NOTES ON SOME TOPICS IN APPLIED ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Judith K. Blackshaw, BSc, MAEd Wash. (St. Louis), PhD School of Veterinary Science University of Queensland St. Lucia, Brisbane Queensland, 4067, Australia Third edition, June 1986, with an additional chapter by Judith K. Blackshaw and David J. Allan, QDAH (Hons), BSc (Vet.), BVSc (Hons), MBBS Copyright Judith K. Blackshaw Bibliography ISBN 0 9592581 0 8 1. Animal Behaviour. I. Title 591.51 Updated in 2003 by Dr Paul McGreevy, BVSc, PhD, MRCVS Senior Lecturer in Animal Behaviour Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney Additional material based on literature reviews by Paul McGreevy and undergraduates students in Agricultural Science at the University of Sydney, including Jaclyn Aldenhoven, Julia Barnes, Michelle Carpenter, Jennifer Clulow, Michael Connors, Simon De Graaf, Steven Downes, Damien Halloway, Trent Haymen, Kirstie Martin, Alison Morgan, Jeanette Olejnik, Terry Pollock, Sarah Pomroy, Caroline Wardrop, Evelyn Whitson and Catherine Wood. Editorial work by Lynn Cole ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the following people who helped me with this book. They are my husband, Dr. Alan Blackshaw; my friends, Dr Linda Murphy, Pig and Poultry Branch, Queensland Dept. of Primary Industries, and Mr. David Allen, Dept. of Medical Laboratory Science, Queensland Institute of Technology; Mrs. Althea Vickers, Dept. of Veterinary Medicine, and Miss CaroL Jang, Dept. of Animal Sciences and Production, University of Queensland for typing and design. 7th July, 1986 Judith K. Blackshaw i INTRODUCTION Why do we study domestic animal behaviour? There are several reasons: (1) To manage and move stock without causing undue stress. (2) To design facilities which consider the needs of the animals. These facilities include housing systems for intensive husbandry, holding pens, loading and unloading ramps, transport vehicles, and provision for special operations, e.g. slaughtering, shearing, dipping. (3) To manage grazing animals and pest species. (4) To learn about the behaviour of pet animals and the bond between pet and owner. If these factors are taken into account, not only will animals be more productive but their welfare will be assured. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1. THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR 1 Chapter 2. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF APPLIED ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 4 Man–animal interface model 4 Dominance concept 4 Flight distance 5 Crowding and over-crowding 6 Social facilitation 6 Stress and its measurement 6 Chapter 3. BEHAVIOURAL PROFILES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 9 Horses 9 Sheep 13 Cattle 18 Goats 23 Pigs 24 Poultry 29 Deer 34 Chapter 4. GRAZING ANIMAL MANAGEMENT AND BEHAVIOUR 39 Chapter S. DESIGN OF FACILITIES FOR MANAGEMENT OF LIVESTOCK 44 Chapter 6. ANIMAL TRANSPORT AND BEHAVIOUR 56 Chapter 7. THE BEHAVIOUR OF CATS AND DOGS 63 Chapter 8. PETS IN SOCIETY 79 Chapter 9. THE BEHAVIOUR AND MANAGEMENT OF PEST SPECIES 82 Chapter 10. WILD ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY 91 Chapter 11. THE TRAINING OF ANIMALS 94 Training cattle to lead 94 Training sheep and cattle dogs 94 Training Guide Dogs 95 Training a pet dog 96 The Jeffrey Method of Horse Training 97 Chapter 12. AN APPROACH TO BEHAVIOURALAND WELFARE PROBLEMS IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS with D.J. Allan 99 ii Notes on some topics in Applied Animal Behaviour CHAPTER 1: THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR This chapter is concerned with the following points: Therefore, they don’t waste energy on unnecessary effort. 1. What is behaviour and what questions can be asked 3. Development (ontogeny): How does the behaviour when considering any given behaviour? develop during the animal’s lifetime)? Some key issues 2. How behaviour is observed and recorded. here would include, for example, does the animal have 3. The quantification of behaviour. to learn the behaviour or does it behave appropriately without prior experience? Also, how much can an innate 4. Writing up a project on behaviour. behaviour be modified after birth? When you think about the relationship between age WHAT IS BEHAVIOUR? and behaviour you might also like to think about a dog Animal behaviour is the expression of an effort to adapt cocking its leg and how this behaviour develops. It is not or adjust to different internal and external conditions, i.e. present at birth but instead appears as a product of behaviour can be described as an animal’s response to hormonal activity at puberty. This is a useful reminder, a stimulus. therefore, that genes and the environment continue to The actions of animals are directed toward: interact throughout life. 1. keeping themselves alive (i.e. individual survival), 4. Evolution: How did the behaviour evolve (same as and asking how the horse’s hoof evolved) is asking how did 2. reproduction (i.e. species survival). a certain behaviour develop (e.g. beak-wiping in zebra It is worth pointing out at this stage that animals do not finch is thought to exist in ‘embryonic form in the bow- act for the ‘good of the species’. This is an archaic view minus-wipe of the closely related spice finch and – in fact, it is more appropriate to think of them as act- striated finch). A more puzzling question may be how ing for the good of their genetic material and to think of stereotypic behaviours evolve in the absence of envi- genes as being selfish (Dawkins, The Selfish Gene). ronments that elicit them. Behaviour has evolved by natural selection and a knowledge and understanding of it has always been a HOW BEHAVIOUR IS OBSERVED AND RECORDED practical matter for early trappers, hunters, traditional Before behaviour is recorded a decision must be made shepherds and herdsmen. It is a sequence of move- about what responses are to be observed. This will ments with a beginning (appetitive behaviours), a depend on what questions must be answered. Some middle and an end (the consummatory act). The study things to be considered are: of behaviour (ethology) involves not only what an ani- 1. Choice of relevant observations. mal does but also when, how, why and where the 2. Careful definition of the behaviour to be observed and behaviour occurred (Lehner, 1979). Social behaviour methods of ensuring clarity and so avoiding confusion involves the development of relationships in which ani- among observers. mals build up regular patterns with each other and their a. The behaviour must be described on a strictly environment. This is a dynamic process and leads to empirical basis: based on observation and experi- stable relationships. These relationships are important ment. Alternatively, one can refer to an existing when we examine domestic and captive animal behav- ethogram (a catalogue of the behavioural reper- iour (applied ethology). toire) for the species in question. Only by understanding animal behaviour can we b. The behaviour must not have an interpretation of really begin to appreciate whether the way we keep ani- functional or inferred aspect such as sleeping, mals is appropriate. There are a number of ways of con- yawning, was bored, happy, restless. These words sidering behaviour. The father of modern behaviour sci- do not describe the behaviour observed but are ence is Niko Tinbergen, who established fundamental o b s e r v e r s ’ subjective opinions of what was methods of analysing behaviour. Tinbergen’s four ques- observed. tions can be asked of any behaviour: 3. Choice of observation schedule. This is important as 1. Causation (mechanism): How is the behaviour it will affect the type of data collected: observations can accomplished? focus on one individual (or one dyad or one litter or For example, cockroaches running away from one of other husbandry unit) for a specified amount of time their most effective predators, toads, use wind-sensitive (focal animal sampling) or be a record of the behaviour hairs on their cerci to predict the point at which the toad of each individual or all the behaviours evident in a has committed itself to a strike in a certain direction. The whole group of subjects as observed at a single instant cockroaches then turn and immediately run away once every day, once per week (scan or time sampling). the strike is initiated. 4. Some factors to be considered when observing 2. Function: How does the behaviour contribute to the behaviour include: animal’s survival and reproductive success? a. spacing arrangements between animals (pigs An animal that behaves most appropriately in a given tend to huddle together in a group, sheep graze in situation will be the one most likely to succeed, e.g. flocks and continually monitor each other so a fixed fighting, feeding, breeding. For example, cockroaches distance between them is maintained, dams and running only when they are certain of an actual threat. their offspring having a relationship that is undergo- www.animalbehaviour.net 1 ing change from birth to weaning and often beyond); ment can be repeated by other observers. b. orientation; In the past many behavioural studies included no c. posture; quantitative data at all and were often anecdotal. This d. various behavioural rhythms that occur over dif- does not mean they were of no value. In fact they stim- ferent times and seasons; ulated the interest and enthusiasm that has led to the e. behaviour is influenced by the age and sex of the truly scientific studies of animal behaviour. animal and also by its past experience. WRITING UP A PROJECT ON BEHAVIOUR The recording of observations can be done in different (ETHOLOGICAL RESEARCH) ways: 1. By the observer using a notebook and pencil. The This involves the following sections: position of the observer may influence the animal’s 1. Introduction behaviour (a so-called operator effect) and it should always be stated whether the observer was in full view 2. Materials and methods of the animals or hidden from them (e.g.