SOCIAL WELL-BEING AND ENVIRONMENTAL STRUCTURE OF VILUGES IN MEERUT DISTRICT
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF Mnittt of S^^iloiop^p IN GEOGRAPHY
MOHAMMAD TAHIR
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH 1987 DS1223 C 0 I] T S II T S
ACKMOWLEDGSI'iEIIT (i)
LIST OF TABLES (ii)
LIST OF MAPS (iii)
INTRODUCTION 1
Q-IAPTER I Conceptual Framev:ork of Environmc'-!t
and Social We]1-beino
CHAPTER II Revj.ev; of v70rlc don!5 so far 27
CHAPTER III Historical and Geographical settinu .... 33
of study area
QiAPTER IV Social v;ell-beina and environment.J
structure 61
ChAPa?£R V CONCLUSION 80
BIBLIOGRAPHY 84
* Vr Vr Vr ** ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I offer my sincere thanks to my supervisor Professor'
Abdul Aziz, for his critical comments/ valuable suggestions, encouragement and sustained interest in my work. I also extend my thanks to Professor Mehdi Raza, Chairman Depart ment of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aliuarh, to provide me a chance of doing v;ork in the department. I am also thankful to my senior colleague Dr. Fakhruddin, Lecturer in Geography Departmont, for his able guidance from time to time. My thanks are due to my parents for their constant financial support.
I record my gratitude to the Librarians of Seminar
Library. I am also grateful to my research fellows for their help during the preparation of this v;ork.
( Ma-IAI-n/i^\D TAKIR ) : 11 :
LIST OF TA3LES
TABLE I Elements of environmental structure 63
TABLE II Elements of environmental structure
in villages of different size. 55
TABLr^ III Elements of environmental structure accor
ding to their distance of villages from
an urban centre, 59
TABLE IV Composite scores of well-being accorcinc
to size of villages. 73
TABLE V Composite scores of v/ell-teinrj accorcinc
to distance from, city. 77
* 7." * * * Ill
LIST OF MAPS
Pa ae No.
Fig. 1. District Meerut - Sample villages by
size and distance. 62
Fig. 1. 1 Kleerut District - Well-being in small
size villages. 72
Fig, 1. 2 Meerut District - 7fell-being in cediun;
size villages. 75
Fig. 1,3 Meerut Distirict - Well-being in Irrge
size villriges, 7 6
Fig, 1.4. Meerut District - Dist?.nce from the city
and v/e 11— be ino. 7 3 Social v/ell-bein" ircludec IGVGI of living, the qi:.^lity of life, social satisfaction and the standard of living. Vfcll- being is a state of good health, happiness, satisfaction and the development of hurn-T-n resoijrces. Environrriental structure of villages mainly relates to education, medical facilities, drinking water, povver supply, housing conditions etc., and the availability of these facilities determines t'r.e v-ell-being of the people.
Human environment consists of n-.tural and man-made elem.ents, which constituae man's territorial habitat. It is vvitiiin the fram^v^ork of this environment that m:n leads his life, lives, v.'orks, -^.nd seek intellectual f';! ;:ilm;ont. The well-being of a people, is therefore, l-.rgelv t;:e reoalt of the environmental structure of the pl:ce, v;nere a n-n or a community lives, ^t in v;-th this viev; that one aut--or proposes to study the social well-being and environm.ental struct'^rre of villages in Meerut District. The present' study is an 3ttem:pt to outline in brief tiie ti-.ecretical and • conceptual frame-.;ark- CLnd to identify the main components of quality of life in vill? oes•
Lately, there hoc teen a great thrust, in r-'",:" ••rch, on the socio-economic and technCcgical chr^r.c.es taiiin- gl^ce in the villages under the impact of urbanisation .?nc i: bastrili- sation. Little and insufficient inve • tioation has been under taken, here in India, where there is a great need tci findout the social well-being in the villages. In India, there are nearly 600,000 villages, v;here nearly 77% of country's 600 million people live. Very little is kno\-.'n atout the environ mental structure of the villages and fev; studies have been made of ths human environment that obtains in these villages and the effect it has on the quality of life of the inhabitants, In such a large country as India no area can be typical of tlie whole country and so Meerut can not be a reprcscntctivc area but it certainly is an important area lying as it does in one of the most populous regions of the country and particularly the western Ganga plains. This problem has been selected for rcsearcFi to get an insight about the environmental structure and the significance it has in the life of the villagers. The problem is also significant because it undertakes the study of an aspect which effects millions of people, who are living in rural areas.
In order to analyse the spatial plural-ity of environ- m.ental structure and vjell-being of the villages, nine variables are selected which the author thinks are indicative of social well-being. These variables reflect j^rocesses, states and facts of the environment of villages. The variables are - (i) Junior basic school, (ii) Senior basic school, (iii) Higher Secondary School, (iv) MedicaJ facilities (v) Po\./er supply, (vi) Pot?ble '.^ter, (vii) Kuccha road, (viii) Pucca road/ and (ix) Post and telegraph offices.
The above elements are some of the important elements of the environmental structure of the villages. These elements seperately and collectively perfect tlie v;ell-being of the people to a great extent. Education and l.he level of education has a great deal of bearing in the v;ell-being of o people both directly as well as indirectly-. In India \ihcre there is a mass illeteracy, education is a sign of sociOu-economic status. Literacy and the level of education characterises high status of social group. Sducatirn is also directly relevant to' the satisfaction of many other nec^s. Education is the process of developing .intellecttial abilities, of shapping cultural attitudes, of acquiring awareness, knowledge <'iii.d useful sicills. Education therefore, must be regarded as a major parameter of s oc ia 1 'A'e 11-r be inc.
Medica^ facilities are also an important element. A sound mind, in a sound body, in a sound famiily is importent for the well-being and health of the people. Absence of medical ^w-ilities geogardises the environment or" health and therefore, they should bo regarded an a useful element of environment in measuring trie well-being of a people. Similarly power supply namely electric .'.utpply, presence r,-r roads, unmetalled (Kuccha) and motall-^d (Pucca), pot.nble v/ater, and post and telegr-'^ph aorvices ore import'jnt elements rnd they are to a great deal determine the well-being. 'i
^'hr-re aire nea-ny 1 son V\\}^ges -^r. ri^-.r-,rl ••! -'-ji;t. -'lo cnvironiriGnt of those vill-c_.t;3 h's tv/o cor-: v'rr-nt:: - ;:i / •Jonc:i3tc of- t^Ke l^atruTS I elen;ents orid tho othor of nr-.n-nioOo clomonts. ^-h-. ;^v^l\^0" hrs Gcloctofl tlic riv.n-i;:'cio clerc-icnts. Although data is not avc^iloblc for all thc:ae cl'-:r;-.cnt3 yot for c. lorOG numbor of them data is p v.-^i l.c";:.'lo and it is authentic. A3 tho niinibo"' ff vibl"'jr-3 is very 1 --o, it IG proy;!Csr!d to .oeloct tv?enty percent Garr.ple villaccs far Gn--'?.yGis,
The inform,-.tion is taken from tlie census hand book of Meerut district 1971, on the basis of sampling. The sampling procedure r-idoc-ted can bo described assoiria v.'hat stratified random, stratum i;oing a village. Of tiie villages, tv?enty percent villages -.--er" selected at random,u.aing random •numlc^rs. Data then \vere tabulritod and classified. The strati- ficati^^n is V^"'sed on th'^ si:^o of t'ne villa as and thair distance Erom urban centres (hg,vinc trie .jooulat'cii EO, 000 and above). C^ ah'^ basis o" Lha also three .. '-ta^ f - .1 r.-;, nidde namely "small' (belo-.v 1000 population), 'medium' (1000-2000 population) and 'large' (2000 and above popula.tion) . Tiie distance based strata are 'near' and 'far*. The 'near' and 'far' villages arc measured from Meerut, Ghaziabad e.nd Hapur, these are the Urban centres having the above mentioned population.
For the discussion of the v/ell-being, the unit score is given to each indicator, ^t means if there are two facilities available in a villacje for example, so 2 scores of well-being are given to that village. As regard tl"ie range of well-being, the median score of every strata was siggled out. The five class intervals of well-being were determined by applying standard deviation technique. The well-being scores \;ere calculated at a range of one standard deviation from the mean. The scores are standardised measiores of the villages divided into five class intervals; 'very high*, •high', 'medium', 'lov^7' and 'very low'.
The material is organised in ffvC chapter: Chapter I is concerned with the conceptua:i frame vjork of environment and social well-being. In this chapter^ Various definitions and concepts of environment an^J well-being have been presented by Vririous scholars. The main components of natural, social and cultural environment and social v;ell-being are also listed in this chapter. Chapter II includes reviev; of worlc done so far. t examines'critically the various studies which have been done by the researchers. Chapter III gives a brief account of the historical and geographical setting of study area. Chapter IV contains an account of the distribution of villages with respect to their environmental structure, their distribution according to their scores. Lastly is a discussion about the well-being of the people. In the last, there are conclusions and suggestions. CHAPTER - I
CONCEPTUAL, FRAME WORK OF EHVIROMMENT AND
SOCIAL WELL-BEING
ENVIRONMENT :
Environment has been variously defined by researchers^ such as~Enviroriment or surrounding, in bio] ogy, it is the sum of the factors that act on living plants and animals from out side. More generally, the physical environment including the structure of matter and form of energy set the conditions upon which the existence and the nature of 1 livxng matter depend .
Girling defines, environment as a term applied to all conditions surrounding an individual, whidi are not part of the persons, plant or animal. The physical encompasses such things as geographical and chemical conditions, the latter, including the composition of the air, the conditions of food and many other factors. There is also a social environment in human populr->tion in which one individual influences another and each individual is inflAienced by the customs and insti- 2 tuti(?)ns of his society ,
Beadle says that many factors influence man and otxier living things. Some are internal and inherited, other are external, A combination of these internal and external factors 3 makes up environment .
1. Sncylcopardia Americana Vol. 10, Americana Corporation, N^w York, 1966, p. 406. 2. Girling, D.A. Every man's Encyclopaedia, Vol, 4, Toronto, 1978, pp. 638-39, 3. Bead],e, G. W. - The VJorld Book Encyclon.edia, Vol. 5, Chicago, I960, p. 261, stamp and Clark state that which environs^ the objects or the region sxirrounding any thing. Especially the conditions under which any person or thing lives or developed; the sum total of influences which modify and determine the development 4 of life and character •
Environment is an organism's sxirroudings. It includes plants and animals as well as such non living consituents as water, air, light, soil and temperature. Sociology is concerned with man's environment as- related to social and cultural condi tions. An important phase of psychology deals with the roles of 5 environment and heredity in shaping a person's personality .
Environment is "the aggregate of all the external condi tions and influences affecting the life and development of an organism", (Websters New Collegiate Dictionary),
Paul defines that the environment as a three fold thing. There is, (a) The natural environment-the planetary stage on which the social drama is set,
(b) Ihe social environment-the environment of other people which surrounds man from birth until he has been laid to rest.
4. Stamp, D, and Clark, A, - A glossary of geographical terms. New York, 1979, p. 186. 5, New Standard Encyclopaedia. Vol, 5, Q^icago, 1983, p, 188, (c) The cultural envlronment-the environment of rules and tools with which man, the inventive animal, always surroxinds himself ,
It follows from above definitions thst environment is a totality or sura of the visible and non-visible factors, which surrounds the animal and plants. It influences the human condi tions or the action and interaction of a hximan being. It includes the physical, social and cultural aspects of the universe also.
The natural environment consists of all those influences that would exist even if man were campldtely removed from the face of the earth-land,W"ter, climate, atmosphere, heavenly bodies, flora and fauna, insects and the invisible microbes.
The analytical study of the natural environment is tl-e province of such disciplines as botany, zoology, bacteriology, climatology, astronomy and geography, but sociologists consider it briefly, particularly in respect to its direct and immediate influence on man as he performs in the other two environments- 7 the social and the cultural ,
Natural environment is a general term, it actually means a number of elements and therefore,it refers to a vast variety of things that surround man. The sum-mary below, prepared by
6, Paul, H.L. - Man in Environment, An introduction to Sociology, New York, 19 54, P. 59. 7. Ibid, p. 10 6. i)
Bernard an American sociologist, suggests how extensive and g complicated is the natural environment , The Physical environment - Physical environment as analysed by Bernard, includes the following aspects - (i) Cosmic, including such factors as sun's heat, the falling meteors, moon light and the moon's attraction upon the tides etc.
(ii) Fhysico-geographic, especially such facrors as contours and surface confi guration (mountains, coast lines, valleys, rivers etc), altitude, « (iii) Soil, especially in relation to the supply and distribution of plants foods, like nitrogen, potassium etc,
(iv) Climate, especially temperature, humadity etc.
Paul has also attempted a breaK up of physical environment and has identified three major and some minor elements of the physical environmental complex- Ttie major elements are structure, climate and slope and the minor ones are soils, drctinage etc.
8. Bernard, L.Li. - "A Ciassifice.tion of environment", American Journal of socieloov. Vol. XXXI, 19 25-26, pp. 322-25, 329-30. 0
structure includes earth's crust which is ultimate source of such building materials as stone. Clay etc and v/hich provide the surface on v/hich man lives and performs his activities.
Climate is the major element in th^ production of materials indirectly. Climate is made up of a series of elemens, Climate is the Chief environmental element influencing the production of materials from the crust indirectly through the agency of plants and animals.
Slope as an element in natural environment effects the cultural land scape in many vjays. It limits the aroas of culti- 9 vation and the location of settlements .
Biol.oqical or organic environment - •f'fe.n is surrounded by another form of environment in v;hich he is interacting v^ith the living world around him. The environment is made up of the following elements/
(i) Micro-organism-it includes the VE^rious forms of germ life, including pathogenic, bacilli and amoebae and possibily even more minute forms of life,
(ii) Th^e various parasites and insects pests- Such organisms have a marked influence upon the development of crops and live stock and forests upon v.'hich man is so largely dependent,
9. Paul, op. cit. p. 107, 11
(iii) The larger plants whidi constitute the forests provide materials for shelter and clothing, for medicines and foods and for a variety of needs of man.
(iv) Ecological and symbiotic relationships of plants and animals in nature. They exercise an indirect or direct influence upon htiman relationships, especially with respect to their economic aspects.
(v) The prenatal environment of animals. It influences in large measure the character and development of the nascent organism"^ ,
Social environment - There can be no denying the fact that social environment is as important as the natxiral environment. Lawton (1970) proposed a view of social ecology in which the •ecosystem* consisted of five components, the first two were necessarily and the last three usually presents.
(i) The individual, (ii) "nie physical environment. (iii) The personal environment-family, friends, (iv) The supra-personal environment-a group of spatially clustered in-dividuals.
10. Ibid, pp. 108-109. 11. Lawton, M.P. - Ecology and ageing. In L.A. Pastalan and D.H. Carson (Eds.), spatial Behaviour of older people, Michigan, 1970, pp. 40-67, In D.T. Herbert and R.J. Johnston-GeoqrBphy and the urban Environment, Toronto, Vol. Ill, 1980. pp. 226-227. (vO) The social environment-social structures/ such as norms and institutions.
Ihe environment docility hypothesis (Lawton and Simon 1968) 1 2 suggests that the greater the degree of competance of the organism, the less will be the proportion of variance in behaviour due to environmental factors. Lawton (l970) 13 also hypothesiged that reduced competance would lead to reduced activity in geographical space 14 .
Social environment consits of the world of other people, out side of which man seldom spends any appreciable part of life time. Social environment is something that is inherent and part of the social structure of a nation. It is made up of the sense of values a ccromunity holds, relationships between indi viduals and groups within the community, and habits, traditions and customs that are the result of history 15 ,
Cultxjral environment - Culture is a collective name which embraces the entire man-made environment-language, art, science, customs, morals, religion, tools, machines, houses, and domest-
12. Lawton, M, P. and Simon, B.-The ecology of social relationshi; in housing for the elderly. The Gerontoloqist. 8, 1968, pp. 88-101. In D.T, Herbert and R.J. Johnston- Geoqraphy and the Urban Environment, Toronto, Vol Ii: 1980, p. 227. 13. Lawton, op. cit. 14. Herberi: D.T. and Johnston, R.J.-Geography and the Urban Environment. Toronto, Vol. Ill, 1980, pp. 226-227. 15. Sreenivasan, K.-Productivity and Social Environment, Bombay, 19 64, p. 5. 13
icated plants and animals. The cultural environment has been called the super organic, implying that it is some-thing apart from life as such. The cultural environment is divided into two parts,
(a) Material culture, which is composed of tools and machines, all man-made tangible objects and
(b) Non-material culture, which consists of the customs passed down by man from gene ration to generation through training, all roan-made intangible patterns for living^^.
An important part of man's environment is his social or cultural environment. Humans teach their children and their fellowman what they have learned, Biis process of transmission of accumulated knowledge is responsible for man's uniqueness impossessing religion, art, music, literature, science and technology 17 ,
Clark Wissler and American anthropologist, described the main traits of culture as-
(i) Speech, (a) language, (b) writing systems etc
16. Paul, op. cit. pp. 8 5-86, 17. Beadle, op.cit, p. 261. 17' /<^-'^ li
(ii) Material traits,
(a) Food habits, (b) Shelter,
(c) transportation and travel,
(d) dress, (e) utensils, tools, etc
(f) Weapons, (g) occupations and
industries.
(iii) Art, carving, painting, drawing, music,etc.
(iv) Mythology and scientific knowledge
(v) Religous practices,
(a) Ritualistic forms, (b) treatment
of sick, (c) treatment of the dead,
(vi) Family and social systems,
(a) The forms of marriage,
(b) methods of reckoning,
(c) inheritance (d) social control
(e) sports and games.
(vii) Property, (a) Real and personal, (b) Standards of value and exchange, (c) trade .
(viil) Government,
(a) Political forms, (b) Judicial
and legal procedures. (ix) War 18
17. Beadle, op. cit. p. 26i
18. Wissler, C.- Man and Culture, New York, 19 23, p. 7 4, in Paul, op. cit. pp. 99-100. 15"
SOCIAL WELL-BEING :
According to Webster's Dictionary the term "Welfare" means well-being. Well-being connotes a state of good health, happiness, satisfaction, conservation and the development of human resources. Different researchers have interpreted it in different ways. "By and large- it is used in three quite definite and determinable contexts-in social work and social assistance, in economics and in morals, education and social philoso^yJJ (Frankel: 1968) 19 . Such a wide usage of the term makes the task of defining it very diffcult. One can not give a comprehansive definitions so as it include all these aspects or contexts of welfare .
The term "Social welfare" is u§ed in both a narrow and a broad sense. In its narrower sense, the term "social welfare" may be defined as the sum of measures developed by a society to enable the weaker sections of the population to compete for their legitimate share of the benefits of economic and social development. In this sense, the term 'Social welfare* refers to "the services oriented to the poor, the IfDhysically and the
19. Frankel, C, _ "The Moral Frame work of the idea of Welfare" in welfare and wisdom, Ed. John S, Morgan, Toronto, 19 68. In B.R. Patil- The Economics of Social Welfare in India, Bombay, 1978, p. 9. 20. Patil, B.R, - 'me Economics of Social Welfare in India, Bombay, 1978, p. 9 10
mentally handicapped,the socially maladjusted, and generally the vulnerable groups in society" (Gore 1968) 21. This concept of the term is quite old and is tinged with charity, philanthropy and poor relief.
In its broad sense, prefessor E, Pusic of Yagosalavia, defined social welfare as, "the sum of measures developed by a society in order to cope with its social problems". The social policy and services are evolved to meet the challenges of the social problems. In other words, social services are related to social problems, Therefore, the term includes "all the areas of health, housing, education, co-operation, mutual aid, and become; co-terminus with the scope of social development it self (Gore: , 22 1974)^.
Social well-being is used as a generic term for the family of overlapping concepts which includes level of living, the quality of life, social satisfaction, social welfare and standard of living. As aggregdte expression of well-being, all are in common use, but few people have faced upto the problem of defining them and measuring them. In deed, difficulties of definition have been recognised at least since the time of
21. Gore, M. S. - Encyclopaedia of social work in India, Vol. I and II, New Delhi, 19B8, In Ibid, pp. 9-11, 22, Gore, M.S. - Some As-ects of Social Development, Bombay, 1974, In Ibid, Aristotle, who observed that; both the general run of man and people of superior refinement say that (the highest of all 2' achievable goals) is happiness (later translated as well-being)
To begin with, level of living is clearly established as the factual circiOTstances of well-being (the actual degree of satisfaction of needs and wants of a community), where as standard of living relates to the circustances aspired to by 24 that community (Knox: 197 5)
Social welfare embraces all things contributing to the 25 quality of human existence (Smith;l973b) . The notion of the quality of life is also a broad expression of well-being, but generally suggests an emphasis on the amount and distribution of public goods, such as health care, education and welfare services, pretection against crime, the regulation of pollution, and the preservation of fine land scapes and histroic town s 26 scapes (Hall: 1972) .
23. Coates, B.E,, Johnston, R.J., etal-Geography and Inequality, Oxford. 1977, p. 9. 24. Knox, P. L,- Social well-being? a spatial perspective, Oxford, 197 5. In Ibid, . 1977, p. 9. 25. Smith, D.M, - An Introduction tc Welfare Geography. Occasional paper. No, n, Deptt, of Geography, Witwatersrand, Johennesburg, 197 3, p, 6. 26. Hall, P.G. - forecasting the aualitv of life in urban Europe, Geographical paper. 20., In Coates, op. cit. 1977. io
There is a universal agreement, for instance, as to the importance of adequate levels of nutrition, clothing, shelter, health, and other physiological reqxoireinents for survival. There are the conclusions to be drawn from recent attempts by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) to define and measure the levels of living at the International Scale (ttJRISD, 1966a, 1966b, 1970)^''. Using the frame work provide by this research; it is possible to list nine basic components of social well-being; (i) Nutrition (ii) Shelter (iii) Health (iv) Education (v) Leisxare (vi) Security (vii) Social stability (viii) Physical environment and (ix) Surplus income.
(i) Nutrition : Good nutrition is a basic component of health. It is of prime importance in the attainment of normal growth and development and in the maintenance of health through out life. There is a growing re^igation that adequate nutrition is a necessary first step in the improvement in the quality of life. It is the greatest international health proclerr of the day. Its association v;ith infection, its complex links with fertility, family size,, physical anc5 mf^'ntgl growth anc cevelopmen
27, U.N.A.I.3.D. (1966a)-Soci5l anc economic factors in cevelop- ment. Report No. 3, Geneva. In Goates, op, cit.o. 10. - U.N.R.I.S.D. (19o6b)--i^he level of living inc-ex. Report No.4, Geneva. In Goates, op, cit. •^ - U.N.R.I.J.D, (1970) -Stucfies in the measurement or levels of living and welfare. Report No. UNRISD/7 0/G, 2 0 GeneVa.In Goates op. cit. VJ
23 and Immunity mechanism of the Locy are certainly new cimension '^. There is a mass of evidence to ohO'..' that nutrition is cirectly related to levels of health, ecucational achievement, and even to the economic cevelopm.ent of whole communities. It has been kno'.vn for som.e time that nutrition is a key ceterminant of "intelligence", brain weight, and educitional achievement (Harrell, woodyard, and Grates: 1955) 29 . Relationships betv/een malnutrition and diseases such as berioeri, anaem.ia, rickets etc, v;hiist poor nutrition cL^arly lowers resistance to many 30 Qiseases •
(ii) Shelter - If only because of man'3 fundament-1 need. for snelcer, housing conoitions are im.portsnt. rut housing conditions are cirectly relevant to chc- satisfaction of many ether needs, so that they must :-e regarded as a major parameter of social well-being. In more prosperous countries, housing rftakes an even greater relative contribution to over all levels of social well-being, since higher quality housing brings with it a wide range of utilities besides shelter, Tiiese include (a) an area of 'defensicle space, which helps, satis-y coth the occupants* need for privacy and their basic terri-orial
28. Park, J.x^, and Park, K. - Preventive and Social Kedicine. Jabalpur, 1981, p. 99, 29, harrell, R.F., Woodyard, Z,, et al. - fhe effect of diet: on the incelllqence of offspring, New York, 1955. In Coates, op. cit, 3 0. Coates, op. cit. p. 10. 0
instrincts, (b) a relative location that has social and symbolic status and (c) a means of storing enhancing wealth. At the individual level, poor housing conditions have been shown to lead to increase in tihe incidence of infant mortality rates, stress, mental ill-health, and morbidity from infactious dise- ases (Hartin: 1967) 31 . Unfortunately, the ever-^ge dwelling in rural areas of most developing countries barely covers the basic need for shelter; structures of wattle and dauc or of non-permanent materials without access to drinking water and with only pi- latrines are the norm, while in many urban districts of the third world these conditions are exacerbated by intense over crowding ,
(iiij hecilth - Truly, there is agree definition of health; infact, there have ^.een many definitions. To the la^inan, health implies a sound mine, in a sound body, in a sound family, in a sound environment. The v;orld Health Organization states;
"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely an absence of risease or infirmity".
Health is mian's normal condition, his birth right. It is the result of living in accordance with the natural laws
31, Martin, A, £.- Environment, housing and health. Urban Studies, 4, 1967, pp. 1-21. 32. Coates, op. cit. pp, 11-12. 21
pertaining to che bocy, mind and environment. These laws
relate to fresh air and sunlight, balanced diet, rest, rela- 33 xation, sleep and good pattern of living
The aggregate level of health in a community is
therefore, vital to social well-being. Infant mcrtslity rates
and the average expectation of life, for example, reflect all
the physical, social and medical influences that are brought ,34 to bear on the m iviaual
(iv) . Education - Sducation is fundamental to the individual
enjoiment ox certain recreational pursuits and to the fulfilment
of democratic opportunities as wall as to occupational status an
social mojjiiity. t^erhaps most important of ail, education is
closely associaced witn money income. Ecucation is taken to be
the process of developing intellectual a;„ilities, of shaping
cultural attitudes, and of acquirin'^ knov/ledge and useful
skills. It includes vocational training, adult and extramural
education, and all forms of non-institutionalized learning
opportunities as well as formal educacion at primerv, secondary 35 and tertiary levels
3 3. Park, op. cit. p. 12 34. Coates, op. cit. p. 12. 36. Ibid. p. 13, "^
Education has a crucial role to play both in productivity and in social environment. It has already been pointed out that it is a way to cross the economic barrier of the caste system. Consequently, education is a means of influencing and changing the social environment-usuaily for the better .
(v) Leisure - According to Orevmowski (1974) 37 , leisure time is defined as the amount of time free from work, excluding any time spent in travel to and from work, any time spent on domestic chores, and the estimated ten hours a day spent in sleeping, eating and dressing.
In the context of social well-being, leisure should also be seen in terms of accessibility to cultural and recreational facilities and amenities, for without these the benefits of leisure time are limited. In western societies at least it would generally be agreed that these include provision for sport and physical exercise, entertainment, the arts, reading, and travel for pleasure. These facilities cl'early have implications for other components of social v/ell-being-health end education, for example, and all are depend on the availability of 'surplus' income, either in hard cash or in the form of public funds 3 8.
(vi) Security - This is a het? cogeneous comp o.i'^nt- ccpendent upon prevailaing political, legal and economic systems, and
3 6, Sreeinvasan, op, cit. p, 91. 3 7. Drewnov;ski, J, - On Measuring and Planning the w!uality of Life, In coates, op. cit. pp, 13-14, 3 8, Coates, op. cit, pp. 13-14, 23
related in a complex manner to many other aspects of social well-being. Basically, security has two important dimensions. The first is security of persons, which is of course at risk from the whole spectrum of violence from war, civil war, criminality etc. -Second is security of the way of life or being able to maintain a given level of well-being once it has been achieved 39 of Social security is a programme/protection provided by social legislation against sickness, unemployment, death of wage-earner, old age, or disability, dependency and accidents- contingencies against which the individual can not be expected 40 to protect himself
(vii) Stability - Although good relations with other members of society are felt to be a fundamental human need (Drewnowski; 1974) 41 , this, is the most ambiguous and culturally relative component of social well-being. Thus most would agree that economic stability (in the form of freedom from industrial strife) and social stability (in the form of freedom from high levels of prejudice, discrimination, family background, etc*) are
39. Ibid. 40. Charles> I. 5cottland- The social security Program in the United states (New York; Applaton Century-Crofts, 1963) pp. 1-6; Maurice Stack, **The Meaning of Social Security", in Readings in -Social Security, eds, William Haber and Wilber, J. Cohen (Engle 'Wood Cliffs, N.J.; Prentice Hall, 1948), pp. 41-45; Wilber, J. Cohen, "Social Insurance", Encyclopaedia, 1971, p. 1277. 41. Drewnowski, op, cit. Z'i
"good things", but we must also recognize the importance of the right to challenge dominant moral codes, to strike, to protest and in some circumstances to promote social revolution.
(viii) Physical, environment — Physical environment is clearly a distinctive component of well-being. As construed by most societies; it encar.passes resource management and accessi bility to certain public amenities (such as roads, parks, and street lighting), as well as the visual af^peerance, cleanliness and quietness of urban neighbour hood and rural land scapes 42
(ix) Surplus income - Income which is surplus to the satisfac^tion of casic physical and cultural needs is the key access mechanism for the satisfaction of 'higher' needs and aspirations. It facilitates the consumption of all 'kinds of luxury* goods and services such as colour television sets, cameras and fashionable clothes. In a more general way, surplus income determines the absolute levels of many other aspects of social well-being. It is therefore, of paramount importance in the developed world, although it contributes very little in either context to the overall social well-being of the poor or of almost the entire population of th±rd world countries where subsistance levels are barely achieved. It may be seen that an extended definition of income or expenditure (that is, inclusive
42, Coates, op. cit. 25
of income spent on basic needs) could be regarded as synony mous with social well-being, in deed, per capita income, consum- tion and production have long oeen used by politicians, planners* administrators and the mass media as surrogates for social well- . 43 oeang .
A number of common but interactable problems constrain most attempts to monitor 'stanoards of living', and to evaluate the impact of major regional economic developments on the welfare of neighbouring communities. Conventional economic indicators, such as gross national or (regional) product, and rates of investment, anployment and consumption, have been shovm , 44 to be relevent to social well-being (Drewnowski, 1974) to the extfent that their use in policy making by administrators and planners may actually increase social or territorial ineq- alities because of their inherent bias tcards the value of capital and property. These short eomings have led to tbe development of a wide range of social indicators- "Objective" measures of housing conditions, educational facilities, environ mental qaalities, social pathologies and so on as a means of quantifying spatial and temporal variations in social well- being (Knox, 1974) 45
43. Ibid, pp. 14-15. 44. Drewnov.'ski, cp, cit. 45, Knox, P.b. Level of Living; a conceptual. framework for monitoring regi.-nal variations in well-being, Regional catudies, S, 1974, pp, 11-19, 26
Measures of satisfaction v.dth life in general and with particular aspects of lif'^ (such as housing conditions and recreational facilities) and a sementic scale was used to assess attitudes towards local and regional problems 46 .
46, Knox, P.L. - Social v/eil-being and North Seaoil, An application of subjective social indicators. Regional Studies, vol. 16, ilo. 4, 1976, pp. 4 23-2 5. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF WORK DONE SO FAR
Social well being is used as a generic term for the family of over lapping concepts which includes level of living,the quality of life, social satisfaction* social welfare, and standard of living.
There are two obvious ways of determining criteria of human well-being of life quality. The first is to derive them from theory in psychology or socialogy. The problem is that, despite certain similarities in the view expressed, there is no generally accepted social theory setting out the precise conditions unambiguously defining human well-being along with their relative weights. T-his problem has been recognised frequently in the 2 literature on social indicators (Smith, 1973a 5b-61) , The second method is to ask people how tney view tneir own state of well-being, satisfaction or happiness, attempting to discover by direct inquiry what this state is dependent on. "In a society people will have incomes adequate for their basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, and a 'reasonable' Standard of living; people will not live in poverty. Good quality education and health services will be available to all and their use will be reflected in a high level of physical and mental health and in an informed populace>able to perform their societal roles in a satisfactory manner. People will live 1, Coates, J.E,, Johnston, R, J, et al - Geography and Inequality, oxford, (i977), p, 9, 2. Smith, D.M. (1973a)-The Geography of social well-bPlnq in the United states. He. Graw-Hiil, New York, A 1973)7 pp. 58-6i. 25
indecent houses. In decent neighbour hoods, and will enjoy a good quality of physical i environment. They will have access to recreational facilities including culture and the artp,and an adequate leisure time in which to enjoy these things. Society will show a low degree of disorganization, v;ith few personal social pathologies, little deviant behaviour, low crime incidence and hi^ public order and safety. The individuals will be able to participate in social, economic and political life and will not be alienated on the basis of race, religion, ethnic origin or any other cause," From this statement (Smith 1973) derives the following general criteria of social well being,
1, Income, wealth and errployroent,
a) Income and wealth b) Employment status c) Income supplements
2) The living environment a) Housing b) The neighbour hcod c) The physical environment 3) Health a) Physical health b) Mental health
4) Education
3, Ibid, 1973 in Geographical view point, vol. 7, 1978, p,49 2'o
a) Achievement b) Duration or quality
5) Social order (or disorganization)
a) Personal pathologies b) Family break down c) Crime and ^delinquency d) Public order and safety 6) Social belonging (alienation and participation) a) Democratic participation b) Criminal justice c) Segregation
7) Recreation and Leisure
a) Recreation facilities b) Culture and the arts c) Leisure available
(Source : Smith, 1973)
In theory, the differences' mentioned should be reflected in the research designs carrying out quality of life and level of living studies, in fact, they are, highly similar employing only objective variables which are the most accessible and available. This has been rationalized in the following ways;
The use of only measurable indicants in formulating an overall index inevitably assumes that the correlation between ,yU
the non-tpeasurable and measurable incicants is highly enough to give validity to results based solely upon the later .
Numerous speculations are available as to the vali dity of the acove stated assumptions. In discussing the need for perceptual indicators concludes that 'infact there is reason to believe that there exists only a loose linkage between the objective conditions of people's lives ?nd 5 individuals' perceptions of well-being .
An attempt to incorporate variations in personal priorities into the calculation of sumnary scores for living levels has been made by Mac Laran (1975, 1977) in a study of Dundee. Data were gathered by interview on ccncitions of well-being relating to eleven dimensions; health, emplOiTOent, housing, finance, education, personal security, participation, access to facilities, family and neighbourhood stability. Leisure and the condition of the neighbourhood's environmental quality. By asking respondents also to assess the importance of each dimension using a 0-10 self anchoring sceie (after
4. Knox, P.L. (1974,b)-Level of Living, a conceptual frame work for monitoring regional variations in well-being. Regional Studies, Vol. 8, 1974, pp. 11-19. 5. Andrews, F.M, (1974)- Social indicators of percieved life quality. Journal of Social Incicators Research, 1, 279-299, in Regional Studies Vol. 12, Ho. 4, i97P^ pp. 409-410. 6. Mac Laran, A, (1975)-Spatial aspects of relative deprivation and attitudes to social justice, mim.eopaper in G. V. P. Vol. 1, 1978, p. 51. - Ibid. (1977)- In G^J^^P. Vol. 7, 1978, p. 51. 3i
Kilpatrick and Cantril, 1960) it was possible to calculate level of living scores v/hich v/ere weighted according to respondents values. 7 Allardts (197 5,a ) emphasized the use of objective indicators, while his work has often been put forth as an example of the opposite approach. This funcamental misinter pretation is probably caused by the fact that his definition of welfare is very wide, also covering aspects of our general well-being which have usually been concievec of as belonging to the "private/personal" sphere of life. In practice, it has become almost traditional to adopt o:>jective indicators in measuring phenomena concieved as "actual conditions", "hard values" or "material resources", while the subjective indica tors are usually required to obtain an insight into the quali tative, "soft" aspects of life. Kis ..ork represents, however, an aternative to this tradition. One of the major points in just that' argument that all aspects of welfare can be measured objectively. Cn the basis of well-developed theory of needs, "welfare" as satisfaction of several basic, "ob§ective"_needs. These needs are classified into three broad types reffered to as "having", "loving", and "being". The main contribution, in perhaps through analysis of the various types of needs and theii
7. Allardts, E. (1975, a)- Atta Ha, Att Alska, Attvara. Cm Valfard i Norden, Argos Forlag, AB, ^Lund. in Regional studies, vol, 14, No, 6, 1980, pp. 505-506, interrelationships. The results indicate that material level of living ("having") and human relations ("loving") are highly independant ,
Several studies under the headings of quality of life, social indicators and levels of living^ have appeared. These studies have employed in most cases only the most readily available and accessible dr^ta. It is the contention of the research that quality of life studies based on only objective (counts of various types of phenomenon) or subjective (measures based on people's perceptions and feelings) variables give very different results. This in ;\/e]l illustrated when aoolied to analysing v^uality of life variations in urban centres in Southern Monitoba, Canada, as the correlation between the tv70 9 categories of variaoles is only rs = 0.07 .
A useful approach v/as suggested by Drewnowski (1974) , as a synthesis of work on levels of living previously under taken at the U.N. Research Institute for Social Develooment. Drewnowski's approach rests on a distinction between the state
8, Dale, B,-Subjective and Objective Social Indicators in Studies of Regional -Social Well-being. Regional Studies Vol. 14^ No. 6, 1980, pp, 505-506. 9, Ku2, J. Tony.- wuality of Urban life, an. objective and Sxibjective Variable analysis. Regional Studies, Vol.12, No. 4, J978, p. 409. - ~ 10. Drewnowski, J. (1974)-0n measuring and planning the quality of life. In Stnith, D.K.-Human Geoqraphy-A welfare approach. New Delhi, 1979, pp. 3 5-37. 33
of well-being and the levels of living. The state of well- being is seen as a stock analogous to product or income. At any time, the state is the result of past flows of goods and services consumed by the population in the satisfaction of their needs. He proposes that the state of well-being could - . . • ,.11 be measurec cy an mcex as shov/.n. Composition of Drewnowski's State of Well-being index:
1. Somatic Status (Physical development livel) (a) Nutritional status (b) Health status (c) Life expectancy (G) Physical fitness
2. Educational status (mental development)
(a) Literacy (b) Educational attainment (c) Congruence of education v;ith manpov/=r re^quirements. (d) Employment
3. Social status (social integration and participation) (a) Integration. (b) Participation.
Source: Drewnowski (1974)
11, Smith, P.M.-Human Geoqraphy-A Welfare approach. New Delhi, 1979, pp. 3 5-37. 3 t
Level of living is defined by reference to the content of another proposed index. Nine components are recognised, each with their individual indicators.
Composition of Drewnowski's level of living index:
1. Nutrition (food intake)
(a) Calories intake
(b) Protein intake
(c) Percentage of non starchy calories
2. Clothing (Use of clothes)
(a) Cloth consumption
(b) Foot wear, consumption
(c) Quality of clothing.
3. Shelter (occupancy of dwellings)
(a) Services of dwellings
(b) Density of occupation
(c) Independent use of dwellings,
4. Health (health services received)
(a) Access of medical care (b) Prevention of infection and parasitic disease,
(c) Proportional mortality ratio,
5. Education (education received)
(a) School enrolment ratio
(b) Scnool out put ratio
(c) Teacher/pupil ratio 3o
6, Leisure (protection from over work) la) Leisure time
7, Security (security assured) (a) Security of the person (b) Security of the way of life,
8. Social environment (social contact and recreation) (a) JLiabour relations (b) Correlation for social and economic activity (c) Information and Communication (c) Recreation: Cultural activities. (e) itecreation:travel (f) Recreation: sports and physical exercise.
9. Physical environment. (a) Cleanliness and quietness (b) Public amenities in the neighbour-hood 12 (e) Beauty of the environment . Source: Drewnowski (1974), Discussions about the use of subjective and/or objective social indicators have been a recurring theme in recent writtinc on "social well-being" or "quality of life", "objective indica tors" are generally defined as counts of various types of
12, Smith, P.M.-Human Geography. A v/elfare approach. New Delhi, (1979), pp. 3 5-3 7. 3o
phenomena, such as levels of incoirie and education, residential densities and unemployment figures. They are most regarded as quantitative "facts" selected fron census data and other accessible official registers etc. "subjective indicators" are on the other hand, generally defined as being based on direct reports from individuals about their own perceptions and feelings.
The majority of researchers on social well-being would probably agree with the conclusion of writers, v/hc hold that the subsjective indicators serve as a useful and necessary supplircent to the 'h^rd' objective measures. Both types of indicators have their advantages and their limitations,, end both are needed to obtain a mors comprehensive pic-ure of well-being, --^fter tnis common starting point, the agreement and oimiilarities between many studies of regional .veil-being seen to end, however. Their theoritical and empirical ^proaches vary widely, both regarding definitions (or sufficiency of definitions) selection of life-domains, variables and type of study area, as well as analytical methods 13
Kuz (1973) 14, for example, found no correlation betv/een the two typ^s of measures while knox and Mac Laran (1977) report a positive and statistically significant correlation,
13, Dale, B, - op, cit, p, 504, 14, Kuz, op cit. p. 410. .1 /
A typical example of this type of fallacy of interpretation in found in Kuz's study of variations in life quality between urban centees in Manitoba^ Canada. Kuz's main objective is to test for the similarities and differences in results obtained by employing both objective and subjective indicators. If in fact, high correJ.ations are found between the two categories of variables, one set can be used to accxirately describe the living condition.
Kuz's subjective variable are selected from quite different domains of life than the one's, he obtained objective variables from while his "objective measures consist of convention ally available data of housing, education,.income, employment and various service institutions? his subjective measures are selected from a questionnaire survey a lined at measuring community involvement and satisfaction. The selected measures focus on community involvement, ccwnmunity interaction and alie nation and community leadership. By means of a factor analysis and level of living index, it is demonstrated that the two sets of variables from distinct and uncorrelated pattern 1 5.
15. Ibid, pp, 416-417. CHAPTER - III
HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL^SETTING OF STUDY AREA
Origin of Name of District :
The district of Meerut (which forms part of the revenue division of the same name) is named after its headquarters city and is said to be associated with the earliest traditions of the Hindus according to which >5aya, the father-in-law of Ravana, founded this place which has, therefore, been called ^5aidant-ka- Khera, According to another version >feya, a distinguished archi tect, got from king Yudhishthira the land on which the city of Meerut now stands and he called this place Mayarashtra, a name which in coxirse of time became shortened to Meerut. Tradition also has it that the district formed part of the dominions of Mahipal, king of Indraprastha and the Word Meerut is associaited with his name.l
Historical Panorama :
The beginnings of the history of civilization in the region covered by the present district of Meerut, go back to times considerably anterior to the advent of the Aryans and the rise of vedi:r culture. Archaeological excavations (under taken in 19 50-52) of the mound (locally known as Ulta Khera- or upturned habitation-and also as Vidura-ka-tila or the
1, (Srimati) Joshi Esha Basanti - Uttar Pradesh, District Gazetteeres, tfeerut, 1965, p, i. 3J
mound of vidiira) at Hastinapur (about five miles west of the 2 Ganga* in Tahsil ^fewana of this district) revealed various antiquities which are taken as Evidence of a succession of cultural periods which this site enjoyed during the past toxic thousand years or so.
The first stratum (in the mound), which is above the natxoral soil and below the stratum indicating the next cultural period, represents a habitation characte'rised by crude ochre- 3 coloured pottery in a 'rolled condition '. This pottery which is the earliest umearthed at Hastinapxor is similar to infabric to that which was found in the mound called Rajpur Parsu (situated opposite Hast ina pvir, across the Ganga , This, the first known settlement in the district. Similarly excavations 5 and explorations (l9 58) of the mound locally known as P&rshuram- ka-Khera or Bhirruka-tila, standing outside the twin villages of Dkhlina and Alamgirpur Buzurg (about sixteen miles west of ^teerut city in Pargana ^teerut), have revealed evidence of the
2. Lai, B.B.- "Excavations at Hastinapur and other Explorations in the Upper Ganga & Sutlej Basins 19 50-52 "-Ancient India (Bulletin of Archaeological %rvey of India, NO. 5» 10 and 11, 19 54 & 19 55), pp. 8-9 3. Ibid., p. 11. 4. Ibid, in District Gazetteer, iiserut, 1965, p. 18. 5. Indian Archaeology 19 58-59-A Review (New Delhi, 19 59) pp. 50-55. ••iO
existence of four cultxiral periods with breaks in between . A number of places in the district, like Meerut, Oharkhand (near the village of Asifabad in Rargana Kithore of Tahsil Mawana), Loni and Parichhatgarh, are associated by traditon with non-Aryan and probably pre-Aryan people like the Rakshasas, Asuras, and Nagas# seems to corroborate the archoeological 7 evidence • The next upper or (second) stratum in the mound at Hastinapxor was found to contain various proofs of the second occupation of the site and of its cultxore which was characterized by the prevalence of a distinctive ceramic industry, now called painted grey ware • Among other antiquities discovered in this stratum are ordinary red and red-slipped ware, black-slipped ware, remains of mud-brick walls etc. Objects closely similar to these were also discovered from the next upper or (second) 9 stratum in the mound at Okhlina-Alamgirpur Buzurg , indicating a coiranon period for this second phase of the culture of the district. 'Painted grey ware* is the most distinctive feature of the culture of this period and is generally associated with the early Aryan settlers in these parts , has also been found in a number of other ancient sites in the district such as Baghpat, Baleni, Pura, Bisrakh, Barnawa and Muzaffernagar saini^^.
6. Ibid., P. 52. 7. District" Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 19. 8. Lai, B, B,-op.cit., pp. 11-13. 9. Indian Archaeology 1958-59 - A Review, P. 54. 10. Lai, B. B., - op, cit, pp. 2, 150-I5l. 11, Ibid., pp. 138-141; Indian Archaeology 19 58-59-A Review p.75. 4i
The Jains say that Hastinapur (or Qajapxira) was one of the earliest Indian cities, it being founded in the time of Rishabhadeva Xthe first tirthankara), According to the Buddhists it was the capital of Kuru-rattaiti, so named because in the days of Mandhata, the emperor of Jambu-dvipa, the inhabitants of Utter Kuru had come and settled here 12 ,
The early history of this region, as gleaned from the Mahabhrata and the Puranas, covers the period from Dushyanta and Bharata to the destruction of Hastinapur a few generations after the Mahabharata war 13 . After Mahabharata^ Yudhishthira became the king of the Kurus and ruled over his extensive realm from the capital city of Hastinapur. ^t is said that the people were happy and contented during his time the kingdom almost flowed with milk and honey 14 . The kingdom, with its capital at Hastinapur, extended from the Sarsvati to the Ganga and roughly corresponded to modern Delhi, part of East Punjab, greater part of the Upper Gangetic Doab including the whole 15 of the present district of Meerut
12. Jain, B.C.- Tribes in Ancient India, p. 23, and Geography of Early Budhism, p. l7; Jain, I. P. -op.cit, pp. 4-16, 13. C.f. Pargiter, F.E.-Ancient Indian Historical Tradition (London 1922) and the Pxirana Texts of the Dynasties of Kali Age (Oxford 1913). 14. Tripathi, op. cit., p. 45, Raychaudhuri, H.c, Political History of Ancient India, (Sixth eds.), pp. 12-13. 15. Ibid., pp. 21-22. The second destruction of the city of Hastinapiar ends the most glorious period of its history as well as of that of this region which for centiiries had been the main centre of Aryan civilization .
It is said that the city of Hastinapur extended for miles (Twenty one or forty-eight Yojanas) 17 along the western bank of the Ganga and had its different Muhallas (localities) in what are now Bahsuma, Mawana, Baksar, Parichhatgarh, and Garhmukteshwar, the village of Saini (Muzaffernagar Saini) marked the site of its Senadvara (military gate); in Puth, was located the pleasxire garden of its princes; the cattle were housed in Gguhra, the elephant stable in Gajapura, and horse stable in Kharkhauda; >fekhanpur was the royal dairy, and 18 Barnawa was an outlying fortress and l-feerut a suburb
About the beginning of the second century B.C. Histinapur was peopled once again and it remained inhabited till about the close of the third centry A.D. 19 , The material discovered from the strata(in the mound) representing this period generally characterises the Shunga-Kushana levels of North Indian sites 20 and proves the existence at that time
16, District Gazetteer Meerut, 1965, p. 25, 17, Jain, J.P., op, cit., p, i, 18, Ibid., pp. 1-2; Fuhrer, op, cit,, p, 12, Atkinson, op.cit,, pp. 354, 355, 361, 381, 393, 4l8, 426, 19, Lai, B, B., - op. cit,, p. 22. 20, Ibid,, - p. 12-A. 4
in this region of an exclusively red ware industry with wheel- turned pots-often having stamped and incised decorations- and of well-pianned streets with houses built of burnt bricks and equipped with drains, baths, platforms etc. The more important of the finds are iron tools, artefacts, rings, beads, inscribed 21 pots and clay seals & coins •
During the middle of the (606-647 century A.D.) a dynasty of Tomara Rajputs established itself at Delhi and its rajas seem to have extended their sway over the adjoining region of Meerut. Local tradition associates king Ahibarana Tomara (founder of Baran or Bulandshahr) with Barnawa 22 (in tahsil Sardhana), the village of Bhadsana (in Pargana Puth of tahsil Hapur) is said to have been founded by Bhadpal, the tenth king of Tomar line of Delhi 23 , and the founding of
Phalauda (in tahsil ^3awana), is attributed to fhalgu, a Tomar, whose descendants are said to have been inpossession of this place till they were treacherously uprooted by the early Muslim raiders under Mir Surkh, a native of Mazendaran 24 .
The historian firishta says that I-Jahmud of Ghazni, in his ninth expedition (about 1019 A.D.) captured this place but that it was ransomed by its ruler, Hardatta, for 2 5,000 dinars and fifty elephants 25 •
21. Ibid., pp. 17-19. 22-. Atkinson, op. cit., pp. 361-84. 23. Ibid., p. 258. 24. Ibid., p. 420 25. Ibid., p. 458, Atkinson, op. cit., pp. 320, 414. 47
The Jama Masj id of Meerut was built in 1019 A.D. by
Hasan Mahdi, a Kamboh, who was a Vizir of that Sultan • Rashid- ud-din, however, quoting Al-Biruni (a Courtier of Mahmud of
Ghazni) refers to Meerut as being ten Parsangs (about forty-
four miles) distant from Ahar (in district Bulandshahr) and 27 the same distance from Panipat .
The district appears to have remained immune from
Muslim invasions till 1192 when its greater part, particularly
that to the south-west was held by the Dor rajas, the successors 28 2Q of Hardatta . The Northern part had long been by the Tagas ,
who subsiquently became the cultivarors . The Tagas were driven
to south and east by the Jats, who entered the district in the
North West, settled in what are now the Parganas of Chhaprauli,
Kotana, and Baraut and subsequently spread throughout the 34 district . According to one tradition they came from Jaisalmer 32 in Meerut about 1,200 years ago • The Gujars, who were the
remmants of the Gujara Pratiharas, seem to have driven the 33 Tagas South ward from the north eastern parts' of the district
26. Ibid., pp. 292, 406; Fuhrer, op. cit., p. 11. 27. district Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 32. 28. Atkinson., op. cit., p. 320, 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid.," pp. 264, 507-510. 31. Ibid., pp. 261^320, 394; Beames, John (Eds.). Memoirs on the History, Folklore, and distribution of the Races of North Western provinces of India (amplified edition of H.M, Elliot's supplemental Glossary of Indian Terms). Vol. l, p. 300. 32. Ibid., pp. 261, 262. 33. Ibid., p. 263. 45
34 Among other early settlers were the Ahirs of Sardhana 35 and Khekra and the Mina Meos in the southern parts of the district.
About the time of Prithviraja of Delhi the power of the
Dor Rajputs began to Wane and probably at the instance of that
king his general, Gahlot Chief Govind Rao, with the help of
Mina Meos, dislodged the A^rs from the South of Meerut • 37 Govind Rao had his headquarters at Dehra and Prithviraja
himself is said to have built a fort at Loni (both in tahsil
Ghaziabad)-^°.
Ghyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1287) built a mosque (Dargah
Sharif) at Garhmukteshwar in 1283 as is evident from an 39 Arabic inscription on one of its walls ,
It is said that the Kalv/ars of Meerut (a caste engaging
in liquor) used to take to ^ultan Kaiqiobad (1288-90) presents 40 of scented wine which was two or three years old
During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Tarmashirin,
a powerful Mangol Chief, invaded i'-ieerut in 1328-29 with a
34. Ibid., p. 393. 3 5. Ibid., p. 265 36. Atkinson., op. cit., pp. 258-259, 265. 37. Ibid., p. 2 58. 38. Ibid,, p, 400., Fuhrer, op, cit., p. 10. 39. Fuhrer, A,: The Monumental Antiquities and suscriptions in N.w. Provinces and Oudh, p. 9, in District Gazetteer, Mfeerut, 1965, p, 34. 40'. Ibid., P., 232, in District Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 34. '^O
considerable force. The people of the place took shelter in the fort and under the Sultan's orders Yusuf tan officer) has- tened to the rescue with a force of 10,000 men 41 .A fierce battle took place at the gates of the fort in which Mongo]^ were defeated.
In 1390 the fort of Meerut was used as a state of prison by Muhammad Shah Tughlaq for interning Abu Bakr, his nephew 42 and rival to the throne, who eventually died there
During the regime of the Saiyid kings (I4l4-5l) the whole of the doab (including the district) remained in a state of txirbulence and towards the end of the period the region from 43 sambhal to Ixini was held by ^arya Khan Lodi . It appears that during the period of the Lodi Sultans the district remained in their undisturbed possession and after the battle of Panipat in 1526 it passed into the hands of Babur. Majnu Khan Qaqshal, an experienced soldier, who was commissioned by Akbar to quell the rebellion, was able to do so but the rebel governor was pardoned 44 at the intercession of Munim Khan • It is said that Jalalabad (in tahsil Ghaziabad) was named after Akbar whose first name was Jalaluddin.
41. Isami: Putuh-us-Salatin (Hindi translation of extracts by Rizvi: Tughlaq Kaleen Siarat, part I, P. 10 3). 42. Yahia bin Ahmad: Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (Tughlaq Kaleen Bharat, part II, P. 212) in district Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 35. 43. Niamat-ullah: Makhzan-i-Afghani (English translation by Niredhbhushan Roy, P.XV) in District Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 37. 44. Abul Pazl: The Akbarnama, Vol. II, pp. 377-78. In District Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 38. 47
During the reign of Akbar almost the whole.of the present district of Meerut was part of the ^ubah of Delhi, all the present day parganas except that of &ardhanalwhich lay in the Sirkar of Saharanpiir) being included in the S'irkar of Delhi. The mahals of Meerut, Barnawa, Hastinapur, Sarawa, Garnmukteshwar, Hapxir and JalaBiabad formed part of Meerut. The mahalas of Loni, Baghpat Dasna, Baraut, Kotana, Chhaprauli, and Tanda Ehugana were included in the dastur of Delhi and Mahal Puth in the dastxir of Baran (Bulandshahr) . The mahal of Sardhana formed a seperate unit and included a large portion of the present district of Muzaffernagar. These sixteen mahals, which roughly correspond to the present day parganas of the district had a cultivated area of 588,000 hectares and were assessed to a revenue of 3,57,11,346 dams 45 • fT»tTh- e mahal of Baghpat had a cultivable area of 50#000 hectares was owned by Brahroans and Gh^uhans.
The tahsil of Ghaziabad constituted the mahals of Dasna, Jalalabad and Loni* the tahsil had a cultivable area of 4.6 10 4,000 hectares and it was owned by Gahlot Rajputs ,
The south-eastern portion of the district, constituting the present tahsil of Hapxir, contained the mahals of Hapur, Garhmukteshwar, Puth, and part of the mahal of Sarawa. The
45. Abul Fazli The Akbarnama, translated into English by H.S. Jarrett Vol. II, pp. 291-293, 297. 46. Ibid. 45
feahsil of Hapur had a cultivable area of 108,000 hectares. Hapxir was held by Tagas. Garhmxikteshwar had a big fort on the Ganga, it was largely held by Rajputs, Puth, which had a brick fort, it was held by Tornara Rajputs, and Sarawa, which also had a brick fort.
The present tahsil of Mawana was roughly identical with the area covering the mahals of Hastinapur and part of the Sarawa, had a cultivable area of 44,000 hectares it was owned by the Tagas,
The tahsil of Meerut was identical with a large mahal of the same name which had a cultivable area of 153,000 hectares, and was held by the Tagas, Ranghars and Qiandrals.
The present tahsil of •^ardhana was then made up of the mahals of Sardhana and Barnawa had a cultivabT.e area 65,000 hectares^ was held by Tagaa and Sheikhzadas 47 .
In the early years of Jahansir's region Izzat Khan was incharge of Jalalabad 48 , The queen Nur Jahan, is said to have been a devotee of Shahpir, a raoted Muslim saint of Meerut, on whose grave she has got erected in about 1620, a mausoleum of 49 red sand stone, which is still in existence .
47. Distt. Gazetteer ^feerut, pp. 39-40. 48. The Ti45uk-i-Jahangiri, translated into English by A, Rogers, p. 125, 49. Fuhrer, A,, op. cit., p. 11 4;i
A nxunber of places in the district - Axirang shah pur, Aurangnagar, Alamgirpur, etc- were presumably named after the emperor Aurangzeb or his title of Alaragir. During the time of the Mughals a mint for copper coins was located in the town of Meerut. in pargana Loni there were a number of gardens and preserves for Shikar which were maintained by royalty and it is said that the Eastern Yamuna Canal was constructed to water one (or more) of these gardans •
The Sangi Mahal and Rangi Mahal which were in existence till about the end of the last century, were said to have been built by the KarrTx)s 51 . Khairandesh Khan, a notable memoer of the family during the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, who built the Khairnagar Gate in the city and also constructed in 1690-91 the Khairul-Masjid-Wald-Muabid mosque which still exists •
In 1778 Najuf Khan conferred in Jagir the pargana of Sardhana on his European Commander, Walter Reinhardt Sombre, 53 which yielded a revenue of six lakhs of rupees • Sombre selected the town of Sardhana as the seat of his extensive estate.
50. Distt. Gaz,etteer Meerut^ 1965, p. 40. 51. Ibid., p. 41. 52. Ibid. 53. Banarjee, B.,; Begam Samro, p. 12. in Ibid, p. 44. \}
Towards the close of the eighteenth century, Begam Sainru became a leading figure at the imperial court. George Thomas successfully established peace in her territories and under his command the Sardhana brigade became a formidable force in the doab and around Delhi. Besides the estate of Begum Samru there were three other estates in the district- 54 the Gujar estate, the jat estate and the jagir of Bala Bai .
In September, 180 4, the portions of the new district which lay in the doab were seperated and a new district-that of Saharanpur was constituted. In October a second sxommary settlement was made under which Raja Nain Singh of Parichhatgarh and Rao Ram Dahan Singh of Kuchesar were confirmed in their holdings. Between 1804 and 1806 the parganas of Baghpat, Loni, Dasna, Sarawa, Jalalabad, Dadri and CJihaprauli were placed in the charge of the British Resident of Delhi but later they were transferred to southern division of saharanpur district for the administration of which a separate collector was appointed with 55 headquarters at Meerut
Landon, an Englishman, who visited Meerut about 1829 wrote about the place, "It was a large, clean, well arranged 56 and healthy city with a spacious contonment ". In 1844 VV.H. Sleeman visited the district and he has observed in his memoirs.
54. District Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, pp. 45-46. 55. Distt. Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 47» 56. Landon:- Narrative of a Journey through India, p. 83, in district Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 49. 51
The "country between Delhi and Meerut is well cultivated and rich in the latent power of its soil; but there is here, as every where else in Upper Provinces, a lamentable want of gradations in society from the central sub-division of property in land and the want of.... concentration of capital in commerce 57 and manufactures •
On ^&y 11 and 12 (19 57) the tahsil of Sardhana was attacked by the Rajputs and Ranghars (particularly those of the village Garhi) who looted the bazar and drove out the autho rities. As civil authority at Meerut had almost collapsed on May 13, General Hewett enforced martial law throughout the district by proclamation. The Rajputs of the village of Dhaulana attacked the tahsil of fiuradnagar on on July 30 and destroyed the police station. They were joined by the freedom fighters from Ghaziabad. Torab Ali, an officer, was expelled from Muradnagar where the freedom fighters appointed their 58 own officials as they also did in Dasna & Ihaulana
By November all resistance to foreign rule in the district had been ruth crushed by the British. That the move ment was widespread in character is evident from the fact that,, irrespective of caste or cread, persons from all walks of life
57. Sleeman, W.H.,- Rambles and Recollections of an Indian official, edited by Vincant A. Smith, Oxford, 1915, p. 571. 58, District Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, pp. 53-55. b'-C^i
and from different social strata actively participated in the cause of freedom. It was a 'great struggle* and it nearly cost the British their Indian empire 59, Meerut again responded to the call of the leaders to join the national movement against the British Yoke. In 1906, the people of ^feerut spontaneously decided upon using goods made in India in response to a reso lution passed by the Indian National Congress at its Calcutta session in that year .
The district branch of the Muslim League was established in Meerut in 1909 with about fifty members. Meerut became one of the main centres of the revolutionary movement which had spread over northern India under the leadership of Rash Bihari Bose. On the Occasion of Khilafat Day on October 17, 1919, a complete hartal was observed in the city. The citizens held a public meeting in which they expressed great dissatisfaction against the policy of the British on the Khilafat issue. In March, 1920, the annual session of the Khilafat conference was also held at Meerut, The men and women of the district took an active part in the non co-operation movement of 1920-21^-^.
59. Atkinson, E.T.: Statistical and Historical Account of N. Western Provinces of India, Vol. Ill, p. 326, In ibid, p. 56. 60. Distt. Gazetteer, Meerut, 196 5, p. 57, 61. Distt. Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, p. 57. b3
In 1921 Mahatma Gandhi visited Meerut, He was given a rousing reception by the people, more than 50,000 attending the public meeting addressed by him, when several hundred persons were arrested and jailed. Gandhiji's call by boycotting foreign cloth and liquor and picketing shops selling such goods. This movement was followed by an agrarian agitation known as the no-rent campaign. In 1925, Lajpat i^i came to the city again in order to lay the foundation stone of Kiimar Ashram, an institution for the uplift of Harijan children. Mahatama Gandhi passed through Meerut in 1930 and that year a branch of the Gandhi Ashram was opened in the city for the production and propagation of khaddar.
There was a large scale killing by the district authorities thousands of people sent to jail and so many persons sentenced to imprisonment, due to this, Meerut reacted to the 'Quit India' resolution of the Bombay session of the congress held on August 8, 1942, by organising procession and large-scale demonstrations to drive it home that the British were not wanted in India.
All the property of Gandhi Ashram was confiscated and the premises were sealed. About this time certain anti-social elements indulged in sabotage, burnt post offices, cut telephone and telegraph wires, destroyed railway tracks and another activities to disrupt the administration. b'i
Due to this "Meerut still remains a memorable name in Indian History, for it was at Meerut that the independent soveriegn Republic of India was conceived and for the first time 69 virtually proclaimed
Geographical Setting :
Location and Boundaries - The district of Meerut is situated in the Upper Ganga-Yamuna doab and lies between i^t. 28* 32* and 29»18' N. and Long. 77»-7' and 78»14*E. In shape it is roughly rectangular. It is bounded by the districts of Muzaffarnagar in the -j.orth, Bulandshahr in the south and Delhi State in the south-west. The Ganga forms its natural boundary on the east and separates it from the district of Bijnor and Moradabad. Most of its western boundary is marked by Yamuna which seperates the district from the Rohtak and Karnal districts of Punjab.
Area and Population - 2 The total area of the district was 5,9 44 Km according to 197l census. It had total population of 3/366,9 53 Persons in same year. Its' density was 566 persons per square Km.
61. Sitaramayya, Pattabhi: History of the Indian National Congress, Vol, II, p. 783. bJ
Topography -
The district is almost a level alluvial plain with a slight slope from North to south or south-east. The average gradient is about two feet in the mile and in almost uniform throughout. On the whole of the district in a tract of extra ordinarily fertile soil. In the North-west, west and middle (including tahsils of Baghpet, Sardhana and Meerut) and lying to the west of Kali Nadi, the soil is richer than in the tahsil of Mawana in the east, where the bhur soil forms small ridges extending irregularly across the plain. The flood plains of the rivers are small but the transition from the river valleys to the upland is marked by ravines and erosion or by sloping sandy undulations. Along the Ganga and away 'from it, the soil has deteriorated for a considerable distance and much of the area east of the Anupshahr branch canal is occupied by long stretches of the sandy soil. The soil along the Yamuna is not so inferior. The Khadar of the Hindan is comparatively narrow and the deteri oration is generally confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the river and it is only when the rivers Hindan and the Yamuna come closer in the south-western corner of the district that a narrow stretch of inferior soil is met with. The only parts that are liable to be fia^oded are the Ganga Khadar in the M§wana tahsil, some areas in the low lying tracts of pargana Loni (£dsi:-t:;:Gha<2dabad^ and those in the south of Baghpat near the Yamuna. Broadly speaking the district can be divided into !)0 four micro-physical regions
(i) The Yamuna-Hindan Doab,
(ii) The central depression
(iii) The eastern uplands and
(iv) The Ganga khadar i) The Yamuna-Hindan Doab :
This tract lies between the yamuna on the west and the
Hindan on the east and includes the whole of tahsil Baghpat, portion of tahsil gardhana and District Ghaziabad, From a width of over sixteen miles in the North it narrows down to about a third in the souths where these two rivers tend to converge.
The Northern portion of the tract contains alluvial soil of excellent fortility but the southern portion is made up of stretches of inferior land, mostly, adjacent to the Yamuna, which supports poor grasses only. The yamuna does not have any tributary worth the name in this tract and the Hindan has only two, the
Krishni and the Banganga, which meet in the North-east. There are a number of bhur mounds, along the banks of these rivers,
on some of which stand the habitations of chhaprauli, Kotana and Baghpat along the yamuna and of Barnawa and Baleni along the Hindan.
ii) The Central C)epression :
This tract, lying roughly between the Hindan and the Muzaffarnagar-Meerut-Bulandshahr road, includes the western 5 7
parts of the tahsils of Sardhana and Meerut, East of the Ganga canal, the slope of the land as far as the centre of this tract is towards the east but from there onwards there is a rise as far as the Muzaffarnagar-Mserut-Bulandshahr road, the depression beginning near "^ardhana and estending as for south as the Bulandshahr border and being naturally in adequate drained. The soil is here is good but has a tendency to become super satxirated and to give rise to the formation of reh, which is rare in other parts of the district, except in the khadar lands.
iii) The Eastern Uplands i
This tract comprises the area between the central depression and the ravines of the Ganga and includes the major in portions of the tahsils of Mawana, Hapuruiow/Ghaziabad distt,), parts of the tahsils of lieerut and Sardhana, The soil is rich but is not as rich as in the yamuna-Hindan Doab, At many places the Anupshahr branch canal, which runs close to the ravines of Ganga and to the scored and broken area that seperates the uplands from the Ganga Khadar, has improved the eastern portion of this tract agriculturally,
iv) The Ganga Khadar :
The eastern most tract is the low khadar or flood olrin i the Ganga, This tract is characterised by the existance of several depressions and water courses generally connected with the river. Some parts of the khadar are capable of cultivation 5S
but the soils are generally light and poor and the tract is mostly covered with tall grass which ^ives shelter to wild animals. The alluvial area in the khadar mainly consists of a string of villages bordering the main stream. The Burhiganga forms a marked featxard of the khadar and flows below the old high bank
Climate :
During the major part of the year the climate of the district is influenced largely by the prevelence of dry air of the continental type, the summer being intensely hot and the winter cold, ^t is only during the monsoon months that air of oceanic origin reaches the district, bringing with it increased humidity, cloudiness and rain.
Rain fall :
In this district the monsoon winds from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea almost meet, the former having become weak by the time they reach the district and the latter, when weak or diverted by cyclonic storms in central India, not reaching the district at all. Consequently, the monsoon rainfall of the district is light and often uncertain. The rainfall generally increases from south-west to North-east. 7 3 percent of the annual rainfall is received during the south-west monsoon season, July being the month with maximum rainfall. The normal rainfall in
63. District Gazetteer, Meerut, 1965, pp. 4-6, bfi
the district is 720.2 m.m. (28.25"). on an average, there are, in the district,. thirty seven rainy days (days with rainfall of 2.5 iTi.m or more) in a year,
Ternperat^are :
There is a meteorological observatory at Meerut, the records of which may be taken as representative of the meteoro logical conditions in the district. Temperatures start rising from the beginning of I'larch, heralding the on set of the hot season and hot westerly winds (locally known as 'loo') begin to blow from April on wards, the heat often becoming intense in both May and June when the maximum temperaturd may go upto 46»C (115«F; at times. May is the hottest month with the mean daily maximum temperature at 40*C (104*F) and the mean daily minimum at 25,3*0 (77,5»F), though the night temperatures in June is higher than those in Kiay. January is the coldest month with the mean daily maximum temperature at 20.9*C (69.7"F) and the mean daily minimum temperature at 8.1'C (46,5»F).
Cloudiness :
The skies are usually heavily clouded or over east during the monsoon season, particularly in July and August. Dxiring the rest of the year the skies are generally clear or lightly clouded except in the months of January, Febraary and early March, when they some times become cioudy or are even overcast in association with the passage of western disturbances. i)!j
Winds :
In the post monsoon and winter months the winds are generally light but they get stronger in the summer and the monsoon months. Easterly or south-easterly winds predominate in the monsoon season and westeiMies or North-westerlies in the other seasons. The mean wind speed, in kilometres per hour, for the district is 4.7 in January, 7.7 in February, 6.9 in March, 7,9 in April, 8.9 in May, 9,0 in June, 7,2 in July, 6.6 in August, 6,3 in September, 4,7 in October, 4,2 in November, and -, o • 64 .3.9 in December, the annual speed being 6,5
64, Ibid, pp, 11-13, c:'/.FT-.;i IV
SOCIAL 'VSLL-BSIITG AITD llir.^IRCiTI-iTrTAL 3T:.UCT";^
There ere abo"ut 1500 villages in r-feerut district.
Twenty percent villages v;ere selected by stratified randorri sampling (Fig, 1), Thus the environmental structure cf tv;o hundred ninety eight villages of the district has been stT-idied, The sample villages have been selected from five strota based on the size and the distance. Cn the basis of size three strata of villages- ' small', •*'medii:un' and
•large' v;ere made. Cn the basi:: of distance tv;o strata were made- that cf 'near' and 'far' villages. The distance is measured from an urban centres (having the population
50/000 and above). From these five strata by random sele ction 298 villages were selected for detailed study.
There are various indicators of environment.-^, 1 stru- ctux-e but a-jtiientic data about all of them is not available,
Therefore, nine indicators have been chosen for this study, for wnici'J authentic data is available, namely educational facilities i.e. Junior basic schools, senior basic schools, higher second3ry schools, medical facilities, pa.;er supply, potable ^vater, kuccha road, pucca road, and post and telegraph (Table I) ,
1, Data has been taken from: census Hand book, pt, X^A, Town and village Directory, Meerut District, 1971. bz
-*'—rS T
in_
pi
in. C
o.
m.
?a J1 oi :o
Q • •^ ^ b3
TA3L3 I Blements of Environmental Structiore'
Amenity Kiimber and Percentage of villages iT» B, S, 201 (67.4)
0» i3* O • 30 (10.0) H* S* S* 19 ( 6.4) l-fe d i Co 1 f a c il it ie s 07 ( 2.3) Po\i7er supply 155 (52.0) Potable water 296 (99.3) Kuc-ha Road 121 (40.6) Pucca road 136 (45.6) Post and telegraph 62 (20.8)
Source: Census Hand Book, pt. X-A, Tov;n and Village Directory, rfeerut District, 1971.
A composite vievj of various elements in the villages under study C3n be had fro.m the table I. It v/ill be noticed that there is a great deal of variation in the occurance of various elerinents. The lov;est occurance is that of medical facilities they are found in only 2.3% of the villages of the district under study. This is the lowest incidence in villages far any indicator. This means that there are over 97% villages with no medical facilities and tiiis speaks volxomes of the lo\'; status of huT,an v;ell-being in ovr villages.
2. Medical facilities include-dispensary, family planning centres, health centres, etc. Potable v.'ater includes only handpumps. b
At the other extreme is'the occurance of potable v/ater whidi is found in 99, 3% villages. There are only tvx5 villages v;here there is no potable v/ater. The fact that in 99, 2% villages potable water is available, is not so important as the fact that there exist some villages where even the basic need of potable v;ater is still not available,
Occurance of other elements in village lies between the tv70 aforesaid extremes (potable v/ater in 99, 3'/-> and medical ficilities in 2.3% village). Junior b=^.sic sdnools are found in 67.4% villages. This snows that there are about 33% villages v/here junior basic schools, '-/hich is a most basic element in any human environment are not found. There is only- one elementvipich occurs in over fifty percent villages nomely power sup-ly (52% villages), all other elements are found in less than fifty percent villages. Senior basic schools -nd higher secondary schools --"re found in ten percent and about six percent villages respectively.
Kuccha (un-metalled) and pucca (metalled) reads are found in 40.6% and 45.6% villages respectively. Post anc telegraph facility is found in only 20,8% villages. From the above description based on(table I), it becomes cle?.r that there is a great range in the occurance of the various elements of the environmental structure in villages of I-feerut district. BIJ
School is a very important element in the environmental structure of a village settlement and it goec lonr; \,;ay in determining the general v;ell-.being or other wise of a people. There are three types of schools, junior basic v;hich catet upto fifth class, senior basic upto eighth class and higher secondary upto eleventh class. This service in villages does not seem to be arbitrarily located rather it appears to be a function of size of the village and its distance from an urban centre (+ 50,000 copulation). In a small village with a small population tlie school going children are- few in number and thus a school is not a viable proposition both from economic as well as from the point of view of endeavouro
Coit of a total of 201 junior schools only 19,9 % are found in small, 39.8% in medium and 40,3% in larce villages (table II) , Out of a total of 30 senior schools; only 6.7% are found in small, 23,3% in medium and 70,0% in large villages. With a total of 19 higher secondory schools, there is not even a single higher secondary school in small villages, only 31.6% in medium and 68,4% in large villages. This picture suggests a strong correlation betv;een the village size and the schools available.
As the distance increases from the urban centres the percentage of junior basic schools decreases (table III). Out of the total 201 junior schools, 72,1% are found in near strata different size
Elements of Small Medixjn Large Total environment (Below 1000 (1000-2000 (2000 & above no. of population) population) population) villages
No, of Villages 113 (37.9) 99 (33.2) 86 (28.8) 298
JBS 40 (19.9) 80 (39.8) 81 (40.3) 201
SBS 2 ( 6.7) 7 (23.3) 21 (70.0) 30
HSS - - 6 (31.6) 13 (68.4) 19
Medical facilities - - 1 (14.3) 6 (85.7) 07
Power supply 37 (23.9) 56 (36.1) 62 (40.0) 155
Potable v;ater 111 (37.5) 99 (33.4) 86 (29.1) 296
KR 49 (40.5) 40 (33.1) 32 (26.4) 121
PR 42 (30.9) 43 (31.6) 51 (37.5) 136
Post and Telegraph 3 ( 4.8) 6 ( 9.7) 53 (85.5) 62
-Pigxares in bracket are percentage Source - Census Hand Book, pt. X-A, Town and Village Directory, Meerut District, 1971. 67
and 27,8% in far villages. The percentage of senior basic schools decreases as the distance from the city incr'^ases such as 73.3% and 26.7% in near and. far villages respectively, VJhile in the case of hic^er secondary schools the situation /is the same i.e. 63.1% in near and 36.8% in far strata. So, the occurance of the schools is inversely proportional to the distance. Distance from an urban centre seems to have an affect on the occurance of Junior Schools.
Medical facilities are also one of the most important elements in tlie environmental structure of villages,fhe paocity of hospitals is appalling. Out of 298 villages under study, only seven (2,3%) have medical facilities. None of the one hundred and thirteen small sized villages with 12,0% population of the area under study have any medical facility. Among ninety nine medium sized villages only 14.3% villages have medical facilities (Table II) . Among ei^ty six large sized villages only 85,7% villages have medical facilities. There are only 85,7% village having medical facility in the near category (Table III) v;hich support 70,7% population. In far category, only 14.3% villages have medical facilities with a population of 29,3%. So the distribution of medical facilities is highly correlated with the size of the villages and the distance frcsn a city. bCJ
Out of 298 villages under study, only 155 villages are electrified, which means only 52.0% villages have the faci lity of power supply. It is clear that 18.0% villages have no benefit of it. Of the villages having the availability of power supply, 23,9% are'small', 36.1%'medivim' and 40.0% large villages (Table Hji. As far as the distance from the city increases the availability of this facility goes on decreasing. Of the villages under study 77.4%, in'near'strata and only 22.6% villages in'far* strata (Table III), It is clear that the incidence of power supply is related to the size of the villages and the distance from the city.
One of the very basic elements in the envrionmental structxare of any settlement is drinking v;ater. The health and well-being of a people is greatly determined by the water supply-v/hether it is potable, free from organic and inorganic contamination or not. This \MOuld detefmine the health and well-being of the people. This facility is very cormionly available in the villages. Of the 298 villages under study 99.3% villages have this facility. There are only 2 villages- representing 0.7% of the total, where there is no potable v;ater facility. These villr-ges come under the categories of'small^ and'neari VJhile the reiiaining categories have 100.0% facilities of rotable water. Table III
Elements of Environmental Structure According to their distance of villages from an urban centre
Village distance Near Far Total no, of villages
No, of villages 214 (71.8) 84 (28.2) 298
JBS 145 (72,1) 56 (27.8) 201
SBS 22 (73,3) 8 (26,7) 30
HSS 12 (63,1) 7 (36.8) 19
Medical facilities 6 (85.7) 1 (14.3) 07
Power supply 120 (77.4) 35 (22.6) 155
Potable water 212 (71.6) 84 (28.4) 296
KR 81 (66.9) 40 (33.1) 121
P2 100 (73.5) 36 (26.5) 136
Post and Telearaoh' 39 (62.9) 23 (37.1) 62
- Figures in bracket are percentege Sourfie - Census Hand Book, pt,- X-A, To-wn and Village Directory, Meerut District, 1971. 0
There can be no denying the fact that kuccha and pucca roadS/ contribute to the ixnprovement of tlie quality of environment. Out of 298 villages under study, only 40.6% villages have kuccha roads. Of these villages 40.5% in'small' 33.1% in'medium»and only 26.4% in'large'villages (Table II). The percenta:je of the villages having kucdia roads is decrea sing from'near'to'far'categories/ as 66.9% and 33.17o respectively (Table III).
Out of the total villages under study, tliere 45.6% villages have the facility of pucca road. It means more than 54.0% villages are denied this facility. Of the villages having pucca road, there are only 30.9% in 'small^ 31,6% in'medium'and 37.5% in* larce» villages (Table II). It is clear that the availability of pucca road is greatly related with the sise of the villages. On the other hand there are only 7 3. 5% village - under*near'category, while in the 'far' category there only 25.5% villages experience this facility (Table III). So, as the size of txie villages increase the pearcentage of villages having pucca road also increases but as the distance from the city increases the percentage of the villages having above mention facility goes on decreasing.
Last but not the lenst, the .racility of postal services Is also an important element of the environmental 7i
structure of any settlement. Cut of tlie total villages under study, there are only 20.8% villages having this facility. It means about 80% villages are v/ithout efficient postal service. Of the villages having postal services 4.8% are'small'9.7%,'mediuiTi'and 85, 5%'large'villages. So it is clear that the distribution of postal services are highly related with the size of the villages. There are only 62.9% villages are in'near'and 37.1% village in'far '' categories (Table III),
For discussing the v;ell-being of the villages, the unit score is givien to each indicator. As regard the range of well-being, the median score of every strata was singled out. The five class intervals of well-being were determined by applying standard deviation technique. The well-being scores were calculated at a range of one standard deviation from the mean. The scores are standardized measures of the villages divided into five class intervals; 'very hidi', •high', 'medium', 'low' and 'very low' (Table IV & V).
In 'small' villages the status of well-being ranges from 'very lo\}* to 'medium* (Table IV), Among all the villages 54.00% (with 5,1% population) have a 'very lox^' quality of life, 44,2% (with 6,6% population) have 'lov;' and only 1,8% (with 0,2% population) hnve the medivim well-being (Fig, 1.1), 11
ME £ RUT DISTRICT WELL-BEING IN SMALL SIZE VILLAGES-
INDEX yzxy High High
Medium 20 2 6 10 14 18 22 Low Very Low
Fig. 1.1 73
Table IV
Composite scores of v;ell-being according to size of villf ces
Category Scores of No, end % of PoDUlation of village well-being villages
Very High Nil ( 0.0) -
High Nil (.0.0 ) -
Small Medium 02 <.1.8 ) 1, 200 (0.2)
Low 50 { :44.2) 32,800 (6.6)
Very low 61 (:54.0 ) 25,600 (5.1) Total 113 ;ioo.o)
Very Hinh Nil :0o0) -
High Nil [0.0) -
Medium l>fedivim 12 [12.1) 19, 300 (3.9)
Low 64 [64o6) 92,200 (18.5)
Very lov; 23 [23.2) 29,800 (6.0)
Total 99 [99.9)
Very High Nil [0.0) -
High 05 ([5.8 ) 30,300 (6.1)
Large ^'^dium 41 <[47.7 ) 154, 400 (31.0)
LOT.-; 38 [44.2) 10 5, 200 (21.1)
Very lo;v 02 • (.2.3 ) 6,600 (1.3)
Total 86 (.100.0 ) [100.00)
Figures in bracket are percent?.ce 'I'x
In 'medium' sized villages, the well-being ranges from
'very ICA-J' to 'medivun' (Table IV) , Among the villages under study 23.2% (with 6,0% population) experiences in 'very low' well-being/ 64,6% (with 18,5% population) is of 'low', and 12.1% (with 3,9% population) are in 'medium' well-being (Fig, 1,2).
In 'large' villages, tlie v/ell-being scores ranges from 'very law* to 'high' v/ell-being (Table IV). Of the villages there are only 2.3% (with 1.3% population) experience 'very low* well-being, 44.2So (with 21,1% population) have 'low' we 11-being, 47.7% (with 31.0% population^ i^ of 'medium' we 11-being and 5.8% (v/ith 6.1% popul?tion) enjoy in 'hi^' we 11-being (Fig, 1,3) ,
Next is the distance absed strata of villages i,e. 'near' and 'far' from an urban centre. In 'near* category, the well-being ranges from'very low* to'hl^'(Table V), Of the villages under study, 26.2% (vjith the populcition of 9, is of 'very low' well-being, 56,0% (36.8% population) is 'low' v/ell-being 15.9% (with 20,0% popul-tion) in 'medium' well-being and only 1.9% (with the population of 4.6%) experience, 'high' well-being (ITig, .1,4).
In 'far' category, the scores of well-being also ranges from 'very low' to 'high* (Table V). 35.7% (with 3.2% population) have 'very low' well-being, 38.1% (with 75
„ MEERUT DISTRICT WELL-BEING IN MEDIUM SIZE VILLAGES.
r" v.r>^ y"w ••
9 ©^ © '-; © o o
X i ? 99 J ^-•^"S^" do ^© ^ * © O
^: © * §;9© % 9/ ^-
.-^^.O ./••^/ V/"^
202 6 to 14 18 22
Fig.1.2 /o
ME: ERUT DISTRICT WELL-BEING IN LARGE SIZE VILLAGES,
^•^
r©©© ( ® * © ©J . . ® ? e a »> ® S* ._/ •1/ /^-^j INDEX ' \_,-^ e Wry High ® High Medium 802610 U IB 22 © Low Km«.H=H'*=<»>=^^ Kms. Very Low
Fig. 1.3 77
Table V
Ccxnposite scores of well-being according to distance from city
No. and % of Category of Scores of Population Village well-being villages
Very Hii^ Nil (0.0)
High 04 (1.9) 23,000 (4.6)
Near I'fediuni 34 (15.9) 99,700 (20.0)
Low 120 (56.0) 182,900 (36.8)
Very Low 56 (26.2) 46, 200 ( 9.3)
Total 214 (100.0)
Very High Nil (0.0)
High 01 (1.2) 7,300 (1.5) Far Meditiin 21 (25.0) 7 5,200 (15.1)
Low 32 (38.1) 47,300 (9.5)
Very lov; 30 (35.7) 15,800 (3.2)
Total 84 (100.0) (100.0)
- Figures in bracket are percentage. 78
MEERUT DISTRICT DISTANCE FROM THE CITY AND WELL-BEING
INDEX • Very High ® High © Medium 20 2 6 10 14 16 22 Kms.k jKms. Q Low o Very Low ^H^ F-F6R N=NEAR FIG 1-4 73
9.5% population) have 'loi-/', 25.0% (with 15.1% population) have 'mediuin? and only 1.2% (with 1.5% population) experiences 'high* well-being (Fig. 1.4). There is not even a single village in this study which has all nine facilities or on the other hand that has tlie 'very high* will-being.
It can be summarized that the majority of the population experiences 'lov/' well-being. It is clear with the above discussion thnt tfie population of 51.0% villages live in •low* well-being, while tlie people of only 1.7% village experience as the 'high' well-being. So there is great variation in the well-being among tlie villages of tfeerut district. The well-being of a settlement is also related v;ith the degree of development end spatial distribution of public facilities. The distribution of public facilities within the villages are unevenly distributed, there is not even a single village which has all the facilities selected by the author for example. CHAPrER - V
C 0 M C L U S I 0 W
It can be concluded that the environment is a totality or sum of the visible and non-visible factors, which surrounds the animal and plants. It influences tiie human conditions or the action and interaction of a hioman being. It includes the physical, social and cultural sspects of the universe.
Natural environment is a general term, means a number of elements surround man. Social environment consists of the world of other people, out side of which man seldom spends any appre<£iable part of life time. Cultural environment is a collective ncme which embraces the entire man ma.de environment- langi:|age, art, sciences, customs etc.
The concept of 'well-being* is very canplicated and multidimensional. Different resegrchers have interpreted it in different ways. So, it can be concluded that well-being connotes a state of good heolth, happiness, satisfaction, conservation and the development of human resources, social wll-ocing is a generic term for the family of overlapping concepts v/hich includes level of living, the quality of life and the standard of living.
Historically the region covered by the present district of Meerut, go baclc to times considerably anterior to the- advent of the Aryans and the rise of vodio cu.ltLire, Hostinapur is the 81
first known settleincnt in tJic district, Archaeolo.-ical excavactioHG of the rnouncl at Hastinapur revealed various antiquities, v/hich are taken as evidence of a succession of cultviral periods, ^t is an aroa of very ancient history. This district was ruled by varicus dynasties. The district of Moerut is situated in the upper 'j?nca-Yamuna doob. It is roughly rectangular in shape, almost a level alluvial plain with a slight slope from North to south or. south east. It is a tract of extraordinarily fertile soil, v;hich contributes to well- being.
With the discussion of tlie present study it can be said that the well-being in the villages of tiie area under study is not too good,' because the well-being of a settlement is related with (the degree of development and the spatial distribution of public facilities. The distribution of public facilities within the villages reveals that schools, medical centres, transportation and postal facilities are unevenly distributed. Medical facilities as v/ell as sclioolin:; facilities are also lacking. The well-being is determined by the availability and the even distribution of public facilities, ^t clearly emrr-jes from the present study the environmental structure of the villages in Meerut district even though measured by few indicators only, is lacking in many things and there are spatial disparities in their distribution. And it is the main cause of the 'low' level of well-being. 8^
It can be concluded from the preceding study that the amenities have a close relationship with the size of the villages and its distance from the urban centres. These facilit ties are concentrated in the large villages v/hile meagre in smaller ones. Similarly^ as distance of the villages increases from the urban centres, the facilities go on decreasing. So it can be said that size and distance play role in locali sation of these facilities.
There is not even a single village where all nine facilities are available. It shov;s that the v;ell-being is not'very high' in the villpcos under study of the district. The majority of population lives in 'very low' to 'low' level of well-being in the villages.
From the preceding study a fev; suggestions emerge which will improve the well-being.
Elementary educational facilities for the children, be provided in all villages over 500 population or in the places nearest to their villages.
In all areas minimum of public health facilities be provided, which would include preventive medicine, health centres, nutrition and detection of early morbidity and adequate arrangements for reffering serious cases to an appropriate higher echelon. 83
Power supply should be extended to all villages.
Adequate supply of potable water, free from organic and inorganic contamination.
Facilities of reads-^nd post and telegraph be improved. BI BLI OGRAPfllY
BOOKS
Beadle, G.W. - The world Book Encyclopaedia. Vol. 5, Chicago, 1960.
Beshers, J.M.- Urban Social Structure, New York, 1962,
Bauer, R.A. (ed .) - Social Indicators, Cambridge, 19 66,
Campbell, A,, Converse, P.E, et al. - The Quality of American Life, New York, 19 76
Coates, J. E,, Johnston, R*J. et al. - Geography and Inequality,
Oxford, 1977.
Drewnowski, J. - Measuring the Level of Living, Swansea? 1970,
Dalkey, N, C,^ Rourke, D. L, et al, - Studies in the Quality of Life, Massachusetts, 1972.
Dasgupta, B. - Village Studies in Third World, Delhi, 1978.
Drewnowski, J, - On Measuring and Planning the Quality of Life, in Smith, D. M. (ed ,) Human Geography-A Welfare Approach, New Delhi, 1979.
Encyclopaedia Americana, Vol. 10, New York, 19 66.
Easwaran, K, - Tradition and Economy in Indian Villages,
London, 19 68,
Environmentalism, T 0* Riordon, London, 1976,
Fukutake, Tadasin, et al, - Socio-EconQnic Structure of the Indian Villages, Tokyo, 1969. 83
Girling, D.A. - Everyman's Encyclopaedia, Vol. 14, Toronto, 1978,
Hall, P.G. - Forecasting the quality of life in Urban Exirope, Geographical paper, 20, in Coates, J.E,, Johnston, R.J. et al, - Geography and Inequality, Oxford, 1977.
Herbert, D.T. end Johnston, R.J. - Geography and the Urban Environment, vol. Ill, Toronto, 1980.
Jones, E. (ed. ,) - Readings in Social Geography. tJdi^bon, 1975.
Knox, P.L. - social Well-being?-a spatial perspective, Oxford,
1977.
Lewis, 0. - Village Life in Northern India, Urbana, 19 58.
^Jew Standard Encyclopaedia, Vol. 5, Chicago, 19 83.
Paul, H. L. - Man in Environment - An introduction to Sociology, New York, 19 54.
Patil, B.R. _ The Economics of Social Welfare in India. Bombay, 1978.
Park, J.E. and Park, K. - Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur, 1981,
Sreenivasan, K, - Productivity and Social Environment. Bombay, 1964.
Shonfield, A. and Shaw, S.- Social Indicators and Social Policy. London, 1972.
Smith, D.M. - The Geography of Social Wel-l-beino in the United
States. New York, 1973. So
Smith, D.M. - Hxjman Geography - A Welfare approach. New Delhi, 1979.
Stamp, D. and Clark, A, - A Glossary of Geographical Terms^ New York, 1979.
Thomas, W.A. (ed .) - Indicators of Environmental Quality, London, 1972.
Town and Coxmtry Planning Organisation, Govt, of India, Towards a Human Settlement Policy in India 2001, New Delhi, 1975.
Wissler, C. - Man and Culture, New York, 19 23.
Wilson, J.0, - Quality of Life in the United States; An Excursion inho th«^ New Frontier Of Socio-Economic Indicators. Kansascity, 19 69.
Zehner, R.B. -'Indicators of the Quality of Life, in New Communities, Cambridge, Mass, 1977.
JOURNALS :
Agoc, C. - 'social Indicators: Selected Readings*, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences. Vol. 388, 1970, pp. 127-32.
Andrews, P.M. - Social Indicators of Percieved Life Quality, Regional Studies, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1978, pp. 409-410.
Allardts, E.- Atta Ha, Att Alska, Att Vara, Om Valfardi Norden, Argos Forlag A B, Lund, Regional Studies, Vol. 14. No. 6, 1980, pp. 50 5-506, 8/
Drewnowski, J, and Scott, W. - 'The Level of Living Index* Ekisf.if^s. Vol. 25, 19 68, pp. 266-27 5.
Dale, B.- Sxibjective and Objective Social Indicators in Studies of Regional Social Well-being Regional Studies, Vol. 14, No. 6, 1980, pp. 50 5-506,
Keith Clayton - Man and Environment. Area^ Institute of British Geooraphers. No. 3, 1970, p. 12.
Knox, P.L, - Level of Living, a Conceptual Frame work for Monitoring Regional Variations in Well-being. Regional Studies. Vol. 8, 1974, pp. 11-19,
Knox, P. L. - 'Social Indicators and the Concept of Level of Living', Sociological Review, Vol. 22, 197 4, pp. 249-57.
Knox, P.L. - 'Spatial Variations in Level of Living in England and Wales in 19 61'. Ty;»psections of Institute of British Geographers, No. 62, 1974, pp. 1-4.
Knox, P. L. - Social Well-being and North Sea Oil, An Application of Subjective Social Indicators. Regional Studies, Vol. IC, No. 4, 1976, pp. 423-25.
Kuz, J. Tony, - Quality of Urban Life, an Cbjective and Subjective Variable Analysis. Regional Studies, Vol, 12, No, 4, 1978,. p, 409.
Martin, A.E,- Environment, Housing and Health. Urban Studies, 4, 1967, pp. 1-21. Moser, C,A, - 'Measuring the Quality of Life*. New Society, Voi. 428, 1970/ pp. 1042-1043.
Mac Laran, A. - Spatial Aspects of Relative Deprivation and Attitudes to Social Justice, Mimeo paper. G. V. P. vol. 7, 1978, p. 51.
Robin Best - Rural Environment Studies. Area, Institute of British Geoareohers. No. 2, 1970, p. 22.
PUBLICATI'::N OF INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL ORGANISATIONS;
District Gazetteer, Meerut, 19 65.
Ring, A.j, _ Indicators of Ehvironmental Quality and Life Satisfaction: A Subjective approach. Unpublished paper, s\arv<»y Unit, Social Science Research Council, London, 1974.
UNRISD - The Level of Living Index. Report No. 4, U.N.R.I. S.D., Geneva, 19 66.
UNRISD - Social and Economic Factors in Development. Report No. 3, U.N.R.I, S.D., Geneva, 19 66.
UNRISD - Studies in the Measurement of Levels of Living and Welfare, Report No.UNRISD/70/C-20. U.N.R. I. S. D., Geneva, 1970.