Gender, Water and Livelihoods in Mseleni: a Case Study
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SCHOOL OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES RESEARCH REPORT No. 87 Gender, water and livelihoods in Mseleni: A case study Eleanor L. K. Hazell December 2010 SDS RESEARCH REPORT 87 Gender, water and livelihoods in Mseleni: A case study Eleanor L. K. Hazell First published by the School of Development Studies in 2010 ISBN: 978-1-86840-669-9 The research for this Report was done for a masters dissertation in the School of Development Studies at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. The School of Development Studies is promoting the publication of student dissertations that are awarded a distinction. Available from the website: www.sds.ukzn.ac.za/ Or The Librarian School of Development Studies University of KwaZulu-Natal Howard College Campus Durban 4041 SOUTH AFRICA Tel: +27 31 260-1031 The School of Development Studies is one of the world's leading centres for the study of the political economy of development. Its research and graduate teaching programmes in economic development, social policy and population studies, as well as the projects, public seminars and activism around issues of civil society and social justice, organised through its affiliated Centre for Civil Society place it among the most well-respected and innovative inter- disciplinary schools of its type in the world We specialise in the following research areas: civil society; demographic research; globalisation, industry and urban development; macroeconomics, trade and finance; poverty and inequality; reproductive health; social aspects of HIV/AIDS; social policy; work and informal economy. School of Development Studies Research Reports are the responsibility of the individual authors and have not been through an internal peer-review process. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily shared by the School or the University. ii SDS RESEARCH REPORT 87 Contents Acknowledgements vii Abstract viii Glossary and abbreviations ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and problem statement 1 1.2 Scope and objectives of study 2 1.2.1 Research questions 2 1.3 Structure of the study 3 1.4 Definitions 3 2 Conceptual frameworks, literature review 5 2.1 Water use 5 2.1.1 Consumption, hygiene, amenities: Water for health 5 2.1.2 Water for the environment 6 2.1.3 Water as an economic good 6 2.1.4 Water for basic needs 6 2.1.5 Domestic, productive and household water 8 2.1.6 Spiritual and cultural water use 8 2.2 The basic needs approach 8 2.3 The human rights based approach 10 2.4 The human right to water 12 2.5 Livelihoods 13 2.6 Livelihoods and water 15 2.7 Gender 16 2.8 Gender and water 18 2.9 Conclusion 20 3 National context and policy frameworks 21 3.1 The emergence of South Africa’s water management framework 21 3.1.1 The transition from apartheid 1994-96 21 3.1.2 Early priorities 1996-2001 23 3.1.3 Developments 2001-07 24 3.1.4 Summary: key debates in the South African water sector 27 3.2 Rural livelihoods in historical context 28 3.3 Gender in context 30 3.4 Conclusion 31 iii SDS RESEARCH REPORT 87 4 Methodology 32 4.1 Research approach 32 4.1.1 Case study 32 4.1.2 Ethnographic inquiry 32 4.2 Sampling strategy 33 4.2.1 The case 33 4.2.2 Diversity within the case 33 4.2.3 Respondents 33 4.3 Research methods 34 4.3.1 Research design 34 4.3.2 Data collection 35 4.3.3 Data analysis 36 4.4 Reflections from the field 36 4.4.1 The politics of research 36 4.4.2 Methodological issues 37 4.4.3 Community dynamics 38 5 Case study site and context 39 5.1 Case study site 39 5.1.1 Location of Mseleni 39 5.1.2 Location of Bangizwe, KwaJobe and Mboma 40 5.2 Case study context 41 5.2.1 History 41 5.2.2 Politics and institutions 41 5.2.3 Geography, population and health 43 5.2.4 Socio-economic situation 44 5.2.5 Access to services 44 5.2.6 Water resources 45 5.2.7 Water service delivery 45 5.3 Description of izigodi 48 5.3.1 Bangizwe 48 5.3.2 KwaJobe 48 5.3.3 Mboma 49 6 Findings and analysis 50 6.1 Inter-household differentiation, intra-household dynamics 50 6.1.1 Household structure 50 6.1.2 Household livelihoods 51 6.1.2.1 Assets and activities 53 6.1.2.2 Vulnerability, institutions and constraining factors 54 6.1.2.3 Conclusion 55 6.1.3 Intra-household dynamics 56 6.1.3.1 Roles, responsibilities and decision making 56 6.1.3.2 Perceptions of the household 59 6.1.3.3 Resources: Access and benefits 59 6.1.3.4 Conclusion 60 iv SDS RESEARCH REPORT 87 6.1.4 Conclusion 60 6.2 Gender and access to water 61 6.2.1 People 61 6.2.2 Journeys 62 6.2.3 Cost 65 6.2.4 Water sources 68 6.2.5 Conclusion 72 6.3 Gender and water use 72 6.3.1 How people use water 72 6.3.1.1 Direct consumption 73 6.3.1.2 Domestic water use 73 6.3.1.3 Health and hygiene related 73 6.3.1.4 Productive water use 74 6.3.2 How much water people use 76 6.3.3 Water use and livelihoods 81 6.4 Discussion and conclusion: Gender, water and livelihoods 82 7 Conclusion and recommendations 86 7.1 Recommendations for theory, policy and practise 87 7.1.1 Recognise livelihoods in basic needs and rights based approaches 87 7.1.2 Support, empowerment and equity 87 7.1.3 Technology and transport, for water for livelihoods 89 7.2 Conclusion 90 Bibliography 91 Appendices Appendix 1 Focus group and interview respondents 101 Appendix 2 Data collection tools 102 Appendix 3 Maps and charts created during PRA 117 Boxes Box 5.1 The Mseleni water scheme 47 Box 6.1 The Hot Chillies Co-operative 55 Box 6.2 Household three 58 Box 6.3 Preparing for an Umemulo party 74 Figures Figure 2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 9 Figure 2.2 DFID Sustainable Livelihoods Framework 14 Figure 3.1 South Africa: Catchment Management Areas 24 Figure 3.2 The national view of water service delivery and FBW implementation 26 Figure 5.1 Map of South Africa showing the location of Mseleni 39 Figure 5.2 Map of Umhlabuyalingana showing ward and tribal boundaries 40 Figure 5.3 Women’s map of institutions which are important in Mseleni 42 v SDS RESEARCH REPORT 87 Figure 5.4 Men’s map of institutions which are important in Mseleni 42 Figure 5.5 Mseleni Topography 44 Figure 5.6 Bangizwe clinic 48 Figure 5.7 KwaJobe House 49 Figure 5.8 KwaJobe House 49 Figure 6.1 Men assume domestic roles when female labour is unavailable 58 Figure 6.2 Sandy soil makes collecting water difficult 62 Figure 6.3 Journeys to fetch water, detail from map created during PRA 64 Figure 6.4 Journeys to fetch water, detail from map created during PRA 64 Figure 6.5 Collecting water from the river 68 Figure 6.6 Collecting water from the well 68 Figure 6.7 Collecting water from the tubewell 69 Figure 6.8 Collecting water from the tap 69 Figure 6.9 Growing vegetables with water 75 Figure 6.10 Block making co-operative members 75 Figure 6.11 Women making mats 75 Figure 6.12 Daily household water use 77 Figure 6.13 Litres per capita per day 78 Figure 6.14 Litres per capita per day plotted against distance to source 78 Figure 6.15 Litres per capita per day, by water use category 81 Tables Table 2.1 Water requirements for basic needs 7 Table 4.1 Characteristics of izigodi 33 Table 5.1 Institutions important in the water situation 43 Table 6.1 Household structure 51 Table 6.2 Livelihood assets, activities and influencing factors 52 Table 6.3 Livelihood characteristics 52 Table 6.4 Household roles, responsibilities and decision making 56 Table 6.5 Access to water: People and journeys 63 Table 6.6 Financial costs involved in accessing water 66 Table 6.7 Water sources households accessed 70 Table 6.8 Estimates of daily household water use 77 Table 6.9 Water use: occasional and outside the home activities 80 Table 6.10 Water and livelihoods linkages 84 Table 7.1 Recommendations, livelihoods and gender equity 88 Table A1 Focus group respondents 101 Table A2 Interview respondents 101 Table A3 Schedule of additional interviews 101 vi SDS RESEARCH REPORT 87 Acknowledgements I would like to thank many friends and acquaintances in Mseleni, particularly those who shared their lives and gave time and energy to be participants in the project. A special thank you goes to Thulile Tembe and Phiwokuhle Msane for research assistance, intelligent inquiry and companionship whilst doing the research, and to Annie Ntuli for hosting me in Mseleni. I would like to thank David Still, for creating the opportunity to visit Mseleni and financial assistance to support the fieldwork via his firm Partners in Development. Also Stephen Nash and his family for helping me settle in when I arrived in Mseleni, and the staff of Partners in Development Maputaland for support whilst undertaking the research. Dr Zoe Wilson, Dr David Hemson and Dr Mary Galvin, thank you for your interest, mentorship and for employing me on water-related research projects, which deepened my insight and advanced my understanding of water issues.