process for • Cold spraying, involves height control welding steel used in blasting metallic system to automate autos. Process uses a particles through a the process. filler metal comprised of nozzle at such high silicon with a copper speeds that they bind to alloy. 2013 each other to form • Low-carbon steel and shapes. aluminum welding using • Digital manufacturing a lap joint and laser

JOINING technologies. CASTING technology - 2013. • Advanced Water Removal via Membrane MACHINING Solvent-Extraction

Technology.

MOLDING AND FORMING AND MOLDING ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING ADDITIVE

2. LITERATURE REVIEW The research on the manufacturing process of the future has gained huge attention of the engineers and researchers in present times.This need and urgency has led to advancement in manufacturing production. 2. 1) Casting –Casting is the 6000 years old process and helps to produce various products complex in shape whose production would not have been viable with other process.

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Different Generations of Manufacturing Processes: A Critical Review

A. Investment Casting -Investment Casting is the oldest known metal forming process.It acquires its name from the refractory material investing the pattern.It produces products with excellent surface quality and low tolerances with minimum machining process required.The paper by S.Jones and C. Yuan on Investment Casting focuses on the advancement in shell moulding in the process.The Inference available is that with the improvement of Mechanical properties of the ceramic shell will lead to greater success in improving the performance.The other paper by Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Mark R Jolly describes the whole Investment Casting process modelling.

Author(s) Focus Findings S. Jones and C. Yuan. The advancement in shell The paper explains the basic method (2nd December 2002) moulding for the applied for casting and its advantage in Investment casting. different sectors.Development of the Mechanical and Physical properties the ceramic shell will get us to the goal of improving shell performance. Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Investment casting The main finding from the paper is the Mark R Jolly. process modelling. understanding of the physical (20th Feb 2003) phenomenon controlling investment casting processes.The results are compared with the experimental data and then presented.

Figure 2 Investment Casting (Source: http://moderninvestmentcast. com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/investing-casting. png) B. Sand Casting - Sand casting is a good option, if you already have a part.And you can draw a parting line on the part so that the both halves can be pulled from the sand without distorting the sand.The paper by Jilin Li, Rongshi Chen, ,Yuequn Ma, Wei Ke analyses the Microporosity Defect in Sand Cast WE54 Alloy Castings.The experimental results obtained confirm the theoretically proved defects.The next one by Yuki Inouea, Yuichi Motoyamaa, Hiroki Takahashia, Keita Shinjia, MakotoYoshidab finds the restraints force by FEM analysis.The other paper points out the loads in casting and the effects of after casting.

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Author(s) Focus Findings Jilin Li, Rongshi Chen, Characterization and The microstructure of the microporositydefects on Yuequn Ma, Wei Ke. Prediction of the WE54 alloysand casting wasobserved by (1st April 2014) MicroporosityDefect in Sand opticalmicroscopy and scanning Cast WE54 Alloy Castings. electronmicroscopy.By comparing the experimental and simulatingresults, itisfoundthat the predictedmicroporosityregions by Niyamacriterionagreeswellwithexperimentalresults. YukiInouea, Effect of sandmouldmodels on Aluminium alloywascasted in a green YuichiMotoyamaa, the simulatedmouldrestraint sandmould.The restraint force and the physical HirokiTakahashia, Keita force and the contraction of changes weremeasureddynamically. The yield Shinjia, MakotoYoshidab. the casting duringcooling in stress whichis a dominant factor in the restraint (31stJanuary 2013) green sandmoulds. force wasmeasured to predict the stress using FEM analysis.

YuichiMotoyamaa, Dynamicmeasurements of the The paperfinds out the increase in flangeload in HirokiTakahashia, load on castings and the sandmould casting with the change in solidification YukiInouea, Keita Shinjia, contraction of castings process.For accuratecalculations of the stress in the MakotoYoshidab. duringcooling in sandmoulds furansandmoluds the interaction between casting (8thOctober 2012) and the mouldis vital.

Figure 3 Casting Flask and the flask opened after metal pouring for inspection. (Source: http://svseeker. com/sand_casting. htm) C Centrifugal Casting The centrifugal casting uses centrifugal forces to distribute the molten metal in the mould. The round moulds used in this type of casting are made of iron,steel or graphite. This is a large batch production process. This process has a capability to deliver high rate of productivity. The physical simulation of micro-flow in the channel is studied by Ming-xing RENa,Guo-tianWANGb, Bang-sheng LIa, b, Zhen-long WANGc, Heng-zhiFUb, The filling velocity of liquid metal was found out to be proportional with the time.Many alloys are also used like use of Titanium alloys in the centrifugal casting machine was analysed K.Watanabea, O.Miyakawaa, Y. Takadab, O.Okunob, T. Okabec, but it failed as the molten alloy was not successful in reaching the cavities.T. K.Vaidyanathan wrotes about the correlation between Macroscopic Porosity location and Liquid Metal Pressure and it was found that the macroscopic porosity is dependent on the location of the sprue attachment to the casting.

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Author(s) Focus Findings Ming-xingRENa, Guo- Similarphysical simulation of microflow Similarphysical simulation of tianWANGb, Bang-sheng LIa, in micro-channel by centrifugal casting microflow in micro-channel by b, Zhen-long WANGc, Heng- process centrifugal casting process zhiFUb (13th May 2014) K. Watanabea, O. Miyakawaa, Casting behaviour of titaniumalloys in The flow pattern of the Y. Takadab, O. Okunob, T. acentrifugal casting machine moltenmetalwasexamined but the Okabec. givenalloyfail to reach the end of (21st January 2003) the cavities due to itsphysicalproperty of lowfluidity. T. K. Vaidyanathan. CorrelationBetweenMacroscopicPorosity Radiographicanalysis of (January 1981) Location and LiquidMetal Pressure in uniformcylindrical castings Centrifugal Casting Technique fabricated by the centrifugal casting technique has revealedthat the macroscopicporosityisdependent on the location of the sprue attachment to the casting.

Figure 4 Centrifugal Casting pip (Source: http://www. 2mfoundry. com/images/centrifugal-casting-pipes. jpg). D) Die Casting - Die Casting involves forcing molten metal in the mould cavity under high pressure.The die can only opened after the completion of cooling time and solidification of casting.The paper by Sang- SooShina, Kyoung-Mook Limb,Ik-Min Parka aims to study the characteristics and micro structure of Al- Zn alloy for die casting process.The tensile properties and physical properties were looked into by Peng Zhang1, Zhenming Li1,Baoliang Liu2, Wenjiang Ding1, off alumium alloy of high die casting.The paper by Qing-liangWANGa, b, Shou-meiXIONGa, inferred that the vacuum pressure in the cavity is directly proportional to the shot speed plotting a cubic polynomial curve.

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Author(s) Focus Findings Sang-SooShina, Kyoung- Characteristics and The matrix phase of alloywasbolsted by MookLimb, Ik-Min Parka. microstructure of lamellar structure. The average grain size (17th February 2016) newlydesigned Al–Zn- of the samewassmall and complex. The basedalloys for the die- fluidity the wear properties of casting process. thesenewlydevelopedalloysimprovedwith the amount of Zn content. Peng Zhang1, Zhenming Li1, TensileProperties and Effects of naturalaging and test Baoliang Liu2, Wenjiang Ding1. DeformationBehaviours of temperature on the tensilebehaviours have (13th February 2016) a New Aluminium Alloy been studied for a high-performance cast for High Pressure Die aluminium alloy. Increasingaging time Casting. improves the YS and UTS and reduces the ductility of the alloy. Differenttensilebehaviours of the alloy are mainlyattributed to different matrix strengths, phase particlesstrengths and damage rate. Qing-liangWANGa, b, Shou- Vacuum assisted high- The vacuum pressure in the meiXIONGa, b. pressure die casting of cavityisdirectlyproportional to the shot (28th November 2014) AZ91D speed plottingacubic polynomial curve. magnesiumalloyatdifferent The gasporositylevel in the vacuum die slow shot speeds. castings also varies with the shot speeds prominently.

Figure 5 Die Casting Diagram (Source:http://www. engineerstudent. co. uk/die_casting. html) E) Full Mould Casting and Lost Foam Casting- Full mould casting involves combination of sand casting and lost foam casting.Lost Foam Casting had widespread application is commercial as well as scientific field.The results of the study by shows or highlights the change of graphite module with vibration and without vibration.

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Author(s) Focus Findings K. A. Guler. LostFoam Casting The polymerfoam pattern in the (1st December 2015) (Disposable Pattern). sandmouldisremoved by evaporationduringpouring of the moltenmetal. LostFoam Casting hadwidespread application is commercial as well as scientificfield.

Bo-taoXIAOa, b, ,Zi-tianFANa, Microstructure and The results shows or highlights the Wen-mingJIANGa, c, Xin- MechanicalProperties of change of graphite module with wangLIUa, Wei LONGa, Ductile CastIron in LFC vibration and without vibration. The QiangHUa. with Vibration. effectsproduced by vibrations are (November 2014) alsohighlighted. Ali Charchia, MostafaRezaeia, Numerical simulation of The CFD code SiyamakHossainpourb, Jamal heattransfer and fluid wasdevelopedwhichwasused to Shayeghb, SohrabFalakc. flow of moltenmetal in calculate the filling pattern using the (4th August 2010) MMA–St volume of fluidused. The effect of copolymerlostfoam severalparameterssuch as casting process coatingthickness, foamdensity and vacuum level on the gap temperature, gap pressure and filling speed wasstudiedwith the developed software. It wasfoundthat the simulatedresults are in good agreement withexperimentalresults. ShadanTabibiana, b, c, Eric Behavior, damage and The paperdepicts the failure of the Charkalukb, Andrei fatigue life assessment of cylinderheadscasted by lostfoam Constantinescua, Alexis Oudinc, lostfoam casting casting and change in Fabien Szmytkac. aluminumalloysunder itsvariouspropertiesfrom the actual. (29th April 2010) thermo-mechanical fatigue conditions.

Figure 6 Full Mould Casting, the riser indicates the mould is full and to supply the molten metal to the shrinkage casting (Source: http://www. learneasy. info/MDME/MEMmods/MEM30007A/processing/processing. html)

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F) Rheo Casting -The Rheo Casting process involves using slurry in a semi solid state with the amount of benefits directly linked to the fraction solid at the time of casting.Liquidus casting, also known as a New Rheocasting (NRC) or low superheat casting, was developed as a low-cost alternative non-agitation technique for thixotropic feedstock production. The paper by F.A.Girot, L.Albingre, J.M.Quenisset, R.Naslain highlights the best rheo casting conditions for aluminium matrix and defines the resulting microstructures.The Rheo cost alloy is much closer to the equilibrium than the alloy produced by die casting.

Author(s) Focus Findings F.A.Girot, L.Albingre, Rheocasting Al Matrix Composites. The Paperhighlights the best casting J.M.Quenisset, R.Naslain conditions for aluminium matrix (26th October 2012) composites and defining the resulting microstructures.

M.Esmailya, M.Shahabi- Microstructural characterization of Comparisonbetweenrheocastalloy Navida, N.Mortazavib, J. the Mg–Al alloy AM50 produced and samealloyproduced by die E.Svenssona, M.Halvarssonb, by a newlydevelopedrheo-casting casting isstudied.The solidification M.Wessénc, A. E. W.Jarforsc, process. of the Rheocastalloyiscloser to the L. G.Johanssona equilibrium. (3rd June 2014)

Figure 7Schematic illustration of Rheo Casting. (Source: https://www. researchgate. net/figure/258316014_fig12_Schematic-illustration-of-the-stages-of- New-Rheocasting-NRC-40) G) Counter Gravity Casting -The paper by LI Sheng,JIANGMingzhi,WANGXinying,ZHANGJi highlights the modification of ceramic mould for the counter gravity casting of alloy.

Author(s) Focus Findings LI Modification of CeramicMould The experimentindicates Sheng,JIANGMingzhi,WAN for Counter-gravity Casting of the increase in GXinying,ZHANGJi. TiAlAlloy. mould’spermeabilitywithin (February 2013) crease in amount of dextrinslurry.

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Different Generations of Manufacturing Processes: A Critical Review

Figure 8 The CLA process: A chamber that can be closed and sealed holds a permeable mould; an open, impermeable fill pipe extends out of the chamber, (a).The fill pipe lowers into the melt and an applied vacuum draws molten metal, (b), up into the mould in a highly controlled fashion.Castings solidify while the passage stays molten, (c).When the vacuum releases, most of the gating metal returns to the melt for reuse and the castings are all separate in the mould, (d). Final Product.

2. 2. Metal Working The earliest and the substantiated evidence of metal working can be traced back to 5000BC with the processing of Copper.The end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia. As time progressed metal objects became more common, and ever more complex.The need to further acquire and work metals grew in importance.Skills related to extracting metal ores from the earth began to evolve, and metalsmiths became more knowledgeable.Metalworking generally is divided into the following categories, forming, cutting, and, joining. A) Hammer Mill: A Hammer mill is a milling process where a block of material is shaped into the required output by repeated blow of little hammers.Invention, involved conversion of rotary water wheel energy to linear trip hammer energy, around Zhao dynasty period of 4th century in China. A simulation model of the high speed hammer mills for fine grinding process was first depicted by Leonard G.Austin, where it shows that the predicted change in product size distribution is very vital for a damage accumulation constant appropriate for limestone.

Author(s) Focus Findings • Leonard G. Austin. A preliminary simulation High speed hammer mills break particles (25th June 2004) model for fine grinding in high suspended in gas by high velocity impact against a speed hammer mills hammer surface. It show that the predicted change in product size distribution is very vital for a damage accumulation constant appropriate for limestone, and it is inferred that a correct prediction cannot be obtained without allowing for damage. • Fengnian Shi, a, , An energy-based model for The result of the model is the capability to • Toni Kojovicb, 1, swing hammer mills. simulate the impact of changing blends of coal or • Joan S. Esterlec, configurations. The model assists us to select the • Dean Davida machine settings favourable to achieve the final (22ND September 2003) product.

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Figure 9 Hammer Mill (Source:https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Hammermill#/media/File:Hammerm%C3%BChle. jpg. ) B) Turning -The paper by P.Sam Paula, A. S.Varadarajanb, R.Robinson Gnanaduraia compares the modern turning process with the traditional one, where the modern one with dry turning process was selected as the most appropriate oneit produces less vibration and high performance.For turning process the most important parameter is less machining force which is obtained by using coated ceramic insert was informed by Hamza Bensouilaha, Hamdi Aouicia, b, Ikhlas Meddoura, Mohamed Athmane Yallesea, Tarek Mabroukic, François Girardind Author(s) Focus Findings • P. Sam Paula, Study on the influence of fluid The paper compares the modern • A. S. Varadarajanb, application parameters on tool hard turning process and the • R. Robinson Gnanaduraia vibration and cutting traditional process. The results (March 2016) performance during turning of show that the pure dry turning hardened steel. was selected as the best as with minimum fluid use low vibrations are produced thus a better cutting performance.

• HamzaBensouilaha, Performance of coated and The results revealed that the • HamdiAouicia, b, uncoated mixed ceramic tools in surface quality obtained with • IkhlasMeddoura, hard turning process. the coated CC6050 ceramic • Mohamed AthmaneYallesea, insert is 1. 6 times better than • TarekMabroukic, the one obtained with uncoated François Girardind CC650 ceramic insert. (March 2016) However, the uncoated ceramic insert was useful in reducing the machining force.

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Figure 10 Turning (Source- https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Turning.)

Figure 11 Finish Turning (Source- https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Turning) C) Ball Mill - Ball mill is used to crush large materials into smaller pieces or fine powder.The stainless steel balls are preferred as the grinding material.The ultra-fine grinding of the gypsum ore is studied by Bilge Öksüzoğlua, MetinUçurumb, the paper studies the different grinding parameters. Hamid Ghayoura, Majid Abdellahia, , Maryam Bahmanpourboptimisedthe high energy ball-milling. Author(s) Focus Findings • Bilge Öksüzoğlua, An experimental study on In this paper certain grinding parameters (i. e. , MetinUçurumb the ultra-fine grinding of mill speed, ball filling ratio, ball size (April 2016) gypsum ore in a dry ball distribution, powder filling ratio, grinding aid mill. ratio, and grinding time) of conventional dry ball mills affect the grindability of gypsum ore are studied systematically. PatchiyaPhanthonga, Effect of ball milling on the It depicts that the appropriate ball-milling of • GuoqingGuana, b, production of nanocellulose cellulose feedstock could be useful for the mild • YufeiMaa, using mild acid hydrolysis hydrolysis process for the production of high • XiaogangHaoc, method. quality nanocellulose with high yield. AbulitiAbudulaa, b (March 2016) • Hamid Ghayoura, Optimization of the high The different situations that lead to increase in • MajidAbdellahia, energy ball-milling: BPR are analysed. According to the results Maryam Bahmanpourb Modelling and parametric obtained, if the vial to plate spinning rate is 1. 2, (April 2016) study. the mill has a better performance however, by increasing the diameter of the balls, this ratio is changed to 1. 4.

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Figure 11 Ball Mill- Highly Efficient Grinding And Milling Machine. (Source http://www. everysingletopic. com/ball-mill-highly-efficient-grinding-and-milling-machine/. )

2. 3. Additive Manufacturing Additive Manufacturing is the process by which a digital 3d design data is used to build a product in layers of depositing materials.The term 3D printing is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing permits highly complex structures which can still be extremely light and stable.It enables a high degree of design freedom, the optimisation and integration of functional features, the manufacture of small batch sizes at reasonable unit costs and a high degree of product customisation. Composites Materials, SLS, Sintering, 3D Printing are various additive manufacturing process which started during the 20th Century and is still on research and its future prospects is quite appealing. A) Composite material - A composite material is a material made of two or more different materials having different physical and chemical property than its constituents material.Study by Alexander E.Panasenkoa, b, Ivan A. Tkachenkoa, Ludmila A.Zemnukhovaa, b, Igor V.Shchetininc, Nina A.Didenkoastudy the possibility to improve the thermal stability of maghemite for developing a heat resistant magnetic material.Wang Chen numerically analysed ablative behaviour of C/C composites, the simulation results verified the theoretical data practically.Design and manufacturing of isogrid structure in composites was presented by L.Sorrentinoa,M.Marchettib, C.Bellinia, A.Delfinib, M.Albanob

Author(s) Focus Findings • Alexander E. Panasenkoa, b, Phase composition, Improvement of the thermal stability of • Ivan A. Tkachenkoa, magnetic properties maghemite is promising for development of • Ludmila A. Zemnukhovaa, b, and thermal behaviour heat-resistant magnetic materials. c • Igor V. Shchetinin , of a novel Fe2O3– a Nina A. Didenko SiO2 composite (May 2016) material. • Wang Chen. I. NUMERICAL The simulation results are in good (April 2016) ANALYSES OF agreement with the theoretical solution and ABLATIVE BEHAVIOUR experimental results. The ablative OF C/C COMPOSITE experiment and analytical model can be MATERIALS. recognized as the basic research method for the thermal protection materials in the aerospace applications.

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Author(s) Focus Findings • L. Sorrentinoa, Design and The process of manufacturing was designed • M. Marchettib, manufacturing of an by giving attention to the mould design and • C. Bellinia, isogrid structure in the process of curling. At the end the • A. Delfinib, composite material: designed part was manufactured and tested M. Albanob Numerical and to verify the quality of the process (20th May 2016) experimental results. corresponding to the design requirement.

• EyitayoOlatundeOlakanmi, , Critical materials and The processing changes which effect the Moses J. Strydom. processing challenges WPCs interface and performance are (1st March 2016) affecting the interface elaborated with the remedial measures. and functional performance of wood polymer composites (WPCs)

Figure 12 Composite Fibre. (Source http://www. techniyachtspinta. com/en/construction-composite_composite. html. )

Figure 13 Composites Manufacturing (Source: http://www. techniyachtspinta. com/en/construction-composite_composite. html. )

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B) SLS- Selective Laser Sintering(SLS) is a part of Additive Manufacturing process, which uses laser as a power source to depositthe powdered metalat points in space created by a 3D- model which binds the material together to get the desired output.Selective laser sintering (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr.Carl Deckard and academic adviser, Dr.Joe Beaman at the University of Texas at Austin in the mid- 1980s, under sponsorship of DARPA.The possibility to apply Direct Metal Laser Sintering in manufacturing mechanical components in medical industry was found by E.Girardina,, G.Baruccab,P.Menguccib,F.Fioria, E.Bassolic, A.Gattoc,L.Iulianod,B.Rutkowskie.The paper by E. O.Olakanmia, b, R. F.Cochranea, K. W.Dalgarnocsummarises the future trends in SLSprocessing of aluminium alloy powders.Most SLS machines use two-component powders, typically either coated powder or a powder mixture.In single-component powders, the laser melts only the outer surface of the particles, fusing the solid non-melted cores to each other and to the previous layer. SLS is being widely used around the work because of its ability to directly produce complex geometrics directly from CAD design.

Figure 14 SLS Diagram.(source- http://www. arptech. com. au/images/slsdiag. gif). C) FDM -Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) was developed by Stratasys in Eden Prairie, Minnesota.A nozzle having the wax traces the parts cross sectional geometry layer by layer.The nozzle contains resistive heaters that keep the plastic at a temperature just above its melting point so that it flows easily through the nozzle and forms the layer.The plastic hardens immediately after flowing from the nozzle and bonds to the layer below.Using I-optimality criterion for the optimisation of FDM was formulated by Omar Ahmed Mohameda, ,Syed HasanMasooda, JaharLalBhowmik.The future advancement in the process by studied by S. H.Masood, who elaborated the basic process, materials used and possibility of further innovation in the process. Author(s) Focus Findings • Omar Ahmed Optimization of fused The process parameters influence the accuracy of Mohameda, deposition modelling parts produced by FDM. Confirmation • Syed HasanMasooda, process parameters for experiments show that the method has great JaharLalBhowmik dimensional accuracy advantages in the aspect of both accuracy and (March 2016) using I-optimality efficiency compared with traditional methods. criterion. • O. S. Carneiroa, Fused deposition The findings highlights the application of FDM • A. F. Silvab, modelling with in the production of small parts with required R. Gomesa polypropylene. mechanical performance. (15th October 2015)

• Yu-an Jina, c, Quantitative analysis of The paper anatomizatizes the processes that can • Hui Lib, surface profile in fused be employed in pharmaceutics. The main motive • Yong Hea, c, deposition modelling. is to give an appraisal on the practical tools used Jian-zhongFua, c for designing the customized drug delivery (October 2015) systems using 3D printing.

• S. H. Masood. Advances in Fused The paper elaborates the basic process, materials • (2014) Deposition Modelling. and also presents the development and innovative work done in this field.

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Different Generations of Manufacturing Processes: A Critical Review

Figure 15 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). (Source: http://www. custompartnet. com/wu/fused-deposition-modeling) D) 3D Printing - 3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects from a digital file. It starts with creating a virtual design of the object you want to create.This virtual design is for instance a CAD (Computer Aided Design) file.This CAD file is created using a 3D modelling application or with a 3D scanner (to copy an existing object).A 3D scanner can make a 3D digital copy of an object. Author(s) Focus Findings • Fernanda C. Godoi, 3d printing technologies applied for 3d printing technologies • SangeetaPrakash, food design: Status and prospects. applied for food design: Status • Bhesh R. Bhandari and prospects. • (June 2016) • Michele Galloa, 3D-printing model for complex aortic The surface accuracy is • Augusto D'Onofrioa, transcatheter valve treatment. determined by the the ratio of • Giuseppe Tarantinib, molten flow rate of paste and • Erica Nocerinoc, the nozzle feed rate. Methods • Fabio Remondinoc, for improvement of surface • Gino Gerosaa are illustrated. • (1st May 2016) • Tao Peng. Analysis of Energy Utilization in 3D The findings complements the • (2016) Printing Processes. life cycle assessment of 3D Printing processes.

Figure 16 3D Printing. (Source-http://www. 3ders. org/images2014/syringe-extruder-fdm-3d-printer-1. jpg).

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Figure 17 Prototyping has driven the adoption of 3-D printing so far.Future opportunities 3D printers chiefly used for prototyping. Farther out is the ability to print complete systems or subsystems.Emerging multi-material capabilities will help, since most finished products are made from more than one material.However, challenges extend to the ability to embed components such as sensors, electronics, and batteries, so everything can be printed in one build.R&D efforts are under way in a number of areas, including materials, printing methods, and combining additive and traditional methods of manufacturing. E) Stereolithography -A technique or process for creating three-dimensional objects, in which a computer-controlled moving laser beam is used to build up the required structure, layer by layer, from a liquid polymer that hardens on contact with laser light. Stereolithography or "SLA" printing is an early and widely used 3D printing technology.Also known as Rapid Prototyping, 3D printing was invented with the intent of allowing engineers to create prototypes of their designs in a more time effective manner. [3][4] The technology first appeared as early as the 1970s.Stereolithography is becoming popular day by day because of its enhanced manufacturing capabilities and less machining time.It is the answer to the problem faced by modern engineers to develop the complex design.The manufacturing of future is clearly Stereolithography.

Author(s) Focus Findings • Toshimitsu Kanai, , Microfluidic devices The generation of mono disperse double Masaki Tsuchiya fabricated using emulsions are presented with high precision (15th April 2016) stereolithography for control of droplets size. Its application in preparation of monodisperse different field of materials science and drug double emulsions. delievery.

• JiangpingZhoua, b, Quick fabrication of Investment casting based on stereolithography • ZhongliangLua, b, aeronautical complicated (SLA) has the characteristics of short • Kai Miaoa, b, structural parts based on production cycle and low cost, which is • ZheJia, b, stereolithography. especially suitable for fabricating complex • Yin Dongc, aeronautical parts. DichenLia (June 2015) • Hyun-Wook Kanga, A pixel based solidification Projection based stereolithography is one of • Jeong Hun Parkb, model for projection based the most useful method for manufacturing 3D Dong-Woo Chob, c, , stereolithography technology. structures. This study is made of an analytical (May 2012) model to explain the intensity distribution of an illuminated image. The findings show that this model was successful for calculating fabrication results.

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Different Generations of Manufacturing Processes: A Critical Review

Figure 18 Stereolithography Apparatus. (Source: https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Stereolithography). 3. CONCLUSION The first instance of manufacturing and usage of different composites can be dated back to 5500-4500 BC.The manufacturing of things for a particular usage began with the production of household artifacts with the help of clay.The 1st process probably employed was casting and hammering with materials such as bronze, gold , copper, iron etc.The major milestone was the production of steel during 700-800 AD, which facilitated widespread development regularly.A major development has happened during the 18th century with the design and the manufacturing of the interchangeable parts by an American manufacturer.By 1950 many goals were reached in the aspects of manufacturing processes.I think the next bug innovation that is required is 3D printing with multi materials which will enable to print any material at any location in a 3D plane.The future of additive manufacturing is not constrained to inanimate objects but today bio-inks are used to make living tissues. The breakthrough to add blood vessels was the development of a third ink that has an unusual property: it melts as it cools, not as it warms.This property allowed scientists to print an interconnected network of filaments and then melt them by chilling the material.The liquid is siphoned out to create a network of hollow tubes, or vessels, inside the tissue.Such creations are possible only with 3-D printing, generating new possibilities beyond traditional manufacturing. The manufacturing of the tomorrow is clearly Stereolithography. For SLS there is a challenge for developing stringer structures without increasing dimensions.3D printing has proved vital in the advancement of modern medical equipments and also in there is a boost in the automobile sector or for that matter anything that requires design has been made capable with the help of Stereolithography. KEYWORDS • SMAW – Sheilded Metal Arc Welding. • SLS – Selective Laser Sintering. • SLA – Stereolithography. • R&D – Research and Development. • CAD - Computer Aided Design. • FDM - Fused Deposition Modeling. • 3D – 3 Dimensional. • PEKK –Polyetherketoneketone. • DMLS - Direct Metal Laser Sintering.

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• BPR – Ball to Powder ratio. • CFD – Computational Fluid Dynamics. • LFC – Lost Foam Casting. • FEM – Finite Element Method. • Al – Aluminium. • Zn – Zinc. • YS – Yield Strength. • UTS – Ultimate Tensile Strength. • MMA – Methyl Metacrylate. • TiAl – Titanium Aluminium. • Fe2O3 – Iron(III) oxide. • SiO2 – Silica. • SLM – Selective Laser Melting. • Co – Cobalt. • Cr – Chrome. • Mo – Molybdenum. REFERENCE

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[48] Rajender Kumar, Dr. D. R. Prajapati, Sukhraj Singh, Implementation of Taguchi Methodology For Defect Reduction In Manufacturing Industry “A Case Study”. International Journal of Industrial Engineering Research and Development (IJIERD), 2(1), 2011, pp.1–14

[49] YembadiKoushikVarma, SamathamMadhukar, BootlaAkhil and PokalaSaiprasanna Kumar, Future of Manufacturing Technology Rapid Prototyping Technique. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), 7(5), 2016, pp.117–126. [50] Hyun-WookKanga,Jeong Hun Parkb,Dong-Woo Chob, c, A pixel based solidification model for projection based stereolithography technology, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical. Volume 178, May 2012, Pages 223–229. [51] The Road ahead of 3D Printers. (http://www.pwc.com/us/en/technology-forecast/2014/3d- printing/features/future-3d-printing.html). AUTHORS DETAILS Dr. SushantaTripathy is presently working as a Professor at the School of Mechanical Engineering in KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. He has completed his PhD from the Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.His major areas of interest include production operations management, multivariate analysis, service operations management, supply chain management and productivity management. He is a Fellow of Institution of Engineers, India. He is the editorial board member in a number of International Journals.

AkshaySanghavi is final year student in the field of Mechanical Engineering in KIIT University, Odisha. His prime focus has always been on Manufacturing Technologies and Material Sciences. He has a knack for Alternative Manufacturing Processes and Automotive Engineering and wishes to pursue his Master's in the same.

Utsav Khan is currently pursuing his BTech in Mechanical Engineering from KIIT University, Odisha. He has a natural inclination towards motorsports engineering, and wishes to pursue his Master's in the same, and thus make a career out of it. His primary interest is accessorized by his liking towards CAD/CAM and Design Analysis

SnehadityaSen is pursuing his BTech in Mechanical Engineering from KIIT University, Odisha. He has significant interest in Automobile Engineering, especially concerning road-going vehicles and primarily focussing on engines. He also takes interest in Composite Materials and Alternative Fuel Technologies.

Eashan is presently a student of KIIT University, Odisha, pursuing his BTech in Mechanical Engineering. He is extensively fascinated with Fluid Dynamics and highly proficient in CFD as well as CAD/CAM and Design Analysis. He has an additional interest in Automotive Engineering, which he actively implements in multiple college- level projects

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