i Behind the Valour: A technical, administrative and bureaucratic analysis of the Victoria Cross and the AIF on the Western Front, 1916-1918 Victoria D’Alton Student Number 3183439 Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts University of New South Wales Australian Defence Force Academy 22 October 2010 ii Originality Statement I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Victoria D’Alton UNSW Student Number 3183439 22 October 2010 iii For my friend, Lieutenant Paul Kimlin, RAN O156024 1 January 1976 – 2 April 2005 ‘For many are called, but few are chosen.’ Matthew 22:14 iv Abstract This thesis focuses on the how and why the Victoria Cross came to be awarded to 53 soldiers of the AIF on the Western Front from 1916 to 1918. It examines the technical, administrative and bureaucratic history of Australia’s relationship with the Victoria Cross in this significant time and place. It is a history Behind the Valour. For the most part, existing literature involving Australians and the Victoria Cross on the Western Front celebrates or commemorates the acts that resulted in the decoration being awarded. This thesis adds quite a different historiographical dimension. The thesis first discusses the significance of the Victoria Cross, from its origins up to the beginning of First World War and goes on to provide context and detail concerning Victoria Crosses awarded to soldiers of the AIF while in action on the Western Front. It explains the protocols and procedures required for the Victoria Cross to be awarded. The process followed a strict chain of military command from the field to the War Office in London, and finally the King. The central arguments of the thesis concern the influences and contentious issues that affected the award of the Victoria Cross. These included, for example, changes made to recommendations, the interpretation of what constituted ‘valour’, and increased opportunities for some to be recognised over others. Perhaps of most significance was the release of a directive to British and Dominion armies on the Western Front on 29 August 1916. This directive resulted in substantial changes to the way in which the Victoria Cross recognised valour for the rest of the war. The thesis also examines a number of issues relating to the Victoria Cross on the home front in Australia. It argues, for example, that the government used the Victoria Cross and AIF recipients to assist recruitment drives. So too, both sides attempted to exploit the award during the divisive conscription campaigns of 1916 and 1917. The Victoria Cross’s relationship with the press, and the media’s considerable efforts in portraying the Victoria Cross and its respective recipients as symbols of success is also examined. Until now, there has been no substantial exploration of important technical, bureaucratic and administrative relationships that existed between the Victoria Cross, the AIF and the Western Front. This thesis is aimed at filling this historiographical hole. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements vi List of Tables and Figures viii Abbreviations ix Introduction 1 Chapter One The VC, the AIF, and the Western Front, 1916 to 1918 14 Chapter Two The Royal Warrant, 1856 to 1916 45 Chapter Three The Recommendation Process 57 Chapter Four Contentious Issues 80 Chapter Five The 29 August 1916 Directive: A VC Watershed 109 Chapter Six The Political Use of the VC 130 Chapter Seven The VC and the Home Front 159 Conclusion 184 Appendices Appendix A 189 Appendix B 191 Appendix C 193 Appendix D 206 Appendix E 231 Appendix F 233 Appendix G 235 Appendix H 237 Appendix I 238 Bibliography 239 vi Acknowledgements I was initially told by my supervisors that completing a thesis such as this was never going to be easy, especially on a part-time basis, and that has certainly been the case. I could not have completed this without the support and assistance of many people who I wish to acknowledge in helping me through this journey of discovery. First and foremost I wish to thank my supervisors for their genuine support and honest appraisals. They have assisted me through this journey and guided me along the way. Dr. Craig Stockings has been enormously helpful and generous with his support and I have appreciated his patience, sound advice and frankness. Assisting him as co-supervisor was Dr. Peter Stanley who has also been helpful and accommodating in the support and advice he has given me throughout the last five years. I would also like to acknowledge the support shown to me by Professor David Lovell and Ms. Bernadette McDermott, the Head and Student Liaison Officer at the HASS, UNSW@ADFA, respectively. On a personal level, I wish to acknowledge the help and support I have received from a number of individuals. My friend Mrs. Barbara Coe has always shown interest and excitement in my project and assisted me in locating newspaper articles in the early days of my research. I also wish to acknowledge and thank Miss Hannah Bennett, Miss Caitlin Adams and Ms. Bethany Lord who all read sections for me and gave me sound advice and criticism when and where needed. My thanks also goes to my friends Ms. Leanne George, Mr. Alan Murray and Dr. Ted Fleming, who have volunteered with me at the Research Centre within the Australian War Memorial for many enjoyable years. I also wish to thank Mr. Anthony Staunton and Mr. Graham Wilson, two seasoned military historians, both of whom assisted me in understanding the subject matter. I must acknowledge my ‘boss’, Mr. John Foulcher, at Burgmann Anglican School, who has always encouraged me to pursue my interests and strive for success – especially when times got tough and juggling full-time employment became challenging. My thanks should also go to my family for their continued encouragement: Mrs. Rosemary and Mr. Howard D’Alton, Mrs. Simone Hudson, and my beloved aunts Ms. Liz Crewes and Ms. Peggy Rounau. I would also like to say a special thank you to my dearest friend Mrs. Ruth Bennett, who has supported me enormously throughout the writing of this manuscript. I would like to thank the research institutions where I have spent many hours sifting through stacks of faded paper. The institutions I have visited should be proud of the work they do in maintaining the valuable and important archival material, and the way in which they are stored and accessible to the public. My thanks go to the Australian War Memorial Research Centre, the National Archives of Australia (in both the Canberra and Melbourne reading rooms), the National Library of Australia and, in particular, the Manuscripts Room, and the Special Collections Library at UNSW@ADFA, where Ms. Wilgha Edwards sat with me for hours helping me to find much valuable material. I also want to acknowledge the support I have received from my many friends at the Military Historical Society of Australia (ACT Branch). It was in this forum that I presented my initial research ideas that led to the final outcome of this thesis. Members of this group also suggested I apply for an Army History Research Grant which I was awarded in 2008 to conduct research in vii London. With this grant I was able to visit the Imperial War Museum, The National Archives, Kew, the British Library and the National Army Museum in Chelsea. Dr. Nigel Steel at the Imperial War Museum in particular was most accommodating. My sincere thanks must go to the Army History Unit for their generous financial support needed to complete this aspect of my research. Last, but certainly not least, I want to thank my friend Paul Kimlin whom this thesis is dedicated to. He died while serving his country, a brave pilot who inspired me to undertake this journey of discovery in the hope of better understanding the nature of valour. 22/10/10 viii List of Tables and Figures Table 1 AIF troops awarded a VC on the Western Front, June 1916 – October 1918 p. 4 Table 2 Typical composition of a citizen-force infantry brigade in Australia, 1904 p. 15 Table 3 An example Victoria Cross recommendation p.75 Table 4 Likelihood of receiving a Victoria Cross on the Western Front per state p. 139 Figure 1 Victoria Crosses awarded per AIF division on the Western Front, 1916-1918 p. 69 Figure 2 Victoria Crosses awarded per AIF division on the Western Front p. 69 Figure 3 AIF soldiers recommended the Victoria Cross for actions on the Western Front p. 82 Figure 4 A comparison of Western Front battlefield cost versus Victoria Crosses p. 89 Figure 5 A comparison of AIF casualties and VCs p. 90 Figure 6 Western Front VCs promoted after being awarded the VC p. 104 Figure 7 Comparison of Allied Forces: officers to soldiers, fighting on the Western Front 1916-1918 p. 106 Figure 8 Categorising Victoria Cross Deeds of AIF soldiers on the Western Front p.