Global early childhood policies 17

Localizing Play-Based Pedagogy: Nigerian Educators’ Appropriation of Sesame Classroom Materials

Naomi A. Moland School of International Service, American University

Abstract This article examines how international organizations promote play-based pedagogical approaches in early childhood settings around the world, and how local educators respond. As a case study, I investigated ’s efforts to introduce play-based approaches in Nigerian classrooms. In addition to producing a Nigerian version of (called ), Sesame Workshop trains educators in play-based approaches and has distributed alphabet flashcards, puppet kits, and storytelling games to more than 2,700 early childhood classrooms across Nigeria. These materials were intended to support Sesame Square’s messages, and to foster interactive, child-centered learning experiences. However, teachers often used the materials in ways that reflected more rote-based, teacher- centered approaches. Data was gathered through observations and interviews in 27 educational sites across Nigeria that use Sesame materials. Findings reveal that teachers’ resistance to play-based approaches was sometimes for structural reasons (e.g., large class sizes), and sometimes related to their knowledge and training (e.g., they were accustomed to drilling the alphabet). I argue that ideals about constructivist, play-based learning are being disseminated by international organizations—alongside contrasting formalistic pedagogical approaches—and that all approaches will shift as they are localized. I question if approaches that are considered universally developmentally appropriate are relevant in all settings, and explore how early childhood educators adapt global pedagogical trends to make sense in their classrooms. I call for international organizations to explore context-appropriate play-based approaches that develop educators’ capacities to help all children thrive, while also incorporating local cultural beliefs about childhood and teaching.

Keywords Play-based approaches, pedagogy, culturally relevant pedagogy, globalization, Nigeria, Sesame Workshop

Introduction 4.2 (adopted September 2015) states, “By 2030, In recent years, international development ______organizations have increased their focus on Corresponding Author: developing and expanding early childhood Naomi A. Moland, School of International Service, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, educational opportunities around the world. The DC 20016 United Nations Sustainable Development Goal Email: [email protected]

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Moland, Naomi A.(2017). Localizing play-based pedagogy: Nigerian educators’ appropriation of Sesame Classroom materials. Global Education Review, 4 (3), 17-36. 18 Global Education Review 4(3) ensure that all boys and girls have access to intended to support the messages on Nigeria’s quality early childhood development, care, and version of Sesame Street (called Sesame pre-primary education so that they are ready for Square), such as literacy and numeracy skills, primary education” (Sustainable Development healthy habits, and respect for diversity. Goal 4, 2017). As formalized early childhood In this article, I examine how Sesame education has expanded around the world, Workshop promotes play-based learning in debates continue (and take new forms) about the Nigeria, and how educators respond. My best ways to educate young children. While research questions are: many experts emphasize the importance of play- 1. How does Sesame Workshop promote based and interactive learning, more academic play-based approaches to early childhood and teacher-directed approaches are also educators in Nigeria? widespread (Davey & Lundy, 2011; Fuller, 2. How do Nigerian educators use 2007). Some raise concerns that increasingly Sesame’s play-based educational materials rigorous accountability measures are leading to in their classrooms? inappropriate academic pressure and testing even at very young ages, and that these practices To answer these questions, I conducted do not reflect what we know about ethnographic observations in two caregiver1 developmentally appropriate pedagogical training sessions and 27 educational sites in five strategies (Bodrova, 2008; Fuller, 2007). states across Nigeria. I also repeatedly International organizations play a role in interviewed Sesame teacher trainers and diffusing various early childhood education conversed with teachers. Findings reveal that approaches. Scholars critique a global education many educators struggled to implement play- reform movement (GERM) for exporting based learning approaches and sometimes used market-based accountability measures to the Sesame materials in teacher-directed ways education systems around the world (Sahlberg, that promoted rote memorization. These 2014). Such reforms are often associated with findings echo those of other scholars who have increased assessment and more rigid, teacher- observed educators’ discomfort in African led pedagogical approaches. However, countries with constructivist, learner-centered international organizations are also pedagogical approaches (Mtika & Gates, 2010; disseminating play-based approaches for early O'Sullivan, 2004; Vavrus, Bartlett, & Salema, childhood education. 2013). Studies have documented several possible This article examines one such reasons for why teachers resist constructivist organization, Sesame Workshop, which creates approaches, such as structural reasons (large television programs, trains educators, and class sizes, inadequate classroom space, and distributes interactive educational materials rigid school schedules) and knowledge and around the world (Cole, 2016). Sesame attitudinal reasons (including inadequate Workshop collaborates with local production training, previous experiences, and cultural companies to create more than 30 international beliefs about authority and knowledge versions of Sesame Street, which are viewed by acquisition) (Schweisfurth, 2011; Vavrus et al., more than 156 million children in 150 countries 2013). around the world (Cooney, 2016; Sesame My findings align with these scholars’ Workshop, 2017). Sesame Workshop also findings; I document how structural, knowledge, distributes educational materials to schools, and attitudinal factors contribute to teachers’ community centers, and orphanages (described discomfort with play-based methods. However, further below). In Nigeria, these materials were this study is different in that it highlights

Global early childhood policies 19 specifically how educators repurpose materials Tikly, 2015). A key component of these that are designed to be constructivist, and use discussions are concerns about teaching quality, them in more didactic ways. Moreover, this and whether teachers engage in “teacher- study is unique because it examines these centered approaches” or “learner-centered dynamics in early childhood settings, rather pedagogy” (Schweisfurth, 2015; Vavrus, than in primary or secondary school settings. Thomas, & Bartlett, 2011). These two Many early childhood experts suggest that pedagogical approaches are linked respectively constructivist, exploratory, play-based to formalistic and constructivist educational pedagogical approaches are particularly philosophies (Fuller, 2007; Vavrus & Bartlett, important in early childhood settings (Bodrova, 2012). Teacher-centered approaches are often 2008; Lobman & Ryan, 2007). The fact that associated with formalistic pedagogical theories rote-based, teacher-centered approaches persist that emphasize rote learning, rationalized and in early childhood classrooms in Nigeria may standardized knowledge, and teachers lecturing have a negative impact on young children’s from the front of the room (I borrow the term development. "formalistic" from Vavrus, 2009). In contrast, On the other hand, this study questions learner-centered pedagogies are understood as whether play-based pedagogical approaches are constructivist classroom practices wherein logistically and culturally appropriate in all students interact with the teacher in more contexts. Early childhood experts who speak egalitarian ways, may work in cooperative about pedagogical approaches that are groups with other students, and construct developmentally appropriate suggest that all knowledge through interaction, questioning, and children go through similar biological stages that experimentation (Mtika & Gates, 2010; Vavrus require certain pedagogies. However, ideas et al., 2011). about child-rearing are culturally bound (Lancy, Scholars emphasize that these two 2015). While it may be impossible to determine pedagogical approaches are better understood as what pedagogical approaches are culturally a continuum than as absolutes (Schweisfurth, indigenous to Nigeria, educators may need to 2015) and that many teachers employ “hybrid draw from different approaches to find one that practices” and “mixed pedagogies” (Mtika & best suits their sociocultural context. I borrow Gates, 2010). That is to say, there are from Vavrus’s (2009) concept of contingent approaches that are more and less learner- constructivism to investigate how Nigerian centered, and teachers may utilize different teachers adapt Western conceptualizations of approaches in different contexts and for play-based learning to be more appropriate in different purposes (Barrett, 2007). The Nigerian settings. pedagogies that teachers use are intimately tied to cultural contexts, beliefs about authority, and The Global Diffusion of conceptions of knowledge production (Vavrus & Constructivist and Formalistic Bartlett, 2012). Many international development Pedagogical Approaches organizations promote constructivist, learner- In recent decades, debates about pedagogical centered pedagogies (Mtika & Gates, 2010; approaches are increasingly circulating in Schweisfurth, 2015). Reports from organizations international development discourses. As such as The World Bank and UNESCO highlight enrollment levels in formal schooling have the need for teachers to adopt more expanded dramatically around the world, constructivist approaches (Vavrus et al., 2011). concerns about the quality of learning have Following global trends, many national become central (Barrett, Sayed, Schweisfurth, &

20 Global Education Review 4(3) governments are also instituting educational authority structures and epistemological beliefs, reforms—including teacher education reforms— and infrastructural reasons (such as large class that promote constructivist pedagogies (Vavrus sizes and limited materials) (Schweisfurth, 2011; et al., 2013). At the early childhood education Vavrus et al., 2013). level, related recommendations often advocate Scholars also document how teachers may play-based learning as a foundation for be hesitant to use constructivist approaches approaches that prioritize children exploring, when students are still assessed in standardized interacting, and questioning authority (Davey & ways (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2013; Schweisfurth, Lundy, 2011; Subramanian, 2015). 2015). These concerns are connected to fears Some scholars laud the global diffusion of that a global education reform movement constructivist approaches. In addition to (GERM) is leading to greater standardization, fostering students’ academic learning, they increased assessments, and more stringent explore how such approaches develop students’ accountability measures (Sahlberg, 2014). critical thinking skills and their ability to Accountability-based reform measures in the question authority—and that these are U.S. have led to more assessment and important skills for promoting human rights and standardization—even at the preschool level— peaceful attitudes (Bajaj, 2011; Schweisfurth, leading many early childhood educators and 2015; Subramanian, 2015). Others raise policymakers to focus more on academic versus concerns about the global promotion of learner- play-based, interactive pedagogies (Bodrova, centered approaches. Tabulawa (2003) asserts 2008; Fuller, 2007). GERM may be leading to that while learner-centered pedagogy is often more teacher-centered, standardized early justified in educational and cognitive terms, it childhood approaches around the world. should be understood as affiliated with certain Throughout debates about constructivist economic and political ideals. He connects versus formalistic pedagogical approaches—and learner-centered approaches to Westernization, who is promoting, appropriating, and resisting neoliberalism, democratization, and capitalism. these approaches around the world—we have Other scholars, who may be less cynical about limited knowledge of how these dynamics play aid agencies’ reasons for promoting out in early childhood settings (for an exception, constructivist pedagogies, still question whether see Subramanian, 2015). Debates between these approaches make sense in all settings constructivist versus formalistic approaches run (Hardman, Abd-Kadir, & Smith, 2008; parallel to longstanding discussions about the O'Sullivan, 2004; Vavrus, 2009). best ways to educate young children. Fuller Despite global efforts to promote more (2007) outlines the history and tenets of three constructivist approaches, formalistic approaches to early childhood education. First, approaches persist in many countries. the “liberal humanist” approach (drawing on Particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, researchers philosophies from Froebel to Rousseau and have found many classroom interactions to be Piaget) emphasizes constructivist notions, based on a “We teach, students listen” wherein learning occurs when children’s natural (Stambach, 1994) model wherein teachers curiosities are fostered and children engage in lecture and students are expected to memorize discovery and play to develop knowledge. (Hardman et al., 2008; Moloi, Morobe, & Second, Fuller defines a “skilling” approach as Urwick, 2008; Mtika & Gates, 2010; O'Sullivan, the belief that “the upbringing of children should 2004). Scholars explore many possible reasons focus on imparting certain cognitive skills and for why formalistic approaches persist, including plugging three- and four-year-olds into the teachers’ training and experiences, cultural classroom’s social routines, getting them ready

Global early childhood policies 21 for school” (2007, p. 6). The third approach is a constructivist, play-based approaches, and how “cross-cultural” conception of childrearing, they use (or do not use) these approaches in which denies that there is—or should be—one their classrooms. My findings show that teachers universal way of raising children, and highlights rarely used Sesame materials in the play-based, the importance of building on children’s cultural learner-centered ways that Sesame Workshop frameworks (2007, p. 7). The “liberal-humanist” intended. These findings align with several other and “skilling” approaches, in particular, align studies that show incongruences between the with constructivist and formalistic pedagogical learner-centered approaches teachers learn and approaches, respectively. Notably, both “liberal- what actually occurs in classrooms. It is notable humanist” and “skilling” approaches adopt that my findings in early childhood classrooms developmentalist perspectives—believing that align with findings of studies that take place in children progress through certain stages. “Cross- primary (Moloi et al., 2008; O'Sullivan, 2004) cultural” approaches (related to reconceptualist and secondary (Mtika & Gates, 2010; Vavrus, early childhood theories) critique the concept of 2009) classrooms. We may expect that early “developmentally appropriate,” emphasizing childhood educators would be more likely to use that constructions of “normal” development are play-based, interactive approaches. My findings culturally bound (Cannella, Swadener, & Che, suggest that formalistic approaches pervade at 2007). all levels of education in Nigeria. Some scholars Vavrus’s (2009) study provides a fear that teacher-centered, rote-based methods particularly apt model for this study on Nigerian may be particularly inappropriate at the early educators’ responses to play-based materials. childhood level (Bodrova, 2008; Copple & She conducted ethnographic research at a Bredekamp, 2010). Scholars, policymakers, and Tanzanian teachers college that promoted educators may need to negotiate pedagogical constructivism and learner-centered pedagogy. approaches that make sense in Nigerian settings While pre-service teachers in the college seemed but also promote learning among Nigeria’s to understand and accept constructivist youngest children. approaches, they struggled to implement them in their own secondary-level classrooms. Vavrus Sesame International and the explored possible structural, knowledge, and Promotion of Play-based Learning attitudinal reasons for this disconnect. She also Sesame Street is one of the longest running observed one teacher who modified children’s television programs (on air in the U.S. constructivist approaches to fit the constraints of since 1969), and certainly the most widely his classroom. While he continued to teach in a broadcast around the world (Cole, 2016). lecture-based whole-group format, he utilized Television is only one of the platforms it uses to question and answer techniques that promoted pursue its stated mission to help children “grow critical thinking. Vavrus deemed this practice smarter, stronger, and kinder” (Sesame “contingent constructivism” and emphasized Workshop, 2017); it also creates radio that such teachers “need to be rewarded, not programming, DVDs, website/mobile admonished, for recognizing the limitations of applications, and classroom materials. While [constructivist] methods when conditions do not international versions of Sesame Street have warrant their use” (2009, p. 310). aired since the early 1970s, Sesame Workshop My study follows Vavrus’s (2009) work— has recently focused more on using the program and similar work by other scholars (Moloi et al., as a tool for international development. The 2008; Mtika & Gates, 2010; O'Sullivan, 2004)— United States Agency for International by examining how teachers are trained in Development (USAID) has funded nine versions

22 Global Education Review 4(3) of the program, and the program’s goals align based learning among young children, and with international development objectives about influence teachers and parents to interact with promoting universal primary education and children more creatively. girls’ education, combatting HIV/AIDS and While Sesame television and radio other diseases, and fostering intercultural peace programs may influence teachers’ and parents’ (Cole, 2016). In general, research has shown that approaches, Sesame Workshop also engages in Sesame Street and its international versions more direct caregiver training. In the U.S. and have been successful in teaching academic skills, around the world, they have created kits with healthy habits, and peaceful and tolerant caregiver guides and educational books, games, worldviews (Cole, 2016). DVDs, and other materials for children. Sesame Educating children in entertaining, play- trains caregivers on the use of the materials (as based ways has been central to Sesame described below in Nigeria). Such trainings are Workshop’s approach since the beginning, and also intended to teach developmentally these strategies are consistent across Sesame’s appropriate strategies for teaching young international programming. Sesame Workshop children. researchers have found that co-productions have helped shift attitudes about early childhood Sesame Square Comes to Nigeria education. For example, Cole and Lee (2016) When Sesame Workshop and USAID decided to summarized internal research on , the create a co-production in Nigeria, they were fully Bangladeshi version of Sesame Street: aware of the educational challenges there. The Education [in Bangladesh] was often seen Nigerian government has struggled to provide as a process of rote memorization rather adequate education for its population, and than engaged, joyful learning (Kibria, regional, ethnic, and gender inequalities persist 2005). Researchers noted a shift in these (Moland, 2015b). The fact that Nigeria has eight attitudes a year after Sisimpur’s broadcast. million children out of school—the highest Teachers reported that the series inspired number in sub-Saharan Africa—reflects Nigeria’s them to be more creative in their teaching massive population (186 million) and relatively […] and parents were more likely to think low enrollment rates (CIA World Factbook- about parenting as involving active Nigeria, 2017; Kazeem, Jensen, & Stokes, 2010). interactions with children than before Literacy rates vary largely by region: (Kibria, 2006).2 (Cole & Lee, 2016, pp. 59- approximately 72% of Nigerians ages 5-16 in the 60) southern regions are literate, as compared to 28% in the northern regions (NDHS, 2011, pp. This reporting of research illustrates 44-45). Regional boundaries align significantly Sesame Workshop’s hopes that co-productions with ethnic and religious boundaries; northern can promote creativity, “engaged, joyful Nigeria is predominantly Hausa and Muslim, learning,” and “active interactions.” Similarly, and southern Nigeria is predominantly Igbo, Lee et al., (2016) write about how the radio Yoruba, and Christian. As a result, regional version of the Afghan co-production, Bagch-e- inequalities map onto other inequalities. For Simsim, “helped mothers understand how to example, Christian children are five times more treat their children, and to encourage their likely to attend school than Muslim children in learning and self-expression” (2016, p. 113). Nigeria (Kazeem et al., 2010, p. 312). These examples show how Sesame Workshop Persistent inequalities in Nigeria have staff members and researchers (including local contributed to ongoing ethno-religious conflicts staff) hope that programs can promote play- (Campbell, 2013; Moland, 2015a). These

Global early childhood policies 23 conflicts in turn compromise educational access. the Sesame Square team based in Abuja For instance, the conflict between the terrorist (Nigeria’s capital city). In the end, group Boko Haram and the Nigerian approximately 2,700 English literacy kits were government has led to attacks on schools that distributed to schools, orphanages, and have killed 611 teachers, destroyed 910 schools, community centers in five states across Nigeria. and forced 1,500 additional schools to close In months that followed, an additional 1,600 (Human Rights Watch, 2016). In northeast Hausa literacy kits were distributed in northern Nigeria, millions of people have been displaced, Nigeria, and 2,700 math/science/health kits and millions of children are out of school. were distributed throughout the country. In each The Nigerian government has made of the five states, Sesame Workshop contracted a commitments to providing preschool education regional “Master Trainer” to conduct a Caregiver (called crèche, nursery, and kindergarten at Training. Between 40-50 caregivers attended different levels) (Nigeria National Policy on each training, and they each in turn conducted a Education, 2004). However, such programs are “step-down training” for at least 10 additional limited in an already under-resourced education caregivers at their school or community center. system, and fewer than 20% of children attend In this way, approximately 2,700 caregivers preschool (Fluent Research, 2013). In the were trained to use the materials, and each of preschool classes I visited, I noted similar them received a kit for their classroom or center. aspects to those other researchers have observed The materials in the literacy kits are in primary classrooms in Nigeria, such as large designed to promote creative, child-centered class sizes, rote-based pedagogical approaches, learning. The Alphabet Story Quilt book and limited materials (Hardman et al., 2008). includes colorful illustrations of characters and Amidst these challenging circumstances, scenes from ethnic groups across Nigeria, and Sesame Workshop staff members (Nigerian and teaches alphabet sounds and alliteration. For American) hoped that Sesame Square and its example, the “O” page reads: “Oluchi’s okra has accompanying educational materials could help overgrown her yard in Oyo state.” The puppet increase young children’s access to education. In set includes 23 laminated paper puppets (about April of 2011, the first episode of Sesame Square six inches tall) that caregivers are instructed to was broadcast. With funding from USAID, cut out and attach to wooden supports, as well as Sesame Square creators produced three seasons background scenes. The Puppet Kit Guide of 26 thirty-minute episodes each. Similarly to explains, “puppets are a great way to teach other international versions, Sesame Square children new concepts and tell them stories in a teaches about preschool-level academic skills, fun and engaging way,” and includes socio-emotional skills, healthy habits, and instructions, sample scripts, and character diversity and tolerance (Moland, 2015a). descriptions. In the spring of 2012, the Nigerian Sesame The laminated alphabet flashcards (six team rolled out the first materials kit: the inches by eight inches) show a capital and literacy kit. This kit was a plastic bin lowercase letter on one side, together with a (approximately two cubic feet in size) with a picture of a Muppet and lines for the child to fitted lid and a handle. Each literacy kit included copy the letter (crayon markings can be wiped a Story Tree mat, a paper puppet set, alphabet off). The other side shows an object that starts flashcards, a children’s book, and instructions with the letter. For example, the B card has a for caregivers (described further below). The picture of playing ball on one creation and distribution of these kits was a side, and a picture of a ball on the other side. massive logistical undertaking coordinated by The set includes instruction cards that list eleven

24 Global Education Review 4(3) suggested activities divided into “early learners,” Methods “early readers,” and “advanced readers” This article draws on data collected as part of a (examples below). larger study on the production of Sesame Finally, the literacy kits contain the Story Square. During nine months in Nigeria, I Tree mat, a large vinyl mat (five feet by five feet) conducted interviews, ethnographic with a picture of a tree on it. Each leaf of the tree observations, and episode analysis to learn how has an object pictured. For example, leaves Sesame Square was localized into the Nigerian included pictures of a school, nurse, duck, setting, and how the program taught about bicycle, and so on—almost sixty items are diversity and tolerance (Moland, 2015a, 2017). I pictured. The kit includes a Story Tree guide, interviewed 35 Sesame Square staff and 37 which explains that it is a floor game designed to educators who use Sesame Square materials in help children “increase vocabulary by learning their classrooms. I also observed meetings and new words, describe/ categorize animals, film shoots in the Sesame Square studios, and familiar objects, places, etc., build sentences, conducted textual analysis of all 78 episodes narrate events in sequence, creatively imagine produced thus far. stories, and have fun learning!” The guide also This article focuses on data from tells caregivers what each item is, and gives ethnographic observations of Caregiver examples of stories to tell. Children are to jump Trainings and classroom use of the Sesame on different leaves as they identify objects or tell materials. I observed two Caregiver Trainings (in stories. For example, a child might jump on a Lagos in February 2012 and in Abuja in March picture of a boy, a woman, a bus, and bananas, 2012), and repeatedly interviewed the Master and tell a story about how a boy went with his Trainers who conducted these trainings (Folake mother on the bus to buy bananas. and Damilola) (all names are psuedonyms). It is important to note that all of these Near Lagos and Abuja, I accompanied Folake materials were meticulously created (mostly by and Damilola as they visited sites to monitor Nigerians) to be culturally relevant to children how caregivers were using the Sesame materials. across Nigeria. The Story Tree includes a picture I also visited Abakaliki, Calabar, and Kano, and of a girl in a hijab to represent Nigeria’s large met with the Master Trainers there, and Muslim population (approximately 50% of the accompanied them on monitoring visits to sites.3 population) (CIA World Factbook- Nigeria, In total, I visited 27 educational sites that used 2017). The Y alphabet flashcard has a picture of Sesame materials, including one orphanage, one a yam (a staple food across Nigeria), and the community center, one family center, one NGO, puppet kit and the Alphabet Story Quilt include one clinic, and 22 schools. In several schools, I characters from ethnic groups across the country visited multiple classrooms. (as depicted by their names and clothing). While Site visits ranged from thirty minutes to the materials were carefully tailored to Nigerian two hours. When we arrived at a site, the Master cultural groups, however, the intended play- Trainer (or one of his/her staff) and I would first based activities were unfamiliar to many speak with the headmaster, and then walk Nigerian educators. In order to learn how around to visit classrooms. Visits were intended educators used the materials, I conducted (by the Master Trainers) to monitor how observations in educational settings across caregivers were using the materials, and it Nigeria. sometimes seemed as though caregivers took the materials out to use them when they saw us coming. Headmasters and teachers often believed that I worked for Sesame Workshop or

Global early childhood policies 25

USAID, perhaps due in part to my identity as a British curriculum. As such, both Folake and white, American female, despite my best efforts Damilola were experienced with constructivist to explain that I was an independent researcher approaches, and were also likely more elite than and was not evaluating them. most of the teachers they trained. Because my time at each school was During the one-day Caregiver Training in limited, I often took photos and videos to guide Lagos in February 2012, Folake started off by me as I wrote my fieldnotes each evening. telling the 28 caregivers from nearby NGOs and Taking short videos allowed me to record schools that they were going to be very active verbatim what teachers and students said while that day. She led them in a song, and then began using the materials. I also took notes during speaking about how children learn best: observations and conversations. To analyze my We need to change attitudes. I saw a fieldnotes and interview transcripts, I entered program on TV that [said that] a child them into the qualitative software Dedoose 7.0 who is not exposed to interactivity in and used a combination of deductive and education is doomed. Now, SUBEB [the inductive codes. For example, I began with codes State Universal Basic Education Board] based on themes from scholarly literature, such is doing a good thing, starting crèches… as “materials promote play-based learning,” and [but] I’ve seen some, where the teacher added codes that emerged from my fieldnotes, says, “Who is running around? Put your such as “educators worried about theft of head on your desk!”- That’s not materials.” Together, my ethnographic and interactivity. (fieldnotes, February 9, interview data illustrate how Sesame Workshop 2012) promoted play-based learning in Nigeria, and how educators responded. At this point, Folake began to solicit ideas from the caregivers about how children learn Training Nigerian Caregivers in best. She wrote their suggestions on a piece of chart paper, “children learn when they use Play-Based Approaches materials, learn through role play, models, During Caregiver Trainings, Nigerian imitations, interaction, observation, Sesame Master Trainers taught early childhood gesticulation, eye contact.” Folake also added educators how to use the materials in the literacy that children learn when they are inquisitive, ask kit. The five Master Trainers throughout the questions, when they are put at ease, explore, country were experienced educators, several of experiment, use their senses, and through a whom had served on local or state education variety of media (fieldnotes, February 9, 2012). boards. Most of them also had experience Folake then directed the caregivers to the working with international aid agencies such as Sesame Square Outreach Training Manual, USAID or the U.K. Department for International which includes a page titled, “Ways Children Development (DfID). As such, they had far more Learn and Develop Skills During Early exposure to American and British educational Childhood” with subsections, “Learning through approaches than most Nigerian educators. the Senses,” “Learning by Exploration and Folake, the Master Trainer in Lagos, had worked Experimenting” and “Learning through Play” at the Lagos State board of education and had (Sesame Workshop, 2011, p. 9). They discussed decades of experience training teachers and these themes, and brainstormed suggestions for developing curriculum. Damilola, the Master incorporating them. Trainer in Abuja, was president of a large Much of the rest of the Caregiver Training association of private schools and ran an elite was spent with teachers practicing how to use private school outside of Abuja that utilized a

26 Global Education Review 4(3) the materials in the literacy kit. For example, Damilola (steps on boy picture): There Folake called up a group of teachers to do an was a boy called Ade. Ade is a lovely activity with the alphabet flashcards. Caregivers boy, who loves to go to school. One attempted the “ABC Wave” game, wherein day, he wore his school uniform, his alphabet flashcards were distributed to white shirt, and his blue shorts. caregivers. As the whole group sang the alphabet Caregiver 1 (in next group): When he got song, the caregiver with each letter was expected to school, he met his friend playing to raise the corresponding flashcard. Caregivers ball (steps on ball). And he joined in seemed confused at first, but soon mastered the the playing. But during the playing, he activity. During the afternoon session, she injured himself. explained how to use the puppets, Alphabet Caregiver 2: From there, the nurse was Story Quilt book, and Story Tree. Caregivers had called (steps on nurse). The nurse some opportunities to practice using the called Ade, and he was taken to the materials, although time was limited. clinic (steps on clinic). A similar Caregiver Training took place Caregiver 3: At the clinic he was given an in Abuja in March 2012. The Master Trainer, injection by the nurse, and he was Damilola, led the group in a discussion of how admitted in the hospital, and stayed in children learn, and described three learning the hospital, and slept (steps on bed). styles—auditory, visual, kinesthetic. After a Caregiver 4: And then his father was sent break, she divided participants into small groups for (steps on picture of man), and to practice alphabet flashcards games. Damilola using a keke-NAPEP (steps on keke- then turned their attention to the puppets, and NAPEP, a three-wheeled rickshaw explained that the puppets could encourage taxi) to go to the hospital and see Ade. children to tell stories and be creative, and that And they took him back home. caregivers could use the puppets to teach all Caregiver 5: And when they got home, his kinds of messages about health, staying in mommy used the telephone (steps on school, professions, and so on (fieldnotes, March phone) to call the Aunty, to tell the 28, 2012). When showing caregivers how to use Aunty what has happened the The Alphabet Story Quilt book, Damilola Caregiver 6: When at home, his mother modeled how to read to children in engaging, bought him banana (steps on banana) dialogic ways that would help build knowledge because he loves banana. and vocabulary. Afterwards, she reflected with Caregiver 7: And his friend (steps on boy) caregivers on how even reading books aloud brought him his homework (steps on could be done in ways that encouraged books). interactivity, imagination, and play. Damilola: Okay! Nice story! (fieldnotes, Finally, caregivers had the opportunity March 28, 2012) to practice using the Story Tree. Small groups After showing them how to use the Story Tree, gathered around six mats. Damilola began a Damilola again explained to the caregivers that story, and then one caregiver from each group this mat could help children to tell stories, be continued it. creative, build vocabulary, and have fun. Damilola: Story, story, story! Story, story, My observations at these two trainings story! (Caregivers clap and chant showed me how the Sesame Master Trainers along). Once upon a time (Folake and Damilola) taught about interactive, Caregivers: Time time! play-based methods—and that caregivers seemed to agree with these approaches, and to

Global early childhood policies 27 understand how to use the materials in the ways materials in classrooms, there was some that Sesame Workshop intended. After the evidence that play-based approaches were Caregiver Training in Lagos, I asked Folake what “trickling down.” For example, at a step-down changes she would hope to see in a school six training near Abuja, we saw all the participants months after they began using the Sesame stepping on the Story Tree and telling a story materials. She responded: together (fieldnotes, March 29, 2012). At a primary school outside Abuja, we observed a I would expect that a child is given a better caregiver leading a discussion with his peers opportunity to explore… For example, about the best ways to motivate children to learn when we are talking about the Story Tree, (fieldnotes, April 3, 2012). At an Islamic school there are so many objects probably outside of Lagos, young children (ages 3-4) were [children will see] for the first time. So stepping on the Story Tree and telling short that shows they add on to the wealth of stories. One girl stepped on several different vocabularies that they’ve learnt… the pictures as she said, “This is a farmer. He grows Nigerian child is not forthcoming with the corn, banana, yam, apple, carrots, and use of words…. the child has not been tomatoes.” Her teacher repeated her story and given an opportunity to express then invited the other students to “Clap for her!” themselves. Because most times, the (fieldnotes, February 15, 2012). teacher would not come to the level of the Much more frequently, however, we child. But with these kinds of materials, observed caregivers using the materials in more we see the teacher coming to the level of formalistic ways. Despite the fact that caregivers the child. Then there’s lots of interactivity. at the trainings seemed to understand and (interview, February 14, 2012) espouse play-based approaches, and seemed to Folake’s expectations echoed those of be excited about using the materials, they proponents of play-based learning. She hoped struggled to implement such approaches in their that more interactive teaching methods, classrooms. combined with more egalitarian teacher-student relationships (“the teacher coming to the level of Caregivers Using Sesame the child”), would enable children to gain self- Materials confidence and learn more. Are Caregivers Using the Materials? As caregivers left the Caregiver Training, After Sesame Master Trainers (including they seemed enthusiastic about using the Damilola and Folake) completed the Caregiver materials in the literacy kit. As shown above, Training, they visited educational sites to ensure many of them, when asked, “How do children that caregivers were using the materials learn?” mentioned methods that align well with effectively with children. As I accompanied them constructivist approaches—they spoke of the on site visits, one concern that emerged importance of play, using the five senses, frequently was that the materials were not exploration, interaction, and so on. The fact that arriving at their intended classroom or not being caregivers raised these points suggests that play- used afterwards. Folake explained to me, based approaches were not foreign to them. “Sometimes maybe the head teacher will say, They were not hearing about such approaches ‘Oh, these materials are nice, I’ll take them home for the first time. so my children can use them.’ And then when we As I accompanied Sesame Master Trainers go to the school, there are no materials in sight!” to observe caregivers training additional (interview, February 14, 2012). In under- caregivers during step-down trainings, and using resourced contexts where many classrooms do

28 Global Education Review 4(3) not have locks, fear of theft was high. Indeed, in approximately 40 children (ages 2-4) were one of the preschools where Sesame Workshop sitting in small plastic chairs in rows. Mariela provided a small television and a generator so was accompanied by another staff member from that children could watch Sesame Square her NGO and there were three additional episodes (as part of a pilot study), thieves had caregivers in the room who worked at the school. stolen both. When they were replaced, a teacher She began by showing the children the alphabet began carrying them back and forth from his cards and using a call-and-response method to home every day (fieldnotes, February 15, 2012). say the letters: Some schools seemed hesitant to let the Mariela: Here are some alphabet cards. Do children handle the materials because they were you like them? worried the materials would get ruined. To avoid All children: Yes! the loss or damage of materials, schools often Mariela: Who can tell me what is on this kept the kits locked up in a headmaster’s office, card? where teachers could check them out (fieldnotes, A few children: A March 22, 2012). At one school in Abakaliki, we Mariela: Good, it’s the letter A. What is it, saw seven Sesame literacy kits stacked in a back everybody? room next to boxes of discarded workbooks All children: Letter A. (fieldnotes, March 26, 2012). It appeared as Mariela: How many letters do you see on though they had been forgotten. It seemed this card? deeply ironic that the materials were sometimes Child: Two considered so precious—because they were so Mariela: That’s right, there’s capital letter rare—that children seldom got to use them. A, and small letter A. There’s…? At other schools, however, we observed All children: Capital letter A caregivers using some of the materials, such as Mariela: and there’s…? the alphabet flashcards and the Story Tree. In All children: small letter A. the visits I accompanied, I never saw anyone (fieldnotes, February 15, 2012) using the puppets or The Alphabet Story Quilt book. The reasons for this were unclear, After this continued with a few letters, Folake although many of the class sizes may have been encouraged Mariela to pass out the flashcards to too large for children to be able to see the book the children. Mariela told the children they were or to play with the small paper puppets. The going to play the “ABC Wave,” a game where Story Tree and the alphabet flashcards were they sang the alphabet song, and each child more popular, perhaps because they had larger lifted his/ her letter when he/she heard it. She pictures and were more durable. passed out the cards (using two sets, since there were more than 26 children) and had children Caregivers Use Play-Based Materials in practice raising their cards. She started singing Formalistic Ways the alphabet song slowly, but no children raised In several classrooms, we observed teachers their cards. Mariela asked, “Who has letter A?” drilling the alphabet flashcards, by holding them The three caregivers were walking among the up one at a time and having children chorally children, trying to find who had the letter A. One repeat the names of the letters and the objects. of the caregivers found him and lifted him up by In one school outside Lagos, Folake and I the arm. When the boy stood up, three children observed an NGO staff member, Mariela, visiting around him also stood up. “No, no, no,” Mariela the school to use the Sesame materials with said, “You sit down!” This continued through children. We entered a classroom where letter B and C until Folake interrupted:

Global early childhood policies 29

Folake: Excuse me, we don’t want the kept giving them the answers and the children aunties (i.e. caregivers) to probe them. were never given time to figure things out The aunties shouldn’t help them (interview, February 15, 2012). The fact that the (caregivers laugh). Also I see a challenge caregivers in Mariela’s classroom continually that the children are different ages. Some gave children the answers illustrates pedagogical of them are 2, some of them are 3, some of approaches that may be more concerned with them are 4. Maybe we can divide them children getting the right answers than with into groups? … Also the class is too large, children exploring, discovering, or acting on it should be divided into groups. Okay, their own. Even when the flashcards were you can continue, but please, aunties, distributed to children in this classroom, the don’t help them. caregivers were still the ones acting, as they found the child with the appropriate letter and Mariela: Okay, children, let’s start. What lifted him or her up. An activity that was letter did we stop with? designed to be more playful and child-centered, Caregivers: Letter C! was challenging for both the caregivers and the Mariela (to caregivers): Don’t say it, don’t children. It is possible that the caregivers say it! Who has the letter C? (A caregiver continually intervened because they felt they goes to the boy with C and lifts him up by were being evaluated and wanted to make it look the arm). (fieldnotes, February 15, 2012) as though the children could identify letters. The fact that many children in this Mariela, seeing the children’s confusion, tried to classroom stood up whenever Mariela told one begin the activity again and explain it more child to stand up also revealed the habits of the clearly. The same confusion persisted for several classroom. When the primary mode of minutes, with children unable to recognize their instruction was for the teacher to ask a question letters and many children standing whenever a and for all the children to answer in unison, caregiver told one to stand up. After a little children were unaccustomed to doing something while, Folake recommended that the caregivers separate from their peers. The choral response pass out crayons so the children could color the strategy may reflect a more communal way of flashcards. Each child received one crayon, and learning—and may be the only type of they began coloring, although it was difficult for instruction possible in a classroom with forty some because there were only a couple of plastic children—but it also makes it difficult to judge if tables. As the children colored, Folake pulled individual children know the answers or if they Mariela and the caregivers aside and asked them are chiming along with their peers. This new why they did not have enough tables for the type of activity was confusing for children. children to color and write on. The caregivers In many classrooms, we observed teachers pointed out several broken plastic tables in the using the Story Tree with the children, but in corner of the room. Folake again told them that quite different ways than they used it during the the children needed to learn for themselves, so Caregiver Training. The Story Tree was almost the caregivers should not always give them the always hanging on the wall, either held up by answers (fieldnotes, February 15, 2012). tape or by two students holding the corners. The After our visit, I asked Folake about her teacher would then use a ruler or pointer to observations. She said it was understandable point at different pictures. I recorded the that some of the children did not know their following in a classroom in Abakaliki, where 51 letters because they were very young, but she students (ages 4-6) responded in unison to each was also worried that the children were not prompt by the teacher: going to learn their letters because the caregivers

30 Global Education Review 4(3)

Teacher: This is the story…? Teacher: Yes, my mommy buys bananas All students, chorally: tree. for me every day. Clap for him! Teacher: The story…? (fieldnotes, February 15, 2012). Students: Tree. In such a large class, all students could not come Teacher: What is this (points to banana)? up to the Story Tree, but some of the others Students: Banana could see what the child was pointing to, and the Teacher: What? teacher repeated the child’s words so everyone Students: Banana could hear. In other classrooms, I observed Teacher: Very good. What is this (points to teachers using the Story Tree to point to living umbrella)? things (fieldnotes, Abakaliki, March 27, 2012), to Students: It is an umbrella talk about what letters objects begin with Teacher: Again! (fieldnotes, Calabar, March 22, 2012), and to Students: It is an umbrella. have children point to different foods Teacher: What is this (points to yam)? (fieldnotes, Abakaliki, March 22, 2012). While Students: It is a yam teachers differed slightly in how they used the Teacher: Again! Story Tree, I only saw one school with the Story Students: It is a yam. Tree on the floor (described above). In all the Teacher: What alphabet starts from yam? other classrooms we visited, most students Students: Yam starts from Y. remained in their seats and named objects as the Teacher: Very good. Again! teacher pointed to them. Students: Yam Starts from Y. […] Teachers used the Story Tree in ways that Teacher: Very good. Clap for yourselves reflected how they were accustomed to teaching. (students clap six times rhythmically)! There were benefits to how they used it. In (fieldnotes, March 27, 2012) classrooms devoid of resources, where there During this activity (which lasted more than 10 were rarely educational posters, and teachers minutes) some students responded more loudly often relied on the blackboard and chalk to write than others, but most answered together. This words or draw pictures, the Story Tree offered teacher went a little beyond drilling names of bright, colorful drawings of 60 objects. It pictures by asking what letters different words provided a broad list of vocabulary items, began with, and what certain objects were used including foods, modes of transportation, for, but she primarily used the Story Tree to drill people, and places. Teachers used it somewhat vocabulary. interactively, in that they solicited names of I observed this same activity, with slight objects from children, and sometimes asked variations, in many other classrooms. In a individual children to say sentences or stories. classroom near Lagos, with approximately 75 Many of the teachers were very enthusiastic, students (ages 5-6), a teacher first pointed to loudly calling out the object names and different words and had children repeat them encouraging students who named objects and then asked a few students to come up, one at correctly. a time, to say a sentence with one of the words. Nevertheless, the Story Tree was rarely Student 1: I like to go to school every used in the way that Sesame Workshop day (points at school picture). intended: to engage children in play and to help Teacher: Yes, I like to go to school every them develop oral language and story-building day. Clap for her! skills. It seemed surprising that even though Student 2: My mommy buys bananas caregivers seemed to, at least, somewhat for me every day (points at bananas). understand the intended use of the Story Tree

Global early childhood policies 31 during Caregiver Trainings, they used it much Second, caregivers’ formalistic use of differently in their classrooms. They took Sesame materials were likely influenced by their instructional tools that were intended to training, their knowledge and beliefs about how promote play and creativity, and used them in children learn, and their comfort (or lack ways that were often teacher-centered and rote- thereof) using new materials and strategies. based. These various components of teachers’ “cultural politics of pedagogy” (Vavrus, 2009, p. 303) Why Do Formalistic Teaching were difficult to determine in this study, as it Approaches Persist? was a multi-sited ethnography with limited opportunities to conduct interviews or repeated Other researchers have observed how formalistic observations of the same teacher. However, I pedagogical approaches persist in many gained some insights into teachers’ training, classrooms around the world, as described knowledge, and attitudes. For example, Folake above—perhaps particularly in developing described some teachers’ habits and training: countries. Scholars point to many reasons that such approaches persist, including structural If as a teacher you’ve gone through the reasons, teacher knowledge and attitudes, and system, the way you were taught when you cultural beliefs (Schweisfurth, 2015; Vavrus & were in school is most likely to affect how Bartlett, 2012). While observing classrooms in you function as a teacher… [Teachers] go Nigeria, several of these same reasons surfaced. to the university, [but] the time that is First, as is obvious in the above actually given for teaching methods is descriptions, class sizes were very large in many limited… so the teacher now goes back to of the schools we visited. It was not uncommon use the lecture method. (interview, to see between 40 and 80 students in one room, February 14, 2012) even in nursery classes. Large classes seemed to It is a common refrain from teacher be more a result of limited space than of educators around the world: teachers teach how insufficient teaching staff. For example, one they were taught (Cuban, 1993; Mtika & Gates, classroom in Calabar had 150 students—75 were 2010). Particularly in a country where university facing one direction, and 75 were facing the systems and teachers colleges are often under- other direction, with teachers at both ends resourced and of low quality (Moland, 2015b), writing and teaching (separate lessons) from a teachers may have limited pedagogical blackboard. In the classroom where Mariela training—especially in early childhood taught (described above), there were 40 young education. children but three caregivers. It was unclear The fact that many early childhood whether each caregiver was qualified to teach a teachers in Nigeria have limited training means class on her own, but it might have made sense that they also have limited experience with play- to divide the children into smaller groups (as based approaches. As early childhood education Folake recommended) if there had been access has expanded recently in Nigeria, it is sufficient classroom space. When Folake unlikely that most teachers themselves attended suggested that they take small groups outside, preschool. When they picture what classrooms caregivers responded that it might be too hot, should look like, they probably picture the and they did not want to get the Story Tree dirty typical primary or secondary school classroom in (interview, February 15, 2012). Without smaller Nigeria, where the teacher stands at the front of classes, it seemed unlikely that teachers would the classroom and copies definitions from the use the Story Tree in the ways that they were textbook onto the board (Hardman et al., 2008). taught.

32 Global Education Review 4(3)

Sometimes, therefore, the Sesame schools we visited, caregivers told us they materials were confusing to educators. During worried that if they used Sesame materials the Caregiver Trainings, some had difficulty during one of the periods, they would get in understanding the different activities they were trouble with their headmaster or the local supposed to do with the materials. They education board. A few teachers suggested that sometimes argued about what objects on the they could speak to the education board and ask flashcards were, and seemed anxious about if the following year’s timetable could include a using the materials “correctly.” After returning Sesame period in the day, so they could use the to their classrooms, some were unaccustomed to materials. These teachers’ concerns echoed those using the same materials repeatedly to enable of educators in other studies who worried that students to practice skills. For instance, when utilizing learner-centered pedagogies would Folake visited a school near Lagos about two prevent them from “finishing” the syllabus and months after they had received the Sesame thereby jeopardize their students’ potential materials, teachers told her, “Oh, we finished the success on exams (Mtika & Gates, 2010; Vavrus materials. The kids know them” (interview, & Bartlett, 2012). February 15, 2012). If teachers were using the It is possible that these various points of Story Tree to drill children on vocabulary—as we confusion led teachers to avoid using materials often saw—then it does seem possible that they at all or to use them in formalistic ways. It is also could “finish” the materials after children possible that they deliberately chose to use the memorized all the objects. This suggests that materials in ways that they believed constituted teachers did not understand how materials could good teaching, or in ways they believed were be used in ongoing ways to support children’s best for their schools and students. Some storytelling, oral language development, and educators may have also been concerned about creativity. pushback from other teachers. For example, Another point of confusion for teachers participants at the Abuja Caregiver Training was where, exactly, in the timetable they were raised concerns that their colleagues (whom they expected to use the Sesame materials. Schools were to train in step-down trainings) might not had rigid schedules with different periods for be open to using the Sesame materials. One different subjects. For example, in a explained that she worked with teachers in a headmaster’s office in Calabar, the primary military school who were very “strict and rigid” school schedule was written on the board. The and probably would not want to do the activities. school day (Monday through Friday) was Another said that the teachers at his school were divided into eight 35-minute class periods. The older and would not want to use new materials. order and subjects of classes varied by day, but These concerns echo observations in other across the week, students had the following studies that teachers may hesitate to use learner- subjects (some two times, some five times): P.E., centered pedagogies when the school system has Moral Instruction, Health Education, Math, a “deep-seated pedagogical orientation” that English Studies, Basic Science, Agricultural favors teacher-centered approaches (Mtika & Science, Fine Art, Handwriting, Citizenship Gates, 2010, p. 400). Teachers who attempt Education, French/local language, Social unconventional approaches may be seen to lack Studies, Craft, Computer Studies, Music, competency or authority (Vavrus & Bartlett, Tourism, and Compound Work (fieldnotes, 2012). March 23, 2012). Most of these courses had textbooks, and teachers were expected to “cover” certain lessons on certain days. In several

Global early childhood policies 33

Conclusion somewhat more interactive and learner-centered While some scholars raise concerns about a than common pedagogical approaches in global educational reform movement that Nigeria. For instance, the Story Tree and advocates more accountability-based, alphabet flashcards provided bright pictures of standardized education reforms (Sahlberg, dozens of objects that students would not have 2014), this article demonstrates how seen otherwise, offering more visual cues for international organizations are also children learning vocabulary. When teachers disseminating and promoting constructivist, invited individual children to come up to the play-based pedagogical approaches. Sesame Story Tree and say sentences or short stories, Workshop, via its Nigerian staff members, this fostered student participation and creativity trained caregivers and distributed materials that (albeit only for a few children). These could be supported play-based learning in early seen as examples of “contingent constructivism” childhood settings. However, in the vast (Vavrus, 2009) or perhaps “context-appropriate majority of cases, Nigerian caregivers did not play-based approaches”—wherein teachers use the materials in their classrooms in the ways utilized somewhat more interactive pedagogies that Sesame intended. Structural factors, such as that worked within the constraints of their large class sizes, limited space, and rigid school classrooms. On a continuum of learner-centered timetables made it logistically difficult for approaches (Schweisfurth, 2015), teachers’ caregivers to use the materials in interactive actions were slightly more learner-centered than ways. Teachers’ limited training in play-based typical classroom activities, even if they were not early childhood pedagogies, as well as their prior as interactive and play-based as Sesame experiences and beliefs about how children Workshop intended. learn, sometimes led them to use Sesame The question of what kinds of pedagogies materials in formalistic, rote-based ways. Their are culturally appropriate—as compared to activities aligned more closely to a “skilling” questions about which pedagogies are approach to early childhood education than to a logistically possible—is a more difficult one to “liberal humanist” approach that Sesame may answer. Current pedagogical practices in Nigeria have intended (Fuller, 2007). These findings are heavily influenced by British educational echo those of other scholars who explore how policies during colonial rule (Hardman et al., global pedagogical trends are “taken up” (or not) 2008), and while some scholars advocate in local classrooms (Brodie, Lelliott, & Davis, reintroducing “traditional African modes” of 2002; Vavrus & Bartlett, 2012). education (Omolewa, 2007), there is limited On one hand, the disconnect between consensus on what those would look like. Sesame Workshop’s intention and the way Moreover, there is a history in Nigeria and other materials were used could be interpreted as a countries of people resisting “traditional” failure to introduce more play-based education approaches because they believe approaches. On the other hand, the fact that “Western” education is necessary for their teachers used the materials in ways that made children’s economic prospects (Omolewa, 2006; sense in their local settings can be seen as Zimmerman, 2006). evidence of teachers’ resourcefulness and their The question of cultural sensitivity capacity to recognize the logistical limitations of connects to questions about what, exactly, is constructivist approaches—and to adjust being imported by international organizations. accordingly. While most teachers did not use the Current initiatives to promote play-based materials in the ways that Sesame Workshop pedagogical approaches could be seen as a intended, they did use them in ways that were Western imposition, or as an attempted

34 Global Education Review 4(3) corrective to earlier colonial (rote-based) solving than on rote memorization, increasing impositions. The fact that some Nigerians (i.e. teacher training, reducing class sizes, reducing those who worked for Sesame Workshop) were the number of subjects required in the national proponents of play-based pedagogical curriculum, and so on (Mtika & Gates, 2010). approaches complicates questions of what is These suggestions, while promising, will require imported—although their elite status and significant cultural changes and will take time. previous experience working for international In the meantime, working to make early organizations may distance them from the childhood education settings more learner- majority of Nigerian educators. Amidst these centered may be a way to start changing questions, scholars must continue to examine teachers’ and children’s orientations towards what agency local educators have in adapting or learning from the beginning of the educational resisting global educational reforms to be track. relevant in their own contexts. When teachers Scholars who believe that there are resist pedagogical reforms such as learner- universal stages that all children go through, and centered approaches, they reveal the limitations that educational approaches must be of applying policy and practice from one context “developmentally appropriate” to these stages, into another, even when attempts are made to may argue that interactive, play-based address cultural considerations. pedagogies must be used in early childhood What do the challenges and debates settings—regardless of the cultural context around learner-centered pedagogy mean for (Copple & Bredekamp, 2010). Advocates of early childhood education settings? Many cross-cultural or reconceptualist approaches to scholars and educators believe that learner- early childhood education deny that there is one centered pedagogy and play-based approaches developmentally appropriate way to teach young are particularly important for young children children, but would also likely reject formalistic (Bodrova, 2008; Fuller, 2007; Lobman & Ryan, teaching practices as beneficial for all children 2007). In studies about secondary teachers (Cannella et al., 2007). Any approach that is hesitating to adopt learner-centered approaches, brought into a new context needs to be adjusted one concern that such teachers raise is that their to reflect local conceptualizations of knowledge students are not comfortable with learner- production, childhood, and pedagogy. centered approaches (Mtika & Gates, 2010; Organizations such as Sesame Workshop may Vavrus, 2009). Indeed, if such students have need to explore “context-appropriate play-based been educated in classrooms since preschool approaches” that compromise between global where formalistic, teacher-centered approaches beliefs about the best ways young children learn, pervade, learner-centered pedagogies will seem yet also take cultural contexts into unfamiliar and discomfiting. This provides a consideration. possible rationale for including more play-based, exploratory approaches at the early childhood Notes level, if students are to become accustomed to 1. I use the terms “educator,” “teacher,” and classroom participation and knowledge “caregiver” synonymously. Sesame production that are more learner-centered. Workshop uses the term “caregiver” to be Some researchers recommend major inclusive of parents, NGO workers, and reforms that will make learner-centered other professionals who work with children. pedagogy more likely to take root in sub- Most of the caregivers I observed were Saharan African countries, such as changing teachers. examinations to be more focused on problem

Global early childhood policies 35

2. The (Kibria 2005) and (Kibria 2006) are Cannella, G. S., Swadener, B. B., & Che, Y. (2007). cited in Cole and Lee’s (2016) chapter as Reconceptualists. In R. S. New & M. Cochran (Eds.), Early childhood education: An international “Unpublished manuscripts.” encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. 3. Due to security concerns, my time in Kano CIA World Factbook- Nigeria. (2017, March 10, 2017). was cut short; I was only able to visit one People and Society: Nigeria. Retrieved from school with the Master Trainer. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/ni.html Cole, C. F. (2016). .29: The global Sesame effect. In C. F. Cole Author Note & J. H. Lee (Eds.), The Sesame effect: The global I would like to acknowledge the gracious impact of the longest street in the world. New York: Routledge. assistance of Sesame Workshop staff members Cole, C. F., & Lee, J. H. (2016). Measuring the difference. In and educators throughout Nigeria. This article C. F. Cole & J. H. Lee (Eds.), The Sesame effect: The benefitted immensely from feedback on earlier global impact of the longest street in the world. New drafts from Matthew A.M. Thomas, Susan York: Routledge. Cooney, J. G. (2016). Foreward. In C. F. Cole & J. H. Lee Garnett Russell, and Elizabeth Buckner. I also (Eds.), The Sesame effect: The global impact of the thank the GER editors and anonymous longest street in the world. New York: Routledge. reviewers for their help in improving my Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2010). Developmentally manuscript. This research was supported by appropriate practice in early childhood programs (Third ed.). Markham, Canada: Pembroke Publishers funding from a David L. Boren Fellowship and Ltd. the Mitchell Leaska Dissertation Award at New Cuban, L. (1993). How teachers taught: Constancy and York University. change in American classrooms 1890-1990 (Second ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Davey, C., & Lundy, L. (2011). Towards greater recognition of References the right to play: An analysis of Article 31 of the Bajaj, M. (2011). Human rights education: Ideology, location, UNCRC. Children & Society, 25, 2-14. and approaches. Human Rights Quarterly, 33(2), Fluent Research. (2013). Sesame Square Impact 481-508. Assessment: Report of Research Findings. New Barrett, A. (2007). Beyond the polarisation of pedagogy: York: Internal Sesame Workshop document. Models of classroom practice in Tanzanian primary Fuller, B. (2007). Standardized childhood: The political and school. Comparative Education, 43(2), 273-294. cultural struggle over early education. Stanford, CA: Barrett, A., Sayed, Y., Schweisfurth, M., & Tikly, L. (2015). Stanford University Press. Learning, pedagogy and the post-2015 education and Hardman, F., Abd-Kadir, J., & Smith, F. (2008). Pedagogical development agenda. International Journal of renewal: Improving the quality of classroom Educational Development, 40, 231-236. interaction in Nigerian primary schools. Bartlett, L., & Vavrus, F. (2013). Testing and teaching: The International Journal of Educational Development, Tanzanian national exams and their influence on 28(1), 55-69. pedagogy. In F. Vavrus & L. Bartlett (Eds.), Teaching Human Rights Watch. (2016). They set the classrooms on in tension: International pedagogies, national fire: Attacks on education in northeast Nigeria. policies, and teachers' practices in Tanzania (pp. 93- Retrieved from 114). Boston: Sense Publishers. https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/04/11/they-set- Bodrova, E. (2008). Make-believe play versus academic classrooms-fire/attacks-education-northeast-nigeria skills: A Vygotskian approach to today's dilemma of - 290612 early childhood education. European Early Kazeem, A., Jensen, L., & Stokes, C. S. (2010). School Childhood Education Research Journal, 16(3), 357- attendance in Nigeria: Understanding the impact and 369. intersection of gender, urban-rural residence, and Brodie, K., Lelliott, A., & Davis, H. (2002). Forms and socioeconomic status. Comparative Education substance in learner-centred teaching: Teachers' Review, 54(2), 295-319. take-up from an in-service programme in South Lancy, D. F. (2015). The anthropology of childhood: Africa. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 541- Cherubs, chattel, changelings (2nd ed.). New York: 559. Cambridge University Press. Campbell, J. (2013). Nigeria: Dancing on the brink. New Lee, J. H., Hsueh, Y., Zuhdi, M., Chakma, S., Hashimi, S. F., York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. & Dollard, L. (2016). How Sesame Workshop promotes early childhood education around the

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