PREPARING TEACHERS FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN BHUTAN

Kishore Kumar Chhetri

Master of Education (Research) - Queensland University of Technology, Australia Master of Arts in Human Rights Practices (Joint Degree) - University of Roehampton, United Kingdom; University of Gothenburg, Sweden; and University of Tromso, Norway Bachelor of Education - Royal University of Bhutan

Supervisor: Professor Suzanne Carrington and Dr Nerida Spina

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology September 2019

KEYWORDS

Article 24 General Comment No. 4-CRPD, beginning teachers, Bhutan, culture, disability, diversity, Gross National Happiness, inclusive education, inclusive school, pre-service teachers, self-efficacy, special educational needs, teachers, teacher education,

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ABSTRACT

Well-trained and confident teachers in inclusive classrooms have a positive impact on the success of their students and contribute to the achievement of broader inclusive education ideals. The current research was conducted to examine pre-service and beginning teachers’ understandings of inclusive education in Bhutan. It investigated Bhutanese pre-service and beginning teachers’ views on how effectively their teacher education course prepared them for working in an inclusive classroom. Their confidence in teaching in inclusive classrooms was also explored.

This descriptive case study was conducted through convenience sampling with twelve pre-service and twenty beginning teachers in six inclusive schools. A range of research methods were used. Data were drawn from focus group interviews, an open- ended questionnaire and classroom observations. Data were analysed utilising Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy and Vygotksy’s socio-cultural theory. The findings of this study were presented as four broad categories that identified the conditions and characteristics that enabled effective teacher preparation for inclusive education in Bhutan. These are, in broad terms: education for all, attitudes towards inclusion, barriers to inclusion and policy for inclusion.

The findings revealed that while pre-service teachers gained some knowledge and developed many positive attitudes towards inclusive education, this was insufficient to instil confidence and capacity to ensure inclusive teaching in the classrooms. The study revealed some of the barriers to inclusion such as physical barriers (the layout of classrooms and school infrastructure and equipment) attitudinal barriers, inflexible curriculum and inadequately trained teachers. The research also had many positive findings, such as the willingness of beginning and pre-service teachers to try and employ inclusive pedagogies in the classroom, and their eagerness to learn.

A key finding of the study indicated the need to improve the knowledge of pre- service teachers in inclusive education. Given the increasing number of inclusive schools in Bhutan, the development of teacher’s professional skills became crucial. It is suggested that these skills be strengthened, with greater emphasis on weaker domains such as pedagogical skills, curriculum adoption, activity design, and

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classroom management. This study has five recommendations, which include the need for: enhanced training and development of the teachers, enhanced policy and practice including with community, improved teaching and learning materials, better articulation of duties and responsibilities of all teachers, and transforming class size. This study will make a significant contribution to research on inclusive education in South West Asian countries, as well as to the achievement of inclusive education policy ideals in Bhutan.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

KEYWORDS ...... I

ABSTRACT ...... II

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... IV

LIST OF FIGURES ...... IX

LIST OF TABLES ...... X

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... XI

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ...... XII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... XIII CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.2 CONTEXT ...... 3

1.3 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT ...... 4 1.3.1 Monastic education in Bhutan ...... 4 1.3.2 Modern secular education ...... 6 1.3.3 Non-formal and continuing education ...... 9 1.3.4 Pre-service teacher education in Bhutan ...... 10 1.3.5 Disability and special education in Bhutan ...... 12 1.3.6 Overview of inclusive education in Bhutan ...... 16 1.3.7 Educating for Gross National Happiness ...... 20

1.4 RESEARCH AIM AND QUESTIONS ...... 23 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE ...... 23 1.6 DEFINITIONS ...... 24

1.7 THESIS OUTLINE ...... 27 CHAPTER 2:LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 29

2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 29

2.2 MODELS OF DISABILITY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION...... 29 The Medical Model of Disability ...... 30 The Social Model of Disability ...... 31 The Cultural Model of Disability ...... 33

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The History and Development of the Special Education Model...... 34

2.3 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION...... 42 The advent of inclusive education...... 45 The (contested) concept of inclusive education ...... 49

2.4 COMPONENTS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ...... 55 Supports to inclusive education ...... 55 The attitude of stakeholders towards inclusive education...... 62 Teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education ...... 63 Pre-service teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education ...... 68

2.5 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION DEGREES ...... 70 Teacher education for inclusive education ...... 70 Curriculum and pedagogy for inclusive education ...... 75 Importance of teaching practice in inclusive education ...... 77

2.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THIS STUDY ...... 78 The Theory of Self Efficacy ...... 79 The Socio-Cultural Theory ...... 86 Teachers’ efficacy ...... 89 Pre-service teachers’ efficacy ...... 93 Relationship between pre-service teachers’ and teachers’ efficacy ...... 94

2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 97

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN...... 99

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 99 Qualitative research ...... 100 Research design ...... 102

3.2 RESEARCH SITE AND PARTICIPANTS ...... 105 Research sites ...... 105 Participants ...... 107

3.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS ...... 108 Data from focus group interview ...... 109 Data from open-ended questionnaire ...... 112 Data from classroom observation ...... 113

3.4 USE OF DOCUMENTS AS SOURCE OF EVIDENCE ...... 115

3.5 ANALYSIS OF DATA ...... 116

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3.6 ETHICS, LIMITATIONS AND VALIDATION ...... 118

3.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 122 CHAPTER 4: . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT TEACHER EDUCATION AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ...... 123

4.1 INTRODUCTION AND CHAPTER ORGANIZATION ...... 123

4.2 FINDINGS FROM FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS ...... 125 Theme 1: Perceptions and understandings of inclusive education...... 127 Sub-theme 1: Positive perceptions/attitudes toward inclusion ...... 128 Sub-theme 2: Barriers to inclusive education ...... 132 Theme 2: Beliefs about teacher education ...... 138 Sub-theme 1: Negative experiences from teacher education ...... 140 Sub-theme 2: Positive experiences from teacher education ...... 143 Theme 3: Experiences from teaching practice ...... 149 Sub-theme 1: Challenges in teaching in an inclusive classroom ...... 149 Sub-theme 2: Influence of mentors (senior teachers) ...... 153 Sub-theme 3: Community and parent involvement ...... 156 Theme 4: Concerns about inclusive education ...... 158 Sub-theme 1: Expansion of inclusive schools ...... 158 Sub-theme 2: curriculum and pedagogy issues ...... 159

4.3 FINDINGS FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS ...... 160 Theme: Self-Efficacy ...... 162 Sub-theme 1: Preparation of lessons (lesson plans) ...... 162 Sub-theme 2: Use of specialist teaching and learning materials ...... 164 Sub-theme 3: Student engagement - Student-centred activity ...... 166 Sub-theme 4: Teaching with enthusiasm ...... 169 Sub-theme 5: Responding to diversity ...... 171

4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY: KEY FINDINGS ...... 174 CHAPTER 5: ..... RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: BEGINNING TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHER EDUCATION AND UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT INCLUSIVE EDUCATION...... 177

5.1 INTRODUCTION AND CHAPTER ORGANIZATION ...... 177

5.2 FINDINGS FROM OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRES ...... 178

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Theme 1: Challenges faced by beginning teachers ...... 180 Sub-theme 1: Inadequate training in inclusive education...... 181 Sub-theme 2: Expectation to teach to varying student ability...... 186 Sub-theme 3: Difficulty in customising lessons ...... 189 Sub-theme 4: Time constraints as environmental factor ...... 192 Sub-theme 5: Large class size ...... 195 Theme 2: Successes in inclusive training...... 196 Sub-theme 1: Availability of trained practising teachers ...... 197 Sub-theme 2: Changed attitudes to individual learning ...... 199 Sub-theme 3: Confidence in handling students ...... 201 Sub-theme 4: Involving all students in learning ...... 202 Sub-theme 5: Inclusive education strategies benefits students ...... 204 Sub-theme 6: Progress among students with diverse abilities ...... 206 Theme 3: Measures to improve inclusive training ...... 207 Sub-theme 1: Expanding pre-service training ...... 208 Sub-theme 2: The expertise of teacher educators ...... 210 Sub-theme 3: Learning on the job ...... 212

5.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY: KEY FINDINGS ...... 215 CHAPTER 6: SYNTHESIS OF DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 217

6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 217

6.2 ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION 1 ...... 218 Perceptions and understandings about inclusive education ...... 218 Challenges in implementing inclusive education ...... 221

6.3 ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION 2 ...... 224 Negative experiences from teacher education...... 227 Positive experience from teacher education ...... 224 Challenges in teaching in inclusive classes ...... 228

6.4 ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION 3 ...... 230 Teaching with enthusiasm despite challenges...... 230 Responding to diversity ...... 231 Lesson planning success and challenges ...... 231 Provision of teaching and learning resources...... 232

6.5 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS STUDY ...... 232

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Applying Bandura’s self-efficacy model in Bhutan ...... 233 Applying Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model in Bhutan...... 234

6.6 SUMMARY OF KEY RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 235 Enhanced training and development of the teachers ...... 235 Enhanced policy and practice including with community ...... 236 Improved teaching and learning materials ...... 238 Better articulation of duties and responsibilities of the teachers ...... 239 Transforming class size ...... 239

6.7 FUTURE RESEARCH SUGGESTIONS ...... 240

6.8 OVERALL STUDY CONCLUSION ...... 240 REFERENCES ...... 243

APPENDICES ...... 277

APPENDIX A: APPROVAL FROM MINISTRY OF EDUCATION ...... 277

APPENDIX B: APPROVAL FROM PARO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ...... 278

APPENDIX C: FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS ...... 279

APPENDIX D: FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ...... 280

APPENDIX E: OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 281

APPENDIX F: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FRAME WORK ...... 282

APPENDIX G: CARRINGTON’S FRAMEWORK ...... 283

APPENDIX H: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM/TOOL ...... 284

APPENDIX I: TEACHING MODULE ...... 286

APPENDIX J: QUT ETHICS APPROVAL CERTIFICATE ...... 291

APPENDIX K: RESEARCH LOCATION AND PARTICIPANTS ...... 292

APPENDIX L: CONSENT FORM FOR QUT RESEARCH PROJECT ...... 293

APPENDIX M: FIELD NOTE FROM FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW ...... 294

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Location of Bhutan ...... 3 Figure 2.1 Framework of major themes explaining inclusive education structure...... 44 Figure 2.2 Strategies to assist with creating a culturally inclusive classroom ...... 52 Figure 2.3 Self-efficacy model ...... 80 Figure 2.4 Model of Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory ...... 86 Figure 3.1 Secret Box 1 ...... 119 Figure 3.2 Secret Box 2 ...... 120 Figure 4.1 Themes and sub-themes from the analysis of the focus group interviews ...... 126 Figure 4.2 Framework for classroom observation ...... 161 Figure 4.3 Theme and sub-themes from the analysis of the classroom observations ...... 162 Figure 4.4 A poster from an inclusive school - encouraging student (involvement) centered activity ...... 167 Figure 4.5 A student with special needs attends school assembly with his friends (This photo was collected from one of the schools where it was displayed on the school board as part of inclusive awareness) ...... 172 Figure 5.1 Themes and sub-themes from the analysis of open-ended questionaires ...... 179 Figure 6.1 Theoretical contributions of the study ...... 235

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Summary of schools ...... 8 Table 1.2 List of programs offered by PCoE and SCoE ...... 11 Table 1.3 Number of public-school teachers by highest qualification, 2018...... 12 Table 2.1 Timeline of History of Special Education in Australia and India ...... 38 Table 2.2 Initiatives undertaken by the Royal Government of Bhutan ...... 40 Table 3.1 Summary of data collection...... 109 Table 3.2 Areas of classroom observation adapted from Carrington’s (2016) framework ...... 115 Table 4.1 Student activities deployed by the pre-service teachers for learning ...... 168

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CRC : Convention on the Rights of the Child CRPD : Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities EFA : Education for All GNH : Gross National Happiness ICT : Information and Communications Technology MoE : Ministry of Education PGDE : Post-graduate Diploma in Education programme PCoE : Paro College of Education RGoB : Royal Government of Bhutan RUB : Royal University of Bhutan SCoE : Samtse College of Education SBIP : School Based Inservice Program SEN : Special Educational Needs UDL : Universal Design for Learning UK : United Kingdom UN : United Nations US : United States WHO : World Health Organization

Preparing teachers for inclusive education in Bhutan xi STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: QUT Verified Signature

Date: 25.09.2019

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alone we can do so little … Together we can do so much – Helen Keller

Completing this thesis would not have been possible without the invaluable support and guidance of a number of people.

First of all, I will always appreciate the expertise and support of my supervisors, Professor Suzanne Carrington and Dr Nerida Spina. Under their supervision, I have learned so much that it was an honor and a privilege to work with such respected academics, and I am indebted to them for all their contributions to this doctoral thesis.

Secondly, I am grateful to the following with regards to my study. To Dr Amanda Mergler, for supervising me during the early phase of my study which helped me lay the foundation for my study. I would also like to express my gratitude to my teachers, Dr Phub Rinchhen and Late Mr. Nawang Namgyel, who, since I was a young teacher have been the main driving force behind my pursuit of higher education. I am extremely grateful to: the Ministry of Education, Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me permission to include teachers and schools in this study; Paro College of Education for its permission to include pre-service teachers in my study; Tshering Lhamo and Pema Chhogyel, Special Education officials, Ministry of Education for providing endless support towards this study; Dawa Dukpa, Programme Leader - Special Education, Paro College of Education, Sangay Biddha, Programme Leader - Bachelor Studies, Paro College of Education, Karma Jigyel, Programme Leader - Inclusive Education, Paro College of Education, and Sangay Tshering, Senior Lecturer, Samtse College of Education for sharing their teacher education knowledge and supporting my random inquiries.

Thirdly, I am indebted to my family: dear parents for their invaluable personal support and encouragement, my uncle Gopal Kafley for continually inspiring me with my education since I was a child and for instilling the value of education in my life, my loving wife Sumi & our children, Deepsika and Neelam, for inspiring me and providing me with vital support and an outstanding critical perspective in my life and encouraging me as I completed this thesis. To the Bhutanese community in Queensland which made me feel at home for the past three and half years making it

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possible for me to sail smoothly during my PhD voyage. My gratitude and heartful thanks to everyone.

Finally, I sincerely thank staff of the Office of Education Research, Queensland University of Technology for their unwavering support throughout my study, Faculty of Education for graciously awarding me a Postgraduate Scholarship which enabled me to undertake my PhD, and my close friends: Kim Soyoung, Dawa Dukpa, Kinley, Dr. Sonam Togbye, Zinpai Zangmo, Migma Dorji, Sonam Choegyal, Tshering Dolkar and Tshewang Namgyel for their support. Without them, the completion of this thesis would have been impossible. My special thanks to Professor Julie Davis, Faculty of Education for her guidance with the structure of my thesis and its organization. Hence, thanks to the wonderful support, guidance and assistance from all the above-named people who contributed to this project.

I dedicate this thesis to all pre-service teachers of Paro College of Education, Samtse College of Education and all teachers in inclusive schools in Bhutan with a prayer that they will continue to love and help our wonderful children in their classrooms. I trust that the results of this study will in different ways be a real practical benefit for them. Last but not least, my dedication is also directed to Professor Suzanne, who inspired me in the undertaking of this project.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the research inquiry. It outlines the background and significance of the study in relation to global and Bhutanese contexts and introduces the research aims, and questions. Definitions of the key terms used in the study are also provided. The chapter concludes by describing the remainder of the thesis chapters.

1.1 BACKGROUND

A major change experienced by education systems around the world in the last four decades is related to the increase in the diversity of school populations (Florian, 2012; Hettiarachchi & Das, 2014). Many countries debate policy and practices about inclusive education and consider how education can be more accessible to all school age children (UNESCO, 1994). The Ministry of Education (MoE) in Bhutan had a target of achieving 100% enrolment in schools by 2020 and have reached 96.8% by 2018 (MoE, 2018). The inclusive education programme in Bhutan was introduced in 2001 and has enabled many children to attend school, particularly children with disabilities who otherwise would have never been able to do so (Chhogyel, 2013).

While inclusive education extends beyond the education of children with disabilities, the focus on inclusive education in Bhutan has mainly been directed towards meeting the educational needs of children with disabilities (Bhutan Foundation, 2018; Dorji, 2015). The context in which this inclusive education programme is implemented in Bhutan is described later in this chapter.

The success of inclusive education is largely dependent on the role of the teacher (Forlin, 2012; Florian, 2014; Sharma, Loreman & Forlin (2012), a sentiment reflected in the UNESCO’s Education for All Policy (Forlin, Earle, Loreman & Sharma 2011). Studies have shown that Bhutanese teachers are not sufficiently prepared to teach in inclusive classrooms (Chhetri, 2015; Dorji & Schuelka, 2014; Kamenopoulou & Dukpa, 2017; MoE, 2014; Van Balkom & Sherman, 2010). Teaching children with disabilities is more challenging than teaching those without disabilities (Dukpa, 2014; Schuelka, 2013; UNICEF, 2014). It can therefore be postulated that the preparation of teachers for inclusive teaching should be investigated in Bhutan. This may be

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

attributed to the fact that “most [Bhutanese] teachers are under-trained, under- resourced, and under-supported when it comes to teaching a diverse range of abilities in their students” (Van Balkom & Sherman, 2010, p. 70).

About the researcher

The researcher takes a critical perspective in this section and reflects on his professional life as a special education and inclusive education teacher in Bhutan. The researcher, a trained primary school teacher, initially taught in a regular primary school before deciding to undertake visually impaired teaching in an institute in Bhutan. The challenges at the new school were enormous and ranged from preparing teaching- learning materials, learning to read and write braille, understanding children’s educational needs, and struggling to adopt appropriate teaching strategies. There were times to rejoice when during teaching pedagogy and practice were successful for the researcher; while some experiences were full of frustration and desperation. Similarly, there was a perception that other teachers and colleagues who continued to work in a state of confusion also had very similar stories of success and frustration. Throughout the researcher’s career as an educator, the researcher had the privilege of working as a teaching assistant, teacher aide, and as teacher and curriculum officer both in Bhutan and overseas with a large number of children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). While the researcher took personal interest in working with different groups of SEN children, experiences such as satisfaction and frustration were encountered in working to meet the difficulties and challenges that came along. Regardless of the challenges, on reflection, the researcher has the sense that these experiences were important and successful because, despite limited training in SEN, the researcher was able to teach and help children with SEN.

Most importantly, the experience and knowledge acquired by working with qualified, trained and experienced teachers in other countries has been useful to the researcher who is interested in learning more about inclusive education. It also demonstrated his commitment to finding out how teachers in Bhutan felt about working in the field of inclusive education. The researcher remained cognisant of many unsuccessful episodes in his teaching career where he felt he didn’t do enough to teach his students as required. The above practical experiences led the researcher to think about how teachers in inclusive classrooms in Bhutan could be prepared effectively to teach children from various backgrounds.

Chapter 1: Introduction 2

1.2 CONTEXT

The Geography of Bhutan

Figure 1.1 Location of Bhutan

(Source: OnTheWorldMap, 2012-2019) Bhutan is a small, mountainous, landlocked, sovereign nation in South Asia. It is at the east end of the Himalayas, with the Chinese border to the north, and India to the west, south and east. It has an area of 38,394 sq/Km with 71 percent forest cover, lying between 97 metres above sea level in the south to 7500 metres in the north, in the Greater Himalayas (National Statistics Bureau, 2018; Department of Forests and Park Services, 2016). Buddhism is the state religion where 75 percent of the population are Buddhists (World Population Review, 2019). Hinduism is the next commonly practiced religion in Bhutan. Bhutan is known to the outside world as The Last Shangri-La or the Land of the Thunder Dragon - one of the happiest countries in the world - or most popularly as a Land of Gross National Happiness. The breathtaking landscape, beautiful architecture, rich culture and the friendly atmosphere of Bhutan attract travellers from all over the world.

Chapter 1: Introduction 3

Bhutan broke its isolation from the rest of the world with the launching of the First Five Plan1 (1961-1966) which led to significant changes in the country and brought in major development activities such as building transportation links, constructing roads and bridges, setting up hospitals, establishing schools and improving internal communications through postal services. In 1971, Bhutan joined the United Nations and thereafter was quick to build international relations. In 2008, after 100 years of absolute hereditary monarchy, Bhutan had successfully transitioned to a democratic form of government.

The 2017 Population and Housing Census shows that Bhutan has a population of 735,553 people, 52.2 percent of whom are male and 47.8 percent female (National Statistics Bureau, 2018). The majority of the population (62.2 percent) live in rural areas whereas the urban population is 37.8 percent. The literacy rate for Bhutan is 71.4% which is 12% higher than in 2005 (59.5%). According to statistics released by the Ministry of Education (MoE, 2018), there is a total of 221,121 students studying in the country from pre-primary to grade 12.

1.3 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

Bhutan’s education system has undergone significant and exciting developments that can be viewed from three different perspectives: monastic education (Dukpa, 2016; Rinchhen, 2013), modern secular education (Schuelka & Maxwell, 2016; Namgyel & Rinchhen, 2016) and non-formal and continuing education (Powdyel, 2016). The following sections discuss each of the above education systems.

1.3.1 Monastic education in Bhutan Bhutan’s first systematized form of education dates back to the 17th century. It began with monastic education in Buddhism (Rinchhen, 2013), where monasteries were the only learning centres. Monastic education is still highly regarded in Bhutan to this day. Monastic education was based purely on the traditional values and culture of Buddhism. In general, monastery education basically included memorization, repetition, discussion, and debate (Dorji, 2015). The monastic education curriculum consisted largely of “philosophy, astrology, and fine arts” (Rinchhen, 2013, p.73) in

1 Bhutan follows a planning cycle that priorities the socio-economic development programs to be implemented over a period of five years. The first Plan was launched in 1961 and currently Bhutan is in its 12th plan.

Chapter 1: Introduction 4

the form of Buddhist texts and poetry. These were disseminated orally rather than in written forms. While the monastic education system in Bhutan did not offer many opportunities for further studies, those scholars who excelled in their studies were sent to Lamaistic colleges in Lhasa (Tibet) for further studies (Dukpa, 2016; Rinchhen, 2013). A key reason that impeded the expansion of higher education in monastic education system in Bhutan at the time was the lack of qualified teachers. It was not until 1984 that, through the establishment of the Dratshang Lhentshog (Council for Religious Affairs), the government initiated a series of policy decisions to strengthen the institution of monastic education (Dukpa, 2016). This newly formed Council reviewed the system of monastic education. The combination of monastic education with modern education was an important outcome of the review. For instance, the introduction of English and Dzongkha (Bhutan’s national language) has to some extent modernized monastic education.

In view of the ability of the monasteries to select their students, those with a learning disability2 (Chapter 2, Section 2.2 provides a wider definition of disability). did not go to monastic schools. In addition, children with disabilities were generally not accepted into monastic schools (Dukpa, 2016). Even today, persons with disabilities (see Section 1.3.6 for more details on how disability functions in Bhutanese culture) are not admitted to monastic schools (Ura, 2014). According to Dukpa, (2016) the main reason suggested by one of the principals of a monastic school in Thimphu was that, in addition to strict disciplines in the monasteries, a monastic life demanded physical and mental fitness. People with disabilities were not the only groups largely excluded from monastic education. Monastic education for women was only loosely organized at that time. Only in the 1980s was the registration of women formalized when more nunneries were established. The Bhutan Nuns Foundation (BNF) now supports 26 nunneries with a total population of 1020 nuns across Bhutan (Dukpa 2016). There is now a Buddhist college for nuns, which can be seen as a connection between monastic and modern education.

Buddhist cultural values and principles have a profound influence on the Bhutanese education system (Dorji, 2003; Namgyel, 2011). The belief that all beings

2 Disability is recognized as a condition in the context outlined in this chapter that is sufficiently serious to limit a person from taking part in a Buddhist-monastic life or from being unable to do a work that is needed at the monastery. Chapter 2, Section 2.2 provides a wider definition of disability.

Chapter 1: Introduction 5

interconnect naturally helps to develop and express policies that support inclusion (Schuelka 2012). Although believing in karmic actions may pose some challenges in conceptualizing disability needs and concerns, Gross National Happiness (GNH, see section 1.3.7) — based policies and strategies are largely aimed at recognizing and encouraging inclusive practices in the educational sector and in society in general (Schuelka, 2012). ‘Karma’ in Buddhism means one’s past action or one’s present doing that is driven by intention that leads to either happiness or misery in the future. (Ven. Sayadaw, 2019). This is discussed further in Section 1.3.6.

1.3.2 Modern secular education Modern education in Bhutan started in the early twentieth century. It is interesting to note that, unlike the modern education systems in Europe which had developed based on Christian Church schools, modern education in Bhutan was introduced entirely outside the monastic education system (Dukpa, 2016). It was not until the First Five-Year Plan from 1961 to 1966 that modern education was formally initialized in Bhutan (Namgyel & Rinchhen, 2016). The First Five-Year Plan was significant as it resulted in Bhutan starting its socio-economic developmental activities in a more organized way. This helped Bhutan emerge on the global arena. According to Phuntsho (2014), Bhutan has managed to attract a lot of attention in the recent years especially through its policy of GNH (discussed in Section 1.3.7). Until that time Bhutan had remained in isolation generally because of its geographical conditions – land locked, with steep terrain, thick forests and no car-worthy roads - only footpaths and mule tracks connected places to one another. Modernisation for Bhutan therefore began with the construction of basic infrastructures such as; road building, the building of hospitals, schools and post offices, the establishment of international relations with other nations and its joining of the United Nations (Chhetri, 2015). By the end of the First Five-Year Plan there were 59 schools, 30 government and 29 private, spread across the country (Rabgay, 2012).

Modern education in Bhutan began at the invitation of the First King of Bhutan, Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck, to Jesuit missionaries working in northern India. Two distinguished missionaries, namely Fr. William Mackey and Rev. W.S Suderland, established schools in Haa, Bumthang and Trashigang (Schuelka & Maxwell, 2016). Namgyel and Rinchhen (2016) and Dorji (2016) believe that the introduction of modern education in Bhutan has been a period of heavy borrowing from the Indian

Chapter 1: Introduction 6

education system as both the curriculum and teachers were imported from India. The education system in Bhutan was therefore very teacher-centred, with a strong reliance on textbooks with centralized exams. Interestingly, Hindi, India’s national language was extensively used in Bhutanese schools as the medium of instruction (Thinley, 2012). Gradually, Hindi was replaced by English when Bhutan’s third King decided to opt for English medium schools to allow Bhutan to connect with other parts of the world (Mackey, 2012).

Bhutan developed its first National Education Policy in 1976 in which Dzongkha, the national language, received increased importance in schools (Chhetri, 2015; Rinchen, 2013). It is surprising to note that although Dzongkha had been declared the national language as early as the 1970s (Rinchen, 2013), it took some time to establish itself as a subject in schools (Gyatsho, 2013). The delay in introducing Dzongkha in schools, as Gyatsho argues, was due to the time Dzongkha has taken to restructure from its original form, Chokay, the classical Tibetan language which was widely used in the ‘monasteries and government when only few in society were literate’ (Schuelka & Maxwell, 2016, p.3). Furthermore, Chhetri (2015) argues that due to the delay in assigning Dzongkha as a subject in schools, English was prioritised as a medium of instruction in Bhutanese schools. Even today, subjects such as; mathematics, science (biology, physics, chemistry), world geography, world history, economics, information and technology, health and physical education, and agriculture are all taught in English. To this end, students in Bhutan have minimal proficiency in speaking and understanding Dzongkha. Written literacy also remains problematic, exacerbated by a lack of uniform spelling in Dzongkha (Wangchuck, 2012).

According to Gyatsho (2013), another factor adding to the poor standard of Dzongkha is the late introduction of its written script, which only happened in 1971. The government is therefore concerned about the standards of Dzongkha in schools. Over the past few years, the MoE has adopted various strategies to improve Dzongkha such as providing simple and additional reading materials in Dzongkha, as well as setting up essay competitions, debates, quizzes and school spelling competitions in Dzongkha in schools (Wangchuck, 2012).

During the modern educational period, three other important developments took place in Bhutan; the teacher education, education of children with SEN and the establishment of Bhutan’s own universities. Bhutan now has two universities of higher

Chapter 1: Introduction 7

education. Established in 2003, there are twelve-member colleges at the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB), two of which offer teacher education courses. The University of Medical Sciences Khesar Gyalpo was established in 2014 to meet the needs for training in academic and health sciences and to initiate health and scientific research.

Bhutan has a total of 534 schools as of 2018 (see Table 1.1 for a breakdown by level and sector of school numbers). The education system in Bhutan consists of: seven years of primary education i.e. pre-primary education (age 6) to Class 6 (age 12); two years of lower secondary education i.e. Class 7 (age 13) and Class 8 (age 14); two years of middle secondary school, i.e. Class 9 (age 15) and Class 10 (age 16); and two years of higher secondary education i.e. Class 11 (age 17) and Class 12 (age 18). While education in Bhutan is not compulsory (Rinchhen, 2013), basic education in government schools is free until higher secondary school (Class 12). After that, students can either continue four years (bachelor’s degree) education in tertiary institutes or join vocational training institutes or join the labour market.

Table 1.1 Summary of schools Level of school Government Private Total Primary Schools 294 14 308 Lower secondary Schools 63 1 64 Middle Secondary Schools 77 1 78 Higher Secondary Schools 42 20 62 Inclusive Schools 18 - 18 Special Schools 2 2 4 Total 496 38 534

(Source: Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Education, 2018)

With regard to teacher education, in response to the growing number of schools, two institutes were established to meet the demand for teachers, namely the Teacher Training Institute at Samtse in 1968 and the Teacher Training Centre at Paro in 1975 (Thinley, 2016). A two-year primary teacher certificate programme was provided by these institutes. In 1983, Samtse’s Teacher Training Institute was upgraded to National Education Institute with the goal of training secondary teachers through a three-year

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B.Ed. degree programme. Similarly, the Teacher Training Centre at Paro was upgraded to a National Education Institute in 1994, formalizing the training of teachers in Dzongkha in addition to training qualified primary teachers through a three-year B. Ed degree program. Today, these institutes are respectively known as the Samtse College of Education (SCoE) and the Paro College of Education (PCoE). Section 1.3.4 provides details of teacher education in Bhutan.

The Zangley Muenselling School for the Blind, Khaling in Trashigang was established in 1973 as the first special school to provide an education to children with visual impairment (Chhetri, 2015; Dorji, 2015). In 2002, Thimphu’s Changangkha Middle Secondary School was the first inclusive school to start enrolling children with disabilities (MoE, 2016). Two governmental and two private special schools and 18 inclusive schools3 currently exist in Bhutan (MoE, 2018).

1.3.3 Non-formal and continuing education Bhutan’s delayed initiation of formal education meant that many Bhutanese citizens were not enrolled into schools. Other reasons that made it impossible for individuals to go to schools included the lack of learning facilities due to far-off mountain regions, prioritized farming and livestock rearing, and the perception that education was not a high-priority (Powdyel, 2016). This resulted in the inability of many young men and women of that time to take advantage of educational opportunities, especially when they were of school age. However, the launch of the Non-Formal Education (NFE) program in 1992 provided an opportunity for learning to those who had missed the opportunity to attend school and those who had dropped out of school. The MoE, with funding support from UNESCO, conducted the NFE program in 560 centres across the country with the focus particularly on the population in rural Bhutan within the age range of mid-teens to 70 years old (MoE, 2016; MoE, 2018; UNESCO, 2009-2014). Women’s participation in the NFE programme has always been much higher than men (MoE, 2018).

3 The term “inclusive schools” in this thesis also implies “schools with SEN programs”. Although it may be too early to say that schools in Bhutan are fully “inclusive” given the innumerable challenges that are identified and discussed in this study, the ultimate goal is “inclusion”. All school-age children, however, are accepted by schools without discrimination. Hence, the term “inclusive schools” is widely used in Bhutan.

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The NFE curriculum includes training in functional and skilled literacy. Students have the opportunity to learn with the following goals in both Dzongkha and English:

1. To acquire an education in literacy and numeracy (reading and understanding newspapers, advertising, writing simple letters, keeping simple daily accounts and reading sign boards);

2. To increase the rate of literacy (70% by 2013 and nearly 100% by 2015)

3. To provide lifelong learning skills and

4. To provide opportunities for lifelong learning (UNESCO, 2009-2014).

The NFE graduates have shown impressive overall improvement in their quality of life and living standards over the years; so much so that the NFE programme of Bhutan also won the 2009 and 2011 UNESCO Literacy Awards (Powdyel, 2016).

In 2016 the MoE launched the Continuing Education programme with the goal of providing opportunities for school leavers to upgrade their qualifications and promote lifelong learning. Most of the students are employed and the classes are held in the evening and at weekends. Through this programme, students can complete 2 years of high school education, thus obtaining a class (grade) 12 qualification. This qualification makes them eligible for higher studies like a diploma or a bachelor’s degree programme. In 2018, there were three Continuing Education Centres with a total of 414 students (MoE, 2018).

1.3.4 Pre-service teacher education in Bhutan Bhutan has two pre-service teacher education providers within Royal University of Bhutan (RUB): Paro College of Education (PCoE), the former Teacher Training Centre established in 1975 and Samtse College of Education (SCoE), the former Teacher Training Institute established in 1968. While the former was established with the goal of providing teacher education in early childhood, primary school and training Dzongkha language teachers, the later focused on training teachers in primary and secondary school (Thinley, 2016). Table 1.2 presents a list of programmes offered by these colleges.

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disabilities do not receive support (Kuensel, 2014; National Statistics Bureau, 2018). While Bhutanese in general try to help individuals with disabilities and try to be charitable in their own ways, Scheulka’s (2018) study found that “there are widespread practices in Bhutanese society that do inflict harm upon persons with disabilities” such as name calling and giving people negative nicknames: Kukpa [‘dumb’]. Jadu [‘deaf’]. Lengo [‘dumb’]. Tschow [‘handicapped’]. Tsagay [‘stupid/simple’]. Tsagyem [‘dumb’]. Zhaw [‘blind’]. (p.825) These types of verbal abuse often emphasize a physical characteristic or difference. For instance, Schuelka clarifies that the expression ‘tsagay’ is used both as a word for ‘endearment’ and as a ‘negative’ title to frequently refer to infants and young children which in Bhutanese context can be loosely translated as ‘my stupid little one’. On the other hand, it is frequently used with elderly children and adults in a more negative manner that can be translated loosely as ‘retarded’ which, according to Schuelka, would have the same disrespectful effect as it would have in many other countries. Among people who experienced disability, vision impairment (2.9%) was the most prevalent, followed by hearing and walking with a prevalence rate of 2.2% (National Statistics Bureau, 2018). Similarly, a previous study conducted in 2016 in seven districts in Bhutan also revealed that hearing impairment, physically and intellectually challenged were significantly high among the population (Zangmo, 2016). Bhutan’s 2017 Population and Housing Census identified five domains of disability: sight, speech, hearing, moving, and mental health. In Bhutan, the majority of people who have been identified as living with disabilities are farmers and students, and most were disabled since birth. For females, the rate of disability prevalence was higher than for males. By area of residence, all forms of disability were higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The most common cause of disability has been reported as disease/illness (National Statistics Bureau, 2018). The next section of the chapter will explain how the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) takes into account the educational needs of disabled children.

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Special education in Bhutan

“Every child has the right to an education in Bhutan, but 21.5 percent of children do not attend school due to some form of special needs” (Bhutan Foundation, 2018, p.24). The education of children with SEN in Bhutan began in 1973 at Zangley Muenselling School for the Blind, now called the Muenselling Institute in Trashigang district, with three visually impaired students and three teachers (Chogyel, 2013). By 1993, there were 46 students and in the same year, the integrated education programme included for the first time visually impaired students in the two mainstream schools. The three schools (two mainstream schools and the school for the blind) initiated this programme, basically to provide their students with social interaction. Therefore, the classes attended by students with visual impairment were for non-academic purposes. Chhetri’s (2015) view is that the above-mentioned integration programme, similar to what the United States had experienced in the 1970s and early 1980s (Litton, Rotatori & Day, 1989), was also practised in Australia and New Zealand before moving towards inclusive education (Carrington, MacArthur, Kearney, Kimber, Mercer & Morton, 2012). Mainstreaming was concerned with the integration of students with disability into regular schools in all of the above cases. In Bhutan, the term special education is widely used both in special schools and in inclusive schools when referring to the education of children with SEN (Dorji, 2015). In the context of Bhutan, “SEN and inclusive education are used interchangeably and SEN is often understood to mean disability and vice versa (Dorji, 2015, p.2). The MoE’s Special Education Division oversees all programmes related to special schools and inclusive schools. An important step taken by the Special Education Division in 2011 is the drafting of the National Policy on Special Educational Needs (NPSEN), which was submitted to the government for approval, although progress towards approval has been slow. Following the government’s endorsement of the policy, a significant impetus is expected in promoting and implementing inclusive education efforts in Bhutan (Dorji & Schuelka, 2016). The MoE (2014), for example, reassured the support of the government in endorsing the NPSEN draft stating:

Recognizing that all human beings are born with unique gifts and abilities to contribute to the development of the nation and self, the RGoB [is] committed to provide equal opportunity to all its citizens by endorsing the National Policy on Special Educational Needs. Creating an equitable provision for [a] diverse student population is a key feature of this national policy.

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At the centre of this lies the goal of inclusion leading ultimately to improved social cohesion. (p. 49) In addition, there are several key policy papers in Bhutan clearly recognizing all children’s educational rights. The commitment of the RGoB in pursuing Education for All by making education accessible and inclusive to all children without discrimination is reflected in some of the national strategy papers and explicitly stated in the Constitution of Bhutan. Specifically, Articles 9.15 and 9.16 of the Constitution guarantee education as one of the fundamental rights:

Article 9.15: The State shall endeavour to provide education for the purpose of improving and increasing knowledge, values and skills of the entire population with education being directed towards the full development of the human personality.

Article 9.16: The State shall provide free education to all children of school going age up to the tenth standard and ensure that technical and professional education shall be made generally available and that higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (pp. 19–20).

Bhutan 2020: A vision for peace, prosperity and happiness (Planning Commission, 1999, p.18) strives to “maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve their full and innate potential as human beings”. This document also specifies children’s universal enrolment in school and details that “education has become the inalienable right of all Bhutanese”. Therefore, the concept of inclusive education in Bhutan has become an emerging field indicating that persons with disabilities shall also enjoy equal opportunities in all walks of life (Sherab, Dorji, Dukpa, Lhamo, Thapa and Tshomo, 2015).

The Ministry of Education’s (2014, p. 50) recent document Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014–2024, makes it clear that schools need to be more “inclusive and flexible” to support learners with special focus on children with SEN. The document recommended two main interventions: 1) Recognizing and planning for diversity - this is aimed to train teachers on teaching students with special educational needs. It also proposed to establish teaching and learning resource centre in all mainstream and integrated schools. 2) Advocating and building partners - to strengthen training on SEN in partnership with RUB and other relevant agency. Another idea is to encourage and support private educational institutes to deliver SEN.

While it is evident that the Constitution and other documents discussed above ensure that all children receive education, the NPSEN will continue to be crucial as it

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will help to steer children’s education with SEN in the right direction and with support through inclusive education.

1.3.6 Overview of inclusive education in Bhutan With the advent of modern schooling in Bhutan, and the expectations around the inclusion of all children in schools, there has also been an expectation that these students would learn the same curriculum. In this context, the creation of a common or homogenous learning space was imposed on heterogeneous children who had diverse abilities (Sharma, Forlin, Deppeler & Yang, 2013). Consequently, those students who fall behind with their learning are isolated by the system and become positioned as “disabled” and set apart from the other students who excel academically. Thus, Bhutanese society - like many others worldwide - has gradually learned to value community members depending on their schooled knowledge and the ability to learn.

In Bhutan, those who had minor learning or physical disabilities were generally included members as the community. However, those with considerable intellectual and developmental disabilities were often excluded and marginalised (Kamenopoulou & Dukpa, 2017). Historically, this was a common practice, where children who had a developmental disability like Down syndrome or Cerebral Palsy were frequently isolated, with children locked in a household room or shed. Considering the Buddhist side of culture in Bhutan, there are some unique conceptualisations about disability in Bhutanese society (Dorji, 2015; Dorji & Scheulka, 2016) that can be highlighted, and these also partially affect the outcome of this study. For instance, the main explanation of the presence of a disability in Bhutanese society relates to the concept of karma. This is a belief that sentient beings reincarnate in forms determined by their deeds that can either be good or bad related to their past lives and this proceeds in an endless cycle called the samsāra until the person reaches nirvana - freedom from the endless cycle of personal reincarnations (Kamenopoulou & Dukpa, 2018). Based on this understanding of karma viewed as a cause-and-effect cycle, mistrust and fear are often shown to those who have severe developmental disabilities. According to the Himalayan Buddhism, it is believed that such people with severe disabilities did bad deeds in their previous life deserving of their current fate (Schuelka, 2013).

Inclusive education in Bhutan is therefore relatively new, with the focus on the education of children with disabilities and SEN in regular schools (Dorji, 2015). In this study, therefore, inclusive education will mean the inclusion of children with SEN

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and disabilities in regular schools where they study with students who are non-disabled or who do not have SEN. The current study identifies various issues that must be specifically addressed for there to be increased success. These issues include the need for a more comprehensive teacher education curriculum that covers in detail the theory, knowledge and skills necessary for inclusive teaching. In addition, as the findings of this research indicate, there is a need to ensure practical skills and experience are provided to pre-service and beginning teachers6, so that they are well- equipped to work in inclusive classes.

According to the MoE and school staff, there is more that can be done apart from enhanced training of teachers. Aspects like co-teaching according to Dukpa and Kamenopoulou (2018) can also be considered where a class is handled by several teachers at the same time. In fact, according to Drawdy, Deng and Howerter (2014), pre-service training can be structured in such a way as to ensure that pre-service teachers co-teach with their mentors and supervisors as a means of gaining the experience necessary to handle inclusive classrooms. With co-teaching, significant levels of the necessary vicarious experience can be attained since the beginning teachers can model what they see their mentors doing in inclusive classes and transfer these findings to their classrooms (Bandura, 1997).

According to Carrington and Duke (2014) exclusion has been propagated by the prevailing pedagogy systems, yet students themselves have often demonstrated that their attitudes favour inclusive ideals. As such, the classroom teacher has an important role in encouraging inclusive attitudes among students as a way of ensuring that the learners with disabilities find acceptance and are able to learn freely in such a general classroom setting. While many teachers in Bhutan have now been introduced to concepts of inclusive learning, inadequate preparation during teacher training means that they have had to use trial-and-error to develop skills and techniques for teaching students with the diverse learning disabilities that they may be presented with in their classroom setting. According to Dukpa and Kamenopoulou (2018) it is not just the teacher’s duty to adopt inclusive practices; but it is also the responsibility of the MoE

6 The term ‘beginning teacher’ in this study defines a range of people. Most beginning teachers in Bhutan, who took part in this study joined the teaching profession straight after graduating from the teaching colleges. Some beginning teachers who have also participated in this study are (but) experienced teachers who made the transition from mainstream schools to inclusive schools.

Chapter 1: Introduction 17

and schools who must work together to ensure adequate training and teacher preparation, provision of resources and sufficient knowledge that highlights the cultural imperatives associated with inclusive learning. Teachers must subsequently be made aware that there are resources for enhancing their productivity in inclusive learning environments.

National policy for inclusive education in Bhutan

Bhutan has progressed slowly towards the development of a national policy for inclusive education. In 2012, the MoE in collaboration with UNICEF Bhutan began drafting a National Policy on SEN and Inclusive Education. However, the government’s stand on the development of a National Policy on SEN and Inclusive Education has changed. Instead of the above education policy, the government through the GNH Commission, the apex planning body of the government is spearheading the development of a National Disability Policy, which is said to be in an advanced stage of being submitted to the government in the upcoming 2019 Winter National Assembly Session (Kuensel, 24 June, 2019).

The government of Bhutan shows commitment to offering education to all children in the country. This is highlighted within the Constitution of Bhutan and its various national strategy documents. Similarly, the Bhutan 2020 vision outlines its developmental philosophy of Gross National Happiness, according to which the government aims to fulfil the desires of all Bhutanese by enabling them to accomplish their distinctive, utmost potential as human beings. Furthermore, the development philosophy of Bhutan also stresses that education is an absolute right of all Bhutanese people (Zundans-Fraser & Bain, 2015). This shows that it is the ultimate right of all disabled people to have access to equal life opportunities. Likewise, under Article 9.16 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan, it is stated that the state is required to offer free education to all school age children up to the 10th standard. The government is also required to ensure that all children have access to higher education on the basis of merit (Schuelka & Maxwell, 2016). Therefore, it is clear that in contemporary Bhutan, the provision of basic and free education to all children is considered highly important. Proportionate to the rise in population, inclusive schools are expanding steadily in Bhutan. These changes have created the need for the development of a reasonable policy so that all children in schools can be supported appropriately in Bhutan (Chhetri, 2015).

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The formation and implementation of a policy is a dynamic process. Even though mainstream schools in Bhutan enrol children with SEN, there are existing inconsistencies with placement practices (Chhetri, 2015). According to Dorji and Schuelka (2016) the adoption and implementation of inclusive education facilities in Bhutan is encouraging. Nevertheless, there is a need to contrast the policy on SEN and inclusive education with the overall educational policy. In 2014, the MoE in Bhutan introduced the Teacher Human Resource Policy. This policy clearly sets methods of hiring, positioning, retaining, training and appraising teachers, so that their professional opportunities and development can be enhanced. However, the document seems to have missed concerns with regard to the professional development of teachers within the inclusive school settings. Accordingly, the provision of professional development for teachers in inclusive schools remains undefined. It may be stated that even though the MoE started inclusive education in Bhutan, a policy for inclusive education is not yet in place. As previously mentioned, a detailed deliberation on the National Disability Policy is anticipated to take place in the upcoming National Assembly Session, which will most probably cover the educational aspects of children with disabilities including teacher training. In addition, the government has officially launched the Bhutan Professional Standards for Teachers (BPST) on May 2, 2019 (MoE, 2019). Within the BPST document, knowledge of inclusive education practices is one of the standards that Bhutanese teachers henceforth will be required to develop as part of their professional competencies. Hence, to ensure that teachers are included in the development of a national set of teacher competencies, policies must include a requirement for teachers to have knowledge of inclusion and special skills in order to work in inclusive schools. By considering this, the policies can ensure they address major concerns relative to wide- ranging diversity matters (Sharma, Forlin, Deppeler, & Guang-xue, 2013). Further, The World Program of Action meeting by the United Nations stressed the need for a clear policy based on inclusive education for all children. Similarly, the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education also highlighted that there is a need for a clearly outlined policy to promote quality within inclusive education. This policy should not only consider global initiatives and policies, but also adapt to local needs. The successful implementation of such policies is largely dependent on schools. This shows that such policies require governments to perform an effective implementation of inclusive education. They should be followed and

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understood within schools as well as at the societal level, so that flexible curricula can be supported, adjustments can be made within schools, and teacher education can be provided efficiently (Thorius, 2016).The aforementioned documents not only help to change people’s attitudes toward disability by implementing policies and legislations; they also greatly affect the ways in which education is provided to children with disabilities.

1.3.7 Educating for Gross National Happiness Gross National Happiness (GNH) has been a major national policy in Bhutan since 2010. GNH’s roots have existed since the unification of Bhutan in 1729 (Ura, 2010). According to Ura, Alkire, Zangmo and Wangdi (2012), the 1729 legal code indicates that the government’s existence was intended to make its people happy. However, it is the vision of His Majesty the 4th King, Jigme Singye Wangchuk, who led Bhutan into the 21st century and declared Gross National Happiness as a national objective and the way for Bhutan to be transformed in 1971 (Sherab, 2013). It’s the vision of Bhutan.

GNH is a philosophy that has guided Bhutan through its developmental process for more than forty years. It is based on a belief that development must serve a purpose and it must be human centred (Thinley, 2005). Therefore, “Bhutan chooses to focus on Gross National Happiness (GNH) instead of Gross National Income (GNI) or Gross Domestic Product (GDP)” (Schuelka, 2017, p.217). The objective of GNH is to create those conditions that will enable the human individual to achieve what is most important to him or her - and that, according to GNH philosophy, is ‘happiness’. Therefore, all development plans in Bhutan are consistent with the GNH philosophy, a unique aspect of policy making in Bhutan (Scheulka, 2017) aimed at maximising the happiness of all Bhutanese (Planning Commission, 1999). GNH is supported by its four pillars, classified as: preservation of culture, good governance, conservation of the environment and socio-economic development (The Centre for Bhutan Studies, 2012).

When GNH was first conceived in Bhutan, there were three broad conceptual constructs that informed it, bearing in mind that the sole reason for considering GNH was based on the argument that people should be happy and subjective well-being should exist (Layard, 2005). On this basis, the three conceptual constructs are explained by Ura (2015). The first construct is that, for all sentient beings, a Buddhist

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views happiness as a universal goal and is therefore the cornerstone to pursuing it. The next construction emphasizes that since Bhutan, like many other countries in the Himalayan region, is a Buddhist country, it is relevant to introduce the concept of Buddhist happiness to a Buddhist nation in a Buddhist region. Lastly, GNH can mix the objective and subjective elements of happiness and should therefore be proliferated.

Based on these three GNH constructs, its progress can now be measured using the Royal Government of Bhutan’s nine-index system development (Ura, 2008). The index has nine areas: psychological well-being, time consumption, community vitality, culture, health, education, diversity of the environment, standard of living and governance.

GNH is now not country-bound to Bhutan. It has gained international recognition. It has become a topic of discussion in the UN parliament and several conferences with Bhutan and outside Bhutan continue to discuss, debate and expand on GNH and the impact this can have in the world beyond the borders of Bhutan.

In the 1980s the Royal Government of Bhutan realised that a trend was creeping in the country that was leading to a decline in basic Bhutanese values. Namgyel and Rinchhen (2016, p.63) provided two reasons for the decline. One was the “increased rate of unemployment” and the other was “perceived anti-social activities that were displayed by some youths”. To this effect, the MoE instantly reacted on the command of government and founded a concept called the “Wholesome Education” which was introduced as a subject in schools. The aim of this new subject was to provide holistic education through curricula and extracurricular programs (Ngedup, 2006; Sherab, Maxwell & Cooksey, 2016). As a result, great emphasis was placed on promoting values in students. This has been done through cultural programs, games, sports and scouting. As time passed, it was observed that healthy education practice failed to meet the goals of GNH education for each student. Sherab, Maxwell and Cooksey (2015, p. 69) argue that “while there is a lack of empirical studies into this phenomenon, there is anecdotal evidence that the introduction of the ‘wholesome education’ in the Bhutanese education system has not been able to counter negative and other influences”. Evidence such as increased youth-related issues including street violence, sexual aberrations, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse and the degradation of human values in Bhutanese society started emerging as concern (Sherab, 2013). As a result of

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this, Bhutan trailed a new education approach known as ‘Educating for Gross National Happiness’ (EGNH) starting in 2009 (MoE, 2010). This has taken GNH into the school curriculum beyond an intellectual discourse and has infused it with values (Chhetri, 2015; MoE, 2010; Sherab, Maxwell & Cooksey, 2016).

Accordingly, the MoE and the RUB have strived to integrate pedagogical practices with the values and principles of GNH and came up with the EGNH initiative (MoE, 2012). This initiative is a strategy aimed at promoting GNH values in schools across Bhutan. EGNH’s focus is on building what’s called ‘GNH schools’ (MoE, 2010). The EGNH initiative, which included the development of national guidelines, core modules, and the establishment of GNH clubs in schools has generated several programmes (Namgyel & Rinchhen, 2016). The concept of “Green School” also emerged as an EGNH offshoot. Green Schools according to Powdyel, (2014), is a philosophy aimed at instilling a sense of green minds, not just about the environment. He argues that the concept is flexible and open to eight different educational aspects; environmental, social, intellectual, academic, cultural, spiritual, moral and aesthetic greenery.

Bhutan regards education as an instrument for promoting people’s happiness. By ratifying the 1990 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and by signing the 2010 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), Bhutan’s commitment to educating children with disabilities is evidenced. Sherab, et al, (2015, p.2) argue that with the establishment of the first school for children with disabilities as early as 1973, “the idea of inclusion itself is not a new concept in Bhutan”. Although schools were segregated at that time, it offered opportunities for children to be educated, and advocated for the significance of education for children with disabilities. It also helped change of attitude for teachers, provided an example of equity, and contributed to the gradual development of inclusive education. Such public projects show how GNH can be dispersed among its citizens.

While different educational strategies have been adopted, one of the challenging tasks that the GNH philosophy has encountered is to look at providing the type of education that prepares Bhutanese youth for gainful employment and economically contented living (Dorji & Easley, 2005). This implies that teachers have a significant role to play whereby education must be dynamic in and out of classrooms either through mainstreaming, non-formal, monastic schooling or through inclusion.

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Research has found that educational change agents such as teachers in Bhutan were not adequately prepared which often “led to inconclusive outcomes” (Sherab, Maxwell & Cooksey, 2013, p.1) that effected the implementation of educational programmes (Royal Education Council, 2009; Sherab et al., 2008). To be effective, teachers must therefore acquire the values, skills, knowledge and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Fullan, 1992; Yero, 2010) which this study aims to explore. The following sections will discuss the research aims and the significance of the study.

1.4 RESEARCH AIM AND QUESTIONS

The overall aim of this study is to examine the current perspectives of Bhutanese pre-service and beginning teachers about inclusive education as well as teacher education for inclusive education; and to assess the challenges faced by pre-service teachers in Bhutan. It will provide information and insight that will inform the development of educational policy to help address the needs of teachers in the specific context of Bhutan in order to inform effective inclusive education programmes. Thus, three research questions were carefully identified to enable the study to respond to the concerns about preparing teachers for inclusive education in Bhutan.

1) What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan? 2) How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher education programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms? 3) How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE

The purpose of the study is to specifically examine the views of Bhutanese pre- service and beginning teachers on how the teacher-training course at PCoE prepares teachers for the challenges of working in an inclusive classroom. It will also explore teachers’ confidence in teaching students with disabilities.

There have been 18 schools implementing inclusive education in Bhutan since 2002. Inclusive teacher education has been relatively slow due to a lack of expertise in developing relevant content for inclusive education as well as lack of delivery expertise (Lane, 2013). Furthermore, the lack of a national policy on inclusive

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education hinders the ability of teacher education college staff to focus on this area as a priority. As a result, when beginning teachers go to teach in inclusive schools, they are concerned about issues related to teaching in inclusive classrooms as well as their lack of understanding of the theory and practice of inclusion. In a previous study by Chhetri (2015), the researcher, on teachers’ views about inclusive education in Bhutan found that teachers teaching in the inclusive schools expressed concerns about the need for staff in teacher colleges to enhance teacher education in order to support inclusive education.

Now that Bhutan has implemented inclusive education in 18 schools, the researcher is curious to find out how teacher education courses prepare teachers to teach in inclusive schools. The participants in this study shared their views based on their current teacher education course and teaching practice and shared their views about their confidence in teaching. Inclusive education in Bhutan is a new approach, so research on teacher readiness for inclusive education is needed to inform future policies and practices. This study will make a significant contribution to research on inclusive education in South West Asian countries.

1.6 DEFINITIONS

Special education The definition of ‘Special Education’ is that it is a form of specially designed learning instruction provided to a child with a disability (Gargiulo, 2015). These specially designed instructions are planned to meet their unique learning needs, allowing them to develop their full potential. This can be in the form of a range of support services that may include physical assistance and therapy, individually designed plans to support classroom learning, counselling and psychotherapy, modified learning environments and assistive learning devices, educational and psychological assessments, and techniques for modifying behaviour (WHO, 2013). Therefore, special education is usually offered in a segregated setting (Gargiulo, 2015).

Special Education in Bhutan is an educational programme designed for children with special educational needs. Under this model, all students have equal access to education without discrimination of any kind, regardless of their ability. The MoE (2012, p.6) defines that a child may have special educational needs if he/she has any of the following:

Chapter 1: Introduction 24

a) Has a significant difficulty in performing any activity compared to the majority of children of the same age; b) Has a barrier which prevents or hinders her/him from making use of educational facilities of a kind generally provided for children of the same age in school; c) Is gifted d) Is of school going age and fall within the definition given in (a), (b) and (c).

In order to make special education more efficient, the MoE (2012) emphasized the need for specialized educational services that would provide appropriate support services such as teaching and learning materials, trained teachers, assistive devices, access and appropriate sanitation infrastructure.

Integration The terms “mainstreaming” and “integration” reflected early attempts to transfer students from special to “mainstream” schools, however, these terms were succeeded by the philosophy of Education for All through the development of inclusive schools (Chong & Graham, 2017). In the context of education, mainstreaming is the practice of placing learners with SEN in a regular classroom. This placement is based on learners’ skills and can be during a specific time with all learners mostly studying the same material (Perles, 2012). On the other hand, integration takes place when learners with SEN attend classes with normal children. This placement can be on a part- or full- time basis where schools provide support based on individual needs of learners to help them fit into a mainstream school (Wang, 2009).

Inclusive education

The term inclusive education has been defined differently and with some variations across the globe and this may contribute to some misconception and confused practice (Forlin, Chambers, Loreman, Delleper & Sharma, 2013; Sharma & Sokal, 2015; Slee, 2008). Inclusive education is an increasingly controversial term that has challenged the systems of education to think differently about the work of teaching and learning. In relation to students with disability, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), the first international legally binding instrument to contain a reference to the concept of inclusive education (Broderick 2014), proclaims the right of persons with disabilities to education and recognises the right to inclusive education for all persons with disabilities through its Article 24. This clarifies that

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inclusive education means all students are taught in regular classrooms. It views inclusion as “a dynamic approach of responding positively to pupil diversity and of seeing individual differences not as problems, but as opportunities for enriching learning” (UNESCO, 2005, p. 12). This clarifies how to put inclusive policies into practice.

According to Grima-Farrell, Bain and McDonagh (2011), inclusive education is a school-wide concern and works to align special education with general education in a way that provides quality education to all students. Therefore, inclusive education is an arrangement where all students, irrespective of any challenges they may have, are enrolled in regular schools in their own neighbourhood schools (McManis, 2017). In this context, they are expected to receive high-quality instruction, interventions and supports that enable them to achieve core curriculum success (Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006; Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; United Nations, 2006). The guiding principle of inclusive education is to welcome, challenge and support all students in their efforts (McManis, 2017) through the removal of barriers to access and participation. Therefore, inclusive education refers to students of similar age with different capabilities and capacity being placed in the same classroom (Armstrong, Armstrong, & Spandagou, 2009).

Keeping Bhutan’s context at the forefront, where children with disabilities are the focus of inclusion (Dorji, 2015), it is important to take into account Article 24 of the CRPD when defining a general understanding of inclusive education. In its General Comment No 4, the CRPD highlighted the concepts of exclusion, segregation, integration and inclusion in education, and clarified what actions are needed to ensure that children with disabilities participate within the mainstream education system in order to fulfil the obligations included in Article 24 (United Nations, 2016).

A study by Dukpa and Kamenopoulou (2018) concluded that overall, Bhutanese people understood disability more from the medical model perspective which differs from the one proposed in the CRPD. In particular, they perceived disability as being the product of factors that lie within the disabled person. However, the efforts of the Bhutanese government, in promoting inclusion of persons with disability in the community especially with the signing of CRPD in 2010 has been commendable. Considering CRPD as a key milestone for inclusive education around the world, Bhutan has widely used the CRPD’s definition and guidelines to promote inclusion

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and the expansion of inclusive education. This can be justified because the CRPD definition represents the social model of disability. It describes persons with disabilities as “someone who has long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others” (United Nations, 2006: p. 4). Bhutan has therefore rightly emphasized the significance of removing disabling barriers to support social change while equally upholding the significance of medical treatment.

1.7 THESIS OUTLINE

This thesis is organised into six chapters. Chapter 1 outlined the background of the educational context of Bhutan that keeps the philosophy of GNH at its core. This chapter covered an overview of special education and inclusive education. The chapter also explained the teacher education system in Bhutan’s two Education Colleges. The chapter then introduced the goal of the research, the research questions and definitions of the terms used in the study.

Chapter 2 critically reviews the literature: the origin and development of special education; the transition from special education to inclusive education; and the inclusive education concept. There is also a section where some core components of inclusive education are highlighted. There is a discussion on pre-service teachers’ readiness for inclusive education. The theoretical framework underpinning this study is then outlined, incorporating Self-efficacy Theory and Socio-cultural Theory.

Chapter 3 presents an overview of the methodology and the design of the research. It provides a detailed explanation of the paradigm of qualitative research, the methodology of research and the methods used in this research. Participant details, methods for collecting and analysing data, and the ethical considerations and validity of the research study are presented in this chapter.

In Chapter 4, analysis of the data from two groups of participants (pre-service and beginning teachers) for this descriptive study are presented. This chapter highlights the key findings related to Research Question 1: What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan? and Research Question 2: How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher- training programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms?

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These two questions are addressed through participants’ experiences from their teacher education course as well as from their classroom teaching experiences (through teaching practice for pre-service teachers and regular teaching for beginning teachers).

Similarly, in Chapter 5 the reporting of data and analysis from classroom observations of pre-service teachers are presented, highlighting the key findings in the light of Research Question 3: How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self- efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms? This question is addressed through the demonstration of self-efficacy by the participants.

Finally, Chapter 6 discusses the findings of Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 with reference to relevant literature on inclusive education, teacher education, the self- efficacy theory and socio-cultural theory that informed this study. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the limitations and implications of this study, as well as further research opportunities generated from the findings.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter critically reviews the literature that informs this study. It begins with a description of models of disability. This is followed by a discussion about the development of inclusive education from a segregated form of special education to integration and mainstreaming of children with SEN into regular schools. Following this is a detailed discussion on inclusive education, the advent and concepts of inclusive education, challenges in implementing inclusive education, and the components of inclusive education. Next, the researcher turns to the practice of initial teacher education regarding inclusive education, with a specific focus on pre-service teachers. Finally, Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory and Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory are discussed to inform this research. There will be an explanation of these theories, the justification of using them in the context of Bhutan, and their role in the research methodology.

2.2 MODELS OF DISABILITY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

Disability is a term that covers impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) (2019), an impairment affects the body’s function or structure. An activity limitation is a difficulty that an individual encounter when performing a task or action. A participation restriction is a problem that an individual experiences when engaging in life situations. Disability is not simply a health issue. It is a complex phenomenon – “knotty and complex” (Kaplan, 2000, p.352), reflecting the interaction between a person’s bodily characteristics and the characteristics of the society in which he or she lives (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013). When we consider definitions of disability, we also need to consider the model of disability that is being used.

Disability has been viewed from various ways or models of disability that offer contrasting ways of thinking about disability. The different models of disability provide a better understanding about disability which is important not only for people directly involved with a child or adult, but also for everyone in society to build positive attitudes and better understanding.

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Generally, models of disability are tools for explaining impairment and for being the base upon which government and society can formulate plans for meeting the needs of people with disabilities (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013; Singal, 2005). These models are a valuable way of gaining an understanding of disability matters, and also of the viewpoints held by the creators and users of the models. They are a source of knowledge regarding the attitudes, notions and biases of people and the impact they have on others. Models of disability therefore expose the manner in which the society allows or denies access to work such as if disability is a human rights issue, goods, services, economic influence and political power to the disabled (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013; Degener, 2017). The following sections briefly examine the medical, social, and cultural models of disability.

The medical model of disability

The medical model considers that disability is a result of an individual’s physical or mental limitations and has limited consideration of the society or the social environment. It is also commonly known as the Biological-Inferiority or Functional- Limitation (Michigan Disability Rights Coalition, n.d). It is reinforced by the World Health Organization’s definition of disability as a lack of ability to undertake an activity in the manner considered normal for any human being (Oliver, 2017). Olkin (1999) outlines the basic characteristics of the medical model of disability as:

Disability is seen as a medical problem that resides in the individual. It is a defect in or failure of a bodily system and as such is inherently abnormal and pathological. The goals of intervention are cure, amelioration of the physical condition to the greatest extent possible, and rehabilitation (i.e., the adjustment of the person with the disability to the condition and to the environment). Persons with disabilities are expected to avail themselves of the variety of services offered to them and to spend time in the role of patient or learner being helped by trained professionals. (p. 26)

Olkin’s classification of disability based on the ‘medical model’ diagnosed a person’s condition in relation to an individual’s physical body. Likewise, the World Health Organization (2001) International Classification of Impairment, Disability and Handicaps (ICIDH) was also based on the medical model of disability.

Beliefs about bodies associated with the medical model inform a deficit view about disability impacting on an individual’s quality of life. The idea is that, with

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medical intervention, this disability can be corrected (Fisher & Goodley, 2007). People who follow the medical model, discuss the treatment that people with a disability may need and this implies that they can be fixed or corrected once they have treatment. According to this model, the impairment of the individual is the source of the problem; therefore, to get a solution, the focus needs to be treating the individual. The solution, therefore, is to find a cure or make individuals with disabilities more normal, as indicated by the WHO (Oliver, 2017). This kind of intervention invariability fails since people with disabilities are not actually sick or cannot be improved by curative treatment.

Disability, through the lens of a medical model primarily perceives the disability as arising from limitations within the individual (Llewellyn & Hogan, 2000). In other words, the medical model view disability as a feature of the individual person (WHO, 2002). As a result, historically, individuals with a disability were forced into isolation and exclusion from society (Dray, 2008).

The medical method has, for years, been dominant in informing disability policies. Though we should not discard the therapeutic characteristics which can improve the physical and mental state of some persons with disabilities, it does not give an accurate perspective from the standpoint of disabled persons themselves (Oliver, 2017). Additionally, the model attaches a paternalistic method to problem resolution, which, though having good intentions, focusses on care and eventually justifies segregation, perhaps institutionalisation and isolation (Leshota, 2015). Disabled persons are then denied the chances to make choices, manage their lives and grow their potential. In Bhutan this concept of disability was and still is, to some extent, dominantly shaped by the functional abilities of an individual’s body. Therefore, the inability of a person to do certain tasks because of disability is thus seen primarily as an attempt to show sympathy and compassion (Dorji, 2008).

The social model of disability As implied above, it is often argued that the medical model is the basis of unintended social exclusion of people with disabilities which may lead to resources being excessively misdirected towards a medical focus. To advance disability rights, advocates have sought to replace a medical model of disability with a social model of disability where the environment is socially constructed and influences how disabled

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a person may be. A social model of disability is generated as a result from an interaction of people within their environment (Rapp & Arndt, 2012).

Unlike the medical model which implies that people are disabled by their impairment, the social model says that disability is caused by the way society is organised, caused by the environment that does not support the needs of individuals with disabilities or by barriers in society. In other words, the social model of disability contrasts with the medical model of disability and views disability through the lens of an inclusive approach (Armstrong, 2016). Currently the social model of disability is an internationally recognised way to view and address disability as it promotes accommodation of impairment as an expected component of human diversity.

The social model regards disability as a socially constructed problem and a view that promotes the full inclusion of people into the society. Also known as the Minority- Group Model of Disability, it argues from a socio-political standpoint that disability is a result of the society’s failure to adjust in order to meet the needs and desires of the disabled minority (Raphael, 2013). It suggests that the elimination of attitudinal, physical and institutional hindrances will better the lives of disabled persons, allowing them to have equal opportunities with others on an equitable basis (Mackelprang et al., 2016). The social model presents the radical perspective that if the problem is within society and the surrounding, then the social environment has to change, not the individual. In other words, the social model, for example needs to consider multiple factors in order to provide appropriate adjustments.

This model’s strength lies in placing the responsibility for adjustments upon the society and not a single individual. It also focuses on disabled people’s needs. This is opposed to the medical model which uses diagnoses to produce disability categories and assumes that people with similar impairment have similar needs and abilities (Raphael, 2013).

Historically, in Bhutan, people mainly have an agrarian lifestyle and hence one’s ability to build, cultivate and perform physical activities is regarded more important than the ability to read, or write. Thus, the concept of disability or inability in Bhutanese culture is determined by one’s ability to perform physical work (Raphael, 2013). People with severe intellectual and other developmental disabilities are excluded from partaking in household chores and experience marginalisation and social exclusion in Bhutan. Also notable is the fact that disability in Bhutan is likely

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to be regarded as ‘karma’ (UNICEF, 2014). According to Schuelka (2014, p. 165), ‘karma’ is seen as “the most common explanation for disability in Bhutan”, chiefly influenced by religious values (Phuntsho, 2004). Hence, ‘karma’ can be explained as “any misfortune or disability … attributed to an individual’s transgressions in the past” (Dorji, 2015, p.6).

The cultural model of disability The cultural model is regarded as the traditional faith-based model. According to this model, disability could be the result of a moral or spiritual condition, for instance a person becomes disabled because they are immoral. Compared to the social model, the cultural model largely depends on the particular society (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2016). Thus, there are numerous variations because of different religions and beliefs surrounding what is regarded as immoral. From this perspective, disability is something seen as immoral. This is yet another instance where persons with disabilities face discrimination because society sees them as different from the mainstream.

The cultural model emphasises a variety of cultural factors including, but not limited, to medical and social factors. Consequently, the cultural approach is less concerned with describing disability in any particular way but rather concentrates on how different notions of disability and non-disability work in the context of a particular culture (Leshota, 2015). Waldschmidt’s (2017) argument that leaving disabled people to a destiny of negligence and ignorance is valid because they are missing social protection and rehabilitation assistance. Therefore, in studying disabilities from a cultural perspective, she calls for an “interdisciplinary approach” to shed new light on contemporary societies, cultures and histories instead of seeing disability through traditional approaches that ignored impairment as a common human life experience and that we are all differently-bodied, capable of doing things differently. Waldschmidt (2017) provides two reasons in support of her argument for an interdisciplinary approach: 1) impairments and disabilities are cultural constructs; and at the same time 2) impairments and disabilities are structured and cultivated (lived through culture).

The cultural model of disability is becoming widely accepted in the disability community, specifically through its adoption by several Deaf culture theorists. Disability in Bhutan reflects this cultural view that things including people are perfect

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when they are born, and deviance from this standard poses a threat. According to Mackelprang and Salsgiver, (2016), when a family is performing a household ritual, an individual with a disability is considered a bad omen and in a few cases is not allowed inside the house. It was, and still is, common practice to exclude people with disabilities from taking part in cultural activities.

Hence, the discussion of various models of disability shows that the type of education for individuals with disability depends on how disability is conceptualized. Where disability is perceived as an anomaly or disease, the role of the society is disregarded. Conversely, when disability is regarded from social perspective, the removal of social and cultural barriers enables the education of individuals with disability. Cultural understanding is one of the strategies to remove barriers to education for all children and educational inequalities among populations. For example, many researchers including Dorji and Schuelka (2016), Jigyel, Miller, Mavropoulou and Berman (2018) and Sharma, Forlin, Deppeler, and Guang-xue (2013) highlighted the importance of considering socio-cultural context when considering inclusive education in Bhutan. The argument put forward is that the implementation of inclusive education was problematic “without considering socio- cultural context and resources in Bhutan” (Jigyel, et al., 2018, p.1289).

The history and development of the special education model Prior to the early nineteenth century, there was little provision for education for the majority of children. It is the societal shift to an expectation of universal education during the 19th century (based on many factors, but chief among them, getting children out of factories and allowing their parents to work there instead) that also lead to the emergence of special education. However, this shift coincided with an increase in the pathologizing of disability. Murray (1986) claims that, at this time, the education of children with severe disabilities was medically oriented and focussed on care. In other words, children with disabilities received more custodial care rather than education (Graham, 2013). Perhaps the way that disability was understood at this time, for example through the medical model of disability impacted on how children accessed and received their education. Hence, children with a disability were not included in schools or in education more broadly. Often, they were institutionalised or otherwise left at home (Graham, 2013). This made a big difference in how children with a disability were viewed and accommodated in society in general.

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With respect to deafness, it was the mid-sixteenth century, when Pedro Ponce de Leon, a Spanish Benedictine monk, found that oralism could supplement the traditional use of sign language to teach deaf individuals (Lane, 1989 and Winzer, 1998). His work focused on teaching deaf children and reading speech cues using methods such as simple writing and gestures like lip - reading, imitating mouth shapes and speech (Deaf Websites, 2005 - 2013).

Following this, in 1784 Valentin Huay, an interpreter of the French King, Louis XVI developed raised-printed letters and words embossed on papers which enabled students with visual impairment to read (Winzer, 1998). Subsequently in 1785, Hauy founded the Institute for Blind Youth (Institution des jeunes aveugles), one of the first special schools in the world (Wikipedia, 2019). Later, Huay’s idea was carried forward by Louis Braille who was blind himself, and in 1829 Louis developed a raised dot system for reading and writing known as Braille (Tomlinson, 2012).

In the United States despite these innovations in Europe, little was done to advance the rights of students with disabilities. Rapp and Arndt (2012) noted that more than 4.5 million children were denied adequate schooling even after 200 years since the establishment of the United States in 1776. This period was a dark time in the history of special education (All Star Staff, 2018). However, two schools for students who were deaf, and blind were created before schools were required to serve students with disabilities (Rapp & Arndt, 2012); the American School for the Deaf in Connecticut in 1817; and the Perkins School for the Blind in Boston in 1829. Some schools, however, made arrangements for students in the early 1900s on a case-by- case basis, but no law required schools to teach students with disabilities. In 1975, the first law requiring the education of disabled children in the United States ‘The Education for All Handicapped Children Act’ was passed. The following statement was included in this Act:

Congress finds the following: (1) Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of individuals to participate in or contribute to society. Improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self- sufficiency for individuals with disabilities. (Education of All handicapped Children Act, 1975).

Through this Act a provision was created that allowed students with disabilities to be placed in the least restrictive environment. It allowed opportunities for interaction

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with non-disabled peers. The Act included provision for separate schooling that could occur when the nature or severity of the disability was such that instructional goals couldn’t be achieved in the regular classroom. In addition, the Act also included a due process clause that ensured an impartial hearing to resolve conflicts between parents of children with disabilities and the school system (Villegas, 2017). Following this Act, more legislation came into place. These included : Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1990) – which elaborated on the inclusion of children with disabilities into regular classes; Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990) - guaranteed the equal treatment and equal access of people with disabilities to employment opportunities; the Reauthorized of IDEA in 1997 - raising expectations and supporting students who follow the general curriculum, supporting parents, and helping states determine appropriate outcomes; and the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 – emphasising students with disabilities to have maximum access to the general education curriculum in the regular classroom.

Similarly, in the United Kingdom (UK), it was not until 1760 that the first school was set up in Edinburgh to educate children with hearing impairment (Wikipedia, 2019). Following this was the establishment of a visually impaired education school in Edinburgh in 1765. The local authorities were responsible for the education of blind and deaf children. Still then, the majority of children with disabilities were sent to residential schools, believing it was an ideal situation to keep them away from their families and only a small number remained in mainstream education (Historic England, 2019). In due course, “1918 Education Act” became the most important piece of legislation helping children with disabilities to avail their education (Historic England, 2019). Through this act, schooling in the UK became mandatory for all children with disabilities.

Several legislations followed that looked at improving education and providing children with disabilities with the necessary classroom support. For example: the 1944 Education Act provided for children with disabilities to receive special education in special schools (Tes Editorial, 2005); the 1970 Education Act (Handicapped Children) provided for the discontinuation of the classification of children with disabilities as unfit for and related to education at school (Education Act (Handicapped Children), 1970); 1978 Warnock Report introduced the term “special education” in the United Kingdom for the first time; 1988 Education Reform Act introduced a national

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curriculum to be followed by all children, whether in mainstream or special education (Tes News, 2005); 2001 Special Educational Needs and Disability Act outlawed discrimination against disabled persons and SEN students and parents were allowed to go to tribunals to ensure this right (Tes News, 2005); and 2004 a policy paper, Removing Barriers to Achievement emphasised the importance of raising expectations for SEN pupils in mainstream schools (Tes News, 2005).

Gradually, the system of educating children with disabilities spread across the globe. As a result, “special education” emerged as a means of enrolling children with disabilities in schools around the world (Rapp & Arndt, 2012). Many countries have their own history of special education. The history of special education in Australia and India are covered in this study because many university students from Bhutan go to study inclusive education and SEN in these countries, either through government funding, university scholarship, donor sponsorship or some privately. Table 2.1 displays a timeline for the history of special education in Australia and India.

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Table 2.1 Timeline of History of Special Education in Australia and India

Country Date and event Event description 1860s Schools for children with deaf and blind were opened. 1920s Schools for children with other disabilities were opened and run by charities and voluntary organisations.

1970s State governments started to take responsibility for the education Australia provided in special schools by setting up special education units in regular schools. 2005 The Disability Standards for Education 2005 gave students with disabilities the same rights as other students and aimed to overcome discrimination based on stereotypes of the abilities of students with disabilities. India 1883 The first school for the deaf was set up in Bombay. 1887 The first school for the blind was established in Amritsar. Pre- Special education in India was present since pre-independence with independence very few schools and NGO organized services for intellectually (before 1947) impaired children. 1952 The concept of integrated education was started by the government and supported by The Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind and the Christopher Blind Mission as small experiments. 1974 The Government launched the Integrated Education for Disabled Children in India

National Education Policy - A goal, to integrate the handicapped with 1986 the general community at all levels as equal partners, to prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and confidence (Singh, 2016).

1987 Project Integrated Education for the Disabled launched. In this approach, a cluster, instead of the individual school approach was emphasized. It was cost effective and easier to organize. All the schools in the cluster - area were expected to enrol children with disabilities. The project was a gateway to freedom for individual with disabilities in India (Chadha, 2003). 1995 Persons with Disability (Equal Opportunity, Protection of Rights and full Participation) Act, 1995. For the first time the Indian Parliament

legally endorsed the right of access for people with disability at par with other citizens of India, in respect to education, vocational training, and employment (Kumar, 2007).

National Policy for Persons with Disability, a framework under which 2006 the state, civil society and private sector must operate in order to ensure a dignified life for persons with disability and support for their caretakers (Singh, 2016).

Right of Children for Free and Compulsory Education (2009) between 2009 ages six to fourteen (Singh, 2016).

(Source: Angloinfo- Australia, 2019; Chadha, 2003; Kumar, 2007; Singh,2016)

While theories of special education in earlier times were mostly derived from the medical model of disability purely on the concept of personal tragedy (Christensen,

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1996), its focus rapidly shifted towards accepting children with disabilities for their education in an affectionate and social manner that also considered the cultural aspects of disability. Finally, after nearly 150 years since the foundation for the education of children with disabilities was laid in 1785 (Tomlinson, 2012) a common understanding was established in the twentieth century for the holistic, but more importantly, a view of special education. As a result, numerous international forums have been held to advance special education. This is explained in the next section.

International Documents

It is recognized that the path to special education developed as a consequence of World War II experience in the context of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN 1948), thus agreeing on a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, meaning all should be treated in the same way - equal dignity for all (Rossa, 2013; UN, 1948). While the mention of children in this document is rare, the document is highly significant based on its impact on all human beings – since the rights of children are based on human rights (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2016). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights claimed that everyone has the right to go to school and that education in primary school should be free. Next, the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (UN 1959) was issued, that recognized the “special rights for those who are in physical disadvantage, mentally or socially, to receive education and special care” (Rossa, 2017, p. 221).

Then came the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989. The CRC is the world’s most widely ratified international human rights treaty and the first binding UN Convention to make explicit reference to the rights of disabled persons (Waddington & Toeopke, 2015). For example, the Convention through its Article 2 placed particular emphasis – that all the rights guaranteed by the Convention must be available to all children without any kind of discrimination. Article 28 of this Convention provides for the right of a child to education. It informs all nations of the need and importance of education for all children and enrolling for education children with disabilities (UN, 2019). Bhutan signed the CRC on 4th June 1990 and was one of the first governments to ratify it on 1st August 1990 without reservations (Black & Stalker, 2006; Ministry of Foreign Affairs Bhutan, 2017). Since then, many other important initiatives undertaken by the RGoB have strongly influenced the view that all children should go to school:

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Table 2.2 Initiatives undertaken by the Royal Government of Bhutan

Year Initiatives undertaken

1973 Establishment of the first special school (institute for the visually impaired children) in Trashigang, Eastern Bhutan 1995- Millennium Development Goals 2015

2000 Adopted the Education for All – Dakar Framework for Action

2002 Establishment of the first inclusive school in Thimphu (2002). 2002 Establishment of Draktsho Vocational Training Center for Special Children and Youth in Thimphu 2003 Establishment of second school special school (institute for the visually impaired children) in Paro 2008 Signatory to the Proclamation of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP) Commission on Disability on the Full Participation and Equality of People with Disabilities in 2010 Signatory to The Convention on the Rights of the Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) on 21st September 2010. 2017 Conference on Inclusive Education 2017

2000 Endorsement of Standards for Inclusive Education 2017

The Declarations on Education for All (EFA) 1990 in Jomtien, Thailand, further boosted education for all children with disabilities. The conference focused on eradicating illiteracy and providing all with universal primary education (UNESCO, 1990). It called on all countries to universalize adequate basic education through effective improvement of the quality of primary education.

Another significant document on special education was the Salamanca Statement convoked by UNESCO during the World Conference on Education Special Needs held in Salamanca, Spain in 1994. The Salamanca Statement adopted a new ‘Framework for Action’ which emphasized the achievement of all students’ educational needs, similar to the recommendations made during the Declarations on

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Education for All 1990 (Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education, 2019; Rossa, 2017). The framework suggested that all educational policies should specify:

“…the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all.” (UNESCO, 1994, p. ix).

One strong recommendation made in the Salamanca Statement was that states should “observe the educational difficulties differently” (Rossa, 2017, p.223) and adopt changes in methods and organization in response to learning difficulties experienced by students. It also stressed that children with disabilities should attend the school in the neighbourhood which would be attended if the child did not have a disability (Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education, 2019). Hence, The Salamanca Statement supported inclusive education in a broader sense (see section 2.3).

The Special Education Model

The definition of special education was provided in Chapter 1, section 1.5 which gave an understanding of the term. This section provides an overview of the model of special education and how it enables disabled children to be educated.

Theories of special education were mostly based on personal tragedy concept and medical model of disability (Christensen, 1996). The term special education describes a model of education that provides education to children with varying degrees and forms of disabilities — mental, physical, behavioural and emotional disabilities, usually in a segregated setting. The term special education usually assumes that there are special educational arrangements that are provided to children who have learning difficulties or disabilities that make it harder for them to learn than most children of the same age (Tomlinson, 2012). These children are provided with education either in special schools or in mainstream schools that generally have accessible environments, individually designed programmes, services and curricula to suit their needs (Kohama, 2012).

Special education is tailored to meet individual needs of students with disabilities. It is all about individualization; services offered to one child may be totally different from those received by another. Today, while focus still remains on helping children with disabilities, it no longer implies placing children in a special classroom all day long. For example, laws demand that students receiving special education

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services should be taught alongside their non-disabled peers (Rapp & Arndt, 2012). Special education therefore can be regarded as a range of services that can be provided in different ways and in different settings. The special education model therefore informed “a changing mindset about education and different children” (Thomas & Loxley, 2007, p. 23). This approach was based on a model of deficit that aimed at disability and disorder identification. It can be argued that positive changes in the attitudes of individuals have occurred with the development of the special education model over the period when disability was initially seen as a problem issue through the lens of the medical model of disability which only focused on curative measures. Therefore, a shift of disability perspective from a medical perspective to a social- constructionist perspective occurred (Thomas & Loxley, 2001).

More recently, however, this approach to segregation (special education model) has become somewhat controversial (Garner, 2009). While this mindset (special education model) seems to be a paradigm shift, it is not well understood. There are some elements that still need to be addressed such as: shortage of special education teachers, lack of teaching resources to support education of children with disabilities and incompatible building-infrastructure to facilitate access in the school environment. Hence, a better approach was sought to include all children irrespective of their abilities, gender and socio-economic factors and ethnic background. As a result, the concept of inclusive education has emerged.

2.3 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

The definition of inclusive education provided in Chapter 1, section 1.5 provides a clear understanding of the difference between inclusive education and special education. Booth and Ainscow’s (2011) argument states that inclusive education works towards accepting and placing children with disabilities in regular classrooms with non-disabled peers when necessary adjustments and appropriate modifications support learning in all students. The following section will now examine closely how inclusive education facilitates the education of all children harmoniously.

The basic premise of inclusive education is for all children to learn together. The focus is on acknowledging the diversities that exist in ability, culture, gender, language, class and ethnicity (Carrington, MacArthur, Kearney, Kimber, Mercer & Morton, 2012; UNESCO, 1994, 2016). With Article 24, Comment 4 of the CRPD

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providing the most authoritative articulation of the human right of persons with disabilities to inclusive education, it is widely accepted that inclusive education now encompasses the delivery of a quality education to all students; not only to students with a disability but focusing on barriers to student access and participation, and not just physical barriers (Anderson & Boyle, 2015; Graham, 2013, Graham & Jahnukainen, 2011). Further, inclusion, in the Index of Inclusion by Ainscow, is a principled approach to developing education, as it focuses on cultures, policies and practices that affect everyone: children and adults, schools, families and communities (Booth, Ainscow & Kingston, 2006). Therefore, apart from including children from all races, disadvantaged groups and all cultures, inclusive education also recognizes that learning occurs both at home and in the community and hence the support of parents, family and the community is important.

The inclusive education approach began in the United States in the late 1980s and “was started principally by advocates for learners with severe disabilities, who were not an essential part of the regular education initiative” (Power-Defur & Orelove, 1997, p.3). In this approach the focus was mainly placed on moving students with severe disabilities from segregated schools to integrated environments. As the approach gained significant momentum, the efforts became increasingly focused on educating children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms — eventually known as inclusive education.

Inclusive education is where all students learn together irrespective of any difficulties or differences they may have. Ainscow and Miles (2009, p.2) argued that inclusive education is a process and that “inclusion has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of responding to diversity”. In their framework (prepared for the UNESCO International Conference on Education in 2008) developed for inclusion, Ainscow and Miles identified four themes that are simple and easy to understand. This framework is presented in figure 2.1.

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Figure 2.1 Framework of major themes explaining inclusive education structure (Source: Ainscow & Miles, 2009).

The framework above is very relevant and can be applied to countries like Bhutan where inclusive education has recently been established. According to Ainscow and Miles (2009, p.6), the framework “can be used to review the stage of development within a national or district education system” bearing in mind the involvement with statistical and qualitative data including “student and their family views”. This framework will also enable the development of plans for inclusive education to follow a process in moving policy and practice forward. Inclusive schools will therefore be recognized and prioritized. As a result, this will allow them to respond to the diverse needs of their students (Carrington & Elkins, 2002), accommodate different learning styles (Broderick, Mehta-Parekh & Reid, 2005; Duke, 2014), and ensure quality education for everyone through proper support such as: appropriate/adapted curricula (Ainscow, Mara & Mara, 2012), organizational arrangements and teaching strategies (Mills, 2013), use of teaching and learning resources and partnerships with their parents and communities (Ainscow, 2005; Ballard, 2011; Loreman, Deppeler & Harvey, 2011).

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When discussing inclusive education in the Bhutanese context, it may be reiterated that inclusive education means the inclusion of children with SEN and disabilities with their peers without SEN in regular classrooms except for teaching children with visual impairment and hearing impairment that are done in special schools (Dorji, 2015; MOE, 2011-2018; P. Chhogyel7, personal communication, March 22, 2019). The Bhutan MOE has successfully established 18 inclusive schools across the country, considering the benefits of inclusive education, such as improved learning, better academic achievement, improved social and communication through student involvement, and its cost-effectiveness in the long run (Loreman, 2010). There are ongoing efforts to make the education system more inclusive, based on the principles of GNH philosophy (Dorji, 2015). However, there are issues related to inclusive education in Bhutan that are widely viewed as 1) barriers - lack of human resource and infrastructure resources, lack of budget, 2) teacher preparation 3) inclusive attitudes and 4) lack of coordination in the implementation of inclusive education (Dorji, 2015; Dukpa, 2014; Jigyel, et al., 2018; Kamenopoulou & Dukpa, 2018; MOE, 2016; Subba, Yangzom, Dorji, Choden, Namgay, Carrington & Nickerson, 2018). This study has therefore closely examined data related to these issues and these are discussed and explained in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 respectively.

The advent of inclusive education The special education model moved towards the end of the twentieth century to the concept of inclusive education that parallels the emergence of social models of disability. The inclusive education model aimed at addressing oppression and discrimination of people with disabilities resulting from institutional forms of “exclusion and cultural attitudes” embodied in social practices (Dorji, 2015, p.4). In section 2.2.4 – History and development of special education, these movements, conventions and statements are discussed. Therefore, to respond appropriately to the challenges in an inclusive system, understanding the historical development of inclusive education at the international and national level is important. Table 2.2 presents a timeline of important international conventions and statements supporting international inclusive education.

7 P. Chhogyel is the Deputy Chief Programme Officer of the Special Education Section at the Ministry of Education in Bhutan who provided ‘special education and inclusive education’ information to the researcher.

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Table 2.3 International conventions and declarations leading to inclusive education worldwide.

Year Conventions/Declarations

1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1959 Declaration of Rights of the Child

1975 Declaration of Rights of Disabled Persons 1989 Declaration of Rights of Disabled persons

1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child

1990 World Declaration on Education for All (UNESCO, Jomtien)

1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO) 2000 World Education Forum: The Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO)

2000 Millennium Declaration

2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations) Towards Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities: A 2009 Guideline (UNESCO, Bangkok) 2016 High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development 2016 - Ensuring that no one is left behind: Inclusive And Equitable Education

At that time when inclusive education was laying its foundation in the 20th century, a concern arose globally that it should be a basic right of all children to have access to essential, relevant and free education. Through its broad definition, UNESCO articulated:

Schools should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. This should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalised areas or groups (UNESCO, 1994, p. 3).

It is important to note that the education of all children has been greatly shaped by social movements. For instance, within the global arena, UNESCO was created by

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the United Nations (UN) and instructed to make sure that all adults, youngsters and children could access basic and quality education. In broader terms, UNESCO stated that there was a need for accommodation of all children in schools irrespective of their emotional, physical, linguistic, social or intellectual conditions. Such children include street children, gifted children, working children, children from remote areas, children belonging to underprivileged groups, and children from different social, racial or dialectal minorities (Ainscow, Farrell, & Tweddle, 2000). One of the most important international policy documents about inclusive education is The 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education:

We call upon all governments and urge them to adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of inclusive education, enrolling all children in regular schools, unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise. (UNESCO 1994, p. ix).

The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education stressed the importance of inclusion. As per the Salamanca Statement of 1994, in which 25 global firms and 92 countries participated, it was specified that all students must be educated within inclusive classrooms. The statement highlighted, urged and required governments to adopt and implement a legal policy based on inclusive education. It espoused the principle of enrolling all children in regular schools until and unless there were existing convincing motives for not doing so (Liasidou, 2016).

Following this, in 2000, when 164 governments met in Dakar, Senegal, at the World Education Forum, they re-affirmed their commitment to achieving basic education to all children, youth and adults as reflected in the Dakar Framework for Action. The forum reviewed progress towards EFA and identified the following key challenge:

… to ensure that the broad vision of Education for All as an inclusive concept is reflected in national government and funding agency policies. Education for All… must take account of the need of the poor and the most disadvantaged, including working children, remote rural dwellers and nomads, and ethnic and linguistic minorities, children, young people and adults affected by conflict, HIV/AIDS, hunger and poor health; and those with special learning needs…’ (UNESCO, 2000).

Inclusion was the main component used with EFA, and the Dakar Framework for Action recognized the urgency of addressing these learners’ needs. It identified and

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stressed the need for inclusive education systems, actively seeking out children who are not enrolled and responding flexibly to the circumstances and needs of all learners (UNESC), 2000).

In 2000, eight different Millennium Development Goals were set by the UN Millennium Summit, one of which was to achieve universal primary education by 2015. Through this objective, the UN reiterated its commitment to EFA as stated earlier through the 1990 World Declaration on Education for All, reinforced subsequently by the Salamanca Declaration of 1994.

Another powerful influence that further promoted and ensured the educational aspects of children with disabilities was the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and that came in 2006. CRPD had the highest number of signatories in the UN history on the first day - 30 March, 2007 of its convention marking the official paradigm shift in attitudes towards individuals with disability (Márton, Polk & Fiala, 2013). The Convention aimed to protect the human rights of all persons with disabilities and to promote respect for their inherent dignity by covering a broad range of areas including discrimination, health, education, employment, justice and access to information. Article 24 of the Convention recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to education and it specifically posits that;

States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. With a view to realizing this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels and lifelong learning. (UN, 2006, p.14)

To achieve this right, the UN proposed an inclusive education system at all learning levels. Inclusive education here entails taking appropriate measures to hire teachers, including teachers with disabilities, qualified in sign language and/or braille, and to train professionals and staff who work at all levels of education (Márton, 2013). Such training is supposed to include disability awareness and the utilization of appropriate augmentative and alternative modes, means and forms of communication, educational techniques and materials to support people with disabilities. The CRC therefore played an important role in the development of inclusive education as it reinforced the principles, goals and concepts and clarified various practices - issues in the development of inclusive schools.

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From the time when Bhutan began inclusive schooling in 2002 to the adoption of the latest Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015), it is evident from the Education for All Goals (UNESCO, 2000) that the philosophy of educating children has gradually focused more towards offering equal educational opportunities. In implementing inclusive education, Bhutan is making ongoing progress. While doing so, it has closely examined global events and movements leading to the adoption of favourable inclusive education practices. As stated previously in Section 2.2.4, Bhutan considered using these events and movements and has espoused them into national standards and for example, Bhutan has set a goal to “fulfill the Sustainable Development Goal of ‘No Child Left Behind’ by 2030” (Chief Guest’s address to PCoE during the closing of the Inclusive Education Conference, 15 November 2017, p.2). Furthermore, Bhutan has made significant “long-term investments with major reform initiatives in education and health care, spending more than 7 per cent of product (GDP) on education alone’ (UN ESCAP, 2019, p.32). Such initiatives reflect Bhutan’s commitment to bringing communities closer to each other and working together for everyone’s happiness.

The (contested) concept of inclusive education Initially inclusive education was advocated for children with disabilities where students with disabilities were included in mainstream schools (Bunch & Valeo, 1997; Hunt & Goetz, 1997). Their learning in inclusive classrooms was supported with appropriate teaching aids and additional support. However, due to the lack of clarity about its meaning, inclusive education can mean different things to different people and at the same time, inclusion can mean all and nothing (Armstrong, Armstrong & Spandagou, 2009). Therefore, the right to inclusive education that applies to all children with disabilities is authoritatively articulated in Article 24, Comment 4 of the CRPD which the UN has urged all its signatories to comply.

Ainscow and Sandhill (2010); Graham and Jahnukainen, (2011) contest that inclusive education is not exclusively for students with SEN, but rather encompasses the education of all students. Countries like Australia, the UK and the US have implemented inclusive education where students from all backgrounds, including children with SEN, are enrolled in mainstream schools (Anderson & Boyle, 2015; Forlin, 2012; Gerber, 2012). However, many developing countries, such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, Ghana, India, Malaysia and Thailand, focus their inclusive

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education efforts toward children with SEN (Chhetri, 2015; Dorji, 2015; Deku & Ackah-Jnr, 2012; Ibrahim, 2012; Sharma, Shaukat & Furlonger, 2015; Srivastava, Boer & Pijl, 2015). Hence Waitoller and Artiles’s (2013) observation that inclusive education has different meanings in different countries is justified by how differently inclusion is being implemented as educational reform.

A notable remark by UNICEF (2014) relates to the confusion and absence of clarity in the Bhutanese policy documents. Similarly, SEN and inclusive education, for example, are used interchangeably and SEN often means disability and vice versa (Dorji, 2015). It may be pointed out that the understanding/meaning of ‘inclusive education’ in Bhutan to some extent is ascribed to numerous factors such as constraints in resource allocation, including inadequate budgets for implementing inclusive education, poorly equipped teachers in terms of knowledge and skills about inclusive education, and the absence of consistent government policy on inclusive education (Dorji, 2008; Dukpa, 2014; Schuelka, 2013, 2014; UNICEF, 2014). As informed by Sherub, et al. (2015, p. 4), the researcher agrees that “in the development of inclusive education, MoE has focused mainly on service provision such as universal enrolment, provision of child friendly environment, training of focal teachers, vocational training and raising awareness”. Dorji (2015, p.2) points out that Bhutan is not the only country facing the confusion regarding the “use of educational terminologies related to disability”. This issue has also been observed in India where inclusive education and integration are interchangeably used in academic discourse and practice (Singal, 2006, 2008). The absence of clarity in interpreting inclusive education has resulted in large confusion where “inclusion is often efficiently obscured, ‘camouflaged’ or underestimated” (Hardy & Woodcock, 2014, p. 1).

According to Cologon (2015), a misunderstanding contributes to a notion that inclusion is for some students only (instead of everyone) where inclusion is viewed as a process of adjustment — mere placing of students in classrooms instead of academic achievement. Carrington and MacArthur (2012) highlighted four issues when considering education reform towards inclusive schooling. First, there is a need for teachers to have a broad and deep understanding of what inclusion means. Unless teachers are guided to become more aware of their assumptions and beliefs and the implications for inclusion, they will find it difficult to think of alternative teaching practices to support inclusive education (Whittaker, 2017). Second, the models for

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teacher education need to be considered as teachers have a critical role to play in progressing inclusive education. Many teachers are not informed about inclusive education policy and practice (Graham & Spandagou, 2011). Teachers’ lack of knowledge can become a barrier to inclusion education.

The third issue to be considered is the organization and resourcing of schools. Inclusive practices in schools can be strengthened by expanding broader educational reform agendas that take care of the lack of attention to students with disabilities and also promote deficit thinking models around the disability of students (Williams, Shealey, & Blanchett, 2009). More and better support towards inclusive practices can be provided by educational leaders who have greater knowledge about resources to support inclusive education, knowledge of legal dimensions of inclusive practice and in educating students with disabilities (Birnbaum, 2006), knowledge of collaborative teaching and support arrangements (Carrington & MacArthur, 2012; Sailor, 2009; Zeretsky, 2005), and skills in professional development initiatives that support inclusive practices (Hochberg & Desimone, 2010; USDOE, 2002) Finally, the social implications of inclusion are another issue. Social and cultural contexts are fundamental for the success of inclusion (Barron et al., 2017). It is argued that segregation because of exclusion from society has a negative impact on children who experience disability resulting in marginalization, stigmatisation, bullying and abuse (Biklen & Burke, 2006). This calls for policies that respect the diversity of individuals and families and acknowledge the rights of children to inclusive schooling. It is through such policies and attention to inclusive practice that education leaders, teachers and school administrators can understand the difference between the two paradigms of inclusive education and special education.

Inclusive education may be understood differently especially when viewed from different perspectives (Slee, 2001, 2008; Sharma & Sokal, 2015). In general, education is framed by cultural and social contexts. Therefore, viewing inclusive education from cultural and social perspectives is key to successful inclusion (Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006). When a culturally inclusive learning environment is created, it helps to develop personal contacts which is important for individuals with disabilities. It also helps to develop effective intercultural skills. This means all individuals – regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation or political beliefs are encouraged to foster cultural inclusivity, mutual respect and

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genuine appreciation of diversity (Graham & Spandagou, 2011). This in turn builds a harmonious society. Where schools play a crucial role in creating a culturally inclusive classroom, inclusion should therefore take into account the social, cultural and linguistic diversity of all children (Krajcovicova & Novotna, 2015). Figure 2.2 shows four major strategies for creating a culturally inclusive classroom through cultural inclusiveness, mutual respect, and genuine diversity appreciation. This is based on Barker, Frederiks and Farrelly’s (2009) recommendation to promote a culture- inclusive learning environment.

Figure 2.2 Strategies to assist with creating a culturally inclusive classroom (Source: Barker, Frederiks & Farrelly, 2009, p.1).

Positive interactions with students: In a culturally inclusive classroom both students and teachers have the prospect of recognising and appreciating diversity, which in turn develops the overall learning experience. According to Carrington, MacArthur, Kearney, Kimber, Mercer and Morton’s (2012), teachers are agents of change who ‘can model inclusion and social justice in schools’ (2012, p. 79). Therefore, teachers must engage themselves in positive interactions with students to gain information, for example something unique about students’ cultural backgrounds. Lately, ‘social inclusion’ has come to be considered highly important, focusing attention on the interactions of teachers and students within the classroom (Foreman, 2008). Social inclusion is the act of making all students in a classroom feel valued and important which can be achieved through ‘peer acceptance, friendships and participation in groups’ (Foreman, 2008, p. 207). Therefore, it is important for teachers to display positive nonverbal cues like eye contact and inviting facial expressions to make themselves approachable to students, which will allow students to participate in

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classroom activities more inclusively. Since inclusion is based on justice and rights, teachers working for inclusion also work for democratic education (Slee, 2011). Therefore, if teachers do not facilitate or encourage students’ participation, ‘then this is exclusion and is against democratic practice’ in educational terms (Carrington, MacArthur, Kearney, Kimber, Mercer & Morton, 2012, p. 80).

Use inclusive language and appropriate modes of address: Social interactions are vital for successful and productive participations in society (Loreman, Deppeler & Harvey, 2005). Similarly, students should be motivated to participate in classroom discussions through communication. The need to communicate effectively for students in an inclusive setting includes the need to be accepted — to fit in, make friends and be liked (Shultz, 1988). Some strategies that teachers can adopt to motivate communication among students are: 1) through the use of ‘inclusive language that avoids ethnocentric tones – for example ‘family name’ rather than last name and ‘given name’ rather than ‘Christian name’ (Barker, Frederiks & Farrelly, 2009); 2) referring to students by their names as much as possible and by asking to address them in the way they prefer; and 3) correct pronunciation of names as it demonstrates cultural awareness and respect. To enable teachers to apply these strategies, Florian (2012) acclaims the need for teacher education to consider students’ increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in classrooms.

Actively discourage classroom incivilities: Students are very sensitive to teacher’s actions and teacher’s treatment of them. Teachers should be careful not to ignore or neglect the needs of their students. For example, when answering questions, teachers should ensure that every student’s response is considered and that teachers do not favour one group over another. Priority should be given to protect against cultural exclusion and insensitivity through effective communication to display mutual respect and support student diversity. An effective way of providing support is ‘when practitioners (teachers) plan activities with all children in mind, recognizing their different starting points, experiences, interests and learning styles, or when children help each other’ (Booth, Ainscow & Kingston, 2006, p. 7). One benefit of planning activities to support the participation of all children is to reduce the need for individual support. Hence, when mass participation is encouraged, inclusion becomes effective.

Encourage open, honest and respectful inclusive class discussion: Teachers can create an inclusive atmosphere in the classroom by letting students take turns when

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expressing their own opinions and also by encouraging them to consider listening to the views of others. Another way to encourage class discussion is by inviting students to respond using open-ended statements such as, would anyone like to give a different answer or opinion?

The above discussions make it clear how inclusive education can be influenced by cultural perspectives. Research has shown that culture, specific to a place or a region has always played a larger role in the conceptualization and implementation of inclusive education (Booth & Ainscow, 2016; Webber & Lupart, 2011). Accepting children with disabilities particularly in schools has never been an issue in Bhutan. A study on Bhutanese teachers’ perception on inclusion and disability by Drukpa and Kamenopoulou (2017, p.10) ascertained that Bhutanese teachers’ ‘understanding of inclusion was compatible with the broader view of inclusion as the elimination of all forms of discrimination and with the rights-based/social model approach’. Nevertheless, it needs to be pointed out that inclusion in schools in Bhutan still focuses mainly on children with disabilities (Chhetri, 2015; Dorji, 2015) which is aligned with the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994).

Within every school there exists a culture that includes beliefs, values and the school’s own ways of doing things within its community (Carrington, MacArthur, Kearney, Kimber, Mercer & Morton, 2012). When such perspectives are respected, there is more support towards inclusion and when inclusion becomes a practice, it encourages higher levels of interaction than segregated settings (Cologon, 2013). For many countries in South Asia like India (Antil, 2014; Sanjeev & Kumar, 2007; Singal, 2005) Nepal (Khamal, 2018; Regmi, 2017), Sri Lanka (Wijesekera, Alford & Guanglun Mu, 2018) Bangladesh (Ahsan, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012) and Bhutan (Dorji, 2015; Kamenopoulou & Dukpa, 2018) where the concept of inclusive education is still new, consideration of socio-cultural contexts remains a challenge in the successful implementation of inclusive education.

To some extent, the term ‘inclusive education’ has been plagued by conceptual confusion, ideological struggles, and a lack of national and local policies (Slee, 2008). Despite the emphasis laid by Article 24 of CRPD in promoting education of children with disabilities through inclusion, there are some draw backs and many countries continue to face the challenges of defining the meaning, purpose and content of inclusive education. As discussed, despite several international assertions that promote

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equal educational opportunities, research has found that “the levels at which inclusive education is practised are still far from acceptable” (Hunt, 2011. p, 461). As a consequence, not many systems or schools are implementing inclusive education effectively, despite having adopted the philosophy of inclusive education in policy documents decades ago (Allan, 2011). Some researchers, including Deku and Ackah- Jnr (2012) and Vlachou (2004) have claimed that many researchers have failed to recognize the broader contexts of inclusion and more emphasis is placed on describing the paradigm of special education rather than inclusion. Given the above argument, it becomes increasingly important to identify and describe the essential components of inclusive education, particularly in specific culturally-diverse contexts.

2.4 COMPONENTS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Despite the confusion around inclusive education, several authors have presented their views on the definition and the concept of inclusion in their work and called for a commitment to inclusive education. To determine the quality and the success of inclusion within schools, various components of inclusive education are recommended (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). These include: adequate funding; inclusive attitudes of school administrators, teachers, staff, and parents; physically accessible infrastructure for wheelchairs and walkers; assistive technology devices; and adaptation of the curriculum to meet the needs and limitations of a diverse group of children. The following section provides discussion on components of inclusive education that have been grouped under two broad categories: supports to inclusive education and the attitude of stakeholders.

Supports to inclusive education: Policy for inclusion, resource allocation, teacher knowledge, curriculum for inclusion Policy for inclusion

For inclusive education to be successful, policy and government support is pivotal. Policy and guidelines for inclusive education are components without which the planning and implementation of inclusive education is challenged. Countries where inclusive education is effectively implemented are guided by well-developed policy on inclusive education. In Australia, there are policies and legislation that state that the country is an ‘inclusive society having inclusive systems and schools’ (Pearce, 2009, p. 101), and all States in Australia have their own policies and related guidelines,

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which are reviewed on a timely basis to ensure consistency in implementing inclusive education practices (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). For instance, the Queensland government’s policy statement for inclusive education states that: “All students benefit, academically and socially, when provided with a high-quality inclusive education” (Department of Education, 2018, p.5). Through this policy, the commitment of the Queensland government to inclusive education means that children and youth across Queensland, from all social, cultural, community and family backgrounds, and from all identities and abilities can: “attend their local state school; learn in a safe and supportive environment; access and participate in high - quality education; and achieve academically and socially with reasonable adjustments and supports tailored to meet their learning needs” (Department of Education, 2018, p.4). Similarly, the New South Wales government in 2018, provided support for more support classes in mainstream schools, however the policy and practice may not always be described as inclusive in New South Wales:

Support class establishments will increase in 2018 at a greater rate than general enrolment growth, consistent with trends in recent years. The trend since 2012 is for the majority of new support classes to be established in mainstream schools. (All Means All, 2018).

It is, however, important to note that despite many countries having legal systems in place, the provision for inclusion of students, in particular those students with a disability is often challenging. For example, Forlin's (2001) argument about notable differences between inclusive education policies across Australia is supported by Cologon (2013), which found that access to an inclusive form of education was denied to many students with a disability. Hence, this requires a comprehensive and coordinated legislative and inclusive education policy. UN CRPD - Article 24 General comment No. 4, emphasized the development of an inclusive education policy framework that would enable “address issues of flexibility, diversity and equality in all educational institutions for all learners and identify responsibilities at all levels of government” (UN, 2006, p.16).

Further, Dixon and Verenikina (2007) found that there are lapses in policies within Australia that hindered good inclusive practice. Also, in China, the inclusive education policy is not well formed due to constraints in resource allocation and poorly equipped in-service teachers in mainstream schools (Deng & Poon-MacBrayer, 2012). Similarly, the absence of consistent government policy in South Korea makes the

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school administrators and teachers incapable of effectively supporting students with disabilities in their classrooms. In the case of Hong Kong, inclusive education is relatively weak because of poor government support. Interestingly, inclusive education in Hong Kong has been the result of public pressure for improvement rather than government policy directives (Poon-McBrayer, 2014).

While Bhutan has yet to develop an inclusive education policy, the government’s draft National Policy on Special Educational Needs (NPSEN) (MoE, 2012) is still awaiting approval. Because of its unrealistic and ambitious plans (Schuelka, 2014), the NPSEN has received critical feedback that has led to further review (Dorji, 2017). Schuelka (2015) argued that one reason policies do not translate to practice is that “the majority of people ... involved in disability service delivery in Bhutan … desire to know the ‘definitive’ best practices, situated themselves in such a way as to believe that answers lay outside of Bhutan, and wanted help from exogenous sources in their implementation of these best practices” (p.89). For instance, McDonald and Tufue- Dolgoy (2013); Sharma, Loreman, and Macanawai (2016) claim that a policy agenda is often dominated by outsiders when borrowed from international policies or driven by foreign aid, and local stakeholders have minimal say. Hence, policy transfer as described by Steiner-Khamsi and Stolpev (2006) often creates a huge gap between policy talk and policy action. Also, some researchers argue that borrowing education policy not only includes best practices but is often unsuitable for the needs of the donor receiving country (Dorji, 2008; Schuelka, 2015; Zangmo, 2018). Thus, the process of translating policies into practices has not been straightforward and requires critical identification of barriers within the local context (Sharma, Armstrong, Merumeru, Simi & Yared, 2018).

However, discussing inclusive education, Carrington, Tangen and Beutel (2018) “contend that while the fundamental principles of inclusive education are international in origin, they are also often consistent with local imperatives that support greater equity in education for marginalised groups of children” (p.2). Therefore, once the NPSEN has been approved by the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) and implemented, things can be expected to fall in place and some of the concerns that currently prevail, such as barriers, teacher education, and resources to name a few, will begin to be addressed.

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Hence, for an all-inclusive education system to be realized, appropriate policies must be supported by staff who have the knowledge and skills, to ensure that education supports the needs of all students.

Resource allocation

One of the greatest concerns in realizing inclusive education is the deficiency of resources to effect inclusion. Access to resources in the form of funding is a key component of inclusive education. In terms of funding, support for inclusive education should be allocated on a needs basis rather than based on the labelling and categorization of certain individuals (Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006). For example, in Australia, the government allocates a sizeable amount of its budget to support disability-friendly public transport, opportunities for employment and the implementation of inclusive education for greater inclusion in mainstream society (Bualar, 2013; Graham & Phelps, 2003; Hofer, 2001; Stancliffe, 2014). Another example is seen in the provision of teacher aides as a form of support where more of these positions have been funded within schools across the country (Boyle et al., 2011; Westwood, 2018). On the other hand, South Korea’s efforts in implementing inclusive education have been hindered because the government does not provide either an adequate budget or extensive teacher education programmes on inclusive education (McLeskey et al., 2012; Wook Kim, 2014). Likewise, in Malaysia inclusive education has been slow-moving where “current resources and structure in the MOE is still not adequate to provide education for all students with disabilities in the mainstream ... it might be a while before inclusive education is a mainstay of education in Malaysia” (Wah 2010, p. 106).

Resource allocation for inclusive education in Bhutan has been a major challenge identified by a number of studies (Chhetri, 2015; Subba et al., 2018). As outlined in the Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014–2024, there are many difficulties in the full implementation of MoE and of inclusive education programmes in schools across the country. This is primarily due to the lack of adequate funds for resources such as infrastructure, support services, and expertise to deal with children with SEN (MoE 2014). An article in the Bhutanese newspaper, The Bhutanese recently discussed the subject of resourcing:

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The only inclusive school in Thimphu, Changangkha Middle Secondary School (CMSS), is in need of specialized teachers and a separate budget for the education of the special needs students. (Usha Drukpa, 14 September 2019)

This is a typical instance of Bhutan’s inclusive school facing a lack of resources in terms of budget and specialized teachers for effective teaching. The principal of the school reported that:

The school does not have a separate budget required to purchase appropriate teaching materials, facilities and equipment for the special needs classes. The school has to also spend money in something as small but necessary as lamination of the chart papers so that the children do not tear them off or even eat it. It is expensive to run such an inclusive school. They need to have toilets which suit them – accessible toilets for them, which is not in the school. There are eight types of disabilities among the 63 children, and not even one teacher is specialized in any particular disability, stated the principal. (Usha Drukpa, 14 September 2019)

While schools aim to accommodate all children enrolling in school, educating children with adequate resources remains a challenge. Therefore, as stated in the draft National Education Policy, resource allocation needs to be considered and given a high priority for inclusive education (MoE, 2018).

Teachers’ knowledge about inclusive education

Teachers’ knowledge about inclusion is equally important. Support in the form of teacher expertise to teach in inclusive classrooms (Bechham & Rouse, 2011; Forlin, 2010, 2012), their willingness to accept all students (Woodcock, Hemmings, & Kay, 2012) and their ability to handle the pedagogical challenges raised by inclusive education (Crawford 2002; Slee, 2010; Westwood 2018) can make an inclusive education programme successful. The highest impact on student learning in inclusive classrooms is the quality of teaching (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). It is therefore necessary to increase the knowledge of teachers about educating children in inclusive classrooms to make the educational setting more inclusive. In other words, both the why and how of inclusive education should be provided to teachers with best practice instruction (Anderson & Boyle, 2015).

Curriculum to support inclusion and classroom management

According to UNESCO, curricula based on difficult and inflexible content resulted in the isolation of students with disabilities (Sharma, Simi, & Forlin, 2015). Inclusive education as a system of supports should be flexible.

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The flexibility of curriculum in inclusive education must be reflected in the methods and materials used to give students access to the regular curriculum as widely as possible (Chakraborti-Gosh, 2017). The success of inclusion occurs when children are offered equal and accessible educational opportunities to learn in the classroom. Therefore, it is vital that the curriculum supports inclusion based on the consideration of the particular needs of all children besides those that require SEN (LaPierre, 2008).

A school curriculum needs to ensure it meets the needs of all learners. According to Lo (2007), the general understanding is that the mainstream school curricula should be appropriate for all students, but whether and how the curricula are adapted to the needs of student’s learning needs is a matter of concern. He argues that “equity does not mean uniformity” (p.52) in the context of inclusive education. For every individual student to achieve successful learning outcomes, it is imperative to provide the required support to students to enable them to fully participate and make progress within the general education curriculum or other inclusive activities. Incidentally, Tait and Mundia (2012) reported that one of the major features of curriculum reformation in Brunei was on improving equity in participation and access to quality inclusive education programmes in regular classrooms. To this end, they stressed that equity in inclusive education can be achieved by providing teachers with skills to adapt the curriculum to offer ‘positive inclusive education outcomes’ (p.68).

Inclusive education places both high and profound demands on teachers. However, the way inclusive education teachers interpret the curricula must be considered. For students to participate in and benefit from the general education curriculum, the roles and responsibilities of teachers, paraprofessionals, and related service providers should reflect the provision of support and services towards inclusive education (Colon, 2013). This can be achieved through team collaboration, support from teacher aides, learning support assistants, paraeducators, special support officers, inclusion support aides, special needs assistants, paraprofessionals, or teacher assistants.

Teaching in inclusive classrooms is also supported through the curriculum approach of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) which helps in reducing barriers and at the same time increasing access for learning. Originally used by architects in developing accessible building codes in America, ULD was gradually adopted in the field of education to better support accessibility for all learners (Courey, Tappe, Siker

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& LePage, 2012). UDL is a curriculum framework that provides multiple and flexible options for teachers to effectively teach a diverse group of students (Samuels, 2007). It is based on three main principles described below that was advocated by the Centre for Applied Special Technology.

Representation refers to giving learners different options of acquiring information and knowledge. Multiple ways of representation can be deployed to design curriculum materials so that a greater number of diverse learners have access (Courey, Tappe, Siker & LePage, 2012). For example, Ralabate (2011) suggests various options for representation such as converting into video captioning and video description, audio text or vocal directions matched with printed representations, images, diagrams and animations to interpret content, colour and shading for emphasis and pre-teaching opportunities for new vocabulary and concepts. Teachers could also use other ideas like posing questions to activate students’ prior knowledge of the subject being taught and making interactive demonstrations.

Expression and action refer to encouraging students to use different ways of demonstrating what they know. When teachers give options to students to communicate in different ways, both teachers and students benefit (Courey, Tappe, Siker & LePage, 2012). For example, in addition to the traditional practice of writing a paper or completing a written examination, learning can be demonstrated through interviews, paired voice with visual displays, building a model, developing a video or power point presentation (Jimenez, Graf & Rose, 2007).

Engagement – involves motivating students to learn by stimulating their interest (Rose & Meyer, 2006; Rose, Meyer & Hitchcock, 2005). These could done by providing students with a choice of topics for projects and paired peers to share small- group activities (Ralabate, 2011). One advantage of attracting students into learning through engagement is it helps to reduce their anxiety levels (Spencer, 2011).

Research suggests that by applying the principles of UDL ‘teachers not only make their lessons more accessible to learners with special needs but make them more interesting for all their students’ (Spencer, 2011, p.18). With the shifting of focus toward appropriate instruction for ‘all’ learners rather than just for special needs, UDL as a curriculum framework has the potential to promote inclusive education.

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The attitude of stakeholders towards inclusive education Attitudes are important and influence basic aspects of human life. Our attitudes are made up of feelings, likes, dislikes, behavioural intentions, thoughts and ideas. In addition to providing support for inclusive education, the attitudes of stakeholders, such as the government, communities, media and professionals (school principals, policy makers, teachers, pre-service teachers, parents and support providers) towards inclusivity have been identified as closely tied to the success of inclusive practices (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; UNICEF, 2013). As much as knowledge and skills are required for the effective implementation of inclusive education, the importance of having a positive attitude towards inclusive education must not be undermined (Pearce, 2009).

When considering if inclusive education has been successful, Graham and Sweller (2011) indicate that a key issue is not that it has failed, but rather that ‘a narrow, instrumentalist view as to the purposes of education in a modern society continues to prevail – preventing the reconceptualization of schooling that a rapidly growing number of students so clearly require’ (p. 951). While discrimination and social exclusion within communities exist and will continue to remain (Loreman, 2011; Slee, 2013), it cannot be assumed that everyone living within a community values a just and fair society (Rawls, 2001). The risk, therefore, is that until attitudes among stakeholders begin to change, little will change in the lives of children, particularly those with disabilities, making it difficult for inclusion to take place (UNICEF, 2013). Accordingly, Article 24 of the UN CRPD (General Comment No. 4) clearly states that all children have the right to inclusive education and that attitudinal barriers must be removed (UN, 2006). The CRPD recognizes inclusion as the key to achieving the right to education, which according to UNICEF (2006, p.1) is “the first legally binding instrument to contain a reference to the concept of quality inclusive education.” In Article 24, Comment No. 4, there is a specific reference from the international community to ensure the right to inclusive education that involves transforming culture, policy and practice in all formal and informal educational environments (UNICEF, 2006). This accommodates the different needs and identities of individual students, as well as a commitment to remove the barriers that impede this possibility and attitude.

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Similarly, when cultural differences are not valued and considered, it limits the acceptance of certain groups of children in mainstream schools. This is where the cultural competence of stakeholders comes into play. Cultural competence refers to a personal capability comprised of attitudes, values and beliefs (Mason, Benjamin, & Lewis, 1996; Weaver, 1997) that helps an individual to understand and appreciate, interact and communicate effectively with sensitivity, with individuals from different cultural backgrounds (Martin & Vaughn, 2007). Sims (2011) states that “cultural competence requires more than an awareness of Indigenous culture, but a willingness to engage with heart as well as mind; an engagement many service providers find difficult given the mismatch between Indigenous and non-Indigenous cultures on fundamental beliefs around children, child-rearing and the roles of parents and community” (p.11).

While the road to attitudinal change is a complex and difficult one, the need to educate all in society on the benefits of inclusive education is crucial. There is evidence to suggest that the level of education among stakeholders influences their attitudes towards inclusion (Stahmer, Carter, Baker & Miwa, 2003). As such, teacher attitudes towards inclusive education are vital. One way of developing positive attitudes is through the knowledge of policy for inclusive education.

Teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education The research on the value systems of teachers is interlinked with the study of attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education. Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion are often centred on practical concerns rather than moral opinions. Their attitudes may also be driven by their urge to implement inclusive education. According to LaPierre (2008), teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion are key variables during the implementation of effective inclusive educational procedures. The positive perception of teachers regarding inclusive education is far more likely to result in the fulfilment of the goals of inclusive educations. The key goal of inclusive education is based on the provision of equal educational and social opportunities to all students within a school. However, teachers’ negative perceptions regarding inclusive education can result in the creation of gaps between students with disabilities and their teachers. As per the findings of Liasidou (2016), a majority of teachers believe that access to adequate knowledge and skills related to inclusive education is important and can assist them in handling educational problems and challenges strategically. In other

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words, one of the main barriers that could influence the practice of inclusive education is represented by teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. While positive attitudes towards inclusion can influence teachers, negative attitudes can lead to the rejection of learners in inclusive classrooms (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002).

Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education are generally based on concerns about how inclusive education can be implemented. Some common practical concerns raised by teachers include: limited training and competence in supporting inclusive educational practice; the time demands of students with disabilities (Carrington, MacArthur, Kearney, Kimber, Mercer & Morton, 2012) concerns about the quality and quantity of the work output of children with disabilities; and a lack of adequate support services (Hemmings & Woodcock, 2011). In addition, teachers’ resistance to supporting inclusive education is due to their lack of experience and appropriate skills to help students with diverse backgrounds (Tait & Mundia, 2012).

Teacher experience is a key variable linked to teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion (Wilkerson, 2012). Teachers with experience working with students with disabilities tend to have more positive attitudes toward inclusion than teachers without experience (Avramidis, Bayliss, & Burden, 2000). More specifically, teachers who have several years of experience in inclusive practices hold more positive attitudes toward inclusion than teachers who are yet to implement inclusionary practices. Teacher attitudes towards inclusive education are also associated with teacher education. In order to develop positive attitudes for successful inclusion, teacher education is vital. Hollins (2011) identified teacher education as one of the main factors that promote positive attitudes for inclusion. Moreover, the severity of disability is inversely related to teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. When a child with a severe disability is in the class, teachers tend to have less positive attitudes which subsequently affects inclusion (Forlin & Chambers, 2011). Thus, the type of disability also appears to influence teachers’ attitudes. For example, Boer, Pijl and Minnaert (2011) found that teachers generally are more supportive of including children with physical and sensory disabilities in their class, rather than those students with intellectual, learning and behavioural disabilities.

Teacher education within the field of inclusive education is positively related to teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students within their classroom settings. According to Sharma, Simi and Forlin (2015), in-service training is the main

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component of the inclusive education process which can increase development of teachers and help them to continue to work successfully and confidently with students. There is an existing unrealised potential of teacher preparation programmes in contributing to the improvement of teacher capacity in implementing inclusive education. That is, teachers who work in inclusive schools can also benefit from ongoing professional development (such as workshops). This ongoing learning can assist teachers in adjusting to working with a variety of children with SEN and disabilities in their classrooms. It was also revealed by Lynch, McCall, Douglas, McLinden, & Bayo (2011) that while teachers may show agreement with the basic ideals of inclusion and consider it a standard to be sought after, they may not believe it is possible in practice. That is, teachers may feel that they do not have required training and adequate skills, or may feel due to time constraints and insufficient resources that they are unable to put inclusion ideals into practice effectively.

According to Meijer, Soriano and Watkins (2007), inclusive education is based on welcoming all students to attend regular classes in schools as appropriate for their age, and supporting them in learning, contributing and participating in all fields of the school life. Inclusive education also reflects development and design of classrooms, schools, activities and programmes, so that all students are able to take part in learning together. These schools welcome all children with severe or mild, apparent or hidden disabilities. A number of studies have shown the impact of the severity and extent of children’s disabilities on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. For instance, a study by Subban & Sharma (2006) showed that teachers are often inclined toward preferring to work with students with particular types of disabilities over others. Generally, teachers find it challenging to include children experiencing behavioural or emotional disability in mainstream educational settings. Moreover, they perceive that children with behavioural and emotional disabilities are able to trigger greater problems for teachers compared to students who have other sorts of disability. Rieser (2008) reports that that teachers who work with children with various behavioural issues and disabilities argue that these children make it challenging for teachers to control classroom behaviour.

A study conducted by Hardy (2012) examined environmental factors that impacted on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. The study showed that provision of various support services for teachers resulted in more positive attitudes toward inclusion. The key support service included particular teaching strategies and learning

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content for students with wide-ranging disabilities. The study revealed that when proper teaching materials and relative supporting services were provided to teachers, it stimulated them to adopt inclusive practices and develop positive attitudes toward including students with disabilities in their classrooms. In this way, it can be seen that teachers working within inclusive schools require support from headteachers, SEN students’ parents, government, and other stakeholders in the educational sector. According to Saqr and Tennant (2016), there is a need to motivate and support teachers within mainstream and special education classrooms so that they can be more reflective related to their personal practice and an expert with respect to efficient teaching methods and modified programmes. This in turn will meet the needs of wide- ranging students within regular classroom setting. However, in order to make inclusive education successful, the teacher must invest time in discussing with teachers and parents within and outside the school, in preparing material and making lesson plans (Thaver & Lim, 2014).

Recent studies from some countries in South Asia have concluded that teachers’ attitudes influence the practice of inclusive education (Ashan, Deppeler & Sharma, 2013; Sharma et., 2013). A significant factor impacting teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education is their lack of appropriate skills to help in the classrooms (Tait & Mundia, 2012). In Bhutan, “negative attitudes of change agents such as teachers and principals, and other relevant stakeholders can be seen perhaps as the most challenging issue” (Sherab, Dorji, Dawa, Lhamo, Thapa & Tshomo, 2015, p. 9). While attitudes towards children with disabilities is one of the most challenging problems to address or to change (Giffard-Lindsay, 2007), Sherab, et al’s (2015) research on implementing inclusive education in Bhutan suggest that school principals could be a great source of motivation to motivate teachers to develop a positive attitude towards inclusive education. This is especially crucial in the context of Bhutan where initial teacher education for inclusive education is currently minimal. School principals can play a vital role in educating teachers about their inclusive roles. One example of how school principals can be helpful in educating teachers in their schools is provided in Sherab, et al’s (2013) study on the implementation of Gross National Happiness Education which indicated that a “Principal had played a significant role in convincing the two participants about the vision and potential of GNH education” (p. 11).

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Similarly, a cross-cultural study of teachers’ attitudes in inclusive education in Finland and South Africa by Savolainen, Engelbrecht, Nel and Malinen (2012) found that teachers were more positive at a general level towards children with disabilities but were more critical towards the idea of including children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Based on their findings, the researchers argued that teacher education needs to be enhanced by introducing principles and practical implementation strategies of inclusive education for pre-service teachers. There is evidence to show that when teachers are trained appropriately, both their attitudes and their teaching efficacy beliefs are enhanced (Loreman, Sharma, Forlin & Earle, 2005; Sharma, Shakuat, & Furlonger, 2015). According to Unianu (2011), there are several factors which influence teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education; these include: “the degree of children’s difficulties, the nature of children’s disabilities, the teachers’ experience with children with SEN, the trust in their own capabilities to implement inclusive activities, or the expectations towards the children no matter what are the differences between them, the curricula” (p. 901).

According to Clough and Lindsay (1991), the positive effect of teacher attitudes regarding inclusion occur as a result of the teachers’ increasing mastery of the skills developed to teach students with a wide range of abilities and backgrounds. Therefore, there is a positive correlation between teacher competence and more positive attitudes. Furthermore, the authors argue that the development of positive attitudes among teachers resulted from teachers’ developing competence. This however, meant that teachers needed to be relatively well-supported through their career.

In summary, most research on teacher attitudes towards inclusive education has highlighted teachers’ inadequacy of knowledge and skills to address the diverse needs appropriately. Hence, teachers feel unprepared for inclusion. Although some studies found that experience did not improve teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion, several studies concluded that teachers developed more positive attitudes following their experience of working with students with disabilities. Hence, the current study sought to gain an insight into how self-efficacy and attitudes of teachers is related to perceptions about inclusive education for students with SEN and disabilities in Bhutan.

The next section looks at the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards inclusive education from the point of view of their experience during pre-service training to further inform graduate teacher attitudes.

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Pre-service teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education Improving the knowledge of pre-service teachers and their confidence in inclusive education alone is not sufficient in cultivating a positive attitude towards inclusion and reducing related anxiety. As stated earlier, it is evident that there is a gradual decline in positive attitudes towards inclusion in pre-service teachers as they advance in their training years or after completing their pre-service course (Sharma & Nuttal, 2016). It is possible that an increased awareness of the challenges one is likely to face when including all students with disabilities might dampen teachers’ openness towards being inclusive.

Different factors affect the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards inclusion within mainstream classes. According to Causton-Theoharis, Theoharis and Trezek (2008), positive attitudes of pre-service teachers towards inclusion are based on their experience with students who have SEN and thus pose challenges for their teachers. However, as opposed to this, a study by Thorius (2016) showed no interlink between pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion and their experiences with children who are disabled or have SEN. Hence, as per the conclusion, pre-service teachers’ attitudes depend on their negative or positive experience with disabled children.

Furthermore, it is found that pre-service teachers show positive attitudes towards inclusion when they have a high perception of their competency, high self-efficacy, or are highly confident in terms of teaching students with SEN. This shows that the development of self-efficacy is based on knowledge about inclusion, which subsequently allows pre-service teachers to adopt appropriate teaching strategies within an inclusive classroom setting. In this way, they develop confidence, and thus, they openly accept and support inclusion.

Another key variable associated with pre-service teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education is gender. Several researchers reported that female pre-service teachers have more positive attitudes towards inclusive education than male pre- service teachers (Ahsan, Deppeler & Sharma, 2013). A study in Australia by Woodcook (2008) and another study in Israel by Romi and Leyser (2006) found that in both countries female pre-service teachers showed more positive attitudes towards inclusive education than male pre-service teachers. These findings were supported by another study conducted by Forlin, Loreman, Sharma and Earle (2009) that compared pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education in four countries; Australia,

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Canada, Hong Kong and Singapore. In the above study, female pre-service teachers from all four countries showed more positive attitudes towards inclusive education when compared to their male counterparts. However, there are other studies that provide differing and opposing research. Some studies (Carroll, Forlin & Jobling, 2003; Haq & Mundia, 2012) concluded that there was no significant relationship between participants’ gender and their attitudes towards inclusive education. A study of Pakistani pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education revealed that “the pre-service male teachers held more positive attitudes towards inclusive education in comparison to their female counterparts” (Sharma, Shaukat & Furlonger, 2015, p. 102).

Similarly, it was found that when pre-service teachers were introduced to a compulsory module on diversity, it promoted an inclusive attitude (Forlin, Loreman, Sharma & Earle, 2009). To some extent, course length, another variable to pre-service teachers’ attitudes seem to influence their attitudes towards inclusion. For example, Rademacher, Wilhelm, Hildereth, Bridges and Cowart’s (1998) study in the United States found that pre-service teachers who completed two-semester courses had positive attitudes when compared to others who completed short courses. However, Savolainen et al. (2012) argue that even short-term training for teachers can have positive effects on their attitudes. When pedagogies that combine formal training and hands-on experience in inclusion were put in place, it improved teachers’ preparedness and positive attitudes towards inclusion (Forlin, 2003; Campbell, Gilmore & Cuskelly, 2003). A study on Bhutanese teachers’ perspectives on inclusion and disability by Kamenopoulou and Dukpa (2017) found that some teachers who had experience working with children with disabilities reported an increase in positive attitude towards the principle of inclusion. Through such experiences, pre-service teachers are also able to develop better understandings of the potential of children with disabilities, and to develop a strong focus on inclusive education (Campbell et al., 2003). However, there is currently little research that explores the attitudes of Bhutanese pre-service teachers towards inclusive education. This study therefore provides a timely addition to the literature and to our understanding of the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards inclusion in Bhutan.

In summary, pre-service teacher attitudes are important factors that influence the success of inclusive education. Researchers have argued that teacher education

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programmes must be strengthened as teachers’ attitudes to and understanding of inclusion have been shown to change after specialised training or further studies (Cologon 2012; Costello and Boyle 2013; Lawson, Norwich, and Nash 2013; Sharma et al. 2013; Cameron and Jortveit 2014).

2.5 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION DEGREES

The incorporation of inclusive education in teacher education degrees is a significant strategy in encouraging education for all populations including students with disabilities in society. This type of programme is essential since it should prepare the teacher to be a knowledgeable and skilled educator who is able to work with people with special needs in their line of duty. Inclusive education is a growing element and Duke (2009, p.2) has addressed its history; this includes the phases of ‘ignoring, segregation, integration and the current inclusion’. Pupil population in schools continues to be more diverse with children from different backgrounds and with different educational needs, hence the need for teachers to be equipped with relevant knowledge and skills that will enhance inclusivity. This section addresses the issue of inclusive education in teacher education degrees illustrating the significance of teacher education, curriculum development and teaching practice in preparing teachers to be inclusive educators.

Teacher education for inclusive education The significance of teacher education for inclusive education has been clearly pronounced by the United Nations (2006) and was highlighted during the World Declaration on Education for All (UNESCO, 1990). Teachers constitute a determining factor in the implementation of inclusive education. However, inadequacies in teacher education, (discussed in the following sections) particularly focused on inclusive education is becoming an obstacle to the successful implementation of inclusive education (Brown, Packer & Passmore, 2013; Shaddock, 2006). In addition, a teacher shortage for inclusive education also makes the progress of inclusive education difficult. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa statistics show that the teacher/pupil ratio in this region is increasing due to the growth in the number of students. For example, while the regional median ratio in 2004 was 46 pupils to 1 teacher, Ethiopia had a ratio of 70:1; and Chad, Congo, Malawi, and Mozambique had a ratio of 60:1.

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Similarly, reports from developing countries suggest that there are serious problems in respect of teacher education and pedagogy within the schools (Armstrong et at., 2009). While it was found that some teacher colleges and universities provided a more advanced level of educational opportunities, a majority of the institutions need to reconsider their teaching training strategies (discussed in the following sections). Research findings suggest that teacher education for inclusion has become an area of international debate (Forlin, 2012). For example, Article 24, Comment No. 4 of the UN CRPD reported that education for children with disabilities was marginalized in many countries and the same article urged all-inclusive education providers to commit and align their understanding of the implications of an inclusive education system to achieve an integrated approach and work collaboratively towards a common goal (UN, 2006). One of the measures indicated above to uphold the commitment recommended in Article 24, Comment No. 4 was to forge partnership with teacher education colleges to train all teachers in inclusive classrooms. Teacher education is therefore a fundamental area of development in inclusive education that must be improved by all countries (UN, 2006; UNESCO, 1990).

In Australia, international declarations and statements have been localized to set minimum requirements for teacher preparation (Berlach & Chambers, 2011; Forlin & Forlin, 1998). For example, universities must demonstrate that the content of their teacher education programs fully address those standards for their programs to be accredited (Forlin et al., 2013). Furthermore, in Queensland and New South Wales, all teachers are mandated to complete a module in special or inclusive education (Subban & Sharma, 2006). Nevertheless, despite operating under the same national legislation, inclusive education in Australia has been implemented in different ways in the States and Territories, resulting in inconsistent levels of educational outcomes for students (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). This has also raised concerns about the competencies of pre-service and beginning teacher (Hemmings & Woodcock, 2011).

The success of an inclusive ideology in schools partly depends on the quality of teacher preparation (Bechham & Rouse, 2012; Forlin, 2010). Woodcock, Hemmings, and Kay (2012) observed that some teacher education courses offered too little and/or failed to address key aspects of inclusion. Similarly, a review of inclusion advocacy work in 26 countries conducted by Modern, Joergensen, and Daniels (2010) found that inclusive education programmes were being practiced in the absence of strong policy

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environments and teachers lacked specific training in inclusive education. Teacher preparation programmes that are inadequate are also susceptible to producing graduates with a poor understanding of the skills and capabilities for the implementation of inclusive education (Kozleski & Waitoller, 2010). Notably, a number of studies have found that pre-service teachers were apprehensive about their ability to teach in inclusive classrooms (Hemmings & Weaven, 2005; Loreman, 2010; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). For example, Winter’s (2006, p.88) study that involved new teachers in Northern Ireland reported that “the majority of the participants (89%) said that, overall, their initial teacher education programmes did not prepare them to teach in inclusive settings”. Similarly, Das, Kuyini and Desai (2013) reported that nearly 70% of Delhi’s (India) school teachers had neither received training in special education nor had any experience teaching students with disabilities. Likewise, teachers in Bhutan are also in a comparable situation in that they teach in inclusive classrooms with basic and limited pre-service training for inclusive pedagogies and practices (Chhetri, 2015; Dorji, 2015). This is discussed in detail in Chapter 6 – Section 6.3 and Section 6.6.

Inadequate preparation can be blamed for poorly effective teachers (Forlin, 2010a). Forlin & Chambers (2011, p.18) suggested that between 25% and 40% of newly graduated teachers burn out or quit teaching within their first 3-5 years of service especially due to poor initial preparation. According to Forlin & Chambers (2011, p.26), good training and preparation of teachers have a strong link to increased knowledge, confidence and positive attitude towards inclusive education. Appropriate legislation is thus a supplement to adequate teacher trainee preparation.

Support and provision for better preparation of teachers for inclusive education have become a major focus in education in many countries. To this effect, Laarhoven, Munk, Lynch, Bosma, and Rouse (2007) contend that universities have placed pressure on their faculty and course designers to prepare new teachers for teaching in inclusive classrooms. In line with this, there are concerns about the competencies required by teacher educators. Forlin (2012, p.7) argues that “to assume that teacher educators are able to provide relevant training by using innovative and applicable approaches, without themselves having received any such preparation, is rather unrealistic”. She contends that “those who are charged with the business of preparing teachers for inclusion” (p.7), must be appropriately trained in the first place. Therefore,

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restructuring teacher education programmes both at the content and lecturer level are widely recommended to prepare pre-service teachers for inclusive settings (Hettiarachchi & Das, 2014; Sharma, Shaukat & Furlonger, 2015).

Conversely, many regions around the world are yet to bring changes to their system to prepare teachers for inclusive education (Forlin, 2012). For example, Srivastava, Boer and Pijl’s (2015, p. 221) study in India found that “available teacher education and in-service programmes do not really prepare teachers for inclusive education”. In Vietnam, “almost none of them [teacher education colleges and universities] provide inclusive education courses either through an infusion mode or as a separate course” (Forlin & Nguyet, 2010, p.36). Similarly, Bhutan is yet to introduce a formal course in inclusive education in its pre-service teacher education programme (Dorji, 2015).

Teacher education for inclusive education must be comprehensive to accommodate the changing needs of students and the education system as a whole (Forlin, 2012). The demand for teachers to be inclusive educators will continue to increase due to growing diversity within classrooms that can be associated with globalization. Teacher education must be restructured to ensure that teachers are prepared for this demand for inclusivity and ensure that the educational outcome for each child is maximized (Forlin, 2014). Sharma and Sokal, (2015, p.276) have outlined three special elements that need to be addressed to support preparation of inclusive educators. These include teachers’ attitudes, their concerns about inclusivity and their efficacy. Hence, teacher education must equip pre-service teachers with positive attitudes towards inclusion, address their concerns and improve their efficacy (Sharma & Sokal, 2015).

Further, the need for professional development of teachers is directly proportional to the rising accommodation of children with SEN in inclusive schools. For example, in Australia, there is an existing explicit demand from the professional teaching institutions regarding compensation of apparent shortcomings in training and continual professional growth of teacher education within special education setting. According to the Australian Association of Special Education, training courses must offer the required competencies to beginning teachers if they want to provide a quality educational program to students with SEN (Jacob, 2005). Once graduated, administrators and teachers are required to continue to develop their values, knowledge

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and skills in an organised manner so that they can guarantee that all students will benefit from instruction and curriculum practices as per the principles of validated research.

Based on experiences in other countries and cities, Birmingham City Council in England has supported inclusive strategies within its schools through funding in teachers’ continuing professional development courses (Wearmouth, 2001). Encouragingly, opportunities such as these for enhancement of teaching competencies are highly sought after by the majority of teachers in England. A study by Kim (2010) showed that a higher number of teachers apply for such opportunities than there are available places. Furthermore, the study also showed that job retention is higher for teachers who get to participate in these professional development opportunities. Hence, it is fair to say that the competencies of teachers based on their skills, knowledge and qualification must be prioritised in order to implement successful teaching methods for children within inclusive classroom settings. Thus, the perception of these teachers as capable educators for children with SEN gets strengthened when the utmost priority is given to the examination and development of teachers’ additional pedagogical skills.

In Bhutan, teachers are “lacking in knowledge and competence to teach children with disabilities in mainstream regular classrooms” (Dorji, 2017, p.11; Dukpa, 2014; UNICEF, 2014). They are not adequately prepared in their pre-service education regarding inclusive education. Their most significant learning about inclusive-teaching strategies begins after they start teaching in inclusive classrooms. They use a trial-and- error method for learning through their personal experiences, which is a time- consuming approach (Chhetri, 2015). In fact, teachers perceive the teacher education programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms in different ways (Chhetri, 2015). Teachers are aware that the teacher education programme has areas of improvements as it needs to focus on knowledge and skills needed for inclusive education. It is important to note that teaching in inclusive classrooms is a greater challenge than in a class with students with matched abilities. Inclusive education emphasizes on the competence of the teachers, their social skills and their self-efficacy. However, many teachers in Bhutan who teach in inclusive schools have limited skills on teaching and managing children with disabilities (Sherab, Dorji, Dawa, Lhamo, Thapa and Tshomo (2015). They are therefore required to go an extra

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mile as individual teachers to find their own ways of conveying knowledge to the students in ways that they did not learn in the teacher education programme due to the diversified needs of the students (Chhetri, 2015). More details about the lack of teacher preparation are explained through the data in Chapter 4 and 5 with further discussion in Chapter 6.

Currently, in Bhutan, there are only a few studies that explore the situation and practices of teachers within inclusive classroom settings including their professional development. This gap is addressed in the current research and needs to be further studied because the enhancement of teacher’s preparation for inclusion is a key requirement, enabling them to face challenges efficiently when teaching in inclusive schools.

Curriculum and pedagogy for inclusive education The curriculum used in teacher education institutions needs to reflect the actual meaning of inclusion. Forlin (2010, p.8) suggests that a whole faculty approach, which encourages inter-curricular collaborations could be essential in implementing inclusive education training. It is argued that whole faculty approach is more in-depth to allow for new educational demands and encourage societal and political commitments in enhancing inclusivity. Courses on inclusion must be incorporated in all education training disciplines and not separately as special training (Forlin, 2010, p.8). All teachers will be supported to become inclusive educators who are in demand for the current generation. Forlin (2010, p.9) also suggests that the competency and efficacy of teachers in implementing inclusive education can be enhanced by equipping them with appropriate skills in pedagogy. For instance, choosing the appropriate curricular materials and incorporating teaching practice in their curriculum. In addition, training institutions must be front-runners in advocating for inclusive education by alleviating attitudes that support exclusion in the way they select those who want to train as teachers.

There is a range of considerations when deciding which ways are best to educate pre-service teachers about inclusive education. Research has found that teacher education reform regarding inclusive education needs to move beyond embedding special education courses into the existing programmes and provide pedagogy that supports teachers (Ahsan, Deppeler & Sharma, 2013; Slee, 2010). Furthermore, the progress towards inclusive education may have been compromised by the structure of

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special schools, where inclusive and special schools are often conflated and thought to be the same inaccurately (Slee, 2011). Therefore, as discussed earlier, it is crucial to understand and distinguish inclusive education from special education.

The above assertion is a point of interest for this research. For example, when the inclusive education programme was initially introduced in Bhutan, it was implemented without much teacher preparation (Chhetri, 2015). This is one reason why many Bhutanese teachers lack skills and knowledge in inclusive education (Dukpa, 2014). Another important finding in Chhetri’s (2015) study was that many teachers in Bhutan have difficulty in comprehending the concept and principles of inclusive education, thereby influencing their commitment towards inclusive education. However, it should be noted that inclusive education programme was implemented as part of the special education focus. Even today, the term special education has been used by many people in Bhutan to mean inclusive education.

There are a number of considerations when deciding which ways are best to educate pre-service teachers about inclusive education in terms of pedagogy and curriculum of inclusive teacher education programs. Broderick, Mehta-Parekh & Reid (2005) state that in preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms, teaching about diversity and race, class, ethnicity and ability should be an integral part of the curriculum. This is further supported by Watkins and Donnelly (2012) who state that “preparation of teachers must maintain academic rigour, ‘educating’ rather than ‘training’ teachers” (p. 200). For example, two strategies were recommended by the Commonwealth of Australia (2016, p.71): one was to “prioritize the development of a national approach to curriculum modification for students with disabilities” and the other was “professional development support for teachers to ensure that all students are supported to learn to their full potential”. The above strategies are in line with The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians 2008 where, “teachers will use the Australian Curriculum to develop teaching and learning programmes that build on students’ interests, strengths, goals and learning needs, and address the cognitive, affective, physical, social and aesthetic needs of all students” (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2019). Similarly, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (discussed in section 2.6) recognizes that curriculum is developmentally appropriate, where teachers need to plan activities that include

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what students can learn from each other and not just focus on what children are can do on their own (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Importance of teaching practice in inclusive education Equipping pre-service teachers with knowledge on inclusive education alone is not an effective way of implementing the inclusive education agenda. Sessions of teaching practice as well as continuous professional development programmes are essential in the development of inclusive educators (Sharma & Sokal, 2015). Professional development allows teachers to collaborate, partner and connect with other stakeholders to ensure that they become confident and competent. As illustrated by Forlin (2010a), teaching practice gives an opportunity for teachers to engage with people from different backgrounds hence a change in attitude towards inclusion. Teaching practice and professional development also enhance teacher efficacy in inclusive classrooms (Sharma & Sokal, 2015). Most teachers prefer direct teaching experiences, as well as in-service training as a mechanism of equipping them with inclusion education (Forlin, 2010). This illustrates the need for connecting teacher education institutions with relevant schools to ensure that teachers become competent.

Research has queried teachers’ preparedness and their ability to handle the pedagogical challenges raised by inclusive education (Forlin, 2012). It has been argued that many faculties and schools of education are not preparing teachers adequately to practice inclusive education (Hickling-Hudson, 2004). As a result, many teachers do not have the required knowledge and skills to teach in inclusive classrooms (Office for Standards in Education, OFSTED, 2008). Since teachers have a responsibility in making inclusive education a success, there is a need to find ways to improve teachers’ pedagogical skills through pre-service teacher preparation.

Evidence suggests that for inclusive education programmes to succeed, it is imperative that teachers are appropriately trained and have adequate knowledge about principles, theories, concepts, and practices in inclusive education (Forlin, 2012; Forlin, Cedillo, Romero-Contreras, Fletcher & Hernandez, 2010). Today, most countries and states adopt approaches to developing an inclusive school system that focuses on teacher education. Some systems, especially in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA), require newly-qualified teachers to learn to work in inclusive classrooms through cooperation, partnership, and co-teaching with their colleagues (Forlin, 2012; Gerber, 2012). Similarly, teachers in Manitoba Canada

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are required by the Province of Manitoba to complete a 30-hour contract course in special education with a practicum in an inclusive classroom, while undertaking five years of study in order to become certified teachers (Sharma & Sokal, 2015). Likewise, countries such as China, Malaysia, Israel, Sri Lanka, and Thailand have made adjustments in their teacher education programmes so that teachers are prepared to work confidently in a dual system of mainstream and special schools (Avissar, 2012; Forlin, 2012; Hettiarachchi & Das, 2014). Israel, in particular, has required inclusive education in all initial training courses following its special education legislation that mandated the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream education in the mid-1990s (Al-Yagon & Margalit, 2001).

Having provided a literature review about inclusive education, the role of teachers, and teacher preparation, the next section outlines the theoretical framework that has guided this study of preparing teachers for inclusive schools and classrooms in Bhutan.

2.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THIS STUDY

In social research, a theoretical framework is important because it enables researchers to identify why and how variables may relate to each other (Thompson, Fisher, Purcal, Deeming & Sawrikar, 2011). Moreover, a theoretical framework allows for changes in variables to be taken into account. There are three main variables of interest in this study; ‘understandings about inclusive education’, ‘teacher preparation for inclusive education’ and ‘self-efficacy in inclusive teaching’. The overall aim of this study is to examine the current perspectives of Bhutanese pre-service and beginning teachers about inclusive education as well as teacher education for inclusive education; and to assess the challenges faced by pre-service teachers in Bhutan.

Psychological and sociological research has informed this study with regard to the factors that influence pre-service and beginning teachers’ perceptions about inclusive education. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (1997) has often been used, especially in investigating the factors that influence teachers’ willingness to implement inclusive practices (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007; Klassen, Tze, Betts & Gordon, 2011). Similarly, when interpreting a learning situation, Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory (1981) attends to the broader social system in which learning occurs. The lens of socio-cultural theory is considerably wide and allows interpretations to be drawn

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Verbal persuasion is defined as ways that lead to the modification of self- efficacy. Bandura (1997) asserted that people can be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Examples of verbal persuasion include rewards and positive statements. Equally, constructive feedback is important in developing and maintaining a sense of efficacy that can help overcome self-doubt. If people are persuaded to believe in themselves, they are determined to make extra effort to increase their chances of success. Therefore, when other people encourage and convince you to perform a task, you tend to believe that you are more capable of performing the task.

Physiological and emotional cues are defined as an emotion that shows a person’s thinking about his/her performance related to a task (Payne-Van Staden, 2015). The psychological and emotional state of teachers in the inclusive classrooms can be studied in relation to their social interactions with students to understand how aspects like energy, enthusiasm, stress and anxiety can lead to certain outcomes (Bandura, 2009). In addition, children with SEN require more attention and care which calls for level of self-efficacy in their teachers.

Moods, emotions, physical reactions, and stress levels also determine how an individual feels about his/her personal abilities. People judge their own self-efficacy by how they perceive their anxiety level in different situations. For example, if someone is extremely nervous, he/she may begin to doubt, and develop a weak sense of self-efficacy. Likewise, if someone is confident and feels no anxiety or nervousness at all, the person experiences a greater sense of self-efficacy. For this reason, being able to control anxiety may have positive impact on self-efficacy beliefs.

The self-efficacy theory proposes that any learning activity is likely to occur where there is a close identification involving the one observing and the model. This also depends on whether the observer has significant self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Consequently, self–efficacy here denotes the degree to which a person believes that he/she can comprehend a specific skill (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008). Self-efficacy beliefs act as an essential group of proximal determinants that affect human motivation and action. Self-efficacy operates on the action by motivation, cognitive, and intervening affective procedures (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008).

Bandura’s (1997) theory can be suitably applied to consider how a teacher’s sense of efficacy in pre-service teacher training develops, particularly during their

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practicum in schools. The experiences that highlight the successes or failures and ones that are expected to generate a simulated classroom tend to have a stronger effect on the teacher’s sense of efficacy growth (Manuel & Arias, 2007). This can be attributed to the fact that such experiences encountered in simulated classrooms offer genuine evidence that either qualifies or disqualifies the pre-service teacher’s confidence that they can accomplish the tasks assigned to them (Helms-Lorenz et al., 2012). Thus, by independently teaching within a class setting or assisting an experienced teacher in organising relevant group work, teachers’ self-efficacy is significantly developed. In this context, the practicum also provides the teacher with various opportunities to implement their learning in the teacher education course and to align this with their vicarious experiences.

Generally, by carefully observing experienced teachers in classes, pre-service teachers get real and beneficial opportunities to model such learning activities. This is particularly important for the development of self-efficacy whereby experienced teachers may be observed in a real classroom setting. As a result of learning by observing (watching experienced teachers), it helps the pre-service teachers to overcome the challenges and to adapting to prevailing situations (Helms-Lorenz et al., 2012). Additionally, vicarious experiences can be hypothesised as a way to attain a more significant influence on self-efficacy. This is especially the case when the pre- service teachers have insignificant previous experience particularly in the areas to be evaluated. Where the practicum experience is carried out under a mentor teacher who acts as a supervisor at the placement school, the mentor becomes instrumental in ensuring that there is verbal persuasion.

Bandura (1988, 1989) argues that human behaviour can be controlled through self-regulation, which involves four steps: self-observation, self-evaluation, self- reaction and self-efficacy. First, through self-observation, one keeps track of his own actions by looking at himself and his behaviour. Observing can also be used to assess progress towards one’s attainment goal as well as to motivate behavioural changes. There are two ways of performing self-observation: regularity and proximity (Redmond, 2016). Regularity is a process through which behaviour can be continually observed, whereas proximity means that behaviour should be observed when it occurs, or shortly after. Second, self-evaluation is the comparison of an individual's current performance with a desired performance, which is affected by the standards set and

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the importance of the goals. Schunk and Zimmerman (1994) state that goals must be specific. When goals are precisely set, they help to specify the amount of effort required for success and boost self-efficacy because progress is easy to gauge. Similarly, when individuals achieve their goals, they are encouraged to continue to exert a high level of effort, since sub-standard performance will no longer provide satisfaction (Bandura, 1989). Redmond (2016) identifies two types of self-evaluation standards: absolute and normative. A grading scale would be an example of an absolute standard and a social comparison such as evaluating one’s behaviour or performance against other individuals is an example of a normative standard (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). The third, factor that controls human behaviour is self-reaction. When people achieve a goal, they are likely to re-evaluate and raise the standard (goal); whereas, if they fail to achieve the goal, they are likely to re-evaluate and lower the standard (goal) to an achievable goal (Bandura, 1989). Finally, self-efficacy is another important factor related to human behaviour. Self-efficacy indicates people's judgements about their own capability to perform particular tasks.

According to Bandura, self-efficacy defines the belief associated with a person's capabilities to form and perform certain courses of action needed to manage likely situations (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008). Bandura with other researchers discovered that a person’s self-efficacy is important because it plays an important role in determining how the person approaches the goals, tasks, and challenges. Individuals with high self- efficacy are more likely to believe they can master challenging problems and they can recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments. Consequently, people who have low self-efficacy are often seen to be less confident and mostly fail to believe that they can perform optimally. Consequently, such people will always avoid challenging tasks because they lack the confidence and motivation to surmount the challenge (Manuel & Arias, 2007). Therefore, self-efficacy is central in ensuring that a person adjusts his/her behaviour performance. Those observers with a high level of self-efficacy have a higher probability of adopting observational learning behaviours.

In this context, self-efficacy is developed or increased in a number of ways by mastery experience, denoting a process that can assist a person to accomplish simple tasks that eventually contribute to more complex objectives. Additionally, through social modelling, the learner has access to a recognisable model showing the processes that need to be undertaken to achieve a desirable behaviour. These experiences must

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be intended at improving physical and emotional states whereby such a person can rest and relax before attempting a new behaviour (Friedman & Kass, 2002). In this context, the less relaxed a person, the less patient they are, and hence most likely such a person will not be capable of attaining the goal behaviour. Often in modelling self-efficacy, the element of verbal persuasion is also critical. It denotes the provision of encouragement to a person to ensure that he/she completes a task or attains a particular behaviour (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008).

For example, using a classroom context, it can be noted that students put more effort, are more active, pay more attention, become highly motivated and consequently better learners if they recognise that their mastery level is attained for a particular task (Manuel & Arias, 2007). It, therefore, becomes a critical role for the teacher to ensure that the student can recognise in their efficacy. Providing such students with feedback that will help them to appreciate their degree of proficiency will help to attain this. As much as teachers must ensure that their students are gaining knowledge and strategies needed to complete their tasks, these teachers too need self-efficacy to enhance their proficiency in working in their classrooms (Friedman & Kass, 2002).

Bandura’s self-efficacy theory is used within this study to explore verbal persuasion and mastery experiences within the responses of pre-service teachers regarding an inclusive classroom setting. For example, the concept of verbal persuasion was used to show how pre-service teachers’ beliefs and attitudes can be modelled within an inclusive classroom. Similarly, enactive mastery experiences will be used to explain how pre-service teachers and beginning teachers are prepared in order to teach in inclusive schools. These two areas of verbal persuasion and mastery contribute to this study. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory is used for this study in Bhutan because it provides a framework to address the research question, i.e. what strengths and weaknesses do pre-service teachers feel the current teacher education program in Bhutan has, in relation to preparing them to teach in inclusive classrooms? By using this theory, pre-service teachers’ and beginning teachers’ perceptions of their teacher education was recorded and analysed.

Self-efficacy, derived from Bandura’s social cognitive theory, is the belief in one’s ability to perform the behaviours required to produce a desired outcome and this is considered to be an important determinant of behaviour change (Bandura, 1977). Mastery experiences, persuasive types of social impacts, and social modelling

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strengthen and develop self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy is therefore a major consideration in the development of a person’s attitude. In order for this change to occur, teacher preparation programmes should address the benefits to increasing pre- service teachers’ self-efficacy regarding their own abilities to teach in inclusive classrooms. This can be done by encouraging “pre-service teachers to co-teach with others: mentor teachers, university supervisors, or other pre-service teachers” (Drawdy, Deng & Howerter, 2014, p.259).

Since the inclusion of children with diverse educational needs is viewed as being at “the heart of education policy and planning throughout the world” (Savolainen et al., 2012, p. 51) the need for pre-service teachers to acquire knowledge, skills and self- efficacy to teach in inclusive settings is necessary (Raphael & Allard, 2013). In recent years, teacher efficacy has been shown to impact on the willingness and confidence of teachers when working in inclusive classrooms (Woodcock, Hemmings, & Kay, 2012). Thus, it is argued that pre-service teacher education is a key factor in preparing teachers to overcome challenges related to an inclusive classroom environment and building higher levels of efficacy (Hsien, 2007).

Cramer, (2014) highlighted that studies regarding pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs about teaching in inclusive schools are still limited. While research on teacher efficacy has been carried out in Western countries, such research in a non-Western context is limited (Sharma, Loreman & Forlin, 2011). However, there is a growing body of literature from the educational field on how beliefs, concerns, teacher efficacy, self-efficacy and attitudes influence behaviour and teachers’ actions in classrooms.

Individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms in different ways that include; willingness to teach, confidence, positive attitude, preparedness, kindness and courtesy (Bandura, 2009; Sherab et al., 2015). The willingness of teachers to work is linked with high self–efficacy and this increases their motivation to perform. Willingness is also seen in the emotional state of teachers where positive emotions contribute to high self-efficacy. Pre-service teachers can demonstrate self-efficacy by striving to reduce stress and anxiety. Confidence is demonstrated through credible communication tools to convey the relevant learning information and for feedback. This is a good way to guide the students and ensure that they understand fully. Preparedness of a teacher is seen through mastery of the subject and having the necessary readings and tools that will

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enhance learning. Lastly, teachers must incorporate kindness and courtesy as they teach as these values make it easier for students, especially those with disabilities, to grasp the lessons better (Schuelka & Maxwell 2016).

The Socio-Cultural Theory

The socio-cultural theory proposed by Russian psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, theorised human development through collaborative learning such as “participation in culture, linguistic, and historically formed settings such as family life, peer group interaction, and institutional contexts like schooling, organized social activities and workplaces” (Figure 2.4) (Lantolf, Throne & Poehner, 2015).

Figure 2.4 Model of Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory

Vygotsky believed learning was happening because people were interacting with the environment and engaging with more knowledgeable others. Vygotsky was of the opinion that learning was not simply a matter of memorisation and retention of the information disseminated by the teachers to the learners. Rather, it was the process by which the students are integrated into the broader community of knowledge (Daniels & Hedegaard, 2011). The socio -cultural theory is used to describe contextual awareness of where people live and how their actions are affected by their

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environment, social and cultural factors including race, gender and nationality (Vygotsky, 1981, 1987). The socio-cultural theory, therefore, looks into the influence of culture on developments of the people experiencing it. It states that people’s behaviours and how they learn are based on their environment as they grow and develop. Social interactions play a major role in the development and understanding of social concepts by interacting with individuals of the specific culture and thus becoming part of the perception of an individual.

According to Vygotsky (1981), human development happens twice. Firstly, it happens on the societal plane and then at the level of the individual. The first development happens by means of socialization which an individual receives primarily at the familial level and then at the school, among the peers and through other channels of socialization. On having developed a degree of intellectual development on the basis of the socializations received, the individual tends to analyze and interpret situations that he or she comes across in his or her daily life. Therefore, socio-cultural theory states that human nature consists of vast potential, which is formed within natural bounds through direct and vicarious experience, also proposed by Bandura’s self- efficacy theory (1997).

Socio-cultural theory also demonstrates that people do not show a simple response to environmental influences. Instead, they seek and understand surrounding information energetically in developing their knowledge. Hence, this theory highlights the role of social experience, observational learning and mutual determinism in a personal development process to acquire knowledge (Martin, McCaughtry, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2009). To this end, Vygotsky (1987) discusses two ways in which an individual through spontaneous development can attain knowledge: 1) implicit; and 2) explicit. Implicit knowledge is appropriated from participation in an unconsciously occurring community’s incidental everyday activities and involves a lot of interaction and interpretation. It is therefore deeply rooted in action, commitment and involvement (Nonaka, 1994). On the other hand, explicit knowledge is more formalized and is learned primarily through deliberate and systematic instruction such as formal education.

Learning has its basis in interacting with other people (Vygotsky, 1987). Once this has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual level. The socio-

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cultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place. Hence, the importance of culture assumes a central and important position in Vygotsky’s (1981) theorization as he explained that the social factors are central to human’s developmental process. Culture’s importance lies in the fact that it prescribes a certain way of life and behaviour, and language becomes the medium through which culture details, as well as knowledge, are transformed (Daniels, 2008). In Vygotsky’s view, knowledge is socially constructed from several factors such as interacting with others. Hence, knowledge derivation is a social construction, and so is knowledge acquisition (Daniels & Hedegaard, 2011). One of Vygotsky’s (1978) key contributions was the concept of “zone of proximal development”. He stated that:

the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers (p. 86).

In summary, the socio-cultural theory is an appropriate tool to support data analysis and the analytical insights in the following sections.

Socio-cultural Theory and its relevance to inclusive education

The social-cultural theory is relevant to inclusive education and teaching as it recognizes the uniqueness of individuals in terms of culture and ability to learn and encourages sensitivity to the diversity. The socio-cultural theory informs this study, its relevance to inclusive education and how it can be blended with self-efficacy theory to understand teachers’ competencies.

Vygotsky (1981) argued that the cultural factor assumes an important part in shaping a person’s value predispositions. Socialization has a profound effect in shaping the extent to which individuals are likely to change their value predispositions (Daniels & Hedegaard, 2011). Teachers with negative attitudes towards disability that have come from their primary socialisation (e.g. family and community beliefs) may change their attitude if they interact more and more with SEN students or even after receiving better teacher preparation and professional development to support disability awareness (Stephen & Stephen, 1984). The teacher educator should help pre-service teachers to develop an attitude of respect and sensitivity to different cultures and

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religions. Thus, it becomes quite clear that Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory is useful in addressing the research questions in the current study.

The socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of the interactions of students and teachers while self-efficacy is the self-belief in one’s abilities of performance which goes beyond the competencies of teachers in the inclusive schools (Ormond, 2006). In seeking to understand teaching competencies in inclusive schools, socio-cultural theory can complement self-efficacy theory in several ways. First, Vygotsky’s (1978) emphasis on language and socially constructed learning (Murphy, 2014) aligns with Bandura’s (1971) notion of social persuasion and vicarious learning (Nicolle & Dolan, 2011). For example, both social persuasion, vicarious learning and social constructivism can help explain situations in which the performance of teachers is reviewed by experienced mentors or colleagues.

Teachers’ efficacy Teacher efficacy is defined as convictions and beliefs of teachers that inspire or encourage the unmotivated student to lean efficiently (Silverman & Davis, 2009). Teacher efficacy is significant based on its cyclic nature, i.e. teachers must put great effort in the case of high-level efficacy. Accordingly, better results in terms of improved performances are achieved which assist in the provision of key information so that high-efficacy beliefs can be formed. Teacher efficacy beliefs are found to relate to teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with diverse needs in regular schools (Ahsan, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012; Gao & Mager, 2011). Teacher-efficacy is a major predictor of teachers’ competencies and commitment to teaching and self- efficacy plays a major role in how teachers approach their tasks and challenges (Bandura, 1997; Silverman & Davis, 2009).

Considering that teacher efficacy is closely associated with teacher effectiveness and that this seems to have a positive effect on the students’ success, attitude, and emotional growth, it is important to consider the development of efficacy beliefs amongst teachers. Generally, experienced teachers are privy to various sources of information, which also include sufficient mastery experiences that are important in the development efficacy (Friedman & Kass, 2002). However, potential and beginning teachers generally may not have had the opportunity to experience mastery, which often will not occur until after they have attended their teaching practicum in a school.

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In such a context, they will most likely also receive emotional stimulation as well as verbal persuasion. This will most likely be in the form of performance feedback by their supervisors, classroom teachers, and peers (Manuel & Arias, 2007).

Teacher efficacy has grown out of self-efficacy based on the provision of teacher education and relative experiences. However, when experienced teachers face new challenges in terms of teaching within a new inclusive setting, they often need to reassess their efficacy beliefs. Additionally, it must be noted that teachers’ efficacy is based on a particular context. It means that there exists a possibility that teachers might feel efficient while teaching particular subjects to specific students under particular settings, but consider themselves inefficient within different scenarios (Dyson & Gallannaugh, 2007).

The research on teacher efficacy is categorised into two parts. During the initial era of the 1970s, an American non-profit analysis and research institution, RAND (Research AND Development) conducted a questionnaire based on two additional items related to teacher efficacy. Teacher efficacy is divided by RAND into two aspects, namely the personal teacher efficacy and the general teacher efficacy. The general teacher efficacy scale shows beliefs of teachers about the ways in which they can influence students’ learning generally. On the other hand, personal teacher efficacy relates to a particular and personal belief of teachers about their personal teaching’s efficacy (Grace, 2014). The second type of teacher efficacy research is known as the “Bandura strand”. It defines teacher efficacy as a form of teacher self-efficacy. Several researchers such as Cramer (2014) have studied the impact of numerous circumstantial and demographic factors on self-efficacy of teachers. In this present study, teacher efficacy has been defined using Bandura’s theorisation of self-efficacy. This supposition is justified from the findings of Bowlin (2012), according to which efficacy must be theorised as self-efficacy, i.e. a multi-dimensional construct. This holds true across numerous cultural settings and countries. The dimension of teacher self-efficacy normally ranges from 3 – 6 dimensions, such as classroom management, motivation and engagement in students, instruction, and cooperation with parents and colleagues.

Teacher self-efficacy is a self-regulatory and a wide physiological belief system which affects the behaviour of teachers, especially their performance in a pedagogical setting. It is also defined as a personal belief and self-perception of a teacher, and

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judgement or conviction of his/her capability and ability to perform various tasks. These include affecting personal teaching behaviour either positively or negatively; planning, organising and executing activities in order to accomplish set educational outcomes; enhancing performance of the learners efficiently by supporting them in completing assigned tasks and acquiring learning-based required skills and knowledge (Malinen, Savolainen, Engelbrecht, Xu, Nel, Nel, & Tlale, 2013).

As per Bandura’s theory, self-efficacy is based on four key sources, as discussed above, i.e. vicarious experiences, mastery experiences, physiological and emotional states, and social persuasion. Vicarious experiences are gained by teachers when they observe the performance of their colleagues while teaching in an inclusive classroom. Verbal persuasion is an interactive manner on the basis of which a teacher receives verbal feedback about her/his capabilities, which assists her/him in mastering assigned tasks and role. Emotional and physiological states are related to the feelings of excitement and anxiety which reflects incapability or competency of a teacher regarding mastering the given tasks. The information retrieved from any of these four sources of efficacy influence the individual. However, the received information is not enough for the transformation of efficacy beliefs. The information gathered from the aforementioned sources have an impact on perceived self-efficacy when it includes both reflective thinking and cognitive processing. Among these four sources of self- efficacy, the most powerful source is mastery experiences, because they offer reliable evidence of required performance to gain success. Nonetheless, people who gain success might easily assume quick outcomes are always possible, and become hopeless when problems are encountered. This shows that self-efficacy beliefs can also be gained when obstacles are experienced and overcome by people via perseverance and great efforts (Gao & Mager, 2011).

It is generally assumed that the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers is strongly affected by emotional states, social persuasion, and vicarious experiences, while mastery experiences are typically only possible during teaching practicums in schools. Conversely, it is supposed that these sources play a minor role in the case of experienced teachers who have gained mastery experiences. Furthermore, research indicates that efficacy beliefs of experienced teachers can remain static despite new training programmes being offered (Schuelka & Maxwell, 2016). This supposition is justified by another study by Woodcock (2011) who conducted a random study in

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which the classroom management dimension was affected to a small extent by the professional development programme. The study findings showed no substantial difference between the control and treatment group in other dimensions, i.e. efficacy in using instructional strategies and engaging students.

In the context of inclusive education, teacher self-efficacy correlates with teacher attitudes towards including students with a disability in their classrooms (Sharma, Loreman & Forlin, 2012). In addition, research with pre-service teachers reveals different levels of self-efficacy, and that pre-service teachers with a high level of self- efficacy generally have positive attitudes towards inclusive education, more enthusiasm for teaching (Gao & Mager, 2011; Mergler & Tangen, 2010) and they are likely to try harder to help all students to reach their potential (Pendergast, Garvis & Keogh, 2011). Other studies have indicated that the level of teaching-efficacy demonstrated by pre-service teachers is directly proportional to pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education (Meijer & Foster, 1988; Sharma, Loreman & Forlin, 2011; Weisel & Dror, 2006). In addition, an earlier study by Chang, Early and Winton (2005) found that a lack of practical teaching experience led to teachers demonstrating lower levels of self-efficacy. As a result, teachers are less likely to try harder to reach the learning needs of all their students. Therefore, it can be concluded that it leads to enhanced self-efficacy when a teacher performs effectively. On the other hand, if a teacher fails, it leads to a decrease in self-efficacy (Pendergast, Garvis & Keogh, 2011). How can these findings be related, or what do they mean for Bhutan? Do teachers in Bhutan have a strong feeling of efficacy for inclusive teaching? To date, no studies have examined Bhutanese teacher self-efficacy beliefs for inclusion. This study works to (partly) address this gap in the research by investigating teachers’ self- efficacy for inclusion.

What does Bhutan imply by all these results? Do Bhutanese leaders and educators have a strong feeling of effectiveness for GNH education? Do they think they have sufficient capabilities in their learners to inculcate GNH values? Depending on demographic factors such as gender, age, qualification, service status and nationality, school level, size and place of the college, do efficacy rates differ? Despite a large body of efficacy research in the Western culture in different academic environments, the effectiveness of education for GNH values by principals and educators remains unexplored To date, no studies have examined Bhutanese teacher

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self-efficacy views for inclusion. This study operates by exploring the self-efficacy of educators for inclusion to partly resolve this research gap.

Pre-service teachers’ efficacy Pre-service teachers’ perceived efficacy influences both the kind of environment that they create as well as their judgements about teaching (Bandura, 1997). The concern about pre-service teacher preparation for inclusion, and the generally positive findings relating to the effect of experience on attitude, provides a rationale for examining the findings from the current study through the lens of pre-service teacher self-efficacy.

Currently there is growing interest in studying pre-service teachers’ feelings of self-efficacy in implementing inclusive education and about their ability to educate students in an inclusive setting (Sharma, Loreman & Forlin, 2012; Carmer, 2014). Research conducted by Weisel and Dror (2006) among 139 primary school teachers in Israel found that teachers’ sense of self-efficacy was a strong predictor of their attitude towards inclusion. They found that teacher preparation was often associated with more positive attitudes towards inclusion. Other studies have also indicated that self-efficacy beliefs are indeed connected to attitudes when considering inclusion (Savolainen et al., 2012; Weisel & Dror, 2006).

There is an existing vast literature that has examined efficacy beliefs of pre- service teachers related to their ability of educating students with disabilities within an inclusive classroom setting. A study conducted in China by Malinen, Savolainen, and Xu (2012) showed that pre-service teachers mostly have high efficacy beliefs related to their ability to educate children with SEN. Another research with 1623 pre-service educators in Bangladesh by Ahsan, Sharma & Deppeler (2012a) revealed similar findings. The findings showed high efficacy beliefs of Bangladeshi pre-service teachers related to their ability of educating SEN students within an inclusive classroom setting. Two important factors were highlighted in this research: 1) educators who had prior experience with children with disabilities and interacted with individuals with disabilities showed greater teaching efficacy than those who did not; 2) understanding of local legislation on inclusive education led to the development of greater self-efficacy among pre-service educators.

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Also, a sample population comprised of efficacy beliefs of 1,155 Israeli pre- service teachers as per their ability of educating disabled students (Romi & Leyser, 2006). The results also revealed that pre-service teachers have higher views of their personal teaching efficacy than of their ability to educate students with disabilities within an inclusive classroom setting. This empowered the pre-service teachers to view inclusion with positive attitudes. Likewise, Gao and Mager (2011) also measured efficacy beliefs of 216 pre-service teachers regarding their ability of educating disabled students. Their study revealed similar findings to that of Israeli pre-service teachers described above. Pre-service teachers demonstrated high efficacy beliefs about their ability to teach in the general classroom, which in turn motivated them improve their attitudes.

Making reference to self-efficacy theory is significant given the concerns expressed about the fact that many teachers in inclusive schools in Bhutan have not received adequate training (Chhetri, 2015) which then affects their efficacy beliefs (Beacham & Rouse, 2012). RQ3 gathered data through class observation to demonstrate pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. The understanding of pre-service and beginning teachers about inclusive education in Bhutan is that it is a big challenge as the students have different abilities and this also includes limited abilities in the children with disabilities. They therefore understand that the demand on them as teachers is greater. They also understand that there is pressure in the education system of Bhutan to follow rigid curriculums and syllabus (Sherab, et al., 2015). The analysis provided an understanding of how prepared the pre-service teachers were to teach in inclusive schools. In addition, data collected from beginning teachers through open- ended questionnaires provided additional evidence to support the findings in this study.

Relationship between pre-service teachers’ and teachers’ efficacy beliefs Recently the focus of teacher self-efficacy studies has shifted from whether teachers can cope within an inclusive classroom to teacher self-efficacy about what strategies are best to ensure success (Hastings, 2012; Holzberger, Philip, & Kunter, 2013; Yilmaz, 2011).

The link between teacher efficacy and pre-service teacher education is an important factor when considering teachers’ sense of efficacy (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008). When teachers are confident with pedagogical content knowledge, they feel more efficacious in implementing instructional strategies and classroom management

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(Yilmaz, 2011). Similarly, pre-service teachers who are trained and have experience show higher efficacy beliefs than those without training or experience. For example, pre-service teachers enrolled in Pakistani special education programmes were found to have higher levels of teaching self-efficacy than those who were enrolled in general education programmes (Sharma, Shaukat & Furlonger, 2015). Likewise, a comparative study conducted in Bostwana and Ghana revealed that pre-service teachers from Botswana had slightly low concerns (in other words, slightly high levels of teaching self-efficacy) about inclusive education due to the fact that pre-service teachers in Botswana were more confident as they had the opportunity to specialize in specific areas, while their counterparts in Ghana received teacher education that was more generic (Kuyini & Mangope, 2011). Hence, these findings suggest that participation in specialized education programmes provided pre-service teachers with skills to work effectively in inclusive classrooms that ultimately could have improved their teaching efficacy scores.

Further, Savolainen et al’s. (2012) study in South Africa focused on the preparation of teachers for inclusive education through the recent changes in teacher education program. Their study concluded that after the South African government enhanced pre-service teacher education by including development of classroom skills, with specific reference to skills in behaviour management in classrooms with diverse groups of students, teachers in general had a stronger belief in their ability to manage diverse needs and behaviours in their classrooms. The same study also covered pre- service teachers in Finland and South Africa and it found that pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy was the best predictor of attitudes in both countries when pre-service teachers worked in collaboration with other teachers.

The concept of collaborative teaching or co-teaching promotes the practice of two or more professionals teaming up to teach and support the learning of diverse learners within an inclusive classroom (Carrington & Robinson, 2004; Idol, 2006). When pre-service teachers work in collaboration with more experienced classroom teachers, they gain confidence that facilitates inclusion. For this reason, UNESCO (2005) recommends that the teacher education programme needs to promote collaborative work among educators. In addition, Drawdy, Deng and Howerter (2014) contend that collaborative practice will increase the pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms. These findings clearly indicate that in the future pre

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and in-service teacher education programs might need to place more emphasis on collaboration skills in addition to courses on pedagogy and behaviour management.

Recently in the context of inclusion, practice teaching for pre-service teachers has become an integral part of teacher education programmes (Drawdy, Deng & Howerter, 2014). Practice teaching is an opportunity for pre-service teachers to interact with a wide variety of diverse students from all age groups. It is also an avenue for the pre-service teachers to work collaboratively with mentor classroom teachers.

Studies have found that teachers’ levels of efficacy are influenced by their experiences during their pre-service courses (Hoy & Spero, 2005). Pre-service teachers also hold the highest level of teacher efficacy (Durgunoglu & Hughes, 2010; Soodak & Podell, 1997). However, research also suggests that pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs about their ability to teach in inclusive classrooms decreases once they enter the teaching field. In their study, Soodak and Podell (1997) reported that pre-service teachers’ efficacy levels significantly decreased during their first year of teaching. The researchers used an instrument created by Gibson and Dembo (1984) called the Teacher Efficacy Scale to measure efficacy beliefs about pre-service teachers’ ability to teach in inclusive classrooms and was deemed acceptable (α = .70) (Soodak & Podell, 1997). In this study, a decrease in pre-service teacher efficacy never returned to their pre-service teacher levels. They also found that high variations in efficacy levels only existed among primary or elementary school teachers. Overall, their study showed a positive interlink between self-efficacy of teachers, students and teachers’ behaviour, and proved their positive impact on educational system and its advancements. Similarly, Woolfolk Hoy and Burke Spero (2005) involved 53 pre- service teachers in their study, which measured teacher efficacy at three intervals: the beginning of teacher education, the end of teacher education, and after the first year of teaching. Their study found that pre-service teacher efficacy beliefs to teach in inclusive setting gradually decreased upon entering the teaching field.

Looking at the situation in Bhutan, more studies on teachers’ self-efficacy are needed. This study will provide with some information that explains the level of teacher’s self-efficacy. Also, given Bandura’s (1997) assertion that self-efficacy beliefs are most at play in early stages of learning (pre-service teacher education in this study) and that, once developed, are resistant to change, it was important to find their self-efficacy beliefs in teaching in inclusive schools.

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2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has critically reviewed the literature pertaining to teacher education with regards to inclusive education, a perennial issue related to inclusive education throughout the world (Forlin 2014; Copfer & Specht, 2014) and for this reason Forlin (2014, p.10) stated that “teacher education needs to be reframed if inclusion is to become an accepted philosophy for teacher preparation”. The growth of inclusive education worldwide and in the context of Bhutan has been discussed in this chapter. The concept of inclusive education in the wake of ignorance among pre-service and beginning teachers working in inclusive schools around the world has been explored in depth.

After the discussion of educational context, the concept of contemporary educational challenges was examined such as teacher preparation for inclusive education; curriculum and pedagogy for inclusive education; support for inclusive education; and teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching in inclusive classrooms.

The attitude of teachers towards inclusive education was another important topic discussed in the literature review. This was considered crucial because the success of inclusion depended largely on how the teaching fraternity looked at it. Furthermore, the attitudes of relevant stakeholders have been discussed taking into account the important roles they have in supporting in implementing inclusive education.

The literature review used UN CRPD Article 24, Comment No.4 as a basis for understanding the basics of inclusive education, its implementation process and the barriers that prevent successful inclusion. While numerous studies have explored teacher’s self-efficacy, there is a gap in how teachers in Bhutan make sense/meaning of their experiences of inclusion of children with diverse needs in inclusive schools.

Using Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory as a theoretical framework has enabled this study to provide critical findings on how successful or unsuccessful teachers in inclusive schools are in teaching.

The following chapter addresses both the theoretical and practical aspects of the methodology used in this study.

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Chapter 3: Research Design

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter begins with a rationale for the chosen methodology and explains the methods that were used for this research. It also explains how the methods relate to the theoretical framework described in Chapter 2. It describes the design adopted by this research to achieve the aims and objectives stated in Chapter 1, that is, to examine current trends in teacher education for inclusive education, assess the challenges faced by pre-service and beginning teachers in Bhutan while teaching in inclusive classrooms, and their self-efficacy in teaching in inclusive classrooms. To reiterate, the following research questions guided the collection and analysis of the data: 1. What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan? 2. How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher-training programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms? 3. How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?

Section 3.1 provides an overview of qualitative research as the chosen approach for the study, including a section on the position of the researcher. This section also covers discussion on the research design and descriptive case study and explains how and why the chosen approach addresses the research questions. Section 3.2 presents the details of the location of the study site and the research participants. Section 3.3 discusses the various data collection methods used in the study. This section also explains the necessary steps in the implementation of the methodology. The use of documents as a source of evidence is covered in section 3.4. Following this, section 3.5 presents the data analysis. Ethics, limitations and validation are presented in section 3.6. Finally, the summary of the chapter is presented in section 3.7.

In the planning for the current study, the researcher considered his previous research that focussed on ‘Investigating Teachers’ Concerns and Experiences in teaching Children with Special Educational Needs in Bhutan’ (Chhetri, 2015). This

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earlier study, which was carried out using a mixed method, found that most children with SEN were already enrolled in inclusive schools in Bhutan. However, the study found that teachers in Bhutan were not prepared adequately to teach in these inclusive schools. The discrepancy between the much-emphasized inclusive education programme and the programme’s implementation created significant teacher concern. Hence the researcher has already shown a commitment to inclusive education and classroom experience in Bhutan. Further, the researcher encountered and had to reflect on many of the challenges when teaching himself in an inclusive classroom; because at the time he was unaware of alternative strategies that could be used. Additionally, the idea of changing certain lessons that would better meet the learners’ needs had never been explored. The researcher therefore believes that this study will contribute to how pre-service and beginning teachers will be better able to teach students with SEN in an inclusive classroom. In particular, the findings of this study add to the knowledge about preparing teachers for inclusive education in South West Asia, in countries like Bhutan.

Qualitative research In view of the theoretical perspective described in Chapter 2, a qualitative research methodology was selected as the most appropriate approach for the current study. Qualitative research has been defined as the study of “things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.3). In other words, qualitative research involves a well-organized study of the lives, experiences and behaviours of people (Creswell, 2015).

According to the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), qualitative research leads to the development of new knowledge. NHMRC (2014) provides three different recommendations towards achieving new knowledge, including (1) enabling researchers to gain a better understanding of complex concepts or social processes, (2) investigating how communities and individuals interpret and make sense of their experiences, and (3) eliciting contextual data in order to improve the validity of research tools such as survey questionnaires. Such an approach enables the researcher to clarify and refine concepts, and unpack critical relationships, taking into consideration the perspectives of all stakeholders (Merriam, 2009). This insider’s perspective, as Merriam points out, is crucial and is needed to understand the

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phenomenon of interest, which in this case is, ‘teacher education for inclusive education’.

As mentioned, research in the area of pre-service teacher education for inclusive education in Bhutan is lacking, a qualitative research design is appropriate to investigate the phenomena from the perspective of pre-service and beginning teachers. Additionally, qualitative research also allows concerns and understandings of inclusive education to be explored (Merriam, 2009) requiring descriptions of the cultural and social context, which is also an important characteristic of this research.

The current study’s qualitative research approach has three main characteristics, as Creswell (2014) has emphasized. First, this research was carried out in the natural environment in which the participants lived. The case study is focused on inclusive education in Bhutan and the collection of data was carried out in six inclusive schools. The location of these schools can be found in Appendix K. This enabled the researcher to develop a deep understanding of Bhutan’s inclusive education practices and, most importantly, teacher education for inclusive education.

Second, this research used three methods of investigation: focus groups, classroom observation, and open-ended questionnaires. According to Yin (2009), one of the main strengths of qualitative research is the use of different sources of evidence for data triangulation. Triangulation is a method of verifying the validity of a study from a variety of perspectives by analysing a research question (Yin, 2009). The results of focus groups, open-ended questionnaires and classroom observation in this study were compared, as three different sources of evidence to address the research questions in the current study. Also, the use of three different sources of evidence in this study allowed the researcher to address a wider range of issues. For example, focus groups enabled the researcher to find out what classroom teachers in Bhutan think and feel about the topic being studied (section 3.3.1 for detailed interviews). Classroom observation also gave the researcher a better understanding of what was happening in the social and cultural context and gave credence to interpretations of the observation. Similarly, open-ended questionnaires obtained further information and views from respondents, complementing the data from other sources.

Third, while qualitative research is fundamentally interpretative, it enabled the researcher to filter data through the theoretical lens of Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (described Chapter 2), in order to better

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understand teacher education in Bhutan for inclusive education. Thus, the above three qualitative research characteristics allowed the researcher to take a holistic view of teacher education for inclusive education in Bhutan, using participant voices and experiences.

Research design After identifying qualitative research as the overall approach for the current study, the next step was to identity a relevant research design. According to Yin (2018), a research design is the logical sequence, which connects the empirical data to the initial research questions of a study and ultimately to its conclusion. Without the support of an appropriate research design, research can potentially be reduced to an almost mechanical process. The risk is then completing the task of analysis and writing up “without looking at wider theoretical and philosophical concerns that impinge upon the process and outcomes of research” (Carey, 2013, p. 106).

Case study research design is frequently used to obtain a thorough exploration of a problem or phenomenon of interest best performed in its natural, real-life context (Crowe, Creswell, Robertson, Huby, Avery & Sheikh, 2011: Merriam, 2009). Yin (1994) defines case study research method “as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” (p.23). A case study is an important consideration for this study given its focus on developing a detailed understanding of teacher education for inclusion through an exploration of various participants, including pre-service and beginning teachers.

Although some scholars note that the design of the case study has been criticized for its lack of robustness as a research tool (Yin, 2018; Zainal, 2007), many scholars have emphasized the recognition of case studies as an effective way to bridge the gap between theories and practice (Merriam, 1988; Simons, 2009; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2018). This has made case studies extremely popular, as they can be used to explain, describe or explore phenomena in their everyday contexts (Crowe, Creswell, Robertson, Huby, Avery & Sheikh, 2011; Yin 2018). A case study research design was therefore selected to build different types of evidence (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2013; Yin, 2018) to document the views of both pre-service and beginning teachers. The following reasons explain the suitability of the research design for this particular study.

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First, there is very little research in this area in Bhutan, and this study was aimed at exploring the pre-service and beginning teachers’ concerns about inclusive education in Bhutan in detail. Second, this study focused on both pre-service and beginning teachers’ real and current teaching experiences in Bhutan. Finally, fieldwork as part of case study research has helped the researcher understand better how teachers are trained in Bhutan (Yin, 2012). In summary, a case study achieved the study’s objective of exploring the views of participants rather than ‘testing’ variables that might influence their thinking and practice.

In Yin’s (2009) case study exploration, three types of case studies are identified: explanatory case studies, exploratory case studies and descriptive case studies. Explanatory case studies attempt to answer a question explaining the alleged links in real-life interventions. They help to define how and why an experience occurs and identify possible relationships between cause and effect (Yin, 2009). Exploratory case studies are often used to examine situations in which an intervention may not have a clear set of results. This type of case study defines the framework for a future study, which means that “fieldwork and data collection are undertaken prior to the final definition of study questions and hypotheses” (Yin, 2009, p. 6). The descriptive case studies are used to describe a phenomenon that fully highlights the complexities of an experience (Yin, 2009). More importantly, descriptive case studies seek to reveal patterns and links with theoretical constructs, which are often used to answer a series of questions (Yin, 2009).

A descriptive case study was chosen for this study so that the experiences of pre-service and beginning teachers could be studied in depth. In doing so, a descriptive case study allows for the complete description of the context (Merriam, 1998) of teacher education in inclusive education in Bhutan. There were four main reasons for considering a descriptive case study over the other types of case studies. First, a descriptive case study aims to develop an understanding of the complexity of the patterns of behaviour of “whatever bounded system is of interest” (Stake, 1983, p. 283). The researchers identified the boundaries (what is and what is not) and kept them in focus carefully and continuously. It must therefore be pointed out that the main purpose of this research was to develop an understanding of teacher education in Bhutan for inclusive education.

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Second, the descriptive case study was focused and detailed, in which theoretical proposals and questions were based on a phenomenon and the questions were carefully examined and articulated at the beginning (Yin, 2009). Third, because descriptive case study describes a phenomenon and the context in which it occurs in real life (Yin, 2009), for this study, it ensured that the problem was not only examined using one lens, but a variety of lenses that enabled the discovery and understanding of “multiple facets of the phenomenon” (Baxter & Jack, 2008, p.544). Finally, the use of this approach for the current study made it possible to explore a phenomenon in its context through the use of a variety of data sources.

There were both advantages and disadvantages in choosing a case study for the current research. One advantage was that a case study methodology provided a rich source of qualitative information that helped to develop the knowledge base in the field (Merriam, 2009). The use of a case study method allowed a smaller number of participants in order to explore the topic in more detail (McLeod, 2008; Yin, 2009). This approach also allowed some complex concepts to be simplified. Another advantage was the close collaboration between the researcher and the participants that inspired the participants to tell their stories (Crabtree & Miller, 1999). These stories allowed participants to express their views on reality, which helped the researcher to better understand the views and experiences of the participants (Robottom & Hart, 1993).

However, there were disadvantages to employing a case study as not all research methods are similarly possible or even appropriate. In case studies, some consider it to be preliminary research that cannot be used to test proposals, thus they dismiss the credibility of case study (Yin, 2009). Another criticism is that it is difficult to generalize the results from a single case study to the broader population. Further, since one individual collects and analyzes the information, a case study may be subjected to a bias of the researcher (Yin, 2009). Data may be biased because the researcher can be attached to the participants. McLeod (2008) argues that the opinions of the researcher may give the case a bias and predisposition. In the current study the possibility of bias was addressed by regular supervision meetings and discussion about the data analysis over an extended time. Also, conducting case studies is time consuming and can be difficult to replicate.

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Since the current case study depended on the researcher’s analysis, all of the above factors were considered carefully during the study and it can be reported that no major problems were encountered during this case study research. As much as possible when data were collected, the researcher referred back to previous studies in order to build on existing knowledge to ensure that findings were as applicable to real life as possible.

3.2 RESEARCH SITE AND PARTICIPANTS

After identifying and selecting a relevant research methodology (qualitative research) and appropriate research design (descriptive case study) for the study, the next step was to decide where the study would be carried out and who the participants would be. The following sections provide details of the research site and participants.

Research sites There are only two teaching colleges within the RUB (Paro College of Education and Samtse College of Education; discussed in Chapter 1) and, these colleges have similar characteristics: they offer similar professional modules; they follow the same curriculum; they develop collaborative teaching modules; they have a similar examination system (they develop their own assessment/question papers but follow similar pattern); they follow same pattern of teaching practice; they jointly conduct professional development for in-service teachers; and they share human resource, for instance if there is history lecturer shortage at SCoE, PCoE is asked to send one of its history lecturers for about a month (Dawa Dukpa8 personal communication, 16 October 2018; Sangay Biddha9, personal communication, 16 May 2019). This research is defined to some extent by its generalizability among the two teaching colleges. It must also be clarified that despite the commonalities explained above, the two colleges of education also have their own mandates. For example, PCoE has the mandate for training pre-service teachers for primary school and Dzongkha (Bhutan’s national language) language teachers whereas SCoE trains pre-service secondary school teachers. Upon graduation, the pre-service teachers from both the teaching colleges

8 Dawa Dukpa is currently a QUT PhD student. He was the Program Leader - Special Education at Paro College of Education. 8 Sangay Biddha is the Program Leader – Bacheor studies at Paro College of Education. She is the College’s Program Leader for Bachelor Studies.

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are required to teach in inclusive schools. This study therefore was able to examine current trends in the provision of pre-service teacher education in one of the teaching colleges i.e. PCoE and assess the challenges these teachers face, knowing that there would be applicability to the other college.

The MoE provided approval and access to the inclusive schools. Appendix A provides the MoE’s approval letter. A written proposal was submitted outlining the study, a statement explaining the need for research, and strategies to ensure school security and research confidentiality considerations. The current research was carried out in six inclusive schools from the list of approved schools situated in western, eastern and southern parts of Bhutan. Appendix K includes these schools. Three inclusive schools (School A, B and C) were selected for focus group and classroom observations. These schools were situated near each other making it easy for the researcher to travel from one school to another, unlike many schools in Bhutan that are situated in distant regions that are difficult to reach. (Chhetri, 2015; MoE, 2014).

‘School A’ is a Middle Secondary School near PCoE in western Bhutan. After it started to implement inclusive education, parents who were not able to send their children to other schools have been able to enrol them in the inclusive education programme here. Pre-service teachers from PCoE are regularly placed in this school for their teaching practice. School A has been a leader in promoting inclusive education in Bhutan in recent years. The school has resources such as adapted infrastructure and buildings, and some teachers have trained in inclusive education. School A also serves as a training centre for teachers in the field of inclusive education. Similarly, ‘School B and School C’ also introduced inclusive education in western Bhutan, and pre-service teachers are sent there to teach for their teaching practice.

Five inclusive schools were included in the study for the open-ended questionnaire (two inclusive schools from the above group- School A and C and three other inclusive schools- School D, E and F). School B from the earlier focus group was not included in the open-ended questionnaire and this is discussed later in section 3.6. Furthermore, the reason for selecting the schools, from different regions in Bhutan was to collect data from different sources as much as possible. These schools had implemented inclusive education at various stages (different years), and the collection of teacher data in these schools provided different perceptions of how inclusive education is understood and implemented in Bhutan. For example, in implementing

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inclusive education, School D (from the latter group of Schools D, E and F) is the oldest among them while School E implemented inclusive education in 2014 and School F in 201510.

Participants This case study included a small group of pre-service and beginning teachers who shared similar experiences in fulfilling a certain role (preparation to teach and teaching in inclusive classrooms). One reason for using a descriptive case study is because Bhutan is a small country, as mentioned in Chapter 1. The case study method is particularly favourable if the geographical area and the number of participants available are small (Zainal, 2007) and this applied to Bhutan.

The participants in this study comprised of 12 pre-service teachers whose views were studied in depth. The 12 pre-service teachers were selected based on their availability11 from a group of pre-service teachers who were teaching in the selected schools (see Section 3.2.1). Prior to beginning formal data collection, sufficient time was dedicated to the participants (pre-service teachers) to build research relationships based on trust so that they were able to express their views freely and honestly (Creswell, 2015). All participants were selected through convenience sampling.

In addition, 20 beginning teachers were included in the study. In this study, “beginning teachers” are referred to those teachers who at the time of data collection have graduated from the teaching college and worked in inclusive schools. The main reason for including the teacher graduates was that they were taught the Special Education module in their training which at the time of the study was the only training component to prepare pre-service teachers for inclusive education. Hence, gathering data from these teacher graduates offered the researcher a comprehensive view, from the perspective of the graduates of teacher preparation for inclusive education in Bhutan. In total 32 participants were invited to participate and consented to be in this case study. The distribution of these participates can be found in Appendix K depending on the region where they teach.

10 The labelling of schools as ‘A, B, C, D, E and F’ in this study is not chronologically arranged according to the year these schools implemented inclusive education. 11 At the time of data collection, the schools where pre-service teachers were teaching approached their mid-term examination and some pre-service teachers were not available for classroom observation. Therefore, in three inclusive schools (described in 3.2.1) 12 pre-service teachers were selected from the group who underwent their teaching practice.

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3.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Case study research involves multiple sources of evidence in order to develop a thorough understanding of the case. According to Yin (2012), in a case study, the validity and credibility of the research findings are crucial. In this sense, a study conducted via case study research goes beyond the study of isolated variables and “data are likely to come from multiple and not singular sources of evidence” (p.4). Yin (2012) states that one way of ensuring this is through a process called triangulation where different types of data are collected including information that is collected from different participants. Therefore, triangulation is a common and useful strategy to collect qualitative data, whereby different methods and perspectives provide a more comprehensive set of findings that determine the validity, reality, and credibility of research (Gibbs, 2007; Yin, 2012).

In the context of this study, the descriptive case study required description and interpretation through triangulation. Hence, data were collected using three different methods: (1) audio recordings made of focus-group interviews with 12 pre-service teachers, (2) open-ended questionnaires with 20 beginning teachers, and (3) field notes taken by the researcher during classroom observations of the above 12 pre-service teachers (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006; Merriam, 1998). Each of the above methods used for data collection is discussed in section 3.3.

The above methods of data collection addressed all research questions. Table 3.1 illustrates how data was collected in this study. The research questions from the study are located in the left-hand column of the table. In line with each research question is the method for data collection and the source for the data.

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Table 3.1 Summary of data collection

Research Questions Method(s) of data collection (and participants) 1. What understandings do pre-service and Focus group interviews beginning teachers have about inclusive (pre-service teachers) education in Bhutan? Open-ended questionnaire (beginning teachers)

2. How do pre-service and beginning teachers Focus group interviews perceive the teacher-training programme in (pre-service teachers) Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive Open-ended questionnaire classrooms? (beginning teachers)

3. How do individual pre-service teachers Classroom observation demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive (pre-service teachers) classrooms?

The contribution of each of the data collection methods outlined in Table 3.1 are discussed in further detail in the following sections.

Data from focus group interview According to Hancock and Algozzine (2006) a focus group comprises a group of people who are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes or ideas. Focus groups can reveal a wealth of detailed information and deep insight when ‘following a certain set of questions derived from the case study protocol” (Yin, 2009, p.107). When well executed, a focus group creates an accepting environment that puts participants at ease allowing then to thoughtfully answer questions in their own words and add meaning to their answers. Another important viewpoint by Millwards (2012) is that using focus groups helps to generate new perspectives not previously considered by the researcher, which can often lead to new ideas and insights.

Based on Hancock’s and Algozzine’s (2006) and Merriam’s (1998) explanation, in which interviews are commonly used as a source of data in case studies, focus group interviews were used in this descriptive case study. Using the participant’s own words contributed towards developing insight into others’ understandings of the environment (Biklen, 1992). This included feelings, understandings, experiences, judgments, thoughts, and intentions. Data was obtained by conducting the interviews in a

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conversational manner by following a protocol based on the research questions (Yin, 2012). The focus group was well suited for the current study as the participants came from a similar background (pre-service teacher education) who shared similar ideas about their training for inclusive education and teaching experiences in inclusive schools (Yin, 2009). The researcher had prior written approval from both the MoE and PCoE in Bhutan (Appendix A and Appendix B) to conduct focus group interviews in three inclusive school with the pre-service teachers. The interview consisted of fifteen questions that were prepared by the researcher in consultation with doctoral supervisors. For a complete list of interview questions, please refer to Appendix D. These questions were pilot tested (described below) prior to final data collection to confirm the suitability of the instrument (Lapan, 2004).

Focus groups

In this study, there were two focus groups with twelve participants. There were four participants in one focus group and eight participants in the other group. As described earlier in section 3.2 (please refer to footnote), participants had to adjust with their classes to participate in this study at the time of data collection as schools were approaching their mid-term examination. To accommodate these realities for participants, the research allowed for a maximum of eight participants in one group was found ideal. The QUT ethics committee discussed and approved this decision.

Questions were asked in an informal group setting where participants were able to talk freely with the other members of the group. The first focus group interview of four participants was conducted in the office of the vice principal and lasted 43 minutes. The second focus group interview was conducted in the staff room where there were eight participants and lasted 1 hour and 24 minutes. Interview data were collected through audio recordings and written notes that, according to Hancock and Algozzine (2006), are the best way to record data from interviews. This ensured that the researcher did not miss any important details contained within the data. Also, the use of written notes alongside audio recording facilitated the researcher’s transcription (Lichtman, 2014). During the focus groups, the researcher was also cognisant of Hancock’s and Algozzine’s cautionary statement that, group interviews run the risk of not fully capturing all participant’s viewpoints. Attempts were made to ensure all participants had an opportunity to contribute. Further, an open-ended questionnaire

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(see section 3.3.2) was used to gather additional data involving beginning teachers in addition to the focus groups. This supplemented the richness of data.

Field notes and research diary

Additional data from interviews were collected using written-field notes. For this, the researcher maintained a research logbook and recorded impressions and observations during interview. Entries into the logbook were made simultaneously during the interview in order to avoid the risk of losing data (Gillham, 2008; Hancock & Algozzine, 2006). A sample copy of one of the field notes can be found in Appendix M. In addition to this, a research dairy was maintained by the researcher to record the overall process, key events of the case study, and researcher reflections on a daily basis at the time of data collection. One advantage of maintaining a research diary was that it enabled the researcher to recall the events that took place during the data collection period (Gillham, 2008).

Pilot testing of focus group questions

As stated by Lapan (2004), one of the most important aspects of an interview is the testing of instruments in terms of their “readiness for use” (p. 241) which is commonly known as pilot testing. A pilot test is a widely used term in testing the instruments for an interview. In essence, pilot testing means trying out the instruments first on a few people that represent the group within the intended sample. The main purpose of pilot testing was to make sure the interview guide would work in the real world, i.e. everyone in the sample not only understands the questions but understands them in the same way (Creswell 2012).

Testing of instruments was of paramount importance as it provided the researcher with the opportunity to refine data collection plans and the procedure to be followed for conducting interviews (Yin, 2009). The testing phase was particularly helpful to the researcher who was new to collecting qualitative data from the field. A total of 15 questions were used to interview pre-service teachers in the focus group. This instrument was developed by the researcher and approved by supervisors which were pilot tested with the pre-service teachers of PCoE prior to using for actual data collection. The pilot test was conducted with a colleague who was familiar with the pre-service teacher education programme from Bhutan. The instruments were also improved in consultation with the supervisors after receiving feedback from the

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colleague in terms of clarifying questions and the use of appropriate language (Yin, 2009). This was then followed by field-testing the interview questions. A student from Bhutan who was also studying in Brisbane was involved in this test, and her feedback was taken into account to ensure that the interview protocol was complete. Finally, after pilot testing and field testing were completed, the protocols were ready for the focus group interviews of pre-service teachers.

Data from open-ended questionnaire Open-ended questionnaires and interviews are well suited to qualitative research where statistical validity is not a prime objective; rather qualitative research is “interested in the interviewees’ words and ideas” that support analytic generalization (Yin, 2011, p. 32). Open-ended questionnaires are unstructured questions that allow participants to give a free-form answer in their own words. Open-ended questions give respondents the opportunity to express their feelings, attitudes and their understanding of the subject, and to complain about a bad experience they had or praise a good one (Yin, 2011). In addition, the use of open-ended questions in this study was expected to yield data that would provide a more candid and unique insight for the researcher, as respondents may find them less threatening than scaled questions (Creswell, 2012).

Since the objective of this study was to develop an understanding about the preparation of teachers for inclusive education through a descriptive case study, the use of open-ended questions to collect data was highly useful. One advantage of employing open-ended questions was to help respondents to construct responses based on their cultural setting and social experience instead of the researcher’s experience (Creswell, 2012). This was important because as discussed in Chapter 1 so little is known about teachers’ views and their experiences about teaching in inclusive schools in Bhutan.

A questionnaire consisting of ten open-ended questions (Appendix E) was developed. Specifically, the questions were designed based on the literature review and prepared to cumulatively address Research Question 1, “What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan?” (open- ended questions were used to collect data from beginning teachers only) and Research Question 2, “How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher education programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms?” (open-ended questions were used to collect data from beginning teachers only). It must

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be reiterated that the use of open-ended questions in triangulation with the other methods for data collection (focus group interviews discussed in section 3.3.1 and classroom observation discussed in section 3.3.3) was important because different methods and perspectives provide a more comprehensive set of findings (Yin, 2011).

The questionnaire was reviewed, improved and approved by doctoral supervisors. It was then distributed in five inclusive schools to 20 beginning teachers. This is discussed in section 3.6 under ‘Ethics’. The use of these ten open-ended questions ensured that participants’ responses were not constrained and that their response options could be further explored (Creswell, 2012). The questions encouraged the participants to share their experiences about teacher education and teaching in inclusive schools.

Data from classroom observation One of the most direct ways of obtaining data is through researcher observation. Observation in qualitative research is the process of gathering firsthand information within the natural environment, focusing on human actions, and recording behaviour patterns and occurrences with or without questioning or communicating with those being observed (Yin, 2011). As claimed by Simons (2009, p. 55) when engaging in observation, a researcher “can gain a comprehensive picture of the site, a sense of the setting which cannot be obtained solely by speaking with participants”. Furthermore, classroom observation can be used as a way to increase the validity of the study, such as observations may help the researcher have a better understanding of the context and phenomenon under study (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002).

Thus, classroom observation was used as a one of the methods for data collection in this case study that took place in the “natural” setting of schooling (three inclusive schools where pre-service teachers were undergoing their teaching practice). Classroom observation was tied to Research Question 3, “How do individual pre- service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?”.

Considering the nature and the scope of this study, a non-participative classroom observation method was used for data collection (Creswell, 2015; Gillham, 2008). Non-participative observation included observing 12 participants (pre-service teachers) without directly participating with them. Through non-participative observation, the researcher simply recorded whatever happened among the

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participants and the events and activities that took place in the classrooms. This included recording of participants’ actions while teaching, their behaviours, and their students’ participation in the classroom lesson. There was no interference in the activities of the participants by the researcher at any time. While the researcher was aware that classroom observation was time-consuming (Woll, 2013), a necessarily slow process (Gillham, 2008), utmost care was taken to commit and plan the time for each observation. Altogether, twelve classroom observations were made, with the participants being the same pre-service teachers who participated in the focus group interviews.

An observation framework, titled Classroom Observation Framework (Appendix F), was developed based on the model, Framework for Field Visit Observations (Carrington, 2016) (Appendix G) which was used for training participants on inclusive education from South and West Asia. The above-mentioned model was appropriate for this study since it was designed to suit the regional context where Bhutan is located. The model covered all the elements for conducting field observations and was convenient to adopt and use for these classroom observations. Table 3.2 shows how the framework for the current study was developed and what elements of observation were incorporated from the framework designed by (Carrington, 2016).

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Table 3.2 Areas of classroom observation adapted from Carrington’s (2016) framework 12 Area for field visit observation in Area for classroom observation in the Carrington’s (2016) study current study (Appendix F) (Appendix G

Relationships with children Manage the classroom to maximise Fair assessment learning Empowerment (expectations, assessment, High expectations empowerment, teacher-student relationship)

Inclusive school culture Promote student interest and Access, participation and belonging engagement Student engagement (participation, engagement, inclusive Inclusive policy culture)

Respect Respond to diverse student needs Focus on diversity (respect, focus on diversity, care) Care

As presented in table above, classroom observation in this study (right hand column) was grouped into three broad areas. It directed the researcher’s attention to how the pre-service teachers demonstrated their ability to:

1. Manage the classroom to maximize learning,

2. Promote student interest and engagement, and;

3. Respond to diverse student needs.

Hence, Research Question 3, “How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?” was directly answered through classroom observation.

3.4 USE OF DOCUMENTS AS SOURCE OF EVIDENCE

In order to answer the research questions proposed in this study, it was essential to go beyond the development of codes, themes and data descriptions (Gibbs, 2007; Creswell, 2015). Yin (2009, p.101), argues that “no single source has a complete advantage over all the others” and that the use of ‘individual source of evidence is not

12 Appendix F was the actual classroom observation framework that was used in this study. Appendix G was Carrington’s (2016) model - Framework for Field Visit Observations.

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recommended for conducting case studies”. This study therefore referred to various documents in addition to the three methods used for data collection as described above. Documents consisted of: policy documents, strategies, annual reports, media, vision statements, and informal documents - newspapers, private papers and newsletters, and emails. These documents provided a rich source of information to increase the data. In connection with this study, where pre-service teacher education for inclusive education is still being developed in Bhutan, overall education policy documents were needed to help the researcher understand the reasons and context of the policy and how it is implemented in practice (Simons, 2009). In addition, documents were a major lens for understanding the values underlying policies for pre-service teacher education for inclusive education in Bhutan. Wherever relevant reference was made to these documents, the participants’ views were checked and supplemented. This ensured that the research questions were addressed.

3.5 ANALYSIS OF DATA

One of the most difficult aspects of case study is data analysis (Yin, 2011). Analysis is a process in which data informs the results. Data from focus group interviews, open-ended questionnaires and classroom observations were collected in this case study. Interpretation and analysis are methods of searching for patterns and relationships that emerge from the data, i.e. the link between data and concepts (Punch, 2005; Yin, 2018). There are no formulas or rules for this process; it depends on the experience, knowledge and skills of the researchers (Gillham, 2008). Data analysis usually involves two important phases: the identification of themes and writing. Although these procedures are separate, they are used during analysis simultaneously and in synergy. The theoretical understandings identified in this study, which considered the ‘self-efficacy’ of pre-service teachers to teach in inclusive classrooms and the ‘socio-cultural theory” which looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development, also informed the analysis process. Furthermore, the synchronized relationship between theory and data allowed the use of the theoretical framework as an analysis guide (Creswell, 2015). The analytical process for this study was, therefore, carefully carried out through detailed observation of the data, and the interpretations resulting from this process were well considered. In doing so, the interview recordings were transcribed verbatim in order to avoid bias, not only those sections that the researcher found relevant or interesting. Further, during the results

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and discussion, the use of verbatim quotations provided proof to support the researcher’s rigorous interpretation of data.

Data were carefully organised to ensure thorough analysis. Initially, a folder was created called “My Qualitative Research Project”. Various files were placed in this folder, including the interview with the focus group, responses to the open questionnaire, and classroom observation. All data were labelled so it was absolutely clear from where they came, and how they were collected (Lichtman, 2014). Using a word processing programme, each item was placed in a separate file. An archive was also created using the Excel as a database. All data contained the following basic information: Who (name of the respondent and researcher), Where (location of the interview), When (date and time of the interview), How (methods used). In addition to these data files, a journal file for the researcher was created so that the researcher could continue to add information as the study progressed (Lichtman, 2014). This helped the researcher find data easily whenever necessary.

The researcher started the data analysis process by carefully reading through all interview transcripts and field notes and creating notes on the key patterns. Qualitative analysis is an interactive and iterative process involving the continuous interaction of theory and analysis (Rubin & Babbie, 2009). They recommend three key tools that help prepare “coding, memoing and concept mapping” data for analysis (p. 311-213). The codes created in this study were derived from the investigation and questioning of the data by the researcher (Rubin & Babbie, 2009). The field notes have been “revised and converted into more formal set of notes” that have become part of the database (Yin, 2001, p.166). Similarly, participants’ actual words were used in the transcriptions, as this provide a more accurate representation of what happened during the interviews and field notes (Lichtman, 2014). Since creating accurate transcriptions is a time-consuming exercise (which take up to four times as long as each interview), the overall project plan needed to allow sufficient time for transcription (Gibbs, 2007).

Participants in the focus group were assigned an alpha-numerical code and a pseudonym for easy reference and to safeguard anonymity. Participant codes were used for brevity, while identifiers (pseudonyms), as well as participant codes, were used in the analysis and interpretation of the data (Appendix C).

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Once the transcription was completed, the researcher imported the data into NVivo 11 for analysis. Initially, main points emerged from the data leading to descriptive “open coding”. According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), open coding is an analytical process in which the concepts found in the raw data are identified, named, classified and described. The basic purpose for analyzing open coding is to name concepts and ideas that focus the attention of the researcher on phenomena. Each line, phrase and paragraph have, therefore, been read repeatedly and thoroughly to create tentative pattern labels that similarly identify data. Additionally, open coding helped the researcher to conceptualize the phenomena by comparing different concepts (Zochodne, undated) and finding relationships. The concepts that emerged from the data were eventually sub-themed. It was considered important to name these sub- themes to ensure that the emerging data answered the research questions (Merriam, 2009). For each transcript, the above sub-themes were then compared. As a result, further refinements and revisions were carried out, leading to a master list of sub- themes. This analysis process also ensured the validity of the work, since it was constructed directly from the raw data (Khandkar, 2009). The researcher then went through each transcript and intensified each sub-theme by assigning more or better relevant data units. These sub-themes eventually led to the creation of themes (Merriam, 2009; Richards, 2005). A summary of the sub-themes and themes are provided in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5

3.6 ETHICS, LIMITATIONS AND VALIDATION

Ethics

While the fundamental ethical principle in all research irrespective of methodology is to “do no harm”, ethical issues are present in any kind of research (Simon, 2009, p.97). Any research that includes people requires an awareness of the ethical issues that may arise from such interactions. Since the current study is based on exploring, examining, and describing people, the professional and institutional standards of ethical requirements for conducting research within human participation were met (Simons, 2009).

Based on Creswell’s (2012) recommendations, relevant permission for data collection was obtained to ensure participants’ cooperation. This was necessary as it led to the supply of appropriate data information during the data collection process.

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Figure 3.2 Secret Box 2

Limitations

The research was initially informed by the existing literature, the researcher’s previous study (Master of Education, Research) on the concerns and experiences of teachers in teaching children with SEN in Bhutan, and from the real-life teaching experience of the researcher in Bhutan. Next, the practice of preparing teachers for inclusive schools in Bhutan from the perspective of pre-service and beginning teachers experience in classroom teaching was examined closely through the collection of a range of data. This data did not include the perspectives of teacher educators, school administrators, families or students. Investigating the perspectives of these other important stakeholders would be a useful area for future research.

This study was limited to 32 respondents (12 pre-service and 20 beginning teachers) in six inclusive schools. The limiting of this study to six inclusive schools excluded detailed investigation of inclusive practices in other schools. It was crucial to consider only these schools for this study as the researcher was based in that region- in close proximity to PCoE that enabled the researcher to receive some assistance such as computer usage, printing facilities and internet usage. Including more schools in the study from other parts of the country would have provided a more holistic national perspective on the implementation of inclusive schools. As mentioned, for the current

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study, the sample was specific to the research site and it may not be appropriate to generalize to schools across Bhutan. Also, it is presumed that respondents in open- ended questionnaires came from a combination of beginning and practicing (senior) teachers as most beginning teachers are usually posted in distant schools after graduating from the teaching colleges. Similarly, it may not be suitable to consider pre-service teachers from PCoE alone. The inclusion of Samtse College of Education in this study would have added more value and perspective on the preparation of teachers for inclusive education in Bhutan.

Another limitation with this study is that the timing of data collection coincided with two significant events in Bhutan: 1) school mid-term examination was nearer to the data collection time and this presented some difficulties in obtaining the availability of the participants for both focus group and classroom observation and; 2) Bhutan’s 2017 Population and Housing Census was conducted around the same time data was collected. Many teachers were involved in conducting this event, which is why School B teachers were excluded from the open-ended questionnaire survey as earlier mentioned in chapter 3.2.

The researcher, however, was careful about the limitations of the study, remained alert, and care was taken to ensure that the study’s goals were achievable. The researcher also ensured that the research objectives were achievable by keeping the research questions at the forefront of the research.

Validity

The validity and reliability of the data was given high priority in this study. According to Descombe (2010), a research study is determined by the quality of evidence provided to support its findings. It was crucial that data were recorded accurately and very precisely. The researcher therefore assumed high responsibility of ensuring validity and reliability in his information (Stake, 2005).

In this study, the researcher ensured that the data were recorded accurately by checking the data files against the data sources. The appropriateness of the data was further strengthened by checking its suitability for responding to purpose of the investigation (including research questions). Consistent attention was paid to ensuring that the findings reported were an accurate reflection of the views expressed by participants in the data. This was done by frequent reading of the full data set during

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the analysis and writing stages of the research. Furthermore, the study was enhanced by constantly checking the coding and themes applied during the analysis. In addition, the researcher regularly met with his doctoral supervisors to cross check the data, analysis and coding.

3.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has outlined the research methodology and the research design for the study including information about the research site and the selection of participants. It also described case study and the three different methods of data collection and analysis. The chapter offered a reliable framework for capturing pre- service teachers’ views about inclusive education, exploring their self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms and their understanding about inclusive education. In addition, this chapter described how the validity and reliability of the analysis was maintained. Finally, important ethical considerations, limitations and validity were described.

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Chapter 4: Results and Discussion: Pre- Service Teachers’ Perceptions about Teacher Education and Inclusive Education

4.1 INTRODUCTION AND CHAPTER ORGANIZATION

This chapter reports on the results from the first data collection phases of the field research, Focus Groups Interviews and Classroom Observation. These are the data from pre-service teachers. The results from Phase Two, Open-ended Survey Questionnaire are reported in Chapter 5 and is the data from beginning teachers. Separating the findings in this way allows for a more nuanced and detailed analysis of the perceptions, experiences, and self-efficacy of the two groups of participants in relation to inclusive education practice and training. The synthesis chapter (Chapter 6) then compares and integrates the data and analyses presented in Chapters 4 and 5 to outline the effectiveness of inclusive education training in Bhutan as perceived by both pre-service and beginning teachers.

The key findings from Phase One focused on the pre-service teachers’ learning at PCoE and investigated to what extent learning about inclusive education is evident in the pre-service teachers’ classroom teaching while on practicum. To reiterate, the research questions that guided this analysis are as follows:

1. What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan? (only data collected from pre-service teachers were used for this chapter). 2. How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher-training programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms? (only data collected from pre-service teachers were used for this chapter). 3. How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?

As discussed in the previous chapter, data are presented according to the four major themes presented in Section 4.2 and informed by Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy

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model, as outlined in Chapter 2, namely: (1) Mastery experiences: if one has performed well at a task previously, he or she is more likely to feel competent and perform well at a similarly associated task; (2) Vicarious experiences: a technique through which a person observes another perform and compare their competence to perform the desired task successfully; (3) Verbal persuasion: providing constructive feedback that is important in developing and maintaining a sense of efficacy that can help overcome self-doubt; and (4) Physiological and emotional cues: being able to control anxiety may have a positive impact on self-efficacy beliefs.

Along with the use of Bandura’s model of self-efficacy, there is also the use of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural approach. His theory comprises of three important elements, which are: 1) MKD (More Knowledgeable Other), 2) Zone of proximal development and, 3) Importance behind languages. These elements are based on the elementary functions, which are attention, sensation, perception and memory. While understanding the experience of the pre-service and beginning teachers in Bhutan, these criteria’s will also be used to understand the way the pre-service and beginning teacher perceive inclusive education.

Through the theoretical framework of self-efficacy, this case study explored how pre-service teachers working in inclusive schools in Bhutan made meaning of their experiences for the inclusion of children with diverse needs. All research questions 1, 2 and 3 are addressed in this chapter.

The first part of this chapter explores the pre-service teachers’ understandings of inclusive education in relation to how they promote ‘inclusivity’ in cultural, gender- binary, social, age-appropriate and disabled-friendly terms. Because myths and misapprehensions regarding inclusion abound, at the college level, it is helpful for pre- service teachers to have a deep understanding of inclusive education, so they can plan and implement appropriate pedagogies and curriculum, and advocate for education for all children in Bhutan. These goals are aligned with the National Education Policy (Ministry of Education, 2011). This discussion of pre-service teacher perceptions of inclusive education in Bhutan addresses Research Question 1.

Next, the chapter examines how pre-service teachers perceive the teacher education programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms. This reports on the nature of training provided at the PCoE in preparing the pre-service teachers for inclusive education. This section addresses Research Question 2.

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Finally, the chapter considers how individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms. The discussion of pre-service teachers’ peceptions of their self-efficacy provides insights for Research Question 3. This section also provides data from classroom observations of pre-service teacher practice which were undertaken by the researcher to examine the practice of both inclusive pedagogies and self-efficacy. To contextualise classroom observations and pre-service teacher perceptions (collected via focus groups) , this section also includes a description of the classrooms where pre-service teachers were teaching during their teaching practice placements. This section extends on the contextual information provided in Chapter 3 (section 3.2.1), which introduced the setting of inclusive schools in Bhutan. The findings from focus group interviews are provided in section 4.2 and the findings from classroom observations in section 4.3.

4.2 FINDINGS FROM FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Conducting focus groups for pre-service teachers was important in order to gain a sense of how much they had learned about inclusive education during their training and to investigate their perceptions of teacher preparation for inclusive education. These perspectives were then used for comparison with the beginning teachers’ views (discussed in Chapter 5 and 6), and for building a deep understanding of inclusive education in Bhutan. Four major themes emerged from the data through focus group interviews and are shown in figure 4.1. These are: perceptions and understandings of inclusive education; beliefs about inclusive education; experiences from teaching practice; and concerns about inclusive education.

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training to teach in these settings. Settings are important because it helps the students to learn things from their physical environment and thus applying the principle of Vygotsky, there is need to understand the zone of proximal location. As Pokhrel’s (2018) report demonstrates, few currently practicing teachers in Bhutan are trained in inclusive education, which creates significant challenges for schools as they begin to implement this relatively new initiative. This context is also significant for pre-service teachers who will ultimately work in these schools both on teaching practice placements, and after graduation as beginning teachers. With these considerations in mind, the following section examines pre-service teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education in Bhutan drawn from the data.

Sub-theme 1: Positive perceptions/attitudes toward inclusive education Cultural beliefs about inclusion

The perceptions that pre-service teachers in this study expressed regarding inclusion depict Bhutan’s cultural beliefs and day-to-day practices in accommodating persons with disabilities in the society and in schools in particular. Bhutanese cultural practices mean that persons with a disability receive close attention from their family through a Buddhist lens (UNICEF, 2011). Although the practice of including student with disabilities in general schools is relatively new (Dorji, 2015), the Bhutanese concept of Gross National Happiness (GNH) is supportive of persons with disabilities, and the GNH policies are central to Bhutan’s education strategy (discussed in Chapter 1).

Further, the findings in this study, revealed that almost all-inclusive schools in Bhutan do actually have a strong culture of inclusion. Every inclusive school had a SENCO (Special Education Needs Co-ordinator) who coordinated and looked after the inclusive program. Schools had their own practices and procedures in place to support the inclusion of children with disabilities and of gender equality. Importance of enrolling girl students in schools is part of Bhutanese culture and there are no records or incidences that has discriminated girls in schools. One participant gave his view that:

… we also learned about inclusion of different students in general class, especially to encourage girl students by making their parents aware about education in life. We have to give equality to all students and girls should not be left behind. (FG1_PT8)

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The participant mentioned above noted the importance for parents to enrol girls in schools. He had an understanding of the meaning of inclusion, when he mentioned “to give equality to all students” and that “girls” (FG1_PT8) were the focus of his explanation. The above statement is in confirmation with MoE’s (2018, p. 31) report which states that “girls make up 50.7% of the total school enrolment in the school education system (Class PP-XII)”. It is also remarkable to note that net enrolment of girls’ is 93.4% as compared to 92.4% for boys at primary school level. Further, at secondary level, the continuity rate for girls was reported to be 90.6% exceeding that of boys at 78.9% (MoE, 2018).

Approaches to gender and achievement vary for historical and cultural reasons in different countries (Francis, Luk-Fong & Skelton, 201. While UNESCO (2017) indicated that there are significant gender disparities worldwide with girls accounting for two-thirds of the total number of children out of school, Bhutan’s efforts to educate girls is noteworthy (MoE, 2018). This attitude expressed by the participant is very typical of Bhutan’s pre-service teachers. Therefore, it appears that pre-service teachers understand the importance of gender equality as an aspect of inclusion and they strive to create a culture where boys and girls alike are respected and welcomed in schools (UNESCO, 2001)

Understanding about inclusive education

The majority of pre-service teachers who participated in the two focus groups had some understanding of inclusive education from their teacher education course gleaned from their participation in the Colleges to Special Education module. Two out of twelve pre-service teachers specifically indicated that they learned the meanings, definitions and other terms related to special and inclusive education. Some of the terms they were familiar with were: special and inclusive education, inclusion, autism, blindness, cerebral palsy, challenging behaviours and equality. Further, a pre-service teacher, expressed that her understanding of inclusive education had increased after knowing the meanings and definitions of both special and inclusive education. She stated:

I think we learned many things like definitions of special education, autism, cerebral palsy, and meaning of inclusive education, how to help disabled children, not to neglect them, we have to love and help them. I found this useful as I have better understanding about inclusive education.

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Before my training, I didn’t know anything about inclusive education. But I know that some children who are disabled were going to school for special education. (FG1_PT8)

Another finding was that all participants were eager to learn more about inclusive education. This was evident when the pre-service teachers responded by saying that they learned about special education in their course, but they were looking forward to getting more training and knowledge about inclusive education. This underscores the importance and application of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory that places emphasis on learning by interaction with others in the environment (Mercer & Howe, 2012). In this context, the assertion by these participants reveal the fact that as much as teachers were willing to attain self-efficacy in accordance with Bandura’s model, they were only able to achieve this effectiveness when they were exposed to a real-life situation in an inclusive classroom from where they acquired sufficient experience on inclusive classroom management. Below are a number of typical comments made by pre-service teachers wishing for further training in inclusion:

I expect that we can learn more about inclusive education because we only got some knowledge about special education so far. Since inclusive education is different from special education we should get training about it also. (FG1_PT6)

We have to know how to develop class activities for all students. Also, if we get training in inclusive education, I think we can be good teachers that can teach properly to students. (FG1- _PT8)

A full guide in teaching in inclusive school and a course on inclusive education before the student teachers goes for teaching practice. (FG2_PT3)

I think we expect to get more knowledge about inclusive education so that we are able to teach properly. Otherwise, our students will not get a proper education. (FG1_PT3)

I am expecting that it (training course) demonstrates and promotes inclusivity, rights-based and

child-friendly approaches to both formal and non-formal education. (FG2_PT1)

Although the majority of teachers in Bhutan are not trained in inclusive education (Pokhrel, 2018), the teachers at the sites where participants undertook their professional placements were provided with opportunities to attend professional development programmes on inclusive education. Gaining experience from the inclusive school sites, these teachers were able to learn about how they could effectively manage inclusive classrooms (Kouzlin, 2002: Kouzilin, et al., 2003) and this social learning contributed to their knowledge of being an inclusive teacher. The

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schools also had signs and information that reminded every teacher, staff member, and student to assist children with disabilities. The pre-service teachers said that their schools welcomed and enrolled children with disabilities without any objections. A pre-service teacher explained:

We learn many things while teaching in inclusive schools. Main thing is that, principal is good and supportive to all students. I also saw that students are helpful to each other. He is always reminding good things about inclusive education in staff meeting. For example, he asked special education coordinator to help teacher trainees and to take care of every disabled student. But I

think we need more help in actual classroom teaching. (FG1_PT8)

The data above showed that pre-service teachers were inspired by their learning and practical experiences and they drew on the attitudes of teachers and school leaders to be determined in developing positive perceptions towards inclusive education. This kind of experience is defined as ‘verbal persuasion’ (Bandura, 1997). It is clear that, in the above case, pre-service teacher received positive statements from his principal, which is expected to increase his high level of self-efficacy

Attitudes about inclusion

Pre-service teachers with positive attitudes toward inclusivity also declared that inclusive classes are better for students with disabilities. In fact, Vygotsky’s (1981) socio-cultural theory places some degree of emphasis on attitudes and beliefs and how these affect learning. As much as there was some level of scepticism on whether inclusive education is practical, going to the field and practicing in such a setting provided new insight and possibilities to inclusive education. A key reason provided by one of the pre-service teachers was that these students could receive equal learning opportunities for both academic progress and socialisation when placed in a mixed classroom group. She supported inclusion and asserted that:

We need to learn these skills otherwise these students cannot learn equally. Also, in our training we learn about including all children in school. Especially, if we want to give chance to disabled children, then we have to admit in general class. By doing this, all students get equal opportunity for learning. Not only academic learning but they learn how to live by

cooperation with each other. (FG1_PT5)

All twelve pre-service teachers in this study indicated that they were accepting of inclusive schooling, including expressing positive perceptions of the inclusion of children with disabilities, gender diversity and social diversity in general schools.

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While some pre-service teachers expressed the need for more training in inclusive education, they also expressed their happiness in being able to provide education to students with SEN. In regard to having such positive attitudes in her classroom, one of the participants said:

… as I have students from different family and ethnic background, it is both advantage and disadvantage for the class. Like some students are helping others who they know well about their habits and conditions (behaviours) although they belong to different background. I can see them helping by reading together. They play together. Therefore, I feel happy when they work together and help each other. (FG2_PT4)

This excerpt demonstrates Vygotsky’s key points about the social nature of learning—as children played together and talked together—they also constructed new understandings, beliefs and values. This quote also shows how this experience was formative for the pre-service teacher, as they were also able to develop positive new understandings about how cultures and attitudes towards disability can be shaped in the classroom. The participant above described how she accepted social diversity in her class. She valued her students who came from different ethnic backgrounds and encouraged them to work together and help those who needed support. Her capacity to understand the individual needs of her students and her support towards a more interactive pedagogical approach with students is also more likely to increase general happiness. From this scenario it is possible to note that the socio-cultural aspect in learning is highlighted. Vygotsky’s (1978) socio-cultural theory of learning can be used to explain the importance of pre-service teachers constructing their own knowledge through interacting with others.

Sub-theme 2: Barriers to inclusive education

While this study uncovered positive perceptions about inclusive classrooms (see section 4.3.1.1), the data also revealed a number of perceived barriers to inclusive education. Barriers arise from negative attitudes and beliefs, inflexible or irrelevant curricula, and environments both at school and out of school (Forlin, 2012). This understanding appears to underpin the fact that effective learning also depends on how the learner interacts with the environment. As such Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model further helps us understand how the uptake and success of the inclusive education in Bhutan can be achieved (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

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The argument presented by Booth, Ainscow and Kingstion (2006) is that disabilities are barriers to participation for students with impairments or chronic illness. At the same time the authors explain that “disabilities may be created in the environment or by the interaction of discriminatory attitudes, actions, cultures, policies, and institutional practices with impairments, pain or chronic illness as barriers to participation” (p.5). Therefore, for inclusion to be effective, it is important to understand the different types of barriers. Pre-service teachers in this study indicated that they had encountered a range of barriers to inclusion.

In the Bhutanese context, barriers to access to educational opportunities are typically factors such as socio-economic background, economic status, disability, academic performance, infrastructure and resources, and geographical location (Chhetri, 2015; Ministry of Education, 2014), including the structure of the Bhutanese school system itself (Schuelka, 2014). These factors closely portray the socio-cultural aspects of Vygotsky’s theory that emphasises how these factors affect the learning process (Kozulin et al, 2003). Barriers identified in this study by pre-service teachers are widely classified as environmental barriers such as stairs and ramps, doors, corridors and passages, and playgrounds. Environmental barriers were a major obstacle to inclusion. For example, pre-service teachers reported that when barriers were found around schools, it was difficult for some students to enter the school building or classroom. The following sections provide explanations from pre-service teachers about the types of barriers that are associated with inclusive education in Bhutan.

Challenges in the physical environment

Challenge in the environment was identified as a barrier by pre-service teachers. This was related to inaccessible environments and physical barriers which prevented access and affected opportunities for participation. A participant, FG2_PT1 stated that;

Sometimes they are not able to go to the toilet by themselves as they have to walk through the playground where there are any students playing. It is bit risky for them and they can be knocked down. Also, the drinking water tap is far from class and takes time for students to reach there. So, I think in this way, these students are facing difficulties to adjust in school. Therefore, I don’t feel peaceful when my students go out on their own. I get worried about their safety and

sometimes I have to come out of the class to make sure that they are Ok. (FG2_PT1)

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The above participant reported that the physical surroundings in the schools where they undertook teaching practice were not always suitable for students with disabilities. This kind of problem regarding the physical spacing has been reflected in the work of Vygotsky, where he insisted that learning although facilitated by the use of language but there is need for proper zonal positioning (Daniels, & Hedegaard, 2011). Learning also occurs through the physical place of the learners and teacher. For example, the toilet facilities in one of the inclusive schools was not suitable because they were not located near classrooms. The above participant specifically mentioned that: “… water tap is far … in this way students are facing difficulties to adjust in school” (FG2_PT1). This not only restricted the free and independent movement of students within the school campus, but it also kept the pre-service teacher worried. The fact that this teacher was worried about a lack of supporting facilities for learners with disability meant that such a teacher picked up significant cues from interacting with the environment to try and improve the learning environment for those students who had special needs or disabilities. Some pre-service teachers pointed out that the learning environments in classrooms were not always adequate. This was often related to classrooms not having enough and comfortable furniture for students to sit on, making learning extremely difficult especially for the students with learning disabilities. One pre-service teacher pointed out that the poor condition and uneven level of the floor were problematic for students with disabilities. As a result, he feared that students might fall in the classroom. The experiences of pre-service teachers mentioned above affect their physiological condition. Expressions like, ‘I don’t feel peaceful..., I’m worried…’ can make them anxious that might affect their teaching performance and leads to a low level of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Also, incorporating the theory of Vygotsky (1981) in this particular case study, one needs to reflect on the physical features that affect the learning skills of students and the way it affects the understanding of the concept of inclusive education by the teachers.

Pre-service teachers also noted that some classrooms did not have sufficient lighting or good ventilation. Two pre-service teachers shared that their classrooms were overcrowded, which made it difficult to conduct activities in the class. The concern of overcrowded classrooms in Bhutan was also reported by the Centre for Educational Research and Development (2009). It is a challenge when teachers “have to handle classroom size that often have more than 35 students including those with

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special needs with little or no support from specialist staff” (Subba et al., 2018, p. 6). When asked about class size, one pre-service teacher said he had 33 students in his class. This is consistent with the Ministry of Education’s (2014) report that “the increase in enrolment at the primary education level resulted in overcrowding of classrooms” (p.24). One of them said that it posed difficulties for the movement of students in the class. For example;

… my class is crowded and makes it difficult for some students to move around. I cannot conduct any activities freely. Another thing is that my class does not have good furniture where my students can sit comfortably. (FG1_PT7)

Challenges in the learning environment

When schools are not able to provide basic facilities to support children with disabilities, progression towards inclusion is hindered. Similar concerns were raised by other researchers who felt that challenge in the learning environment in schools across Bhutan was a barrier towards the inclusion of children with SEN (Center for Educational Research and Development 2009; and Dorji & Schuelka, 2016). In a setting described above, disability is basically seen “as the effect of an environment hostile to some bodies and not to others” (Siebers,2008). The above statement is clearly comprehended through the term social model (discussed in Chapter 2) which clarifies that the disability isn’t generally in the body of the individual in any case, rather, that it is the social and physical condition that impairs a person requiring progress in social justice rather than medicine (Peter, Johnstone & Ferguson, 2005). Therefore, it implies that the model of disability in the Bhutanese context is not so different from many other societies/countries where individuals with a disability are not so much limited by their disability (for inclusion) but instead either by environments or by social perception. A recent study about the perspectives from school principals in Bhutan towards students with disability supported that “many schools lack infrastructure and an accessible environment to cater for children with disabilities” (Subba et al., 2018, p. 6).

Disability, seen as a challenge by pre-service teacher

It was surprising to note that some pre-service teachers expressed that ‘disability’ itself is an inclusion barrier. This made the researcher think, “Isn’t this what inclusion is trying to encounter?” when one participant said:

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It is much difficult for pre-service teachers to manage the classroom activities as their disability is a barrier to carry out all the activities like normal children and gaining attention would be much a problem. I frequently hear my friends saying that it is hard to support a student who has behavioural problem in her class. Therefore, all she does is to let the student remain quiet and undisturbed. But again, the student is not benefitting from her lesson. (FG2_PT4)

In the above excerpt, FG2_PT4 indicated that disability prevented her students from participating in most indoor and outdoor at school activities. This notion, in every sense, is directly linked to the medical model of disability which implies that people are disabled due to their impairment (Oliver, 2017). Therefore, it gave the researcher a reason to believe that some pre-service teachers did not clearly understand “disability” or “inclusion”. It can also be understood that the definition of disability and inclusion was not well understood during teacher education. As Woodcock, Hemmings, and Kay (2012) argued, teacher education course must have offered too little or did not address key aspects of inclusion where “disability” remains a focus of inclusion in Bhutan (Dorji, 2015). This gives the impression that pre-service teachers have little chance to practice their mastery skills which, according to Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy, is not aligned in this case. Drawing from Chapter 2 literature review, mastery experiences give an individual the confidence to perform a task successfully accomplished previously (Bandura, 1997). Another way of looking at this is that perhaps these inclusive schools in Bhutan may not really be all that inclusive.

Another participant, FG2_PT1 stated that students with a disability in her school needed support from their friends most of the time. For example, she mentioned that disability acted as a barrier when her students could not move independently, particularly when they had to visit the toilets. It was also reported that students who had some disabilities had difficulty in socializing or participating in some games and play when she mentioned that;

I feel that it is difficult to deal with the physically challenged students as they are not able to adjust in the schools like other normal students. Most of the time they have to depend on others for help. Like going to toilet, not able to play with friends as they are disabled. At times such difficulties can be an obstacle for their learning in class. Even to socialize for them through play, it is a challenge and barrier to their inclusion. (FG2_PT1)

While the excerpt above is similar to the discussions of Macfarlane, Macfarlane, Savage and Glynn (2012, p. 167), who found that some New Zealand mainstream

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schools “predominantly characterized barriers” to learning based on the circumstances of students and their families rather than school systems. This line of thinking can be improved through discussions and interactions among teachers to understand the cultural differences and progress can be made for effective inclusion (Macfarlane, Glynn, Grace, Penetito and Bateman, 2008; Smith, 1999). Hence, looking through the cultural lens of the societal setup one can understand the realities and the challenges that students face; and recognize their strengths to create opportunities for inclusion in society. Those opportunities according to Vygotsky (1981) are interaction, socialization and participation.

Further, some pre-service teachers added that they experienced challenges in managing students and behaviours when students were not able to adjust to school expectations due to a disability. FG2_PT4 reported that the challenging behaviour of students was a barrier for students’ participation and learning in the class. Although in some cases, friends of students with challenging behaviours tried to help these students, their behaviour still posed as a barrier. Therefore, disruptive behaviours in some students was a concern and a challenge for teachers and pre-service teachers in the class. It was noted that pre-service teachers often overlooked those students who had behavioural problems as it was felt best to leave them undisturbed as reported by FG2_PT4 above. As discussed earlier, for individuals to succeed in a task, they should have mastery experiences that make them progressively equipped for taking care of different situations. While mastery experiences can give pre-service teachers (in the case of this study) an effective way of increasing their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), it is presumed that time, and the duration of their current teaching practice was also inadequate for them to master their skills. With regards to gaining experience by pre- service teachers, there is no other practical way to achieve except that these teachers are exposed to classroom settings that are inclusive. As a result, these teachers felt that as much as they originally believed this work would be very difficult, this process prompted them to realise and understand the fact that with experience they could achieve inclusivity in the classroom. The importance of interacting with teachers and students in classrooms, and the opportunities for pre-service teachers to construct their own understandings is well supported by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model (Allahyar & Nazari, 2012).

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When asked to express their experiences of their teacher education, most pre- service teachers started by sharing the difficulties and the challenges of teaching in inclusive classrooms. Tugend (2012) makes an interesting argument as to why there is a general tendency for everyone to ruminate more about unpleasant, difficult and challenging experiences than happy ones. She quotes Clifford Nass, a professor of communications at Stanford University: “Some people do have a more positive outlook, but almost everyone remembers negative things more strongly and in more detail” (in Tugend, 2012). In a study about teachers’ experience with inclusive education in Singapore, it was also found that more reference was made to negative than positive experiences (Yeo, Chong, Neihart & Huan, 2014). Similarly, stronger words were sometimes used by the participants to describe negative experiences in this research.

The majority of the participants in this study expressed the view that, on balance, they were not satisfied with the training provided for inclusive education at the teaching college. These pre-service teachers expressed a sense of not feeling well prepared to teach in inclusive schools. The primary reason for such a lack of satisfaction among pre-service teachers appears to emerge from the fact that the teachers had little or no experience with an inclusive classroom. As much as they may have learnt theoretical underpinnings and practical ideas in college, this interaction with the socio-cultural environment is vital (Allahyar & Nazari, 2012). Indeed, they considered themselves to be largely incompetent to work in inclusive schools. It was interesting to note that only two pre-service teachers expressed positive views about their training in inclusive education and mentioned how their training was relevant to inclusive education, as well as how it did prepare them to teach in inclusive schools. The data also revealed that the above two pre-service teachers were teaching in those schools where inclusive education had started earlier than other schools. So, it could be that they were in a better position to teach in these schools with their training background. The researcher’s curiosity in presenting key findings about Theme 2: Beliefs about teacher education begins with pre-service teachers’ negative perspectives about teacher education then follow with a list of positive experiences.

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Sub-theme 1: Negative experiences from teacher education

As described above, the pre-service teachers in this study indicated that they would be willing to accept students with diverse needs in their classrooms and would like to succeed in their inclusive teaching. Despite this positive view of inclusive education, eight out of the twelve pre-service teachers expressed that they were not satisfied with the training they had received for inclusive education. They provided various explanations for their opinions, which are discussed in the following paragraphs. This is important because, when pre-service teachers are not adequately trained for inclusion, it leads to an increase in apprehension towards working in inclusive schools which may also lead to them accumulating negative experiences from their training.

Inadequate Teacher education and training

Two pre-service teachers specifically mentioned that the training they received for inclusive education was too little, meaning they had inadequate training in inclusive education. Some pre-service teachers stated that they were familiar with the content in the special education module but had hoped to learn more about inclusive

education. This was evident when one pre-service teacher said that:

When it comes to our training, we did not receive any special training about inclusive education. So, I cannot say that I am prepared fully for inclusive teaching. Only that we learn about special education which is mostly theory and lecture which was sometimes boring. But it will be good if we get some idea about inclusive education and how to actually teach in the

class where there are disabled students. We need practical classes. (FG1_PT1)

According to Allahyar and Nazari (2012) Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model stresses the fact that the learning proces must involve consistent interaction with the socio-cultural suroundings. In this context the pre-service teachers appeared to be lacking in the practical experience that they can only acquire through exposure to the inclusive calsssroom. As this quote indicates, students felt that they needed more scaffolding of basic skills to ensure their learning remained within their zones of proximal development. As Vygotsky (1978) indicated, learning that is too challenging, is very difficult to aquire independently. However, his socio-cultural theory also demonstrates the importance of social learning, language and culture. As such where the pre-service teacher had a chance to go out and practice, these

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interactions enabled them to appreciate the fact that much more could be learnt through such experiences as they interact in real life with students with diverse needs and abilities. The above pre-service teacher affirmed that he was unprepared to teach in inclusive classes. Other pre-service teachers agreed that it was important to develop extensive knowledge about inclusive education as part of pre-service teacher education. Like many other pre-service teachers, he attributes his lack of training in inclusive education as the main reason for his lack of self-efficacy for teaching diverse learners in an inclusive classroom. This finding aligns with a study conducted in Bhutan by UNICEF (2006) which found that many teachers expressed the view that they needed training in inclusive education. Here, it is acknowledged that the pre- service teachers in this study had a conscious understanding of the importance of knowledge about inclusive education prior to commencing their teaching careers. By being able to attain more knowledge about inclusive education, pre-service teachers will be better able to support the MoE’s objective of providing equal access and opportunity to education for all children.

Policy on inclusive education in Bhutan

Similarly, it is equally important for pre-service teachers to be aware of the inclusive education policies as stated by some participants:

Also, I think there are more disabled students than before and all have to be admitted in schools as per the policy. But I am hoping that as a teacher I will be able to help my students in future. Another thing is that most of us don’t know the full policy of inclusive education. Therefore, sometimes it can be risky to do those things which is against the policy or which things to

follow to help the students. (FG1_PT5)

The above statement makes it clear that in addition to having adequate knowledge about inclusive education, it is crucial that pre-service teachers are made aware of inclusive policies that are followed in schools. For example, Clause 5.8 of the Draft National Policy on Special Educational Needs (MoE, 2012. p, 13) requires that “all schools shall incorporate policy on special educational needs in their school policy document”. As this comment indicates, unless pre-service teachers are well- informed about the policies on inclusion, they may not be able support their school in taking inclusive education forward as required by MoE.

The data also revealed that two pre-service teachers said they did not know much about inclusive education. This was expressed by one participant who stated that:

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I think somehow, I am managing in this school now although I do not know much about inclusive education. Like everyone said that we learned special education so far, I also think all of us need more knowledge about inclusive education. In this way, I am not very satisfied

with my training. (FG2_PT8)

The above verbatim comment from the data is similar to Dorji’s (2008) study which argued that “for the Bhutanese teacher…the secular system was more difficult as he or she had to deal with a number of pupils with varied learning abilities and problems” (p.22). Also, the government’s initiatives to enhance educational access for children with SEN remains a formidable challenge particularly owing to the limited number of teachers, among many other challenges (MoE, 2014). The above participant’s comment also emphasizes the need for equipping pre-service teachers with appropriate knowledge about inclusive education before joining inclusive schools.

The teaching module and designing activities One participant said when asked about his perceptions of learning about

inclusive education at college:

50-50 sir. I mean not very satisfied sir. Because I did not learn much in college. Now I know that to teach in inclusive school is not easy and when you don’t get proper training, I think many of my friends are also not very confident. I don’t feel able to take care of students who are slow

learners. This is my problem. So, I think I am only little confident to teach. (FG1_PT3)

For this pre-service teacher, the inclusive education module at the college did not provide adequate preparation for working as a teacher in an inclusive setting. She went on to explain that because she felt she did not get proper training at college, she was less than confident about teaching in inclusive schools. To investigate these comments further, a copy of the module, ‘Teaching Children with Special Needs’ viewed during document analysis was obtained from the College of Education. Analysis of this modules revealed that it covered a range of relevant topics on inclusive education (Appendix I). It must be acknowledged that many of the topics described by the pre-service teachers are included in the module contents, however, it is not known whether all topics listed in the module were taught to the pre-service teachers in this study. An elaborated explanation about the module is presented in Chapter 2. However, it was beyond the scope of the current study to deeply investigate the nature and quality of the pedagogies used to teach the materials or the breadth of curriculum

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covered at the College of Education. Based on Vygotsky’s (1981) socio-cultural theory, there is a greater likelihood that where the pre-service teacher is exposed in an inclusive setting, they are able to encounter situations first hand and to construct their own new knowledge about inclusive practice. Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of zone of proximal development also demonstrates the importance of providing opportunities to acquire their learning gradually. Therefore, the learning experiences provided in initial teacher education is a vital foundation for students before commencing practical teaching experiences. Providing this combination of learning is critical to developing their experience in inclusive classroom management. Consequently, without such exposure and interaction with an inclusive classroom setting, these teachers will often feel inadequately prepared, which can have a negative impact on their self-efficacy.

Another two pre-service teachers reported that their inability to design suitable learning activities deterred their student’s participation in classroom activities. They related this to inadequate training at the teaching college. One participant described one such case where her attempt to teach became a significant concern for her:

My helplessness to design appropriate classroom activities is acting like a barrier to inclusive education. I also get the feeling that as a teacher I am not providing that opportunity for my students to learn what is in the curriculum. So, if we know how to make suitable lessons for our students, this can solve our problem when we graduate from the college. (FG2_PT4) The above participant conceded that her inability “to design appropriate classroom activities is acting like a barrier to inclusive education”. For her, inaccessible curricula strategies for some students meant depriving them of learning opportunities which, according to her, could be addressed if pre-service teachers were taught skills such as how to design lessons and activities for use in inclusive classrooms.

Sub-theme 2: Positive experiences from teacher education

Nevertheless, pre-service teachers also do learn through their experiences in their teacher education. The importance of positive experiences gained in the teacher education context has a lasting effect on pre-service teachers’ confidence in teaching in inclusive schools. Empowering pre-service teachers with knowledge and practice about inclusive education during teacher education should present them with fewer problems with teaching in future. To draw on Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of the zone of proximal development, it is imperative that this foundational learning be acquired at

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the college prior to teaching practice. That is, through interactions with lecturers as “more knowledgeable others” (Vygotsky, 1978), pre-service teachers are able to be scaffolded carefully in their learning. Placing students in the classroom without this early learning (i.e., beyond their zone of proximal development) could place them in a situation where mastery is less likely, which is likely to have a negative impact on their self-efficacy.

Teacher education and training

Unlike eight of the twelve pre-service teachers who earlier raised negative perceptions of their teacher education, nine pre-service teachers also spoke about the relevance of their education/training with regard to inclusive education. Unsurprisingly, some participants held a range of views on different aspects of their training and provided both negative and positive perceptions.

Broadly, the preservice teachers stated that their training equipped them with general strategies to teach effectively. One pre-service teacher expressed her satisfaction about her training, adding that it facilitated her class management capabilities. In addition, she explained that her training prepared her to understand the needs of students. The ensuing comments are representative of this view:

We are given different strategies on classroom management. We learn different teaching strategies that make teaching enjoyable and effective …the training is really supporting us in terms of understanding of the needs of students, classroom management. (FG2_PT1)

It is worth noting that the mention of classroom management skills by pre- service teachers has occurred regularly in the data. Pre-service teachers shared both their concerns about—as well as their successes in—classroom management while on teaching practice placements. Their responses indicated that at least some of their success and confidence in managing their classes were attributed to having

been taught these skills across their training as stated:

During our training time we are given the opportunity to do micro teaching and go for teaching practice which enables us to understand the needs of the children. Besides that, we do several presentations in the class that makes us understand the needs of the child. We are given different strategies on classroom management. (FG2_PT1) Since we learnt little about all topics like inclusion, some skills to teach and classroom management, I can say that I am satisfied with training. (FG2_PT4)

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Of course, we train in teaching, classroom management and other areas which is helping us now. (FG1_PT6) I can say that I am learning about special education in my college and I am aware about education for all. I learned about managing the class with multiple student needs and how to

support them. (FG_PT8)

The teaching module

In addition, it may be the case that when learning about Special Education (a separate course module), they were introduced to some of the student behaviours they might encounter and were given ideas about how to manage these students. For example, one of the general objectives in the Special Education Module was to recognize the characteristics and behaviours of children who had special educational needs. A study by Hemmings and Woodcock (2011) involving Australian pre-service teachers showed evidence of confidence and improvement in teaching through participating in inclusive education courses.

Learning about the introduction of contemporary pedagogies and teaching strategies such as supporting students to participate in learning activities, working in groups and in pairs, and providing opportunities for self-reflection to support inclusive teaching was another positive experience of the pre-service teachers. This content also included learning about specific teaching strategies that were helpful for teaching in inclusive classrooms. Three pre-service teachers said that this knowledge gained at college was particularly helpful when they went to inclusive schools for teaching practice placements:

Training in the college helped me to understand the needs of the students not as a whole but gave me some room to understand each and every child present in the class. …managing the class has not been a difficult task for me as I learned many skills to manage the class before I went to teaching practice …the use of teaching strategies helped me a lot while teaching the children. Using different strategies every time I taught, it gave an interest to students in learning the lesson. It also helped me to manage the class while teaching. (FG2_PT2)

Researcher: Can you tell me what different strategies did you find useful in your teaching? Participant: I mostly made my students to participate in activities and they were working in groups and sometimes in pairs also (FG2_PT2).

Some pre-service teachers said that the training they received at the college provided them with useful skills for teaching in inclusive classrooms. According to

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one participant, they learned different strategies in classroom management and in

teaching which made teaching enjoyable and effective for him:

… we are given the opportunity to do micro teaching and go for teaching practice … we do several

presentations in the class that makes us understand the needs of the child. (FG2_PT1).

Teaching practice

Another pre-service teacher asserted that, apart from training in college, teaching practice gained via practicum was helpful in supporting him in becoming an effective inclusive teacher.

The training provided here widens my views on students and their learning setting. … every drills and practices done here all supports me to be effective teacher; equipped with the recent pedagogies to cater to individual needs in a conducive way. I would also like to add that our TP (teaching practice) is really helping me to become effective in teaching. (FG2_PT4)

This clearly reveals the importance of the teacher’s learning from Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model (Daniels, 2011). Teaching practice, especially within an inclusive classroom setting becomes critical according to Vygotsky’s model of learning, and the importance of constructing learning through interaction with the socio-cultural context. During such teaching practice the teacher is capable of gaining firsthand experience in an inclusive classroom from where he/she can eventually develop adequate classroom management skills and through experience (Bandura, 1971) such practice will eventually improve the teacher’s self-efficacy. Therefore, the above information confirms that in addition to college-provided education, pre-service teachers were also learning about inclusive education from their teaching practices. Expressions in above excerpt such as, “every drills and practices done here all supports me to be effective teacher” support Bandura’s (1997) argument that one can gain self-efficacy through practice and experience. When pre-service teachers have successful teaching experiences this ‘success’ method is repeated that develops into ‘mastery experiences’ as justified Bandura (1997). Similarly, pre-service teachers in this study were encouraged with their teaching success and considered their teaching practice to be a critical part of their college education.

Further, the data in this study revealed that pre-service teachers became more receptive to children with disabilities during their professional practice as one of them said that she liked to care for her students and she was “always ready to help them and

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make them part of the class” (FG2_PT3). This statement is another element of self- efficacy called ‘emotion cues’ (Bandura, 1997) through which an individual strives to succeed in handling various situations. Gordon (2017) provides a convincing view that emotion cues can be nonconscious, meaning “that they drive your automatic reaction literally without you being conscious”. Similarly, the respondent above appears to be acting out of nature. Such is her expression that, she is automatically concerned and careful about her students. Therefore, displaying of her personal interest for the students in the class is directed to increase her self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).

As noted many pre-service teachers suggested that the teaching module on special education was useful. Although the focus was on special education, it enabled them to better understand the concept of inclusive education. For example, one pre- service teacher said:

I think it is good course about SEN and we need to have more topics about SEN. Also, now I know about inclusive education from this module. But I think there should be one module on inclusive education on how to teach and work in inclusive schools. Also, now there are many schools with inclusive education, it will be good for us to train more and more in this area. (FG1_PT6)

Another pre-service teacher expressed his positive experience by adding that:

…now I know that inclusive education is important for all students and we should admit all students in schools. Everyone should get a chance for education (FG1_PT8).

From the above quote, it is reassuring to see that pre-service teachers such as this have such a positive attitude towards inclusion of all children in schools. Also, this data demonstrates that the pre-service teachers in this study had gained some important understandings of the concept of inclusive education via their pre-service education at the college.

The positive experiences expressed by three pre-service teachers undertaking teaching practice at one of the inclusive schools were very similar to those expressed by two pre-service teachers from another school. Ugyen, spoke of his experience:

With the introduction of 21st teaching pedagogy, we are well equipped with the teaching strategies. Therefore, I am 100% sure that the training is really supporting us in terms of understanding of the needs of students, classroom management and different teaching strategies like, group work, self- reflection for students to express themselves. It is helping us positively. (FG2_PT1)

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Similarly, Raj who worked in a different school from Ugyen, appeared very satisfied with the teacher education course at his college. He expressed that:

Thank you, sir13 my training is teaching me all the necessary skills and techniques to teach different students in the class. We have good lecturers who are qualified to teach us. They show us how to teach in different class situations. From my side, I can say that I am happy in my training as a teacher trainee. I am learning new knowledge like how to handle different types of students which is very important for us teachers. Although I don’t teach disabilities students in my class, I think I will teach them in future when I finish my training. Also, that as a teacher we have to know many things that our college is teaching. That much sir. (FG1_PT2)

The above two quotes indicate that some pre-service teachers are satisfied with the current teacher education course. Both participants appear to hold positive perceptions about their training, and they demonstrate a high level of confidence in their teaching. The data revealed, too that these pre-service teachers trusted their abilities, had experienced success, and showed determination to overcome difficult tasks. Such positive beliefs and experience, according to Bandura (1997) contribute to an increase in self-efficacy. Therefore, Bandura’s (1997) explanation of vicarious experience (one of his four self-efficacy beliefs - see Chapter 3) that allows successful replication of modeled behaviour can be linked with the above pre-service teachers’ views. As stated by Raj (above), “We have good lecturers ... They show us how to teach in different class situations”, it is about his confidence (positive belief about teacher education) to teach in inclusive schools in the future. Hence, the impression of having good lecturers as mentioned by Raj is a positive experience gained by pre- service teachers from their teacher education.

Going by the general findings and the examples cited above, the extent and benefits that have accrued to pre-service teachers comes into view. For instance, when mentioning “I am happy in my training…”, Raj portrays an element of GNH in the teaching fraternity. The fact that the culture of GNH is a part of the educational progress in Bhutan may make the teaching profession more attractive when pre-service teachers like Raj claim that the PCoE was a happy place for training to become a teacher. Unless a classroom teacher is content, it can be a challenge to foster happiness and learning among the students.

13 It is a custom in Bhutan to call your teacher ‘sir or madam’ and names of teachers are generally not called out.

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one participant, the most challenging task was to design class activities that engaged all students. This particular participant felt it was important for her to learn strategies in developing activities so that her students got equal opportunities to learn. Therefore, the pre-service teachers seemed concerned their teaching affected their student’s learning and their performance in the class. Inadequate training in developing suitable learning activities was identified by the pre-service teachers as the biggest challenge when teaching in an inclusive classroom. Seven pre-service teachers responded that they were incapable of developing suitable learning activities (group activities and individual activities) for their students. As stated by one participant:

I came to know that there are different types of children attending one class... I was having hands on experience in managing 25 students. I had to use different skills, strategies and approaches that we learned in college in managing them. But the one most challenge was making a different activity for some students. We need to learn this skill otherwise these students cannot learn equally. (FG1_PT5)

Another participant had a similar view:

Every teacher aims for success regarding students’ performance. However, in the process failure is obvious with extreme struggle, particularly in an inclusive setting. For example, my inability to help special need students is always a challenge for me. I can’t make appropriate activities for them, I run out of time when I have to help them individually, and sometimes I feel that we need a variety of teaching materials. Although, I know that teachers must shoulder their responsibilities for the success, but it comes with a big challenge when you are in halfway like what is right and what is wrong. (FG2_PT4)

A similar reporting was made by the Ministry of Education (2014) in its document Blue Print 2014-2024 which highlighted that “the main challenge … as a whole is how to increase the proportion of students achieving the expected learning outcomes” (p. 27). The above document reveals that the overall student learning and achievement was low both in terms of international standards and the national standards. Various reasons for these gaps were attributed “to teacher competencies, teaching learning materials, class size, curriculum and assessment, classroom practices and learning environment, relevancy and adequacy of professional development programs, and school leadership” (Ministry of Education, 2014, p.29). Similar reasons have also been validated by other studies (Bhutan Council for School Examination and

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Assessment, 2010; Education Sector Review Commission, 2008; and Royal Education Council & Education Initiatives, 2010).

Limited time for teaching practice

Three pre-service teachers also felt that there was a serious lack of teaching practice time in teaching in inclusive schools – in that they were not directed to focus on the children with learning disabilities. As a result, pre-service teachers felt that students were left behind in their learning. Consequently, these students were not able to successfully cover the set curriculum. In other words, the pre-service teachers felt that they had neglected those students who needed extra support and individual attention due to lack of time. One, female pre-service teacher emphasized that,

I think normally the special needs children need more attention. But they don’t take part much unless we give more attention and help them. But again, we need to finish our lesson on the plan. So, there is not enough time for us. (FG1_PT6)

The issue of time provision for teaching in inclusive schools has been reported in other studies (Chhetri, 2015; Subba et al., 2018). Schools in Bhutan are required to follow set of prescribed syllabi within a time timeframe. “Whatever the situation, teachers always make sure that s/he covers the full syllabus within the stipulated time” (Karma CW, 2017). Such practices are not helpful to learners especially when there is a child with SEN in the class. The study also found that pre-service teachers were not fully able to grasp the required skills in teaching due to the short duration of their teaching practice. Two significant benefits that pre-service teachers could derive from longer-duration teaching practice according to one participant, was that they could have hands on practice in working with senior teachers and getting to know more about the learning methods of children with SEN.

Examinations based performance

Another factor that has contributed to the issue of time is the external assessment regime in Bhutanese schools which has existed since the time of following the Indian education system as early as 1950s (Dorji & Schuelka, 2016; King-Sears, 2008; Thinley, 2016). This history led to a situation in which teachers, textbooks and curricular materials were entirely borrowed from India (Namgyel & Rinchhen, 2016)

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and students were assessed purely on written examinations which required vast coverage of syllabus (Chhetri, 2015). This is discussed in detail in Chapter 1. Hence, the system-related competitive examinations have hugely influenced teaching in classrooms, forcing teachers to rush their teaching so that they can complete the syllabus prior to examinations. Even at present, school rankings in Bhutan are largely based on the overall performance of students in the examinations, that is, on academic excellence (Schuelka, 2017). Similarly, for teachers it is their student’s performance in their examination that it counts (Sherab, Maxwell & Cooksey, 2016).

Resources for teaching in inclusive schools Three pre-service teachers pointed out the importance of—and the lack of— teaching and learning resources in inclusive schools. According to them, inclusive schools did not have appropriate materials, and there was not much variety in materials for use while teaching. It should be noted that many regular schools, apart from inclusive schools, are also facing problems related to teaching learning materials (Ministry of Education, 2014). For instance, the pre-service teachers indicted that there were issues related to adequate and timely supply of the textbooks. Other teaching learning materials in terms of content, paper quality and colour were also identified as part of the issue. One of the pre-service teachers even suggested having some toys and dolls in the class would support students who require additional emotional support. For example:

Sometimes we don’t get appropriate materials for students. There is not many choices of materials except some picture charts and wooden blocks. I am not so sure, but I think it will be helpful and useful to have something to play with like toys, dolls, colours as children love them. Especially young children who are emotionally disturbed in the class can be supported through play. (FG1_PT1)

Communication challenges

Communication with children with special needs in inclusive schools was another concern identified by two pre-service teachers. They found that communicating with children with special needs was difficult when they said that:

I think the biggest challenge is it is also difficult to communicate with student in inclusive schools. I am not able to make them understand and I also cannot understand their needs. So especially to teach these students there should be special course. This is my feelings sir. (FG1_PT6)

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And most of the time he is simply sitting and looking to friends or teacher but he is not talking much or doing his class works and homework. Sometimes he is not showing interest to study also. On the other hand, I am not able to make him understand as there is very less communication with him. Sometimes it is difficult to understand whether he is happy in the school or if he needs help. (FG1_PT8)

The above participants specified that many children with special needs are limited in verbal communication, and that this placed the pre-service teachers in a difficult position in understanding the students’ emotions and learning needs. According to Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (1981), Vygotsky argues that much of human beings learning occurs trough interactions with other people.

Sub-theme 2: Influence of mentors (senior teachers)

Pre-service teachers gave two different views on how mentors influenced them during their practicum. First of all, they mentioned that their mentors supported and guided them well. Mentor support came in; the exchange of knowledge about inclusive education, consistent interaction with each other, and sharing skills in how to teach in inclusive classrooms. For example: One pre-service teacher who seemed highly motivated by the way his school supported him stated that:

We learn many things while teaching in inclusive schools. The main thing is that the principal is good and supportive to all students. He is always reminding good things about inclusive education in a staff meeting. For example, he asked special education coordinator to help teacher trainees. But I think we need more help in actual classroom teaching. (FG1_PT8)

Another participant mentioned that:

I think it is a good opportunity to work in inclusive schools. Our principal is taking care of us and asking if we have problems in teaching. We can apply our skills and there is also more interaction among we trainees and our senior teachers. Like, they are helping us by telling what are some good ways of working with special child. They are also giving lots of encouragement when we teach in class. Therefore, from my side I can that I am happy to teach in inclusive school. (FG1_PT7)

It is clear from the quotes above that pre-service teachers were satisfied with the support of their mentors. They seem to have collected positive experiences from their practice that will allow pre-service teachers to master their teaching skills. Bandura’s (1997) mastering of skills is an important factor that facilitates the enhancement of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. It is therefore important to reiterate

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here that Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy applies to the context of Bhutanese teachers striving to learn through their own experiences.

The second point of view of mentor support by some pre-service teachers differed slightly from those of the first group above. For instance, five pre-service teachers showed concern about the interactions with their mentors. This was shared by the two of them:

… I think some of our teachers here also need to know more about teaching in inclusive schools. They also find it hard to teach. Like they get stuck when we ask for some tips for teaching disabled students. (FG1_PT3) Researcher: Can you explain bit more what you mean by they get stuck? Participant: I mean that, when I am not sure how to teach some lessons, like in maths, and when I ask my class teacher, he was not able to give me clear idea how to teach. That way I think he was also confused in his teaching. This is just my thought sir. Also, old teachers are helpless as my friend said. Once when I asked if we have any teaching materials for SEN, they were not very sure. Also, I asked if they could suggest me what is best to use for teaching and again not much idea came. (FG1_PT4)

It is clear from above the participants that some mentors themselves were facing difficulties in classroom teaching. While pre-service teachers expected mentors to advise them in teaching, the mentor’s inability to give proper advice could have an impact on the pre-service teachers’ attitude towards their teaching in an inclusive classroom. For example, in the case above when FG1_PT3 stated, “they (mentors) get stuck when we ask for some tips for teaching”, indicates that some mentors were unsure of their capability to teach certain topics in a lesson. Therefore, a lack of mastery experiences in mentors who otherwise could recommend teaching strategies to pre-service teachers, a lack of effective vicarious learning from mentors through observation, may also diminish pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

Next, in contrast to the above, data from the pre-service teachers in one inclusive school revealed contrasts in the way schools supported them during their teaching practice phase. Most pre-service teachers who were interviewed remained concerned about not receiving adequate support in classroom teaching during their professional practice. Three pre-service teachers found it very challenging to plan lessons to teach in an inclusive classroom. They also expressed the need for more help from mentors in developing activities to engage students effectively in the class. Choki

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highlighted the need for support and guidance for pre-service teachers like her who felt that;

For teacher trainees like us, there must be support and guidance in lesson planning to teach in inclusive school. At present, I teach here, but I follow general teaching methods and not supporting who are in need of extra help due to their behaviour or some sort of disability. I think it is important for our seniors to show us how to make some activities for group work. (FG2_PT3) It is evident from data that the pre-service teachers expected (or at least hoped) the senior teachers would guide them in making suitable lesson plans, demonstrate skills and techniques in teaching different student groups, and provide some direction in developing classroom activities. Successful teachers working in inclusive settings, adapting the curriculum for all learners and organizing classes to meet the needs of diverse students, can immensely benefit new teachers (Carrington, 1999). The idea of an invitation to senior teachers to guide the pre-service teachers by teaming up with them in class teaching was also highlighted by Om. She articulated that,

It will be really helpful if senior teachers can work side by side with trainees so that we can see them teaching in class and talking to them will make a big difference for us. Because we can clarify some of our doubts on the spot with them, and we will be feeling happy in our teaching when they tell us that our teaching is going good. (FGI_PT4)

When the participant above mentioned her expectations of learning from mentors, it is evident that she was concerned about her teaching. Interestingly, she discussed her mentors about co-teaching which is an ideal approach (Drawdy, Deng & Howerter, 2014; Forlin, 2012) in developing teaching skills through vicarious experiences; observing and learning from mentors (Bandura, 1997). The concept of co-teaching could be one area that can be explored and implemented as part of practicum for pre-service teachers in Bhutan. One advantage of this concept is to teach pre-service teachers how to support the learning of diverse learners within an inclusive classroom (Carrington & Robinson, 2004).

Further, the results from the data indicate that pre-service teachers looked to their senior teachers to demonstrate different skills and guide them in the practice of new skills in inclusive teaching. Bandura’s theory (1977) of self-efficacy can be related here where vicarious experience – (one of the four aspects representing the self-efficacy model, discussed in literature review) is highly sought-after by the pre- service teachers to build up their efficiency in teaching in inclusive classrooms. Also,

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verbal persuasion (another aspect of self-efficacy model, discussed in literature) could offer feedback and encouragement from the supervising teacher. It is through such experiences that pre-service teachers learn from mentors and eventually overcome their apprehensions at teaching in an inclusive classroom.

Generally, the support that was accorded to the teachers in terms of availability of mentors and other factors within the environment empahsis on the interaction between the learner and the surounding that leads to effective learning (Daniels & Hedegaard, 2011; Allahyar, & Nazari, 2012).

Sub-theme 3: Community and parent involvement

Two pre-service teachers raised another important issue concerning the involvement of parents and the community. One pre-service teacher who gave his positive view about inclusive education identifies that the community can play a big role: I found that the concept of inclusive school is very good and it promotes community participation. I only hope that more schools will turn into inclusive and work towards the education of all children. But again, unless there is full support both from school and community inclusive education will not work effectively. (FG2_PT1)

He pointed out that support from the community is vital in making inclusion effective. Strong family and social ties are considered very important and remain very vibrant in Bhutan. There are also some parents who hold strong cultural and religious beliefs about sending their children with special needs to school. Given the mountainous landscape in Bhutan, there are also often physical difficulties of moving around for children with disabilities. As a result, they are unlikely to reach school. Often, even if they were able to reach schools, they would still struggle to gain access to classrooms. This phsycial reality means that some parents are reluctant to send their children to school thinking that they would also be “vulnerable to teasing or prone to accidents” (Black and Stalker, 2006, p. 60.)

Another pre-service teacher expressed the importance of meeting with parents to discuss issues related to their children. It is highlighted that the Ministry of Education (2014) acknowledges that, “disadvantaged children in schools are deprived of maximum parental involvement in their learning” (p. 47). This is an important finding that this study has identified. When working with students with special needs in inclusive schools, both school administrators and parents are key factors for the

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success of the programme (Salend, 1998). The non-involvement of parents of students with special needs in Bhutan has been rightly identified as an area for further attention. According to this pre-service teacher, the challenges of working in an inclusive school where there is limited support by the school in involving parents meant that:

Sometimes I think we should also discuss the children with parents. But they may not like when we say that their child is special and different. So, it is hard to explain to them. Moreover, there is no meeting happening with individual parents. I think the school should support teachers by arranging a discussion with parents. All students are not from same region or background and they speak different dialect. So meeting with parents will allow us to understand their child better. (FG2_PT4) A similar concern was expressed by one school principal in a study who found that it was difficult for a parent to agree that her child had some sort of disability (Subba et al., 2018). When parents who are uneducated or illeterate refuse to cooperate with the school in such situations, it makes it difficult for the school to offer the right intervention. Therefore, the curiosity expressed by the above-mentioned participant in meeting with the parents may be seen as a desire to learn more about other cultural practices and to develop communication skills and interactions across cultures (Abood et al., 2011). There is however, evidence of parents seeking appropriate care and education for their children. For example, during a field visit undertaken as part of this study, the Vice-Principal of one of the schools remarked:

Some parents are very concerned about their children’s education. One time, a mother of a student came to me and said that her child was not happy in the school. The child told her mother that the teacher was not giving her attention in the class like; did not talk to her, did not give her chance to speak like others and did not check her writing. (Field Notes, 18 May 2017)

According to the notes above, a parent came to seek improved access to education, and to talk about a teacher who the parent thought was not taking adequate care of her child in the class. Such discussions are therefore considered useful not only to support, but also to “gauge the level of the child’s educational experience” and performance in the classroom (Krajcovicova & Novotna, 2015, p.40).

The results from the data showed that pre-service teachers were aware of the importance of community and parent involvement, which has a positive impact on many indicators of student achievement (Emerson, Fear, Fox, Sanders, 2012). It appears, though, that in the absence of a formal policy on inclusive education, schools

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I also think we have to get more training about inclusive education as it is important for disabled students to get educated. Now inclusive education is important, it is established in many dzongkhags. So there is a great need for more training. Otherwise, school cannot support students in the class. This is what I feel. (FG1_PT2) Also regarding inclusive education, I don’t remember learning much. We have modules to be studied in final year which is based on the inclusive education system. But what I think is we have to learn more about inclusive education and get better training because these days many inclusive schools are established in our country. (FG2_PT2)

Sub-theme 2: Curriculum and pedagogy issues

Another concern that emerged was related to the curriculum. Four pre-service teachers expressed their concern with the present school curriculum. Since all students follow one national curriculum that include children with SEN, pre-service teachers found that the present curriculum does not address the learning needs of all children in the class. They pointed out that the curriculum is mostly academically orientated which left very little room for SEN students to learn. Ganga, one of the participants mentioned that:

One thing, I am also concerned is about the present curriculum which is demanding too much of academic that SEN students cannot cope with. There is also the shortage of time to complete lesson. The syllabus in the curriculum is very vast. My helplessness to design appropriate classroom activities is acting like a barrier to inclusive education. I also get the feeling that as a teacher I am not providing that opportunity for my students to learn what is in the curriculum. So, if we know how to make suitable lessons for our students, this can solve our problem when we graduate from the college. I feel in this way we can make our students perform well in academic. (FG2_ PT4)

The above participant commented on how difficult it is for children with SEN to follow the general curriculum prescribed for all students. This affects the overall learning and academic achievement of the students with SEN. Consequently, students with SEN are not able to perform at par with mainstream students. There have been cases when students with SEN have failed in examinations and (due to the structure of education in Bhutan), thus preventing them from moving on the next grade. Interestingly, this data is in line with what many researchers have reported internationally. For example, Ainscow and Farell (2002) argued that while regular schools faced the challenges of including children with special needs, the issue of raising academic standards becomes a concern with regard to supporting these

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students. Warnock (2010) indicated that schools in the United Kingdom are also assessed and ranked based on academic performances. Such approaches pressure teachers to follow a structured and rigid curriculum which fails to take into consideration the individual learning needs of children. Similarly, Bhutan also puts emphasis on the success and image of its schools based on the academic performance of the students who are judged through examination success (Sherab & Dorji, 2013; Sherab, Dorji, Dukpa, Lhamo, Thapa & Tshomo, 2015). Hence, the concerns expressed by the pre-service teachers in this study appear realistic because school ranking can work against inclusion (Pinnock & Kaplan, 2014).

4.3 FINDINGS FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS

According to Nunan (1989), in addition to the use of focus group interviews, investigation of pre-service teacher classroom interaction should ideally include classroom observations. In line with this, it was essential for this researcher to adopt classroom observation methods (described in Chapter 3) for data collection in order to identify, describe and relate the actions and contributions of pre-service teachers teaching in the classroom (Van Lier, 1988). While different methods of observation are recommended, several elements are common to any type of observation. The researcher carefully followed established observation strategies - being unobtrusive to the class while remaining involved enough to actively observe for teaching strategy and over all class organization (Clark, n.d.).

Twelve classroom observations were carried out in this study. Three inclusive schools where twelve pre-service teachers taught during their teaching practice were the location for class observation. The researcher talked with each participant before the class observations, explaining to them how the observation would be carried out. Each class observation lasted 25 minutes.

The framework for classroom observations consisted of three broad areas: 1) management of the classroom to maximize learning; 2) promotion of student interest and engagement; and 3) response to diverse students’ needs. Each of the broad areas mentioned above consisted of different domains and there were sixteen domains in total (Figure 4.2). A list of these domains can be found in Appendix F. A classroom observation tool was further developed on the basis of the above framework. This tool

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has been used to record in this study the details of the classroom observations and the same can be found in Appendix H.

As stated earlier, the data collected from classroom observations addresses Research Question 2. How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self- efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms? The figure below represents a framework for classroom observation used in the three inclusive schools to observe the teaching of all twelve pre-service teachers that was developed by this researcher.

Figure 4.2 Framework for classroom observation

One broad theme emerged from the classroom observations: pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy to teach in inclusive schools. The following sections provide explanations of the theme and sub-themes from the classroom observation data.

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confidence of the teachers and the strategies they adopt in planning to teach diverse learners.

During the focus group interviews, the participants had spoken about their concerns in planning appropriate lessons for inclusive classes. Class observations in which the same participants were observed (i.e. data verification) was an appropriate method for the researcher to verify pre-service teacher claims and to understand the realities of practice. An examination of the lesson plans that were used as the basis of the lessons being observed revealed that the majority of participants did not have any specific plans to engage students who needed extra support. Surprisingly, none of the twelve pre-service teachers included any alternative activities in their lesson plans for students with SEN. This was also evident in observing teaching practice and when the researcher analyzed their lesson plans. Therefore, it was unsurprising when three pre-service teachers in their focus group interviews expressed that it was very challenging for them to plan lessons for teaching in an inclusive classroom. This indicated a low level of self-efficacy among pre-service teachers.

Interestingly, however, during the observations, the researcher found that almost all of the twelve pre-service teachers displayed much confidence when teaching and most had good knowledge about the curriculum topics that were being taught. It was evident that the pre-service teachers possessed much eagerness to teach despite not being fully able to plan lessons for different groups of students in the class. Therefore, in the above case, a high level of self-efficacy has been observed. The self-efficacy theory of Bandura (1997) applies here from the point of view of ‘mastery experiences’. In this case, pre-service teachers’ depended on the level of confidence in their abilities which was influenced by the success of their past teaching experiences (Herbert-Smith, 2019). For example, in a grade one class, the students were being taught to make different shapes using wooden blocks. While the pre-service teacher did not have a separate plan to engage the special needs student, he was seen working directly with the student to support her in learning how to build shapes. The following was observed:

There was one child with special needs. There was no modified activity to involve her - same strategy for all students. Pre-service teacher helped the child to hold the blocks, instructed the other student sitting next to help build shapes, was a joint effort of the students. (Observation 5, Maths- building shapes)

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It was observed that the pre-service teacher was trying his best to teach the student despite not having a separate plan, and he looked confident throughout the classroom observation. He also kept other students in the group engaged in conversation while working with the student. Other members of the class were also seen helping the special needs student along with the teacher. The pre-service teacher clearly encouraged the class students to interact with each other through this example, which in turn helped them learn (Vygotsky, 1981).

Sub-theme 2: Use of specialist teaching and learning materials

During class observations, it was found that the pre-service teachers did not use many teaching and learning materials when they were teaching. It was not clear whether the three schools covered in this study had access to any specialist teaching resources to support learning in inclusive classrooms. The Ministry of Education’s (2014) own statement that schools in Bhutan continue to suffer from “imbalanced resource allocations” can be linked with the observations made by the researcher in this study (p, 86).

This combination of a lack of availability of resources with an inability to use appropriate resources contributed to the researchers’ observation that not all students were attentive in some classes. For example in a story lesson, students were observed talking among themselves, and the class became a little noisy. The pre-service teacher had to ask the class to be attentive and to stop talking. The pre-service teacher was reading the story from a book which did not seem very effective in capturing students’ attention. The researcher looked around the class to see if there were any other resources that could be used to make the lesson more effective, but there were no other resources in the class. It was unclear if the pre-service teacher had not sought out or collected any engaging resources as part of lesson preparation, or was not capable of preparing materials for use while teaching. This indicated to the researcher that some preparation was missing from the lesson. Similarly, in a maths lesson a pre-service teacher was mostly using the blackboard, and the students appeared disinterested in listening. Later, when the students were working in pairs, the class became somewhat noisy and the pre-service teacher repeatedly asked his students to stop talking. The following is a note from this class observation.

The class was [a] little noisy when the students were working in pairs. Pre-service teacher repeatedly reminded the students to be silent and to read softly from the board. This was a

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general classroom management issue. The pre-service teacher did not have any inclusive pedagogies for particular students. (Observation 2, Maths lesson)

However, in other maths lessons, another pre-service teacher demonstrated active teaching in the class. He used wooden blocks to demonstrate how to make different shapes. He was also observed interacting with his students throughout the lesson. Below is the observation record made in this class.

Students were made to work in groups. Seven students in each group (5 girls and 2 boys), used wooden blocks (coloured) to build shapes. Students actively involved in building shapes, lots of noise and pre-service teacher kept reminding students to keep their voice level low. Two groups did not have enough blocks. Pre-service teacher encouraged students to build shapes. There was one student with special needs and pre-service teacher used the same teaching strategy for all students. The pre-service teacher helped the child to hold the blocks and made few shapes with the child. The blocks were big and kept falling from the student’s hands. Later two other students helped this student to build shapes. They were smiling and loved to work together. Pre-service teacher walked around the class, ‘Ok, you can ask your friends if you need help’. Helped one group to build different shapes with different blocks. Two other students were working in partnership with the special child. They were smiling and happy when building shapes. (Observation 5, Maths lesson)

The activity above appeared to be a good example of inclusive practice. Mastery experience was used by the pre-service teacher to support the student. However, a question came to the researcher’s mind as a result of the above observations: Was it the lack of resource access in the school? This is because not all groups had enough blocks. The researcher later (after the class observation) talked to the participants and found from the participant (Observation 2) that the school did not have alternative resources that could be used for teaching. He mentioned that this was the reason why he relied only on the textbook to teach the story, whereas the other participant (Observation 5) had more resources (wooden blocks) in the class. He was able to use them for all his students. However, one student with SEN still had difficulty in using the blocks as they (blocks) were big and did not fit in his hands.

As noted, despite not using many resources for teaching (the black board and white board being the most common resources), the researcher found that the pre- service teachers appeared confident in their teaching which indicated high efficay in them. They were very communicative while teaching and were helpful and supportive of students who needed help in the class. Most of the pre-service teachers had good

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control over the class and kept checking that students were following the lesson by asking questions to the students. Overall, it was observed that the pre-service teachers were interacting quite well with students and responding to their questions. This made the students comfortable in approaching their teacher..

Sub-theme 3: Student engagement - Student-centred activity

Student engagement, or student-centered activity, refers to the wide variety of classroom activities that can be conducted through planned instructional approaches and academic-support strategies (The Glossary of Education Reform, 2014). When students have more opportunities for class activities, the degree of engagement in the class is improved. This is important to support students from diverse cultural backgrounds to feel “welcomed, accepted, safe, and valued” (The Glossary of Education Reform, 2014).

A key purpose of engaging students in activities is to address the learning needs of individual students. The researcher observed that pre-service teachers were making efforts to engage students in some activities. The fieldnote below explains how this was carried out in one of the classroom observations.

This was an IT lesson, ‘How to use features of Microsoft words?’. The class was in the computer laboratory and three students shared one computer. First, pre-service teacher gave instructions on how to access Microsoft word features. He showed the class and explained how to use its features such as: inserting tables, shapes and diagrams, checking spelling, find and replace, and other features. During the lesson, students were seen watching the demonstrations. Next, students were asked to use the computer to work in their group, taking turns. It was observed that pre-service teacher stressed his students to talk to each other (for example, the student using the computer was encouraged to explain the lesson to her / his group, while the other students were encouraged to ask questions if they were having trouble following the lesson). Note: Class was little noisy and reminded the students not to speak loudly. It was observed that two students in two different groups did not want to use the computer and apparently did not participate in group work. The majority of students participated actively in the lesson. (Observation 4, IT lesson)

Supporting the above statement, the researcher came across posters, signboards and notices around each of the schools that encouraged student-centered activities for learning in the classrooms. For example, Figure 4. 4 illustrates a group of students

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taking part in a class activity. When the researcher asked one of the teachers to explain the poster, he said that one of the students in the poster was a student with SEN and the poster illustrated student-centered activity. As seen in the poster, students are the focus and they are applying their knowledge and making meaning of what they have learned. In the poster, they are seen arranging the English alphabet letters in order. This poster was placed outside in the hallway of some classrooms where everyone could view. It is assumed that it was a reminder for the teachers to engage students (not ignoring students with SEN) in class activities.

Figure 4.4 A poster from an inclusive school - encouraging student (involvement) centered activity

During classroom observations, there was some evidence of student-centered activities in most of the classes taught by the pre-service teachers. Almost all pre- service teachers engaged their students in one or more activities in their lessons. Table 4.1 below illustrates some of the student activities deployed by the pre-service teachers for student’s learning in the class.

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Table 4.1 Student activities deployed by the pre-service teachers for learning

Activity that Teaching observed supported students learning through student engagement Chemistry Maths Dzongkha English Science IT (Bhutanese Language) Listening to teacher X X X X X X Copying from white X X X board Working X X individually Working in pairs X X X Working in groups X X X Asking questions to X X X X X teacher Asking questions to X X friends/each other Answering the X X X X teacher’s questions Observing teacher X X X X demonstration Demonstrations by X X students

For the researcher (as an observer) it was important to focus on the effect – actual student participation and not exclusively on the teaching of the curriculum. The researcher observed that the pre-service teachers organized different class activities such as: students working in groups, students working in pairs, students walking to and standing in front of the class, students demonstrating to the class, observing the teacher and listening to their teachers. For example, it was observed that:

Pre-service teacher demonstrated how to punctuate correctly. Pre-service teacher appeared very confident in his teaching and had good knowledge about the lesson being taught. The lesson was explained through demonstration (writing) on the whiteboard. It was observed that

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students were able to understand the lesson easily. Students were asked to repeat (read loud) the punctuations after the teacher. Two students were asked to come in front of the class and they were made to punctuate a sentence on the whiteboard. (Observation 12, English – punctuation)

It was observed that pre-service teachers encouraged and actively involved students by supporting participation, play and learning (Booth, Ainscow and Kingston (2006). Such activities lead to progress in inclusive practices in classrooms. The researcher noted that the above strategy was very effective for pre-service teachers who were working to engage diverse learners. For example, the researcher observed that the above pre-service teacher was able to help his students to participate and understand the lesson content. In return, the students were observed to be learning well from the teaching, for example, they were able to use punctuation marks correctly. When pre-service teachers manage to organize student-centered activities based on their experience, it helps to build their confidence in teaching. This is where one of Bandura’s (1997) sources of efficacy beliefs - Mastery Experiences come into play (discussed in Chapter 2). For instance, the pre-service teacher above explained the lesson repeatedly (orally and by writing on the whiteboard), making it easy for the students to understand the lesson. Hence, the pre-service teacher’s high confidence indicated high efficacy. In the same way, for pre-service teachers in this study, there was a sense of self-efficacy through experience, effort and perseverance. Therefore, pre-service teachers’ confidence in teaching was noticeable during the teaching observations.

Sub-theme 4: Teaching with enthusiasm

Teacher enthusiasm is one of the core teacher qualities for effective teaching (Brophy & Good, 1986). It can make all the difference in motivating students and helping them to learn. Pre-service teachers who judge themselves capable of teaching in inclusive classrooms can promote and contribute to the success of inclusion. This is about self-efficacy. When they believe in their capabilities to teach, their power of willingness to teach is further developed (Bandura, 1997).

Although some pre-service teachers commented on lack of training in inclusive education, when observed, they demonstrated their enthusiasm for teaching in the inclusive schools. They were very open to their students and respected each and every

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student in their classes. As explained in section 5.4.2.1, pre-service teachers demonstrated their enthusiasm for teaching in inclusive classes that supported Bandura’s (1997) argument that if an individual shows enthusiasm and confidence in a given task, the chances of achieving the goals are high for that task. A similar justification is also put forward by Payne-Van Staden (2015), who believes that psychiological and emotional cues (Bandura, 1997) determine the self-efficacy judgment of individuals. The researcher observed in this study that pre-service teachers used demonstration as a means of teaching. The interest shown in teaching in the class by some pre-service teachers enabled them to draw their students’ attention, which in turn boosted their positivity for teaching. For example, in a mathematics lesson, one pre-service teacher showed enthusiastically how to solve and use variables. He was a grade nine teacher who had 26 students and demonstrated his teaching using the blackboard. The observation note below describes how he engaged his students and made his teaching interesting and attentive to the students.

Pre-service teacher began by giving the definition of a variable and demonstrated how to use variables by writing on the blackboard. He interacted with students, spoke in a friendly way. This approach made his students open-minded and approachable to him. After this, pre-service teacher looked very confident. He asked some students to come forward and asked them to solve some questions on the blackboard. Students were very interactive in this lesson. They were asking few questions to their teacher. Students, although they were making some noise. (Observation 2, Maths lesson)

The observation illustrated that while the pre-service teacher showed high- efficacy through his teaching, the students also enjoyed the lesson, remained focused on learning, engaged with class friends, and became interested as noted throughout the class. Following this, there were more interactions between the pre-service teacher and the students. He later used instructional groupings such as student pairs and small groups as a means of engagement in learning as outlined in the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) discussed in Chapter 2 (Alchin, 2014; Courey, Tappe, Siker & LePage, 2012; Samuels, 2007). This stimulated the students’ interest, as well as participation and cooperation among themselves resulting in a sense of satisfaction from his mastery experience for the pre-service teacher (Bandura, 1997).

In summary, one of the most common aspects perceived during the observations was the pre-service teachers’ enthusiasm for teaching. Many of them seemed to enjoy teaching wholeheartedly. They were seen to be very engaging, audible, jolly,

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approachable, and did their best to hold the attention of students. The data regarding their feelings for teaching from both interviews (previously discussed) and from the classroom observations were closely aligned that is, pre-service teachers were truly demonstrating their enthusiasm for teaching (during the observation) which they had already expressed during the interviews.

Sub-theme 5: Responding to diversity

One of the conditions identified by UNESCO (2001, Chapter 2) for working with diversity in the classroom is to “include all pupils… especially if some of the children have special needs.” (p.74). Likewise, some schools in Bhutan have their own strategies and policies that are based on GNH (Gross National Happiness, discussed in Chapter 1, Sherab, Maxwell & Cooksey, 2016) about how to include these students for equal learning opportunities (Schuelka, 2012; Subba et al., 2018). In figure 4.5 below, a student with special needs attends school assembly with his friends. As the poster portrays, all schools in Bhutan start every day with a morning assembly. It begins with a morning school prayer followed by a short meditation. All-important announcements are made during the assembly. It is mandatory for all teacher and students to attend the assembly. This is one way that illustrates how schools ensure that all students are included in schools’ activities.

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Figure 4.5 A student with special needs attends school assembly with his friends (This photo was collected from one of the schools where it was displayed on the school board as part of inclusive awareness) In general, during observations, most pre-service teachers were seen engaging all students in their lessons. They did this by paying attention and listening to all students in their class. Most responded to questions that the students asked in the class. For example, the following was observed in one of the observations:

Pre-service teacher paid attention to everyone in the class, was listening to students when they were responding to his questions. He made sure that students were attentive and following his story. He also helped those students who were not able to answer his questions by prompting and giving clues to the answers. Pre-service teacher responded to all the questions that were asked to him by the students. Children were comfortable talking to their teacher. There was no differentiation among children by the pre-service teacher. (Observation 6, Dzongkha - story lesson)

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The above pre-service teacher was found to be very concerned about his students’ attentiveness in the class. He kept checking whether they were following his story. For example, he used a questioning technique to check his students’ focus on the lesson. He was asking questions from the story at random times. The researcher found that the questioning technique deployed by the pre-service was effective during the lesson which ties with Bandura’s (1997) explanation of mastery experiences. For example, when the pre-service teacher found that his questioning technique was working well, he was encouraged to use this strategy further. The questions were simple and easy for the students to understand. Hence most of the students were able to answer the questions which in turn helped the pre-service teacher to enhance his efficacy. Below is a sample of a question and answer session observed during the lesson (Observation 6): Pre-service teacher: What did the little boy say to his mother? Student A: He said that he was hungry. Pre-service teacher: That is the right answer. Well done.

Pre-service teacher: When did the little boy go to sleep? Student B: The boy went to sleep at night. Pre-service teacher: Is this answer correct? (to the class) Class: No, sir. (more hands rising up to answer the question) Pre-service teacher: Ok, can you tell us (pointing at a student sitting beside the window) when did the little boy go to sleep? Student C: He went to sleep soon after he came back home from the fields. Pre-service teacher: Very good. That is the correct answer.

When students were unable to answer the questions, it was observed in some cases that the pre-service teacher made efforts to help them answer the questions. For example, some clues were given to students to help them respond. It was observed that the pre-service teacher was prompting them to answer the questions. These efforts by the pre-service teacher is an indication that in this case, when the pre-service teacher made several attempts to help his students answer the questions, Bandura’s (1977) concept of mastery experiences to succeed in a task is proven. Therefore, it justifies to say that pre-service teacher’s success was based on his previous (mastery) experience as observed in this particular lesson.

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When responding to diversity, most pre-service teachers walked around the class and made sure that students were working in groups, in pairs or individually as instructed. In one of the observations, a pre-service teacher encouraged two students to befriend another student with special needs who was sitting in between them. He instructed the students to help their friend to do some colouring. The researcher noticed that the two students were happy to assist their friend and the three of them worked happily together. This was a notable suportive gesture of the two students. Further, these observations support findings in the literature. For example UNESCO (2001) reports that when students are engaged in peer tutoring or play, it promotes social inclusion of student who has special needs. Other ways of promoting inclusivity are through projects and engaging students in small-group activities. (Ralabate, 2019).

The researcher noted that, at no point, did any of the pre-service teachers appear to discriminate against any of their students. Their willingness to help all students was evident, for example pre-service teachers addressed questions randomly to students all around the class. It was observed that no questions were overly targetted specifically at any of the students. Most pre-service teachers responded to the questions when asked by their students. Below is an example of an observation record of a class. Pre-service teacher paid attention to children by listening to them when they needed help. Some students went unnoticed when they raised their hands. Students were comfortable talking to their teacher. No differentiation observed among children by the teacher. Pre-service teacher also encouraged students to ask her if they had questions. (Observation 8, Dzongkha- reading lesson) The classroom observations were important sources of information for this study. They provided evidence that the pre-service teachers engaged in formative assessment practice, by encouraging their students to ask questions whenever they had difficulty in following the lesson. Also, during some observations, pre-service teachers provided reinforcement by praising their students. They used phrases like: very good; correct answer, you did it right; well done; and excellent work.

4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY: KEY FINDINGS

This chapter has presented the key findings of the study in light of the three research questions (presented at the beginning of the chapter).

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With regards to Research Question 1, the overall understanding about inclusive education is that pre-service teachers held positive perceptions about inclusive education in Bhutan. In general, the participants accepted inclusion. They expressed their commitment to work with students with SEN in inclusive schools. Nevertheless, while the pre-service teachers indicated that inclusive schools in Bhutan were expanding, the need for teacher preparation was seen as a pressing need.

With regards to Research Question 2, pre-service teachers perceived that teacher education in their college was an important factor to support the progression and success of inclusive education. The data from focus group interviews revealed that pre- service teachers had a mix of both positive as well as negative experiences from their training in the college. Negative experiences were associated with pre-service teachers’ not being satisfied with their training. Their reasons included that their training in inclusive education was inadequate as they did not fully understand about inclusive education. Even though they were introduced to Special Education, they were unable to adapt the curriculum to suit individual children’s needs and lacked confidence to teach in inclusive class. Positive experiences were associated with the relevance of training in regard to inclusive education. Nine pre-service teachers found that the training that they received helped them to work in inclusive schools. Nevertheless, they found that the training taught them some skills such as classroom management, teaching strategies to teach in inclusive classrooms, the opportunity for teaching practice, enabled them to understand the concept of inclusive education, and develop positive attitudes. Teaching practice, especially within an inclusive classroom setting was critical because it provided opportunity to construct learning through interaction with the socio-cultural context. Teaching practice provides experience in an inclusive classroom from where he/she can eventually develop adequate classroom management skills and through experience (Bandura, 1971) such practice will eventually improve the teacher’s self-efficacy.

With regards to Research Question 3, the use of the framework of self-efficacy during the analysis of data has helped to explore the participants’ experiences of teaching children with diverse needs in the classrooms. Two main areas were observed during the classroom observations: pre-service teachers’ confidence in teaching and demonstration of their self-efficacy. Almost all pre-service teachers demonstrated their enthusiasm for teaching in inclusive classrooms. They appeared confident in their

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teaching and demonstrated care, love and respect for their students. Hence, a sense of joy and satisfaction prevailed among the pre-service teachers while engaged in their teaching. However, one important observation during the classroom observation was that pre-service teachers did not have separate lesson plans or activities that would encourage the overall involvement and learning of all students in the class.

In the next chapter, the findings from the open-ended questionnaires gathered from the twenty beginning teachers from five inclusive schools are presented.

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Chapter 5: Results and Discussion: Beginning Teachers’ Beliefs about Teacher Education and Understandings about Inclusive Education.

5.1 INTRODUCTION AND CHAPTER ORGANIZATION

Chapter 4 reported on the results from focus two group interviews and classroom observations of 12 pre-service teachers. This chapter reports on the results from the 20 item open-ended questionnaires that collected data about beginning teachers’ perceptions and accounts of their inclusive education teaching experience and relates to the second phase of data analysis.

As described in Chapter 4 (section 4.1), three research questions guided this study. The focus of chapter 4 was on the perceptions and experiences of pre-service teachers and examined pre-service teachers’ understandings about inclusive education in Bhutan (Research Question 1). It also examined how pre-service teachers perceived the teacher training programme as preparation for teaching in inclusive classroom (Research Question 2), as well as their pre-service self-efficacy for adopting inclusive practices (Research Question 3). The analysis in Chapter 4 revealed that all 12 pre- service teachers indicated that they were accepting of inclusive schooling, expressing positive perceptions of the inclusion of children with disabilities in general schools. Nevertheless, pre-service teachers provided both negative and positive experiences of their teacher education. While they indicated that teacher training for inclusive education was occurring at the College of Education, eight pre-service teachers expressed that they were not satisfied with the training they had received. Broadly, they reported that, while they had acquired basic understandings and some practical teaching skills (such as in classroom management), they felt underprepared to effectively work with diverse groups of students.

Chapter 5 (this chapter) extends on the analyses in Chapter 4 by investigating how beginning teachers understand inclusive education in Bhutan. This chapter

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examines beginning teachers’ understandings about inclusive education in Bhutan (Research Question 1) as well as their perceptions of teacher-training programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classroom (Research Question 2). It is structured around three themes and 13 sub-themes which emerged from the analysis of the open-ended questionnaire. It concludes with a summary of key findings which contribute to answering Research Question 1 and Research Questions 2.

5.2 FINDINGS FROM OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRES

Three major themes from the analysis of data gathered in the open-ended questionnaire were identified: 1) challenges faced by beginning teachers; 2) success in inclusive training; and 3) measures to improve inclusive training at the College of Education, and in the broader education sector. These themes are illustrated in Figure 5.1.

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Figure 5.1 Themes and sub-themes from the analysis of open-ended questionaires

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to work successfully with all students (e.g., having to rush to finish lessons on time). 5) Large class size. In this sub-theme, data is presented where beginning teachers reported on difficulties managing classes with many students—often in confined classrooms.

From the researcher’s personal experience, a SEN teacher often has limited experience in teaching students with SEN in Bhutan, and sometimes has no expertise in such teaching at all. The researcher had also faced similar challenges to those reported by the beginning teachers. These challenges are also similar to those identified in the literature as applicable to teachers in other countries in the region when implementing inclusive education. There are reports from Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh and India (Ahsan, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012; Beutel, Tangen and Carrington, 2018; Kumar, Rani & Singh, 2016; Regmi, 2017) where SEN teachers also work similarly in challenging situations. The following sections presents data and analysis for each of the sub-themes described above.

Sub-theme 1: Inadequate training in inclusive education

The introductory teaching module The need to learn more about teaching skills for inclusive education was highlighted by this participant:

My training in inclusive education was 50% relevant, as I was introduced through special education and not much on inclusive education. Because when it comes to real life class situation, it is a big challenge to cater to the needs of our SEN students. Therefore, new teachers like me if we are posted to inclusive schools then we will face big problems. (OEQ5_BT4)14

This comment makes it clear that beginning teachers did not feel prepared to teach in inclusive schools, with more emphasis placed on teaching about special education rather than teaching in inclusive classrooms. This seems to clearly underpin Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory that emphasises the importance of interaction with the socio-cultural surrounding, and how this is important to learning (Kozulin, 2002). As such the respondent notes that it is particularly challenging to function effectively without sufficient scaffolded support. That is, this student (and others) are indicating

14 Response from Open Ended Questionnaire (school) 5, Beginning Teacher (participant) 4. Likewise, followed for other excerpts in this thesis.

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that they sense that they are operating at the limits of (or beyond) their zones of proximal development during these placements. This impacts on self-efficacy, as the quote indicates, “If we are posted to inclusive schools then we will face big problems”. Hence, the teachers were unable to support inclusivity fully, and they felt unable could apply the appropriate pedagogies in practice. This is a big challenge that teachers face when attempting to implement inclusive learning in Bhutan. Apparently, the culture, beliefs and attitudes affect the teachers to such an extent that even before they try implementing the practice, they already see it as an insurmountable challenge. According to Kozulin et al (2003), Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory points out that attitudes like this can hinder learning, for example, if teachers are not open to learning. However, Vygotsky’s work also insists on the importance of constructing new learning through appropriately scaffolded support from others. That is, pre-service teachers need the opportunity to operate within their zones of proximal development, and to experience mastery, in order to avoid this decline in self-efficacy.

While generally, the vision for special education and inclusive education within the Bhutanese context is considered to be progressive (Schuelka, 2013), this data demonstrates that, bringing this vision to reality is complex and plagued with the challenges that are reported on in this chapter and thesis.

Based on the beginning teacher’s response, aspects of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory come into play. When stating that inclusive education was undertaken as an introductory module in pre-service training, this teacher highlights the limited confidence that many graduates have after training - a possible reason for their low efficacy. This implies neither mastery experiences nor vicarious experiences (Bandura’s two sources of efficacy beliefs) were fully captured by the beginning teacher. Because inclusive education is an introductory module within the teacher education program, it appears to offer few opportunities for inclusive teaching mastery, with much more specialised education needed to ensure that the graduate becomes confident and competent.

Another beginning teacher also commented about inclusive education as an introductory module at the teachers college that lacked the necessary teaching of skills in accommodating students with SEN in an inclusive class. In this context, the respondent stated that:

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It was not relevant I would say. Inclusive education was the only introduction for us, no skills to teach special students or in-depth knowledge about inclusive education was passed on us. In the field here we are having tough time to manage the class due to large class size. On top of it when we have SEN students it is challenging for us to make them successful in learning. Even though I am trying from my side but difficult to teach them. At times I feel helpless and sad for my students. I feel like nervous and uncomfortable from inside and being a teacher I am not able to teach. (OEQ4_BT2)

The comments above highlight the issue that although the beginning teachers were introduced to inclusive education, the nature of the curriculum at the training colleges remains limited in that it fails to give them the teaching skills relevant to supporting and teaching students with SEN in an inclusive class. This, in similar to Schwarzer's (2014) account, shows a critical element in the self-efficacy framework of Bandura where physiological and emotional signals have a role to play. Although this study did not investigate the participant’s emotional conditions, Bandura (1997) affirms that if individuals are extremely concerned about their task and show their emotional feelings, he/she may begin to doubt and develop a weak sense of self- efficacy. Moreover, Payne-Van Staden (2015) argues that thinking about the performance of a person in connection with a task also determines how the person feels about his or her abilities.

As a matter of curiosity, the researcher went through the course module that was offered at PCoE, topics such as: ‘strategies and methodologies relevant to teaching children with special needs in the regular classroom’ were listed in the content of the module. The module indicated that the necessary skills mentioned by beginning teachers were covered in the course, although it is not possible to describe how effectively the content was taught to the preservice teachers. It was also not possible to investigate how and what the teachers had learned from the above module, other than to note the general sense of a lack of classroom readiness in terms of inclusive education.

Limited knowledge and skills because of inadequate training

Although the majority (n=8) of beginning teachers who completed the questionnaire confirmed that they received training in inclusive education, some (n=5) reported that the training they received was inadequate as it did not prepare them to teach effectively in inclusive classrooms. The Ministry of Education (2014) also

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reports that Bhutanese teachers are not adequately prepared when it comes to teaching a diverse range of abilities in their students. The beginning teachers in this study described that their inadequate training in inclusive education gave them limited ideas to support inclusion. These teachers’ comments are strongly supported by Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of the zone of proximal development. These teachers are effectively indicating that their limited knowledge placed them in a situation in which the learning was too challenging, and that more scaffolded support was needed. These views are also supported by his socio-cultural views of learning, in which learners (in this case, pre-service teachers) must be able to construct their own skills and understandings with support from “more knowledgeable others” (Vygotsky, 1978). According to these beginning teachers, official training in inclusive education was only over one semester, and did not include sufficient detail. For example, one beginning teacher stated that:

I would say inclusive education was an introductory module for us. It made us aware of inclusive education but did not prepare us to teach in inclusive schools. Now I realize that more should have been taught to trainees… There should be more teaching of skills preparation for teaching rather than the knowledge itself. (OEQ4_BT1)

Similarly, in one of the participant’s accounts, she expressed,

Probably, the bottom-line of the issue is the competency of a teacher. I do my best, but I am engulfed with many challenges and I wish we learned more from our training period. For example; limited knowledge about inclusive programme that keeps me confused is how a disabled child can achieve academically. (OEQ5_BT1)

A number of points can be drawn from this comment. First, there is the lack of clarity in the comprehension of the idea of inclusion. For instance, in Bhutan terms such as special educational needs and inclusion are being used ‘interchangeably’ (Subba et al., 2018, p.19). This has created confusion among the teachers, principals and the schools adding to the many challenges they already face in implementing inclusive education.

Second, the issue of inclusive education policy in Bhutan is another factor that policy makers, teachers, and other respective stakeholders are still unclear about (Dorji, 2015). This confusion has resulted in challenges in implementing inclusive education in Bhutan (Subba et al., 2018). Teachers in schools must be made aware of what inclusion and inclusion practices mean in the Bhutanese context.

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Third, the above participant also appeared concerned about how a student with SEN could achieve academically when placed in a regular school with limited support both from teachers and in terms of resources. Again the issue of students’ ‘performance’ in the class is highlighted. As described in Chapter 2, this issue is related to how students are promoted to next grade based on their academic performance.

Experience through practice

Although beginning teachers felt that they did not learn enough about inclusive education during training, there is evidence that their learning did deepen once they commenced their work in classrooms. This assertion strongly supports the fact that learning is critically dependent on the interaction with the others in the socio-cultural environment (Daniels, 2008). For example, one beginning teacher said that once he was employed in a school, he increased his understanding and practice.

I must say that I did not learn much about inclusive education during my teacher training. I didn’t know where to start my teaching when I was allocated a class that had some students with learning difficulties. I felt very lost in the beginning. But as I started teaching, I got some idea about inclusion up to certain extend. (OEQ1_BT1)

Consequently, it can be seen that the interacton that these teachers had with the environment enhanced their learning outcomes and imporved the learning process as proposed by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (Mercer & Howe, 2012). The above participant mentioned a very critical aspect that maps on to Bandura’s model of self- cognitive theory, which argues that ‘experience’ helps increase confidence. Teachers must be flexible, meaning that they must be willing to learn from their experience and continue to try out new ideas. Beginning teachers in this study have stated that their experience in teaching has helped them to understand more about inclusive education. Their subsequent experiences as beginning teachers confirmed their views that the level of training provided was inadequate for the realities of teaching a diverse group of students. As Ahsan, Sharma and Deppeler’s (2012) research in Bangladesh found that pre-service training is closely related to teacher attitudes and self-efficacy. These factors: insufficient knowledge about inclusive education; and insufficient mastery and skills in the classroom contribute to beginning teachers diminished self-efficacy (Bandura 1997).

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Therefore, data from the beginning teachers indicated that many participants held significant concerns around their lack of knowledge and skills for working in an inclusive classroom after graduating from college.

Environmental factors It is clear that once beginning teachers are placed in classrooms, environmental factors also begin to have a negative impact on beginning teachers’ self-efficacy. For example, the participant’s concerns around class size, and the importance of focussing on academic achievement were a concern for all participants. In Bhutan, more traditional pedagogical techniques (such as rote learning and repetition) were found to contribute to the challenges beginning teachers faced as they attempted to meet the needs of the diverse learners in their classrooms. To draw on Bandura’s (1986) notion of reciprocality, it is clear that for pre-service teacher education to contribute to increased beginning teacher self-efficacy, there is a need to not only influence pre- service teachers attitudes and emotional states, but also to teach the skills and behaviours and behaviours required to operate successfully in an inclusive classroom, and to contribute to a discussion on how environmental factors (such as a focus on high stakes testing and large class sizes) may be impacting on inclusive education. Apparently, the rigidity that these beginning teachers experienced may also be attributed to the Bhutanese culture and how it perceives students with intellectual deficiencies.

While Bhutanese children seem naturally inclusive, the Bhutanese education system propagates competition, even when the students are not necessarily inclined to compete against each other. Examinations and high-stakes testing are not positive ways to support student inclusivity. Therefore, the MoE needs to cultivate the natural inclusivity demonstrated by the children.

Sub-theme 2: Expectation to teach to varying student ability

Although the majority of beginning teachers received some training in inclusive education, they regarded themselves as lacking confidence in handling varying student ability. Beginning teachers reported that dealing with varying student abilities was another challenge associated with inclusive classroom teaching. While most beginning teachers supported the concept of inclusive education, they were confronted with

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difficult teaching situations where children with varying abilities were present in the class. For example, one beginning teacher mentioned that: `

It is obvious that … students of different capabilities … considering SEN in particular, schools have many students with different learning style. It is very difficult in teaching in such situations. (OEQ4_BT1)

Another beginning teacher also found it “too challenging to deal with such students despite that fact of one’s incessant effort” (OEQ1_BT2). Therefore, it appears that despite having received some basic training, beginning teachers found it difficult to teach students with special needs. For example, on OEQ1_BT2 response above, it can be noted that as much as she was willing to put in personal effort, environmental factors like different student ability was limiting her efforts and affecting her efficacy. Perhaps this highlights how the intercation between the environment and the learner can assist him/her to achieve desirable levesl of learning based on Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory (Daniels, 2008; Daniels & Hedegaard 2011). Since the environment in which this teacher was working was considered to be too challenging (i.e., beyond her zone of proximal development), and there wasn’t sufficient support to guide her learning, she was unbale to become fully function effectively. However, inclusive education is appplicable in developed countries with significant levels of success meaning that attitude can be a hindrance to learning among the beginning teachers in this study.

Another beginning teacher expressed how desperate he felt when he had to deal with students with behavioural challenges. He added that students with behavioural challenges in the class distracted other students and that hampered their learning as stated by the beginning teacher who said:

At present some students have behavioural challenge and we are not really able to manage them in class. This is also disrupting the class atmosphere where other students become anxious and effect their learning. (OEQ3_BT3) An important argument made by the above beginning teacher is his concern for other students who are affected by the challenging behaviour of those students who he believes are creating trouble in the class. Such conflict among students may make them focus on the conflicts instead of the content that needs to be learned. One solution would be to train teachers how to develop classroom norms, since clear norms will help teachers to concentrate on supporting all students’ learning (UNESCO, 2017). In

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order for classroom norms to be effective, students could be called to participate in defining and adopting classroom norms. In this context these norms will be seen as a classroom culture that becomes very critical in determining how learning proceeds. It is from such culture that both teachers and learners interact and are able to define a successful learning environment.

Regardless of this knowledge, for many beginning teachers, it became a challenge when they found that the training they received was inadequate to support the inclusion of all children. As described above, once they were working in classrooms, a variety of environmental, personal and behavioural factors left teachers feeling underprepared to work in inclusive settings. This finding is consistent with existing literature that reveals teachers in Bhutan are not adequately prepared to handle the diversity of classroom situations (Ministry of Education 2014; Schuelka, 2013; Van Balkom and Sherman 2010). The beginning teachers in this study described that while their preservice teacher education equipped them with an expectation to teach all students in the class, they had varying levels of anxiety about how they should do this once they were teaching in inclusive schools. Consequently, the beginning teachers concerns were heightened when they had to teach children with disabilities. The presence of learners with disability possibly affects the beginning teachers because they have certain cultural inclinations and attitudes that are likely to affect their learning of effective inclusive prcatice (Vygotsky 1987). Therefore, it is through both practice and training that beginning teachers can build confidence as well as competence. It is important to understand the links between classroom experiences, sense of preparedness and teacher self-efficacy in relation to how they became more skilled. This data corroborates Schuelka’s (2013) findings on education for children with disabilities in Bhutan when beginning teacher said that:

In the college I had learned that we have to include all the students in the class despite their disability but including all disability in the class makes classroom bit challenge and cannot go along ... (OEQ3_BT1) Only one beginning teacher reported that he was not aware that he would be required to teach children with special needs after completing his teacher education. He appeared concerned about his teaching for children with disabilities when he stated that:

In our times we didn’t have this module called special education or inclusive education. Therefore, our training was general and meant to teach all types of students. But I was not aware that I will have to teach children with special needs in a regular class. So, I was not

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trained to teach a mixed group of students who had different abilities and disabilities. This is a challenge for me now. (OEQ1_BT1)

This comment reflects the recency of both special education and inclusive education in Bhutan. The above beginning teacher is likely to have completed his pre- service teacher education prior to the introduction of the special education module and thus, exhibit and understandable anxiety about teaching students with SEN. As much as the anxiety is expected when learning something new, there is also an aspect that can be closely attributed to socio-cultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978) in the sense that these teachers all along have harboured certain attitudes about persons with disability probably because of the Bhutanese culture. Hence, for the beginning teacher to come to the point of changing his/her mindset to be able to include all learners in the same class becomes a challenge as has been repeatedly highlighted in the findings from this study. As discussed earlier, the special education module was introduced at the College of Education several years after the establishment of the first special school in Bhutan. Even when the first inclusive school was started in 2001, there was no provision for pre-service teachers to get trained in this area (Lane, 2013). The above data also highlights the fact that the vast majority of beginning teachers in Bhutan did not undertaken any training in inclusive or special education as part of their pre-service education.

Sub-theme 3: Difficulty in customising lessons

Unsurprisingly, given the data presented above, some beginning teachers identified the need to learn more about how to adapt lessons for children with SEN. In particular, some expressed their lack of knowledge on how to modify lessons that suited the needs of all students. Inadequate pre-service training contributed to the feeling amongst these beginning teachers that they could not experience mastery in successfully customising lessons to suit the special needs of all students (Tschannen- Moran, Hoy and Hoy, 1998). One beginning teacher said that his training in inclusive education did not include ideas on how to modify lessons according to the needs of students:

We are trained and expected to teach all students. But when it comes to my confidence about teaching children with special needs, I must say I am not able to meet all the educational needs

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of my students. Sometimes, I am not able to modify lessons to suit them because I was not trained for this and I have no idea how to do this. (OEQ1_BT1)

On cross-checking, the module on Special Educational Needs offered by the PCoE included topics such as accommodation, modification and adaptations to be covered over a week. Beginning teachers’ concerns about not being able to differentiate lessons for diverse learners’ raises important questions such as - how much of the content was taught or learned over the week? Is one week’s instruction sufficient to meet the needs of teachers once they are working in inclusive schools? Since it was not possible to investigate within the scope of this study, it leaves room for research in the future.

The issue of customising lesson planning is related to anxiety about the delivery of curriculum. Some concerns were raised by beginning teachers about the difficulty in explaining academic concepts in subjects such as science and maths to students with SEN. For example, one participant expressed:

There are high achiever, low achiever, learning difficulty students and physically challenged students in my class…. I must say I am not able to meet all the educational needs of my students. Sometimes, I am not able to modify lessons to suit them… it is difficult to explain some concepts to them, especially science lessons which require doing some experiments and more activities as demanded by the lesson. (OEQ1_BT1)

Moreover, another participant described:

And to teach maths I find it tough as I don’t have much idea how to make my students understand. OEQ1_BT3)

The above statements reflect that the above beginning teacher was experiencing difficulties in teaching science and maths lessons in his class which had students with varying abilities. He appeared helpless in terms of assisting his students to understand and learn science content. To assist all students in understanding the curriculum content being presented, the issue of modifying lessons that suited the needs of students was raised. Such responses indicate that students in inclusive schools are not unlikely to have their learning needs met in the class. This belief is supported by King- Sears’s (2008) argument from the summary of several studies which found that students with SEN are often disadvantaged from learning the general education curriculum e.g. science and maths, when teachers are unable to explain the concepts

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that are in the lesson. One way to make science lessons inclusive for all students is that teachers need to anticipate the barriers for students’ learning and in turn consider ways of reducing those barriers (Training and Development Agency for Schools, 2009). Barriers that can be anticipated by the beginning teachers could be planning suitable/appropriate lessons, designing relevant activities, and having students work on different activities from the class and their peers. For Bhutanese beginning teachers, there may be three main challenges in overcoming these barriers. The first, relates to the planning of lessons to suit all students, which the teachers are not confident of. Second, beginning teachers describe their inability to design suitable activities, and finally, beginning teachers are stressed because of the need to work on different activities with different abilities of students.

Additionally, the above assertion by the beginning teacher also highlights how Bandura’s theoretical model used in this study helps to understand the importance of mastery and vicarious experiences to attaining self-efficacy for both teachers and students.

Leaving out or not covering certain sections of a lesson can lead to reduced learning opportunities for students. One beginning teacher said that:

These challenges are not helping our students especially the ones with disabilities. In this way, they are not being included in actual academic learning. If we have trained in developing some lessons to engage and support SEN students, I think their learning will be active and inclusion will become meaningful for them too. (OEQ4_BT2)

One beginning teacher was quite apologetic about his inability to support his students to learn in the class where he stated that:

I am sorry to mention that students are struggling hard in class as I am helpless sometimes. There is little success in their academic achievement. OEQ1_BT1)

In summary, here are two main issues arising from the above examples and excerpts from the data related to customising lessons in order to support the learning of all students in inclusive classrooms. These are related to the effectiveness of the course module at the College of Education, and knowledge and resources to assist teachers in customising lessons to meet the learning needs of all students. Chapter 6 extends on this analysis further.

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Sub-theme 4: Time constraints as environmental factor

One major challenge faced by the beginning teachers in inclusive classrooms was the lack of time for teaching and planning. Beginning teachers reported that inadequate time to focus on children with disabilities in the class was hindering these children’s education. One beginning teacher revealed that:

It is very difficult to teach when time is limited. In my case, I have only 35 minutes for my lesson. Most of the time, I get distracted while teaching as there are different levels of students in my class. I find it time consuming as it requires one-to-one guide. Therefore, I can say that my students learning is not happening as expected. OEQ4_BT1)

The above example illustrates that beginning teachers are aware of each student’s needs in the class. Yet they often feel helpless due to a lack of time created by traditional pedagogical approaches that are prevalent in Bhutan, such as structured lesson timings and curricular foci. If we consider Bandura’s framework, it highlights our understanding of the importance of the relationship between personal, environmental and behaviour factors and how the factors interact to support teacher efficacy. Teachers’ positive beliefs influence their attitudes which influences their behaviour.

Research shows that teachers’ rate of improvement over time also depends on the supportiveness of their professional working environment. Therefore, environmental factors play key roles in how a teacher develops as a person. For example, teachers who have prior experience teaching in the same class, same subject, or in same schools show greater returns to experience than those with less relevant prior experience (Bandura, 1997; Ost, 2014). In the case of Bhutan, the environmental factor of time remains a limiting factor that is affecting the self-efficacy of beginning teachers.

While the participants expressed concern for students’ learning, ultimately it was the time factor that they were most worried about in their teaching. They found that it was difficult to provide one-to-one attention for students who needed more help in the class. In addition, some additional responsibilities that teachers had to take on (such as looking after the needs of students who board at the school) created further time pressures for beginning teachers. This work was frequently on top of their regular teaching hours. One participant said:

As my school is located away from Dzongkhag office or we can call that it is in rural area, most students are boarders. Therefore, we the teachers have extra responsibilities besides

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teaching job. So we don't have the time to sit and prepare lessons for our SEN students or to support them after the school. On top of that, I must honestly tell that I did not learn how to adapt lessons for disabled or SEN students. (OEQ4_BT2).

The above beginning teacher was expected to complete many complex tasks and roles. In a rural school setting, he also had responsibilities in addition to his regular teaching job which is common across many schools in Bhutan. For instance, teachers are entrusted with the responsibilities of being a sports instructor, supervising prayer recitation before and after school, hostel warden, matron and mess in-charge in boarding schools, health and sanitation in-charge, books and stationeries store in- charge, and so on. This is because of shortage of staff and the absence of skilled and qualified persons to fill job vacancies. According to the teacher deployment policy (Ministry of Education, 2014), a teacher must serve a ‘minimum of three years (at a stretch) in rural, remote and difficult schools in the initial 10 years of their teaching career’ (p. 30). The Ministry of Education (2014), has classified schools in Bhutan into five groups. They are: 1) Rural schools: Schools identified as having access by farm road or located at one Dholam15. 2) Remote schools: Schools located at a walking distance of 2-4 Dholams. 3) Difficult schools: Schools located at a walking distance of 4 or more Dholams. 4) Urban schools; Schools that have basic facilities such as electricity, market, hospital, telecommunication and housing. 5) Semi-urban schools. Schools accessible by black top road and having four and below total basic facilities. This mean that a large number of teachers in rural, remote and difficult schools are therefore being served by early career teachers.

In some cases, teachers are also required to teach students under the non-formal education program, out of school hours (Powdyel, 2016). The above beginning teacher expressed concern when he mentioned that he was not able to support his students after school hours where he could otherwise have provided one-to one support to SEN students. Thus, being engaged in all these other tasks at school prevented him from focusing his attention on preparing materials for his SEN students.

15 A dholam is one day of travel on a pony.

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In addition, beginning teachers expressed concerns about lesson pacing – primarily finishing their lessons on time. While this is a relatively common concern among beginning teachers, they found it particularly challenging to finish lessons when they had students with SEN in their class. This challenge was exacerbated by the nature of examinations in Bhutan. As described in Chapter 2, teachers in Bhutan are under pressure to cover the content of the curriculum across teaching weeks to prepare students for centrally timetabled examinations for various subjects. In 2017, a newspaper in Bhutan covered an article under its Opinion column where an individual (non-teaching) highlighted the value of time for teachers. One of the points raised by the author was related to teachers trying hard to cover the syllabus within stipulated time requirements: “whatever the situation, a teacher always makes sure that s/he covers the full syllabus within the stipulated time so that students are not at loss” (Karma, 2017, online). In Bhutan it is common knowledge that teachers’ work is undertaken under these time pressures. However, when teachers are unable to ensure student learning – as was described by some of the beginning teachers above – there are clear implications for students. For example, students who are yet to grasp basic content in a subject will not be given additional time to consolidate their understandings, as lesson planning must always occur with the examination schedule in mind.

These time constraints are a further indication of how the environmental aspect of Bandura’ Theory comes into play (Bandura, 1989) because beginning teachers had to spend more time to help students with SEN. On the other hand, some beginning teachers were also concerned about completing their lessons at a given pace and reported having to move on with their teaching, leaving behind students with SEN (King-Sears, 2008). This issue of lesson pacing, differentiation and individual focussed teaching was related to the pressure to cover mandated curriculum requirements. Inadequate time to cover the curriculum in ways that meet the needs of all learners was an issue in inclusive classrooms (discussed in section 5.3.4.2 in chapter 5, Sub-theme 2: Curriculum and pedagogy) as expressed by one beginning teacher who stated that:

In general, I must say that it is the time factor that effects my teaching. I am not able to give full-time attention to all my students. OEQ1_BT1)

Another beginning teacher pointed out that more time was required to design differentiated classroom tasks (discussed more in the next section). According to the teacher, he was “struggling for planning a different task for the slow learners. At the

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same time, adjusting with the teaching time, … need to have more time and designing of task needs more time”. OEQ4_BT4)

Therefore, time constraints in teaching featured as a major challenge to beginning teachers. The beginning teachers—in spite of being aware of the presence of students with SEN in their class—were very concerned about completing the lessons on time. As experienced by beginning teachers, time constraints applied to differentiating for students of all abilities and not just to those with SEN. However, the challenge was perhaps more intense when working with students with SEN.

Sub-theme 5: Large class size

Another challenge described by beginning teachers that related to inclusive education was large class size. Four beginning teachers teachers reported that it was difficult to manage a class with so many students including a range of diverse learners. This is particularly important since it is known that self-efficacy is influenced by environmental factors (Bandura, 1986). When teachers are not able to teach effectively, (due to environmental factor in the above case) students’ performance is affected. According to the MoE (2014), recommended class size for primary schools is 24, and 30 for high schools. During classroom observation, the researcher found that the average class size was 30, the largest being 35 and the smallest was 25. This situation is not unique to Bhutan. Countries like Bangladesh, India and Nepal have also reported overcrowding in classrooms as an issue in inclusive schools (Kumar, Rani & Singh, 2016; Regmi, 2017). For example, teachers in many schools in India found it tough to ‘manage and pay special attention to different children’ where they had around 60-70 children in one class (Kumar, Rani & Singh, 2016). In Bangladesh where classrooms were densely populated with an average of 67 students in one class, teachers found it difficult to adjust with students with SEN (Ahsan, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012).

Beginning teachers in this study pointed out that large sized classes presented a barrier to inclusive education. This was also reflected in Dawa’s (2015) study which found that ‘large class size’ (p.81) was one of the challenges that Bhutanese schools experience in the inclusion of children with disabilities. Additionally, data from both focus group interviews and classroom observations in this study covering pre-service teachers revealed that most of the classrooms were crowded (see 5.3.1.2). In this study,

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learn and practice which significantly highlights Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. The importance of providing opportunities for socially constructed learning and working within pre-service teachers’ zones of proximal development was also important. While data showed that the majority of pre- service teachers mentioned receiving too little training for inclusive education, nine pre-service teachers revealed in their interviews that their training at the College of Education had some relevancy to inclusive education and eight reported that they were not satisfied with the current teacher education for inclusive education. On analyzing the data that was collected from beginning teachers working in five inclusive schools, it was found that despite the challenges described above most of the beginning teachers were however able to identify positive aspects related to their pre-service training. Hence, the theme Successes in inclusive training was constructed. The analysis in the following sections present views expressed by beginning teachers when responding to open-ended questionnaires.

Sub-theme 1: Availability of trained practising teachers

The importance of training practising teachers for inclusive education has been emphasized more and more in recent times. Kamenopoulou and Dukpa, (2017) argue that the success of inclusion depends on how inclusion is implemented in schools by the teachers. For this to happen, training of practising teachers must receive high priority (Sharma, Forlin, Deppeler & Guang-xue, 2013). This is particularly important given that the majority of teachers would not have undergone training in inclusive education, as is the case in Bhutan. Additionally, the recency of changes in Bhutan in terms of inclusive education means that there are not significant numbers of teachers with extensive experience in the area. Hence, when schools start inclusive education programmes, many teachers already working in these schools are new to inclusive education. Even though they may be experienced teachers, they may be unaware about the concepts of inclusion and they have minimal ideas to intervene for different student abilities (Subba et al., 2018), they lack clarity on inclusion policy (Dorji, 2015) and, most importantly, they were not adequately trained/equipped to teach students with SEN (Nima, 2018).

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One of the participants indicated that:

Inclusive education works well in my present school as we have few teachers who are already trained in this field. I am now learning from my seniors. Before I came to this school, I was not having much idea about inclusive education. Therefore, I came to understand that the inclusive programme will be successful if we have teachers who are well trained…. I feel good when I see my seniors supporting their students both inside and outside of class. They look confident to teach and I feel encouraged to follow them. (OEQ1_BT1)

It is clear from the above excerpt that there are only a few teachers who are trained for inclusive education in schools in Bhutan. The practice has been that teachers are sent to inclusive schools despite not having much idea about inclusive education. Therefore, they lack awareness about inclusive education and lack the specialist skills to teach in inclusive schools (Ministry of Education, 2014). Increasingly, teachers who work in inclusive schools are receiving some training as part of their professional development led by the Ministry of Education. It is through such training that schools are only now able to take inclusive education forward.

The mention of “learning from my senior teachers” in the above excerpt by the beginning teacher aligns with having vicarious experiences, one of the main sources that influences the efficacy of the individual teacher. In terms of teacher self-efficacy, vicarious experience is gained by observing another teacher teach (Bandura, 1997). It is worth noting how the above beginning teacher derived confidence in teaching through others’ examples. He also appears motivated in his work when observing other teachers supporting students in and out of the classrooms.

One beginning teacher shared her view that teachers who received training in inclusive education in her school were very supportive towards their students when she stated that: It was very effective in my school as it is headed by Special Education Needs Coordinator committee and is similar to what I had learned. Having said that, I personally feel that training of teachers is very crucial when we talk about inclusive education. As we have some teachers who have received some short trainings in our school, they are doing well in teaching. They are very positive towards inclusion of students with disabilities and most of the time they are talking about supporting these students. (OEQ5_BT3)

The above participant explained the importance of providing training (in inclusive education) for practising teachers who were already working in inclusive

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schools. Although the training that teachers received was short in terms of duration, it seemed to benefit both the existing and beginning teachers. For example, after the training, teachers became more positive towards inclusion of students with disabilities and the teachers felt far more comfortable in supporting their students in the class.

In summary, participants in this study highlighted the importance of training teachers who were already working in inclusive schools as they found that trained teachers were in a better position to support inclusion. Even short training was considered useful for new teachers. It was pointed out that teachers felt encouraged in their work through additional training and they were able to support inclusion of all children in their schools.

Sub-theme 2: Changed attitudes to individual learning

One of the biggest challenges faced in the implementation of inclusive education is related to attitudes and concerns about inclusion. According to Bandura (1998) human behaviour can be controlled through self-regulation, which involves four steps: self-observation, self-evaluation, self-reaction and self-efficacy and the teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education are shaped according to this model. Additionally, as far as these attitudes are concerned and how they affect individual learning, Kozulin et al (2015) noted that Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory can also be effectively used to specifically point out how changed attitudes affect individual learning. Findings of recent studies indicate that when teachers are trained properly, they develop a positive attitude towards inclusion (Sharma, Forlin, Deppeler & Guang- xue, 2013). Similarly, in this study eight beginning teachers expressed that their training benefited them in many ways. A response from one beginning teacher captured this idea well. Teaching in inclusive school has changed mu (my) mentality towards individual learning. Every individual have their own way of learning styles thus, I just enjoy to understand different learning styles of all. Daily we learn to handle different ability children. I feel satisfied in teaching and I am happy to work for all students based on my understanding about inclusive education. (OEQ1_BT2) Similar comments were made by other participants. They expressed that they were able to understand the needs of students more and more, after they began teaching in inclusive schools. From the above comments it can be summarized that beginning teachers not only enjoyed working in inclusive schools but they expressed their

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satisfaction in being able to teach students with SEN. Another positive statement made by the above participant was, “I am happy to work for all students”. Expressions like enjoyed, satisfied and happiness used by the above participant describe physiological and emotional cues, one of the sources of self-efficacy that this study is based on. The confidence that above participant feels to work with students illustrates a strong sense of self-efficacy (Payne-Van Staden, 2015). Pintrich and De Groot (1990) suggested that when individuals have both the ‘will’ and the ‘skill’, it leads to increased performance levels (p.38). From socio-cultural theory perspective where the teacher has a positive attitude about inclusive education chances are that such a teacher will be able to learn and practice effectively without necessarily focusing on the disability of the students and seeing it as a challenge (Kozulin et al., 2015; Daniels, 2008). Data from the questionnaires also revealed that many beginning teachers were learning more from their teaching and getting better at their work with training on inclusive education provided by their school. One beginning teacher expressed that:

Teaching in an inclusive school is that we come across many challenge and learn more as we face the differently abled students. Every experience, be it good or bad is a learning process. So I am always happy to learn from my experiences. However, I feel I have changed a lot and I respect my school and all my students after my training. Again I must say that I am learning more in my job and I am really enjoying in this school. I think I am able to understand better about SEN and IE now. (OEQ4_BT4) The above beginning teacher described how mastery experiences were important, and how he was able to learn and adapt after his training. His training transformed him and helped him in developing respect for his school and for his students. In addition, he was enjoying his teaching profession. Like the above beginning teacher, several other teachers held views that they had positive attitudes towards their students.

When teachers have a proper understanding about the needs of students, including their cultural values and beliefs, they are able to support such children to learn and develop in ways that are healthy, respectful, supportive and challenging. This is a very critical aspect of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory that highlights how learning is affected by the interaction with the culture and environment to shape the process (Kozulin et al., 2015). This was stated by one of the beginning teachers who said that:

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Understanding the multiple intelligence and different learning styles of the learners has helped me to respect the needs of different students both academically and culturally. I always try to understand about the family background of my students. And with this understanding and with my positive attitude towards disabled students, I just try to apply the strategy learnt, accordingly. This is helping me to support my students as they feel protected and respected in the class. (OEQ1_BT2) When teachers are able to understand the problems and needs of their students, they find out ways to help students both at school and at home. This is important for those students who feel that they are not receiving care or any support. The views expressed above are consistent to Waitoller and Kolzleshi’s (2014, p. 68) argument that it is important for teachers to “develop an appreciation of the cultural histories and traditions”. In fact, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory also places an emphasis on this aspect to ensure effective learning (Allahyar & Nazari, 2012). In this way teachers can become conscious of the “values and beliefs” that filter their understandings and inform their teaching (p. 68).

Sub-theme 3: Confidence in handling students Three beginning teachers gave their views that they were becoming more confident in their teaching in inclusive classes. One mentioned that teaching in an inclusive class was enjoyable since he was able to learn some new skills through his experiences in how to deal with a range of students. These skills, according to him, provided confidence to him to teach in the class. Another beginning teacher expressed that she felt satisfied in teaching because she was able to work with students with different abilities and that her training enabled her to understand better about inclusive education. One of the beginning teachers interviewed pointed out that she was now feeling very comfortable in teaching different groups of students in her class. She attributed her confidence in teaching to her training. When asked to respond to the different types of students in her class and how confident she felt in teaching these students, she stated that:

I have some students who are with LD (learning difficulty). I feel very much comfortable in teaching these students. I must say that it was the training that prepared me to take up the challenge. It gave me confidence and as I just said I feel comfortable to work with different groups of students. (OEQ2_BT3)

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However, in terms of training on inclusive education, some beginning teachers mentioned that the training received at the college was only partial. One participant stated that: I have some students who get easily distracted in the class. Most of the time they are restless and lose their attention in a particular activity. I have tried gaining their attention by using different teaching strategies. Some of the techniques have been little successful. So I keep trying these skills again and again. Although I am confident in my overall teaching, I feel that I can do better with more training in inclusive education. (OEQ5_BT4) The above participant felt that training she received did not prepare her well. According to the participant, the challenge was related to some of her students who were easily getting distracted during class activities. The participant mostly found it challenging to gain the attention of her students in the class. Nevertheless, she felt encouraged to work with her students based on her experiences that brought some success in her teaching. As such, she was developing her Mastery experiences, identified by Bandura (1997) as enhancing a teacher’s self-efficacy. Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy explains that a teacher may use positive and successful experiences form the past to succeed in a new and challenging task.

However, a few of the beginning teachers stated that they already had confidence in teaching inlcuisve classses. Again, it is important to highlight that such confidence is determined by environmental and personnal factors of Bandura’s model that underpins this study. According to Bandura (1997) and Mulholland and Wallace (2001) these teachers appear to have effectively gained the mastery and vicarious experince necessary to help them to handle incluisve classrooms.

Sub-theme 4: Involving all students in learning The majority of beginning teachers who participated in the open-ended questionnaire highlighted the importance of involving all students in the learning process in their class. Most indicated that they were encouraging all students in their class to participate in class activities despite their disabilities or difficulties during learning. For instance, one beginning teacher stated that:

I try to spent more time with students performing low in my class and I also pay more attention to them. That way, I want to make everyone participate in learning. Also, this is all about inclusion. (OEQ1_BT3)

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In addition, she mentioned that she had limited training, but she was trying her best to spend more time with students who needed more support in the class. The respondent reported that she was aware of what inclusive education meant and she made sure that everyone in her class was participating in learning.

Six beginning teachers expressed that students’ achievements in learning increased when students were involved in working in groups. Some group work that beginning teachers identified as contributing to their students’ achievement in learning included activities such as reading in groups and in pairs, role play, imitation, and miming. They found it positive to involve all students in learning. In addition, one beginning teacher reported that encouraging students come in front of the class to read or write on the board helped his students to develop an interest in learning. In this context, one of the beginning teachers stated that:

Yes, I feel that students succeed if we are able to help those struggling students. The result is always positive. It is even better if they are given opportunity to participate in all activities. I make sure they learn more when they work in group. I always encourage all my students to participate in activities and games. I found that some of my students are achieving in their lessons when they are given the chance to involve in activities like reading to the class, coming in front and writing on board and working with their friends in groups. When given opportunities, they show more interest in their learning. (OEQ4_BT3) Further, beginning teachers found that students had better learning opportunities when they interacted with one another in the class. The general opinion was that students were found to be happy when they sat in groups and shared their work. One beginning teacher reported that group work was a good strategy of involving students for learning in the class as students preferred to work in groups. According to Lancaster and Corston (2014); Wolford, Heward and Alber (2001), a mixed ability group of students foster cooperative learning where students work together to achieve group success.

When asked how inclusive education worked in their school, one of the participant’s response was:

It works quite well in our school as we have inclusive practice for all students. The SENCO is the overall incharge and makes sure that there is support for every special child through group works. I have also seen that students are learning well when they get chance to interact with one another. Group activity is a good strategy to involve students. Many of them like to work in groups. They become so happy when they sit in groups and share their work. I have seen that this is a good strategy of involving my SEN students. They are able to contribute and

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others are also happy to help in play times or break and also to move in school campus. Therefore, I am very particular about involving all students in class activities such group work and play and also by reading, doing role plays and team work. (OEQ11_BT11) The above participant highlighted that the Special Education Needs coordinator (SENCO) in his school reminded teachers to support the involvement of all students in their classes by assigning tasks for a whole group such as. Such strategies provided opportunities for students with SEN to learn and to contribute in the group. At the same time other students were also asked to assist students with SEN during play times, break times and to move around the school. Lancaster and Corston’s (2014) argument that “students are responsible for their own learning and for helping their teammates to learn” (p.230) fits well in this context.

Sub-theme 5: Inclusive education strategies benefits students with SEN

Data from this study revealed that beginning teachers’ knowledge of inclusive education from their training was benefiting all their students in their learning. Their knowledge and awareness about inclusive education enabled them to understand the strengths and weaknesses of students with SEN. It helped the beginning teachers to understand the educational needs as well as the social needs of their students. Most of the beginning teachers mentioned that they were aware of the definition and the meaning of inclusive education, in addition to being introduced to different types of special needs that students have. Their training in inclusive education also equipped them with skills and some useful teaching strategies which they found beneficial when applied in their teaching career. For example, micro-teaching opportunities provided during the training at college, as one beginning teacher described, was an eye opener as he stated that:

While we practiced the micro teaching in our college, we assume that there are disabled students and we apply strategies to teach them. This was an eye opener for me. Since then I am always positive about my ability to work with different students and in different situations. (OEQ4_BT4)

This specific experience goes a long way to underscore that inclusive learning provides an opportunity for a learning process that must directly involve the teacher. As much as they may be variably exposed to micro-teaching opportunities during training, Sharma, Forlin, Deppeler and Yang (2013) assert that this must be more intensive so that the teachers can comfortably assume their new role in special

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education. This requires training colleges to lay a stronger foundations for such teachers so that they can be effective in an inclusive classroom.

One significant benefit of beginning teachers’ knowledge of inclusive education that was identified was their approach towards students with different abilities. According to Zangmo, a beginning teacher, her learning from the child psychology module during her training taught her how to approach young children in different situations when she stated:

I think I learned about child psychology and how to approach towards different abilities of students in different situations. At the same time I also learned about special education and inclusive education. So it was good to understand about different abilities of students from different angles.

The above excerpt is a good example for understanding the needs and problems of students not only from one perspective (inclusive education), but also from a psychological point of view. When teachers are introduced to different subjects that teach about children with disabilities, they become better to understand the needs of such children. As a result, students receive the required support in class. Therefore, it is an advantage for the teachers to study both the above modules at the College of Education for the benefit of their students.

Beginning teachers were also positive about the training that they received in inclusion. The following statement indicates such a belief about training:

The training that we took at the college helped us in changing one’s mindsets to the disabled students and that’s the basic thing that we should be aware of. After all it will benefit the students. I can see that my students are learning well as a result of my training. (OEQ2_BT3) The above participant strongly feels that her knowledge about inclusive education has helped her to support her students in their learning. The belief is that when students are shown acceptance by the teachers and taken care of, they become a part of the school or the class. This is especially important in Bhutan, given the GNH index, and the focus on teaching in ways that don’t leave any children feeling unhappy.

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Sub-theme 6: Progress among students with diverse abilities

The knowledge of inclusive training benefiting students as a sub-theme was a matter of great interest to the researcher because unless schools adopt ways to find out the effectiveness of inclusion, there cannot be much progress in the education and achievement of students’ learning. Eight beginning teachers who participate in the open-ended questionnaire provided their various opinions about enabling the progress among students. The following are some opinions from three beginning teachers:

Since I belong to SEN school, I think we are doing good in providing inclusive education. (OEQ1_BT3)

After catering to different types of differently abled students, I came across that some even tops their class. This shows that students are benefitting from inclusive education. (OEQ2_BT3)

I must say that some of the students like the children with physical disability they are brilliant and they can cope with general students. (OEQ3_BT3) The participants commented that students with SEN were making significant progress and the inclusive schools were doing good work in providing education to all students. Although many people have a belief that students with SEN cannot do well in their studies, participant OEQ2_BT3 reported that her SEN students in the class were recognized as “class toppers”. This could be partially attributed to the fact that the SEN students were learning more from interacting with their normal students (within an inclusive classroom) which is also supported by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (Allahyar & Nazari, 2012). She claimed that the success of her students was as the result of benefitting from inclusive education. Another participant reported that students with a physical disability were “brilliant”. The students were described as working and interacting well with other students in the class. From these statements it can be understood that the beginning teachers were feeling encouraged in their teaching when they saw their students improving in their lessons.

In addition to academic progress of students with SEN, beginning teachers also articulated some of the challenges that existed around students’ academic progress in class. Six beginning teachers discussed students who made little progress in their lessons. According to one of the participants:

Achievement is a long way to come. So to give the basic idea of education all students from the beginning is a must. I see that our efforts and student’s progress is not matching. That is

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Sub-theme 1: Expanding pre-service training

Fifteen beginning teachers (75%) fully recognized the importance of expanding training for pre-service teachers in terms of inclusive education. One of their major concerns was the duration of training to learn about inclusive education as discussed in section 5.2.1.1. The beginning teachers offered five ways that the training could be expanded and improved at the college (explained in the following sections). By underscoring the importance of adequate training for the beginning teachers, this study also reveals the need for the MoE, and all education sector stakeholders, to work closely to realise the “education for all” vision. According to Sharma et al., (2016) inclusive learning has succeeded to a greater extent in other countries where the ministry and relevant stakeholders work collectively to create an enabling environment for both the teacher and learners. The following sections now discuss in detail the five ways beginning teachers have identified how training at the college could be expanded and enhanced.

First, by increasing the duration of the current course offered at the College of Education, it was hoped that new teachers would have the opportunity to engage in a greater range of learning. This was expressed by four beginning teachers who viewed that the current module did not train them adequately. Similarly, a study involving the heads of the higher education institutions that offered pre-service teacher education in Bangladesh found it was a challenge to addressing issues of inclusive education through short course (one year) length (Ahsan, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012).

Second, by introducing a full fledged course for inclusive education, the beginning teachers believed that inclusion as a whole would be a success. This would equip new teachers with the required knowledge and they would have better confidence to teach in inclusive schools. Eleven beginning teachers came up with the idea that it was now time for the College of Education to introduce an independent course specifically on inclusive education. It may be reiterated that there is no Special Education or inclusive education degree or certificate at the Colleges of Education in Bhutan (Schuelka, 2014). One important component that teachers expected to be included in such a module was more practise sessions in handling inclusive classes through the use of individual educational plans (IEP). This was expressed by one beginning teacher who stated that:

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In colleges I would like to suggest that there should be a separate module for the inclusive education which will train the trainees in depth. There should be more micro teaching class to learn in real. At the moment, the training is like a drop of water in the ocean. Only introduction is provided that also special education. More should be in inclusive education as all dzongkhags are introducing inclusive education. It will be very useful to learn how to make IEP for each child. (OEQ4_BT3) The beginning teachers also felt that when or if the independent module is offered, it should provide an avenue to include all the important and necessary components of inclusive education for trainees.

The third way to improve training suggested by three beginning teachers was related to the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) for students with SEN. They felt that the use of specially designed apps (applications) for students with SEN could make such students’ education and learning better. (More discussion is included in Section 6.6.1 - Recommendation 1. Enhanced training and development of the teachers). This is what one of the beginning teachers had to say:

Another important option is to have ICT usage in teaching SEN. This means the use of special Apps for these students. I think it is time for us to move with the change in teaching system. These days ICT make teachers very convenient to teach even in difficult situations. So, we should not be left out of this opportunity. ICT can make our teaching more effective and we can help our SEN students learn more easily. (OEQ3_BT2)

Fourth, one beginning teacher signified the importance of study tours and school visits to some inclusive schools for trainee teachers during their training. Such opportunities were expected to provide firsthand information and experience about teaching in an inclusive school.

In addition to the four points above, one beginning teacher expressed that it was important to introduce an inclusive module as part of Post Graduate Courses since there were students with SEN enrolled in high schools where teachers with these qualifications were teaching. The other point raised was the need for a teacher specialization course in inclusive education. This view was presented by three beginning teachers to be consistent with the number of growing inclusive schools in the country. Currently, there are 18 inclusive schools in Bhutan compared to 12 in 2015 (Chhetri, 2015; MoE, 2018).

Since 2014 the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB) has liaised with the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) in Australia by engaging educators from

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PCoE to write training modules for Bhutanese teachers (Carrington & Duke, 2014). Further, the development of a diploma course in inclusive education under the partnership of RUB and Queensland University of Technology was initiated in 2017 and it was expected to be offered at PCoE in 2019. There is an indication that the proposed diploma has now been upgraded to a master’s level and will be offered as a Master of Education (Inclusive Education) in 2020. The course is presently being reviewed by the RUB’s Program Quality Committee. The MoE and the Royal Civil Service Commission of Bhutan in principle have endorsed a two-year study leave to the SEN in-service educators to form the first cohort of the course (Karma Jigyel16, personal communication, 18 September 2019). Beutel, Tangen and Carrington (2018) also suggest an approach for how teacher educators can be supported to prepare teachers for inclusion, by “sharing knowledge about inclusive education and developing strategies to apply inclusive practices” (p. 2). The above approach is a means to translate global concepts of inclusive education into local contexts for its better implementation.

In summary, the importance of expanding trainee (pre-service) training in terms of inclusive education was rightly identified by beginning teachers in this study. They suggested five ways how this could be accomplished; 1) by increasing the duration of the course; 2) by introducing a separate module for inclusive education; 3) by introducing ICT and specially designed apps to assist in teaching students with SEN; 4) by providing study tours and school visits; and 5) by introducing inclusive module in post graduate course.

Sub-theme 2: The expertise of teacher educators

The next sub-theme is related to the expertise or lack of teacher educators. Four beginning teachers expressed their view that teacher educators at the college should be experts in inclusive education by reporting that:

There should be well trained lecturers who have deep knowledge about inclusive education. They are our models as we can pick up skills and gain knowledge through their teaching. Unless the lecturers are competent in inclusive education, trainees may not be able to teach

16 Karma Jigyel (PhD) is the Program Leader for M.Ed (Inclusive Education) at Paro College of Education.

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effectively in inclusive schools. This is one big change I look forward to seeing in the college. (OEQ1_BT4)

Beginning teachers regarded their lecturers as models from whom they could learn so that they can become competent teachers for inclusive schools. According to Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy model (described in Chapter 2), modeling someone to succeed in a task is known as vicarious experiences which are applicable in this case. Since experiences in this cases are closely related to the teachers’ interactions with the environment, attitudes and culture that may determine the efficacy of learning, the vicarious experiences as suggested by Bandura’s model very much align with what is proposed by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory as well. The above beginning teachers expect to observe their lecturers perform (teach) and compare their competence to perform the desired task (teach) successfully. Beginning teachers also articulated that they looked forward to having competent lecturers as a big change in the college as one respondent expressed:

Now the college should have lecturers who know about inclusive education to teach the trainees… More knowledge about inclusive education should be passed on to new teachers. The way we Bhutanese perceive children with disability should be discussed, explained and taught during the training time. This is very important as we have to know our society’s views and beliefs regarding disability, life of disabled and the opportunity for education for these children. Most importantly, our lecturers must be able to tell us about the policy of education. I heard there is inclusive education policy but so far I have not become aware about it. (OEQ1_BT1)

The above beginning teacher reported that it was important and would be useful to educate pre-service teachers in understanding the cultural context within the Bhutanese society: how they accept and regard disability; and how they deal with individuals who have a disability (Rose, 2010). This is an interesting point raised by this beginning teacher particularly in the absence of a full-fledged policy on inclusion in Bhutan (Dorji, 2015; Dorji & Schuelka, 2015). When there is no clear policy (as mentioned above), there can be issues with regards to inconsistencies in admission procedures among schools, prioritizing support arrangements that impacts the overall education. Hence, it is important for all teacher educators to be well aware of the fundamental principles of inclusive education that are consistent with local cultural imperatives which can be passed on the trainee teachers (Sharma et al., 2016).

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Another important point that two beginning teachers gave was with regards to the need for the lecturers to be qualified, trained and knowledgeable in inclusive education when they said:

…more importantly I am thinking that our lecturers in the college also get opportunities to upgrade themselves about inclusive education. After all they have to teach the trainees and produce good teachers for each field. (OEQ2_BT2) In addition:

Provide better training in inclusive education by involving expert lecturers. Our lecturers must increase their knowledge and qualification about inclusive education. Right now I have seen only 2 lecturers teaching this module. In this way they can produce teachers specialising in this area as more and more schools are becoming inclusive. (OEQ4_BT1)

It is notable from the data above that lecturers at the college must have opportunities to upgrade themselves in their field of teaching. According to the beginning teachers, upgrading lecturers’ knowledge about inclusive education and their qualifications was important. The participants expected good quality teachers to graduate from the college which they believed could be achieved if they had knowledgeable lecturers. Another important point raised by the beginning teachers was regarding the number of lecturers teaching inclusive education at the college. It appears that there are not may lecturers with inclusive education background when the above beginning teacher mentioned as “only 2”.

In summary, the beginning teachers expect more from their lecturers in terms of teaching about inclusive education. They also look forward to learning new teaching strategies and skills that their lecturers use in the class. Similarly, in the study Teacher education in Bhutan, VanBalkom and Sherman (2010) reported that students (pre- service teachers) confirmed that “many of their lecturers still primarily use the lecture method, even on such topics as ‘using different teaching method[s]’” (p.48).

Sub-theme 3: Learning on the job

When inclusive education was started in Bhutan in 2001, there were few teachers who were trained to teach in inclusive schools (Tshewang, 2008). At that time, PCoE did not offer any course either on SEN or inclusive education. Beginning teachers noted that this positive culture and attitudes towards inclusion – as well as the skills required to work in the classroom – was a priority. For example, one comment made in reference to new teachers joining to teach in inclusive schools was:

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Since some teachers were not oriented on the inclusive education, I feel it very crucial to have those teachers trained on inclusive education so that we can have an effective teaching and learning, so that inclusive education blooms. At present, there are some teachers who are new to inclusive education. Orientation should be given as soon as the teacher is allocated a class. (OEQ2_BT3)

The above participant also pointed out the importance of orienting all teachers to the ideals of inclusive education. She feels that new teachers who are assigned to teach in inclusive classes must receive an orientation so that they can promote inclusion. Such orientation is meant to provide the teachers with sufficient knowledge about their surroundings including what to expect in an inclusive environment. In so doing the teacher’s self-efficacy is attained based on the proposition by Vygotsky in his socio-cultural theory (Allahyar & Nazari, 2012). The above findings run parallel to the practice of conducting basic orientation and induction programs by the Special Education Division for newly placed principals in inclusive schools. This is done to familiarise the new principals with ‘the needs and rights of children with disabilities’ and how they should provide necessary support (Subba et al., 2018, p. 7). Additionally, they are offered strategies in creating opportunities and enabling conditions for the students with SEN to cope with studies together with their non-disabled peers. Hence, Dorji’s (2015) justification to claim for a basic orientation program for the new teachers appears valid.

Beginning teachers reported that they attended some workshops on inclusive education while at work. Gradually, short training opportunities on inclusive education were provided to by the Ministry of Education (Dorji & Schuelka, 2016; Kamenopoulou & Dukpa, 2017). Similarly, the practice of providing training for teachers on inclusive education has not changed much. Therefore, many teachers depend on their daily experiences of teaching in inclusive schools to be able to teach effectively.

Three beginning teachers described that they felt lost in the beginning when they were sent to teach in inclusive schools. One of them stated that:

I must say that I did not learn much about inclusive education during my teacher education. Only some definitions such as special education, inclusive education, disability, etc were taught to us. I didn't know where to start my teaching when I was allocated a class that had some students with learning difficulties. I felt very lost in the beginning. But as I started teaching couple of years, I got some idea about inclusion up to certain extend. (OEQ1_BT1)

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It is evident from the above excerpt that beginning teachers who are sent to teach in inclusive schools seem lacking confidence in the beginning. The majority of the beginning teachers who participated in the open-ended questionnaires reported that they were able to enhance their knowledge about inclusive education after they started working in inclusive schools. They stated that their teacher education equipped them with limited knowledge and skills to teach in inclusive schools.

Most of the beginning teachers felt it as a necessity for them to be trained on the job in inclusive education so that they could work with confidence in the class. Apparently as these teachers engage during practice in real classroom settings where they encounter a mixture of learners including those with special needs, these teachers will most likely learn a number of strategies that can help them to design effective teaching activities that are inclusive and hence adhering to Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (Daniels, & Hedegaard, 2011). Some of the difficulties that they faced while teaching in inclusive classes were similar to the ones reported earlier in section 5.2.1. They include difficulties like time management, customizing lessons, lack of confidence in handling students and the expectation to teach all students. According to Dorji (2015) these difficulties are not unique to such teachers, but these are challenges faced by most teachers who find themselves working in inclusive classes. As such, there needs to be adequate preparation on the part of the teacher and employer in a manner that will cause an enabling environment that can allow the teacher to discharge the service most effectively.

Twelve beginning teachers reported that they were given the opportunity to attend some short training courses on inclusive education in their schools as part of professional development. Two beginning teachers were happy to report that the training enabled them to change their mindset towards students with disabilities with one of them stating that:

From the training and workshop, I got after joining this school, I can support these children by providing them accommodation and adaptation and also giving them more attention. I am happy that I have started to understand them more and more. … otherwise when I first joined in this school, I was facing difficulties. As I mentioned that I have different students, I did not know how to teach them as a group. So I think we should all keep training more. (OEQ3_BT3)

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They found these training sessions useful for them and helped them to a great extent. Although one beginning teacher experienced hardships in the beginning, he explained that with time, his skills and confidence improved. He described that the in- service training he received benefitted him to a great extent. In addition, he emphasized the need for such training on a frequent basis for all teachers. According to him, one of the best parts of the training was that he was able to understand his students better.

Another beginning teacher expressed her satisfaction when learning on the job by stating:

I did not have much training on it in training time but with SBIP (school Based In-service Programme) going on, I gained some basic knowledge and it works. I have learned some strategies to help my teaching and I feel better and proud now. Therefore, I think more SBIP should be made available as inclusive is very important and latest development in our education system to support the education of our children. (OEQ2_BT1)

The above beginning teacher was happy that she has now learned to work in different but effective ways. Her attendance in School-Based In-service Programs (SBIPs) has trained her to become a better inclusive teacher which she is proud of. Regardless of this, the need for more training on inclusive education was seen as a priority by the above beginning teacher. She also made a point to mention the importance given to incisive education by the Ministry of Education around supporting the education of all children in Bhutan.

5.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY: KEY FINDINGS

This chapter has presented the key findings of the study in light of the two research questions and is drawn from data obtained from beginning teacher questionnaire. Research Question 1 examined beginning teachers’ understandings about inclusive education in Bhutan and Research Question 2 examined their perceptions of teacher-training programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classroom.

With regards to Research Question 1, beginning teachers gave their views that inclusive education was generally working well in their schools. Considering the potential for inclusive education at their school, beginning teachers were very supportive in implementing it. While their overall understandings about inclusive education was positive, they also identified challenges that stood in the way of

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implementing effective inclusive education. Beginning teachers expressed their views that more needed to be done in terms of resources, policy and training to support classroom teaching.

With regards to Research Question 2, most beginning teachers expressed that they received some training during their teacher preparation course at the College of Education. However, many found that the training from their college did not prepare them adequately to support their teaching in the inclusive classes. One major difficulty that they expressed was in developing appropriate activities for children with SEN. Lack of resources and lack of knowledge about how to design activities were indicated as challenges by many beginning teachers. While, schools provided short training opportunities in inclusive education for their teachers, beginning teachers reported that inclusive education should be strengthened at the College of Education through new and longer course and new degrees.

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Chapter 6: Synthesis of Discussion and Thesis Conclusions

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This study addressed three research questions that guided data collection and data analysis. These questions were related to: the understandings that pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan; how pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher education programme as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms; and how individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms. This was a descriptive qualitative case study. Analysis of findings from the study (presented in chapters four and five) has allowed various lessons and recommendations to be drawn about implementing inclusive education in Bhutan. The analysis of the findings was organised around the two distinct data gathering phases that were adopted during field research.

The theoretical framework of the research was an important tool for understanding those factors that influence pre-service and beginning teachers’ perceptions about inclusive education. Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy (1997), which has been used for similar studies previously, was used for this study. It was particularly useful in investigating the variables that influence teachers’ willingness to implement inclusive practices.

The theory of self-efficacy is based on a three-factor model: personal factors; behavioural factors; and environmental factors (Bandura, 1997). To recapitulate, this model illustrates a development process that includes the effect of two factors: personal behaviour; and environment in which individuals interact with each other. By drawing on this framework, the behaviour and cognitive factors that might affect the understandings and perceptions of teachers was able to be identified. In terms of improving the authenticity and reliability of the study, this model was also an effective model to explore data. Utilising the theory of self-efficacy has provided as a theoretical basis on which the results and findings of this study have been established. Additionally, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of learning has provided a useful tool for understanding how teachers learning can be supported by providing appropriate

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opportunities for socio-cultural interaction with a focus on inclusive learning in Bhutan.

Overall, the analysis of the data from the two phases revealed new information and understandings about inclusive education in Bhutan from the perspective of pre- service teachers and beginning teachers, synthesizing the data from these two perspectives. The discussion in this chapter then turns to addressing the three research questions, building a narrative around key themes. The purpose of providing the data and discussion under each research question is to offer a critical review of the data and to highlight the study’s value.

6.2 ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION 1

This section addresses Research Question 1: What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan?

The data reported in Chapter Four and Chapter Five provide evidence of pre- service and beginning teachers understanding of inclusive education in Bhutan. On the basis of qualitative information from focus group interviews and classroom observations in chapter 4 and open-ended questionnaires in chapter 5, these findings were categorized under four headings: 1) education for all, 2) attitudes towards inclusion of children with SEN, 3) barriers to inclusion, 4) and policy for inclusion. These are now further elaborated.

Perceptions and understandings about Inclusive education Inclusive Education: Opportunities for All Children

The ability of teachers committed to inclusive education to create an environment where all children indiscriminately and equally benefit emerges as one of the critical concepts of investigation that this study sought to address. Results from this study indicate that there is often a disconnect between the training and qualification of teachers, and inclusive education practice. This issue has historical roots, and exists before new inclusive schools in Bhutan are started. In addition, it has also been identified that teachers’ perceived “incompetency” is one of the major challenges faced by pre-service teachers. Also, as highlighted by the participants in this study, this lack of preparedness affects the quality of education they are able to provide in a negative way. As this and other research demonstrates, in the absence of

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proper training and specialisation by teachers prior to the initiation of such an inclusive program, teachers may become adversely stretched, impacting on the delivery of education to all children (Waitoller & Artiles, 2013). For instance, lack of training and suitable experience make it difficult to develop effective learning activities and lesson plans for all students, which will not only affect the general quality of education but will also influence the learning experiences of particular students. This argument is a reflection of the challenges highlighted by beginning teachers in this study while implementing inclusive education (Jordan, Schwartz & McGhie-Richmond, 2009). Findings from chapter four revealed that pre-service teachers raised similar concerns. This lack of preparation can be effectively addressed by comprehensive training and preparedness of all teachers in the implementation of inclusive education. Despite these concerns, there was a general consensus among the majority of the respondents of the invaluable benefits that all students stand to gain from an inclusive education programme as part of pre-service teacher preparation.

Attitudes towards inclusion of children with SEN

An inclusive education requires an approach that includes all children irrespective of their education needs (Savolainen et al., 2012). This includes those students with SEN in which both anti-discrimination and socio-economic justice must be be considered. While both are covered in Article 24 of the Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disability (CRPD), which prohibits any discrimination in the field of education, Anastasiou, Gregory, and Kauffman (2018) argue that “the impulse toward antidiscrimination seems to have overpowered the impulse toward socio- economic justice”. The idea of accommodation and individualized support for students with SEN becomes even more challenging when attitudes such as discrimination prevail in the community or in schools. According to Vygotsky (1981) it is critical to address negative attitudes, as this can hinder learning—which in this case, would also hinder the effective implementation of inclusive learning in Bhutan.

In the context of Bhutan, the country also aspires to promote education among all groups irrespective of their background and other factors that might have acted as a hindrance (Schuelka, 2012). A draft policy in this regard has been adopted, but there are several challenges in meeting this objective that have been discussed through the course of this study. In practice, it involves the restructuring of mainstream or regular schools in such a way that they can accommodate all children rather than assimilate

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them irrespective of their state of disability. The literature review presented in chapter 3 introduced the challenges that arise when including children with SEN in the inclusive education model in Bhutan. Andrews and Frankel (2010) in their study argue that while many countries and states across the globe, just like Bhutan in this case, have experimented the integration of SEN children in regular schools, it has always been a significant issue of concern. A primary concern is “attitudes and beliefs” which are acknowledged as the basis for successful inclusion (Ajodhia-Andrews & Frankel, 2010). These attitudes and beliefs are a fundamental aspect within Vygotsky’s socio- cultural model of learning in which socialization plays a vital role (Kozulin et al., 2003). To address this, Article 24 of the CRPD Comment No. 4 emphasizes the importance of awareness of disability for professionals and staff working at all levels of education to support individuals with disabilities. Similarly, other concerns exist. For example, issues related to language and definitions of inclusive education may differ between students with SEN and their peers, which can become a barrier to successful inclusion (Rouse, 2008). To this end, Article 24, Comment 4 of the CRPD states that inclusion can be achieved by proper training of staff and teachers. Training such as “disability awareness and the use of appropriate augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication, educational techniques and materials to support persons with disabilities” are aimed at overcoming attitudinal behaviours (UN. 2006, p.15).

The findings in this study show that both pre-service and beginning teachers were appreciative of the goal of developing inclusive education program. They valued the inclusion of children from diverse backgrounds, gender, and with varying disabilities. This finding was discussed in chapter four when discussing the culture of inclusivity across schools in Bhutan. The acceptance rate was overwhelmingly high with 100% of the respondents identified as having embraced and being appreciative of the inclusive model.

While this acceptance of inclusive ideals was encouraging, there were some disquieting findings as well. Both pre-service and beginning teachers indicated that there were drawbacks, questioning the equity of delivering educational content in such a scenario. These elements were identified as: 1) curriculum and pedagogy issues resulting from needs of all children in the class; 2) behavioural problems where teachers felt best to leave undisturbed. While these issues may not initially appear to

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be a serious attitudinal issue, it may still be a long-term trigger, leading to SEN students being ignored, as has been suggested in the literature review (LaPierre, 2008).

As a result, these issues point to the scepticism of some of the respondents in this study as shown in the analysis. These findings indicate that despite the great benefits, strength and influence characteristic of inclusive education systems, there is a high probability that children with SEN might, in the long run, be severely short- changed. The attitude was that the system would, in one way or another, fall short of meeting some of their students’ critical special needs. Some studies support this attitude of teachers indicating that in such a situation, mainstream children are also at risk of from delayed progression and/or cognitive development (Kang & Martin, 2018).

Challenges in implementing inclusive education There are two key challenges that can be drawn from the data of both pre-service and beginning teachers about inclusive education in Bhutan. These are a collection of identified barriers such as inadequate training, lack of mastery skills, difficulty in customising lessons and a policy vacuum regarding inclusion.

Barriers to Inclusive Education The findings of this study show immense support for inclusive education from both pre-service and beginning teachers irrespective of the concerns they highlighted, and some traces of skepticism. However, evidence from this study shows that doubts are triggered by the various barriers raised by the respondents when it comes to inclusive education (Priyanka & Samia, 2018). For instance, inadequate training was recounted as the most concerning cause of lapse in the system, an observation that Ahmad (2018) similarly makes about the disadvantages associated with inclusive education across the globe. In this study, one of the participants confessed that while it is timely and visionary, their lack of skills, mastery and understanding of the key capabilities compromises the learning of all students. Similar sentiments are echoed by others citing the value the model would gain with proper harmonization of teachers’ training with the establishment of inclusive schools in Bhutan. Forlin (2012) is categorical in analyzing the possible constraints inclusive education faces, identifying factors such as negative attitudes and beliefs, inappropriate curricular and unsupportive environment. Mercer and Howe (2012) have effectively stressed the

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value and potential of socio-cultural theory in learning. Consequently, as the theory draws from different aspects that underpin learning including attitudes and belief, it is important to note that Vygotsky’s model is critical to understanding how certain social and cultural factors in the environment support self-efficacy for the teachers (Allahyar, & Nazari, 2012). These negative constraints are likely to affect the quality and performance of inclusive education in different environments unless there is a determined effort to improve teacher education that focuses on developing the knowledge, skills and attitudinal aspects of inclusion and its practice (Forlin, 2012). This literature supports the findings of this study. As chapter five outlined, beginning teachers encountering inclusive education without adequate training, will experience challenges such as inflexible and difficulty customising lessons. Chapter five supports the responses in the literature by revealing the hardships that teachers in Bhutan and other regions have to endure as supported by Ahsan, Sharma and Deppeler (2012); Beutel et al. (2018) and Regmi (2017). These barriers are typically a reflection of the challenges that are faced by pre-service teachers, as identified in the earlier chapters of this study. In fact, even the MoE (2014) in Bhutan agrees that the training level is far below the threshold needed for a teacher to effectively deliver in such a setting. Other barriers cited by both the graduate and pre-service teachers included challenging behaviour of children and an unsupportive environment both within and beyond the school setting. In mentioning unsupportive environment, these teachers are significantly acknowledging that Vygotsky’s (1987) socio-cultural model is critical to enhancing self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) in their case. In essence a supporting environment will be one that provides the teacher with the opportunity to experience mastery by having sufficient knowledge, and working with a more-knowledgeable peer, and to confront and discard attitudes about inclusive learning and classrooms. With exposure to such settings, these teachers are able to sharpen their classroom management skills and come to appreciate that inclusive classrooms are achievable in Bhutan. It emerges that although there is significant potential for inclusive education to gain speed in Bhutan, the MoE and relevant stakeholders have a lot of issues to consider as they work to support teachers to improve classroom practice.

Policy for Inclusion/Educating for GNH

Efforts to integrate all children into regular schools have been gaining priority in Bhutan for years now. The findings from this study are a testament that this program

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is implementable and has great potential—with proper policy support. Sherab (2013) re-emphasizes the continued demands to uphold social morals and eliminate any form of discrimination by ensuring all children get equal opportunities. The concept of inclusivity as embraced by teachers advances Bhutan’s progress in pushing its development along GNH lines (Miller, 2010). When the policy of Educating for GNH was endorsed in 2010 (MoE 2010), it created a space whereby the GNH philosophy could be infused into the Bhutanese education system. Both pre-service and beginning teachers in this study stated that they lacked knowledge about policies regarding inclusive education at the national level. It is not surprising that (as discussed in Chapter 2), their statements highlight the fact that the final version of Bhutan’s National Policy on Special Educational Needs is yet to be released (Dorji, 2015; Subba et al., 2018). While the MoE had been working on this document for several years through UNICEF Bhutan, upon review, the government felt the need for a National Disability Act of Bhutan that could form the basis of a policy. Therefore, the need to expedite the process of developing the National Disability Act was discussed during the 2019 National Assembly’s Spring Parliament Session (Kuensel, 2019) and the GNH Commission, which has the lead role in drafting this Act, has been instructed by the government to present this document at the next National Assembly session. Subsequently, the urgent need for policy is a gap identified by this study. While it is noted that some schools have developed their own inclusive education policies, their effectiveness is largely unknown, as the current study did not have the scope to investigate such local policy-related issues.

As was discussed in chapter four and five, challenges are inevitable in the implementation of any new initiative. This reality underscores the observation that the majority of the participants showed confidence in the long-term outcome of inclusive education programme in Bhutan and that this is the reason they call for progressive policy support to streamline the training, development of an applicable curriculum, restructuring of the environment, and other changes that promise to fast-track the success of inclusive model in Bhutan. These supports have the potential to further promote the inclusive education agenda and achieve significant positive impacts on quality.

This study found that respondents showed an eagerness in learning about policies that are related to inclusive education both at the national and the school level. This

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seems to agree with Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory that highlights the importance of engaging the surrounding to enhance learning (Daniels, 2008). As such the more the teachers are exposed to the policy and the requirements, the more they look for ways as implementers to successfully achieve inclusive learning in Bhutan. Due to the lack of understanding of the policies for inclusive education, both pre-service and beginning teachers expressed their confusion about policy, which often led to them expressing feelings of helplessness in implementing and supporting the inclusive model as required. They felt that their own inadequacies were a key problem, which according to Bandura’s (1997) model, had the potential to further prevent them from mastering tasks. It can thus be concluded that pre-service and beginning teachers’ sense of self-efficacy remained low. Hence it is imperative that importance be given to raising awareness of policies for pre-service and beginning teachers for their understanding and implementing of inclusion and ability to support diversity among students with better confidence.

6.3 ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION 2

This section addresses Research Question 2: How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher-education programme in Bhutan as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms?

An analysis of the results from both the focus group interviews (chapter four) and the open-ended questionnaires (chapter five) involving pre-service and beginning teachers brings out similar findings in response to Research Question 2. First, several thematic classifications in chapter four such as the beliefs about teacher education, experiences from teaching and concerns about inclusive education speak to this research question. A similar case is observed in chapter five with themes such as challenges faced by beginning teachers, achievements in inclusive training, and measures to improve inclusive training. Based on the findings presented by these themes, three synthesised elements emerged. These key elements are now discussed in more detail.

Positive experiences of teacher education Despite the negative experiences discussed in the previous section, this study also found that many participants were able to report numerous positive experiences as well. The analysed data confirmed that the teachers’ willingness and enthusiasm to

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accept inclusive education was largely motivated by these positive experiences. This can be supported through data which indicates that preservice teachers agreed that their college education was relevant to inclusive education was encouraging in the efforts towards the improvement of its advantages. A similar perception emerged among the beginning teachers, for instance, results indicate that although some of the teachers questioned their skills after going through the course modules such as the one in PCoE, they also reported that the mere exposure to the program in the classrooms gradually sharpened their understanding of the practice. According to Mercer and Howe (2012) this represents a very important aspect of the socio-cultural model of learning by Vygotsky. This model as highlighted earlier, emphasizes the importance of interaction with the surroundings and how this is important to learning (Kozulin, 2002). Consequently, teacher training needs to include support for self-efficacy according to the Bandura model but also more emphasis on how learning is affected through social interaction with people in schools. For instance, one of the responses noted in the research said:

Understanding the multiple intelligence and different learning styles of the learners has helped me to respect the needs of different students both academically and culturally. I always try to understand about the family background of my students”.

It is therefore reasonable to argue that inclusive education training for the teachers, although not completely effective, is a good start and is commendable in its application.

The most emphasised experience by both the pre-service and the beginning teachers is that they gained classroom management skills. With deliberate exposure to an inclusive classroom, these teachers soon learnt skills that they found critical in managing an inclusive classroom. According to Mercer and Howe (2012) it would have been impossible for such teachers to be able to acquire such skills during their college training, signifying the importance of Bandura’s model to achieving self- efficacy among such teachers. In chapter four, several quotes from pre-service teachers were presented that illustrated how inclusive training was sufficient enough to impart some specific teaching strategies. This concept reappeared in the skilfulness of beginning teachers (see chapter five), especially while working with children in and out of the classroom. This environment as described by the teachers seemed to provide a very critical springboard for learning among these teachers and this further highlight

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that Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model is applicable in this context of learning (Allahyar & Valentini, 2015). In addition, this is an indication that to a certain extent, their pre- service education boosted their professional practice, and that the confidence that they demonstrated during teaching was attributed to the training itself, rather than learning from experience. Moreover, additional evidence was presented that adds to the argument that the training of the teachers was not limited to classrooms because they were also exposed to learning through microteaching opportunities. According to Kozulin (2002) the socio-cultural model as proposed by Vygotsky provided these microteaching opportunities that in turn improve the teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive classrooms. Although the data reveals that this training fell short to some extent, there is no doubt that the teachers were appreciative of the training they did receive, because it gave them a clearer picture of how to advance inclusive education for all children. Therefore, few were caught by surprise when sent to inclusive schools, which is a positive experience for them, and a positive outcome for the education system.

The dynamics of dealing with an inclusive education setting appears as the primary issue of concern for both pre-service and beginning teachers. Fortunately, results from this study rule it out as a serious problem considering the orientation these teachers get regarding special education and strategies of curbing deviance and aggressive behavior among children. For instance, Appendix I clearly highlights the training imparted to boost the managerial skills of dealing with discipline issues of SEN children.

There are a number of commendable cases that emerge through the data analysis in both chapter four and five such as the familiarisation and understanding of contemporary pedagogies by teachers that have accelerated progress of SEN children while improving teachers’ attitude. For instance, in the theme of curriculum and pedagogy, most of the teachers considered curriculum as a basis for most of the quality related issues in education of children with SEN. This finding supports Slee’s (2012) argument around the need for curriculum improvements to cater for diversity among students. In fact, a majority of the participants in this study responded that this was a worthwhile learning experience because it not only boosted their teaching skills but also made the entire process easier and enjoyable. The learning experience described in this context can only refer to situations where teachers are exposed to an

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environment of inclusive learning from which they gain firsthand experience and hence enhance their efficacy. This according to Kozulin et al (2003) is what underpins Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of learning. The use of terms like ‘happy and enjoyable’ by the participants when expressing positively about inclusive teaching, is related to Bandura’s ‘physiological and emotional cues’ that increase self-efficacy in teachers. Bandura’s explanation is that when feeling relaxed and confident before confronting a task, individuals develop a higher sense of efficacy toward the task they face, which aligns with the findings in this study.

Additionally, practising teachers are still receiving ongoing professional training to increase awareness of special techniques of dealing with the changing landscapes in inclusive education. These trainings came in the form of workshops, in-service trainings and short-term trainings. In-service training, which is one of the most common ways of training teachers in schools in Bhutan can increase development of teachers’ knowledge and help them to continue their performance successfully (Sharma, Simi & Forlin (2015). Pre-service teachers in particular found these types of training very helpful. They confirmed that when teachers received specific training in inclusive education, schools would be able to take in more student with disabilities.

Negative experiences of teacher education A majority of the participants in this study reflected on the consequences of negative experiences, which is an indication of the magnitude of their impact. For instance, while beginning teachers noted that they lacked sufficient training to conduct education in an inclusive environment, having only undergone special education training, pre-service teachers also said that they were dissatisfied with the education they were getting in the colleges (Robinson, 2017). This agreement speaks to a possible shortcoming in the scope of training, together with its consonance with the demands of the inclusive education. It appears that there is a visible disconnect between the two, which calls for restructuring and reforming the teacher education course, and alignment of the program with findings from studies conducted by Royal Education Council (2009). As a result, pre-service and beginning teachers reported negative experiences of teacher education that could adversely affect the quality of inclusive education (Jensen, Sandoval - Hernandez, Knoll, & Gonzalez, 2012).

A synthesis of the data in chapter four and chapter five shows a general agreement that teacher education is not only inadequate but also inappropriate. This

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study observed that teachers’ negative experiences often accompanied them when they graduated from the colleges as noted by beginning teachers in their responses. This was similar to findings put forward by Soodak and Podell (1997), and Hoy and Spero (2005), which measured the effectiveness of teachers. Their studies found that teacher efficacy beliefs taught in inclusive setting gradually decreased when entering the field of teaching due to lack knowledge and lack of appropriate skills which had not been sufficiently addressed during initial teacher education. According to Allahyar and Valentini (2015), this seems to push to the fore the need for understanding Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model that proposes significant levels of learning through interaction with the surrounding. Researchers such as Kamenopoulou and Dukpa (2017) also agree with this observation by arguing that Bhutan, though robustly supporting inclusive education programs, still lags behind in improving the training of teachers in ways that align their skills and competence with the demands of this model. Developing a better understanding of how the social interactions with colleagues and children have affected learning will support teacher preparation in the future and the implementation of inclusive education in Bhutan.

Challenges in teaching in inclusive classes Considering the complexity of inclusive education, it is not surprising that challenges while teaching in inclusive classes are not a rare phenomenon. In this study, both pre-service teachers and beginning teachers indicated that the system suffered numerous challenges (Carpenter, Cavanagh, & Hyde, 2005). As already emphasised, inadequate training, which in turn compromised the teachers’ capacity to craft applicable learning activities for all children emerged as the most cited challenge. In fact, more than half, of the respondents in this study felt they were incapable of improving the performance of their children just as supported by a study by the MoE (2014), in Bhutan. It appears that despite the training, gaps in designing learning activities that all students, irrespective of their background and disabilities can grasp, remained a major issue of concern. As a result, most respondents in this study felt that it was challenging to strike this balance in inclusive classes (unlike in regular ones). The consequence of this gap as reported by the study findings is that the students’ performance slumped below both the international and national threshold.

Emerging from the themes in chapter four is that while the teachers are expected to steer inclusive education to success, parents and other members of the society have

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a central role to play as well (Rouse, 2008). This is a concern that was echoed by senior teachers who argue that the composition of Bhutanese society and the geographical constraints are in such a way that success in this education system can only be spiked by the active participation of the community. According to Allahyar and Nazari (2012) the societal and geographical constraints can be addressed based on Vygotsky’s model so that the teacher no longer sees these as constraints but opportunities to learn and attain greater self-efficacy. Hayward, Pannozzo, and Colman (2009) argue that in the absence of significant parental involvement and support, inclusive education in Bhutan is poised to fail. Particularly, as the data indicates, physically and cognitively challenged children stand to lose more because of the unsupportive environment (Forlina & Chambers, 2011). Furthermore, this can be aggravated by the frustration of teachers when they fail to improve the performance of their classroom based on national standards.

The results reveal a glaring concern from teachers that they are largely overwhelmed in Bhutan and the situation gets worse with the fact that training remains limited (Waitoller & Artiles, 2013). Based on the responses from participants in this study, the government in Bhutan continues to rapid roll-out inclusive schools despite the high shortage of trained and skilled teachers to teach in these facilities. As identified by Savolainen et al. (2012), this situation normally persists for the majority of economically depressed countries. Teachers feel that the support for teaching academics is wanting, which leaves the available teaching force stretched and over- exploited to some extent (Dukpa, 2018). The lack of support is a reflection of policies that are not streamlined such that the expansion of schools remains inconsistent with the training of teachers in colleges. As a result of this challenge, the study indicates that 75% of the teachers were strongly in support of expansion and improvement of the quality of teacher’s education in the country to ensure that these align with the teaching demands in inclusive schools.

While there are challenges and difficulties of teaching in inclusive classes, as demonstrated by the results of the study, these challenges must be regarded in the context of the newness of implementing inclusive education in Bhutan. Although the education of children with SEN began in the early 1970s, the actual effort in Bhutan to advocate inclusive education in the true context of inclusive education as enshrined in the 1994 Salamanca Statement is a very recent and new initiative (Jigyel, et al.,

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2018). Considering that inclusive education is a new initiative in Bhutan, the fact that the inclusive education module at PCoE is an introductory module is quite justifiable and commendable. The proposed postgraduate course in inclusive education is also timely and important in today’s society, where inclusion is increasingly becoming more and more an underlying philosophical and practical element of both education and social environments.

6.4 ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION 3

This section addresses Research Question 3: How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?

The research question sought to investigate the self-efficacy of individual pre- service teachers in teaching in an inclusive classroom. Several themes were drawn from the collected data during the analysis in chapters four and five. Based on these results, there were outstanding observations. These are discussed in the following sections.

Teaching with enthusiasm despite challenges It is clear from the results of this study that teachers are not only underequipped but also undertrained in handling inclusive teaching. For instance, in the results section most of the respondents agreed that training and development are necessary in order to assure a high quality of education along with the varying needs of the students with SEN. Pre-service teachers are further inexperienced in dealing with various classroom challenges in comparison to the senior beginning teachers. However, Boer, Pijl, and Minnaert (2011) state that the most important source of teacher inspiration is a positive attitude and willingness to learn. The findings of this study indicate that confidence was surprisingly one of the outstanding traits demonstrated by pre-service teachers, despite the minimal training they had in inclusive education. With this, a positive attitude and enthusiasm accompanied their teaching activities, indicating their eagerness to learn through teaching.

Forlin and Chambers (2009) claim that teachers can only give their best when intrinsically motivated and determined to see success out of a teaching model. The same situation can be observed in Bhutan’s case, where irrespective of the challenges raised, pre-service teachers remained confident of the benefits that inclusive education stands to bring. It appears that they understand barriers are inevitable and that with

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proper regulation and improvement of the entire system over time, future teaching of Bhutan’s inclusive schools would be enjoyable and productive (Forlins and Chambersb, 2011). Perhaps, this could be argued to be the source of their inspiration, and the enthusiasm they display.

Responding to diversity Inclusive education is designed to assimilate and eliminate any discrimination of all children in a learning setting. For teachers, the greatest challenge comes with the high demand to respond and satisfy the diversity characteristic of an inclusive education setting. Often, research indicates that crafting and modeling of diverse activities ensure that the teachers attend to the needs of each child (Ainscow & Sandhill, 2010). Moreover, this increases the probability of meeting SEN requirements as well. It is the same principle advocated for by Subba et al. (2018) which calls for incorporation of all pupils in classroom activities. For instance, the present study found out that pre-service teachers acknowledged the importance of being able to develop and deliver diversified activities that cater to diverse children’s needs. Interestingly, results indicated that beginning teachers worked to ensure active participation of all students while at the same time ensuring 100% attentiveness by probing and encouraging group interaction during lessons. In this way, discrimination was reduced, and a sense of seamless participation encouraged, which in turn, boosted learning for all.

Lesson planning success and challenges Although there was a perception expressed by pre-service and beginning teachers that they are inadequately trained to cope with the various dynamics of inclusive education, this study found that a majority of them were able to apply and adopt different strategies in their lesson planning. Having in mind the SEN of specific children in regular classes was an important factor that they put under consideration during planning. This process was identified in a number of relevant themes discussed in data analysis chapters. According to Jorgensen (1998), it is imperative for a teacher to ensure all the needs of children are considered in the planning of the class activities. The importance of planning for inclusion has significantly improved inclusive education practices across the globe, with Bhutan being one of the more recent nations to implement this program (Savolainen et al., 2012). As revealed by the results of the study, pre-service teachers described their difficulties in designing suitable activities

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for an inclusive classroom. They demonstrated a sense of mindfulness in their efforts to tailor lesson planning to the needs of the children in such a way that discrimination was averted. Causton-Theoharis, Theoharis and Trezek’s (2008) research similarly indicated the importance of preservice teacher’s needs, which could be met thorough training to ensure that they are conversant with designing inclusive instructions for teaching. Despite the shortcoming in the training of teachers, the data revealed the many efforts that were made by pre-service and beginning teachers to ensure lessons were planned to be as inclusive as possible.

Provision of teaching and learning resources The general agreement among supporters of inclusive education is that learning resources go a long way in determining the quality of education. Jorgensen (1998) states that in their absence, equal learning is tremendously compromised with SEN children being some of the most affected. Findings from this study report a shortage in the use of teaching and learning materials by the pre-service teachers; and that this has a significant impact on the quality of teaching in Bhutan’s inclusive schools. A thorough critique of the findings shows that it is a double challenge where in addition to a lack of resources, the pre-service teachers are not skilled enough to devise alternative activities for application (Florian, 2008). As a consequence, this study reports the presence of disorganised and disorderly classrooms, at times characterised by poor concentration and participation of the learners. Such observations speak to the need for the MoE to re-formulate and implement policies that push for both inclusive and quality education. In this case, it includes ensuring all schools have the necessary teaching and learning materials.

6.5 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS STUDY

The following section provides theoretical contributions of the study by considering the key elements as well as the research questions that drove this study. Following this, application of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory to progressing inclusive education is discussed.

The results of the study are supported by Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. The concept of the self-efficacy theory is explored, elaborated and strengthened by the results of this study because this study reveals strategies that can be exploited by the teachers to increase their confidence.

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The analysis shows that during pre-service training, inclusive education was simply an introductory course which significantly impacted overall understanding and teacher confidence. The consequence of this is that the teachers are left short of both vicarious and mastery experience because of inadequate training, as argued in Bandura’s theory.

The study adds to the concept of reinforcing self-efficacy by suggesting various alterations to the existing pre-service teacher’s education programme. The research proposes the need for refocusing on intensive inclusive training as a key ingredient for boosting self-efficacy, especially with the inclusion of intervention and prevention elements in the teacher education module. The purpose of this suggestion is to create an environment tailored to reinforce positive teacher behaviours, which in turn lead to improved self-efficacy. Similarly, microteaching is highlighted as an alternative technique with similar results when applied to beginning teachers.

Applying Bandura’s self-efficacy model in Bhutan The application of Bandura’s theory can be used to explain how educators’ feelings of viability during initial teacher education, grows especially with reference to teachers amid their practicum in schools. From the model, the mastery experiences of beginning and pre-service teachers are essential for building self-efficacy, and will be heavily relied upon into the future. For example, teachers may re-create or re- enacted a successful aspect of classroom practice in their future practice. Master experiences thus have the capacity to strongly affect the educator’s feeling of viability and self-efficacy (Bandura, 2012). This can be ascribed to the way that such encounters offer real proof that either qualifies or precludes the pre-service teachers determining whether these teachers can achieve success in the classroom (Helms-Lorenz et al., 2012). Along these lines, by freely educating inside a class setting or helping an accomplished instructor in sorting out important work, pre-service and beginning teachers’ self-efficacy can be fundamentally enhanced. In this unique circumstance, the practicum furnishes the instructor with different open doors, and opportunities for vicarious learning. For the most part, via cautiously watching experienced teachers in classes, pre-service teachers can be motivated by genuine opportunities to model similar teaching practice into the future. Watching a practising teacher experience success with SEN students can help pre-service teachers to develop a belief that they can also master the skills required to be successful in implementing inclusive practices.

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It is therefore vital for pre-service and beginning teachers’ self-efficacy, that they have opportunities to work alongside experienced teachers in a genuine classroom setting. Watching these teachers surmount difficulties, and adjusting their practice can have a significant impact on self-efficacy (Helms-Lorenz et al., 2012). Based on this discussion, it can be argued that Bandura’s model can be used as a direction to develop an effective model of inclusive education which will consider the learning of pre- service students via observation, imitation, and modelling. It is acknowledged that this is particularly complex in Bhutan given the relative recency of the introduction of inclusive education.

Applying Vygotsky’s socio-cultural model in Bhutan Understanding that learning involves teachers, is critical to ensuring that an effective model of learning that underpins inclusivity in Bhutan is achieved. As much as Bandura’s self-efficacy model is significantly applied in this study to highlight the view by beginning and pre-service teachers on inclusive education, Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory also has a relevant contribution to this study. Consequently, as a way of effectively inducting the beginning teachers, there is a noted concern that they must learn also from their interactions with the socio-cultural environment. As such the environment must be such as to offer important learning opportunities, conversations and cues that help these teachers to attain the required confidence in teaching inclusive classes. As has been highlighted earlier the teachers’ attitudes play a very critical role to ensuring that they gain a desirable experience to teaching in inclusive classrooms. Understanding that these learners are unique in their own sense and that with adequate guidance, they can perform at par with other (normal) children is something of experience and attitude change. Hence, teachers must be able to learn through their initial teacher education, and the socio-cultural environment of classrooms as they implement programmes that involve these learners with SEN.

Additionally, it well aligns with Bandura’s self-efficacy model that aligns the teacher’s experience to self-efficacy. Notably this experience can only have come from exposure to an environment from where the teacher is appropriately supported, equipped with sufficient skills and knowledge, and willing to learn and perfect the art of teaching based on the real experiences. Beyond this there is the attitude that can also be impacted significantly where the teacher is exposed to an extremely challenging environment. In fact, while some of the teachers were sceptical of how inclusive

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x Introduction without much delay of the new full course (postgraduate course in inclusive education) currently under RUB validation.

x For first-hand experience, take pre-service teachers on a school visit/study trip to some inclusive schools. Before graduating, some pre- service teachers may not have worked at all in inclusive schools. This was evident from the data that during their teaching practice, not all pre- service teachers had the opportunity to teach in inclusive schools.

x Training teachers to use ICT and specially designed apps (applications) for students with SEN in inclusive teaching. Both teachers and students will benefit from this.

x Strengthen pre-service teacher mentoring during teaching practice. Pre- service teachers may be associated with those senior and experienced teachers who have received some inclusive education /teaching training.

This study has shown that while both pre-service and beginning teachers have access to some education and training in college, this is generally insufficient to prepare them for the day-to-day realities of working in inclusive schools. Pre-service teachers also require supervised practical experience in inclusive schools. College teaching staff need to participate in ongoing professional development to support their knowledge and skills in implementing inclusive education in schools in Bhutan. Considering how teachers view the relevance of inclusive education to their college education, there is an urgent need to revisit the education and training of teachers to ensure that the graduates are equipped with appropriate know-how and skills that are applicable for fostering inclusive education in Bhutan.

Finally, there is also a need to equip teaching colleges with lecturers who are experts in inclusive education. As this system of education comes of age in Bhutan, there will be a need to ensure it is led by experts in all sectors, including lecturers who have a mastery of the scope and content of inclusive policy.

Recommendation 2. Enhanced policy and practice including with community On the basis of the CRPD guidelines, research has emphasized the significance of families and community organizations playing an active part in promoting the elimination of barriers to education for children and adults with disabilities, as well as

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promoting policy changes and legislation for inclusive education (Reiser, 2008; UNESCO, 2001).

Elucidating the concepts of inclusion and inclusion practices in the context of Bhutan is critical. Bhutan has a unique social setting, and therefore, practices that work well in other parts of the world may not be best suited to Bhutan. This need is relevant both for academics working in teacher education colleges, and for policymakers. All relevant stakeholders must ensure that policy and practice are relevant for Bhutan’s unique cultural, historical and geographical context.

As detailed in Chapter 2, the MoE worked for several years to develop a National Policy on Special Educational Needs in cooperation with UNICEF Bhutan. However, considering the political movements on the formulation of a Disability Act in Bhutan, very recently “The National Assembly passed the motion … for a separate medical programme and notification of employment opportunities for differently-abled persons on June 20” (Kuensel, June 24, 2019). In addition, the assembly also discussed on the implementation of the Draft National Policy for Persons with Disabilities 2018. To this end, the government has advised the GNH Commission, which had the lead role in drafting this Act, to present this document at the upcoming 2019 Winter National Assembly session for deliberation.

The study recommends that a comprehensive and collaborative practices on inclusive education must be developed and provided for schools, parents and community for implementation. The significance of family and community influence in the overall progress of inclusive education in Bhutan has not been adequately emphasised in the theoretical conception of the program. However, as data analysis reveals, the relationship between family and community involvement and inclusive education are inseparable. A recommendation from this study is that family participation is embedded in practice, and community perceptions are taken into account as this policy continues to emerge. The community and parents hold key beliefs around inclusive practices and schooling. Their influence has a strong bearing on the adoption of inclusive education by teachers which should not be overlooked. The advancement of inclusive education in Bhutan should not only be the responsibility of the MoE and allied partners. The community and the parents/caregivers have a critical role to play as well. Therefore, it is important to seek

Chapter 6: Synthesis of Discussion and Thesis Conclusions 237

the support of parents/caregivers together with the general community if the success of inclusive education is to be realised. These can be achieved by:

x Inviting volunteers like mothers or family members to assist the teachers whenever requested; while also encouraging teachers to seek family input on how to best support their children.

x Conducting parent teacher meetings periodically where parents can be a part of a support network of parents of all children. This type of meeting will promote a social and educational atmosphere in which parents feel welcome, respected, trusted, heard and required (UNICEF, 2014).

x Families supporting other families: This is particularly recommended in the situation of parents of children with disabilities living in poverty, isolated communities or having culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. In this situation, it can be highly useful to assist parents of children with disabilities in a better social or educational circumstance.

Hence, the urgent need for policy is a gap identified by this study. While it is noted that some schools have developed their own inclusive education policies, their effectiveness is largely unknown, as the current study did not have the scope to investigate such local policy-related issues.

Recommendation 3. Improved teaching and learning materials Having appropriate teaching and learning materials is imperative if the MoE seeks to promote effective growth of inclusive education in Bhutan. Evidence from this study shows that despite the enthusiasm and determination of the available teachers to support the inclusive education, their efforts are reduced by the severe shortage of suitable teaching and learning materials. It is not enough to churn out hundreds of teachers. As the findings in this study demonstrate, a lack of resources inhibits beginning and pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy, confidence and practice. In the absence of the right tools and teaching aids, the quality of education will remain below international and national standards. The recommendations below provide some measures for improving the uptake of teaching and learning materials for inclusion:

x the provision of ICT – supply of user-friendly applications (Apps) for use by both teacher and children with SEN.

Chapter 6: Synthesis of Discussion and Thesis Conclusions 238

x training of teachers and providing support on the use of ICT for teaching in classrooms.

x supplying appropriate toys and resources to support children who have social and emotional issues.

Recommendation 4. Better articulation of duties and responsibilities of the teachers and SENCOs Restructuring and assessing the allocation of teachers’ duties, together with structuring of lessons and curricular foci need to be revisited. Results from this study points to the significance of time constraints that are a reality of teachers’ work in Bhutan. This is partly due to the timing of lessons (and curriculum expectations), and partly due to the number of non-teaching responsibilities they have. Taking these pressures into account and considering alternate approaches that are viable for inclusive classrooms would be a first step that relevant stakeholders could take.

The success of inclusive education relies on the roles played by teachers. It is recommended that SENCOs should:

x work closely with fellow teachers to upskill beginning teachers, for example by participating in the strategic development of lessons and team teaching.

x remind teachers of their responsibilities and the principle of non- discriminatory teaching. SENCOs should ensure that the provision is coordinated for all students with SEN in the school.

x encourage teachers to work as a team and seek help from each other in their teaching.

Recommendation 5. Transforming class size There is a need to work towards limiting class sizes to the recommended population of 24 children for primary level and 30 pupils for high school level. The findings of this study show that in Bhutan, the population of children in inclusive schools is very challenging for beginning teachers. As the data indicated, large class sizes, along with the physical size and locations of rooms often added further complexity to beginning and pre-service teachers who were already suffering from low self-efficacy. As a result, this context negatively impacts on the ability of the teacher

Chapter 6: Synthesis of Discussion and Thesis Conclusions 239

to teach effectively, therefore hampering their ability to provide a quality education for all students. There is therefore a need for the MoE to urgently address the overcrowding challenges as an initiative for boosting educational quality. This can be done by instructing schools to adhere to the recommended class size policy as outlined in the MoE – 24 students for primary schools and 30 for high schools (discussed in Chapter 5).

6.7 FUTURE RESEARCH SUGGESTIONS

Referring to the researcher’s previous study at master’s level, it emphasized that:

Further research that investigates the experiences of in-service teachers is very important and should be conducted longitudinally. This will facilitate the identification of issues that are experienced by the teachers over time. Identifying these issues is likely to yield improvements, and changes, to actual classrooms practice once professional development opportunities improve. (Chhetri, 2015, p. 77) It is, therefore, an accomplishment for the researcher that the present study is based on the researcher’s vision that was informed by the previous study. In light of the findings and noted limitations of this research, further research is suggested in several areas such as:

1. Explore teacher education practices for inclusive education at the two Colleges of Education. This may involve a review of teacher educators’ experiences in teaching at the colleges. 2. Explore school principals and SENCO’s perspectives on implementation and success of inclusive education in Bhutanese schools. 3. Explore the extent of community and parent involvement in the education of their children.

6.8 OVERALL STUDY CONCLUSION

The case of inclusive education in Bhutan is a complex one. Literature reveals that the rollout and progressive expansion of inclusive education is inevitable considering the gradual mechanisms for implementation being put in place across the nation. Ever since the introduction of the first inclusive school in the country, debates have continued over the effectiveness and quality of education. This study sought to

Chapter 6: Synthesis of Discussion and Thesis Conclusions 240

explore the situation of inclusive education guided by three major research questions which comprise:

Research Question 1: What understandings do pre-service and beginning teachers have about inclusive education in Bhutan?

Research Question 2: How do pre-service and beginning teachers perceive the teacher-training programme as preparation for teaching in inclusive classrooms?

Research Question 3: How do individual pre-service teachers demonstrate self-efficacy to teach in inclusive classrooms?

Based on data analysis, it is apparent that Bhutan is experiencing a split situation where, on one side, teachers agree that inclusive education has been a success in the nation. The participants in this study were able to share their many positive experiences of the system, and to articulate the benefits children have gained from this system. Moreover, this perception is supported by their open enthusiasm and motivation to embrace inclusive education in the country. However, through the analysis of data, evidence reveals significant challenges, primarily in terms of implementation and practice.

The most glaring shortcoming emerging from this study is that training of teachers in the country is currently inadequate. While teachers have been creative in adapting teaching techniques, at the policy level, there is some need for much greater clarity, which has contributed to the knowledge and skills gap. This situation is aggravated by the lack of experienced teachers; and insufficient access to quality professional learning, supervision of teaching practice and teaching and learning materials in schools. There is, therefore, an urgent demand to address these shortcomings in order to improve the quality of inclusive education in Bhutan. This study found striking similarities in the responses from pre-service and beginning teachers. The two groups identified almost similar positive experiences, attitudes as well as challenges they identify with when it comes to inclusive education in Bhutan. Overall, a key recommendation emerging from this study is that the MoE and other key stakeholders should re-visit the policy guiding inclusive education to ensure that it addresses the challenges highlighted in this research. The need to align the training of teachers with the education curricular and SEN needs cannot be overlooked.

Chapter 6: Synthesis of Discussion and Thesis Conclusions 241

Moreover, teaching and learning materials must also be provided, while at the same time ensuring the learning environment is supportive of all the children in schools. Finally, the parents and the community cannot be detached from this initiative, since they are part of the key stakeholders in their children’s’ lives.

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APPENDIX C: FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS

Focus group number Participant code Identifier (Number in group) (Pseudonym) 1 (8) FG1_ PT117 Dawa18 FG1_PT2 Raj FG1_PT3 Kiki FG1_PT4 Om FG1_PT5 Choki FG1_PT6 Pelden FG1_PT7 Tandin FG1_PT8 Karma 2 (4) FG2_PT119 Ugyen FG2_PT2 Phurba FG2_PT3 Sarita FG2_PT4 Ganga

17 Focus group 1_consisted of pre-service teachers who formed interview group 1 18 Identifiers (pseudonyms) and participants codes are used for in-text referencing 19 Focus group 2_consisted of pre-service teachers who formed interview group 2 Appendices 279

APPENDIX D: FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Focus Group Questions for Pre-Service Teachers

1. How do you think your training influences your teaching in the classroom?

2. As someone who teaches in an inclusive classroom, what has been your experience in terms of students’ participation in classroom activities? (Success, failure, struggling). 3. Tell me about how your teacher training prepared you for SEN/inclusive teaching?

4. What are your thoughts about the current teacher-training programme that provides

an introductory course in SEN/inclusive education? 5. If inclusive education was not a mandatory course, would you still choose to study

the course? Why? 6. What did you learn about inclusive education in the mandatory course?

7. How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your course-training to prepare for inclusive education? 8. What do you enjoy about teaching generally? 9. What is it like to teach in an inclusive school?

10. What are some challenges in teaching in an inclusive school? 11. Why do you think teaching is important in an inclusive school? 12. What challenges have you come across as a pre-service teacher to teach in an inclusive school?

13. What were you expecting from your training course in inclusive education?

14. What are your opinions in participating in this research study? 15. Do you have any questions about this research study?

Appendices 280

APPENDIX E: OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE

Open-Ended Questions for Beginning Teachers.

1. Tell me about the different types of students in your class. How confident do you feel in teaching these students?

2. Your challenge as a new teacher is to work effectively in an inclusive classroom. Tell me how your teacher training has prepared you for this?

3. How relevant was your teacher training in terms of inclusive education?

4. How does inclusive education work in your school? Is it the way you learned about and understood inclusive education at your college?

5. What would you most want to see as a change at the teachers’ college in terms of delivery (lecturers’ competence and knowledge about inclusive education)?

6. As someone who teaches in an inclusive classroom, what has been your experience in terms of students’ achievement? Success/failure/struggling.

7. What do you enjoy about teaching in an inclusive school?

8. Can you give me an example of how your training enabled you to support a challenging/disabled student?

9. What challenges do you find in teaching inclusive education?

10. What concerns do you have about inclusive education as a new teacher, in terms of working with other teachers or staff members?

Appendices 281

APPENDIX F: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FRAME WORK – 16 DOMAINS

Class Observation Framework for Pre-service Teachers -16 domains

1. Manage the classroom to maximise learning 1.1. Pre-service teachers organize lessons that emphasis students doing and thinking over passively watching and listening to the teacher. 1.2. Pre-service teachers recognize the individual needs of children (including those of children with disabilities) and adapt materials and teaching approach to meet those needs by using different techniques and visuals to meet diverse education needs (e.g. posters, time-charts, hands on materials). 1.3. Pre-service teachers continuously reflect, self-assess, and evaluate the effect of their teaching. 1.4. Pre-service teachers modify an activity to involve a child with differing abilities as compared to the majority of the children. 1.5. Pre-service teachers use instructional groupings (e.g. student pairs, cooperative learning, homogeneous groups) to promote participation, cooperation, and learning. 1.6. Pre-service teachers demonstrate determination in helping students achieve lesson objectives. 1.7. Classroom distractions are kept to a minimum. 1.8. Pre-service teachers use variety of instructional techniques and methods - auditory, visual, and materials when presenting material to the class 2. Promote Student Interest and Engagement 2.1. Pre-service teachers interact frequently with each child showing affection and interest (talk in a friendly and courteous manner to children). 2.2. Pre-service teachers promote interactions between children of differing skills and abilities. 2.3. Pre-service teachers provide frequent and varied feedback and positive reinforcements to student responses. 2.4. Pre-service teachers demonstrate steps in student tasks for clarity to help students understand what they are expected to do. 2.5. Pre-service teacher conducts frequent checks for student understanding. 3. Respond to Diverse Student Needs 3.1. Pre-service teachers treat all students with respect and consideration (children of all family backgrounds, socio-economic levels, and both sexes). 3.2. Pre-service teachers provide children with equal opportunities to take part in all activities. 3.3. Pre-service teachers use questioning practices that keep all students engaged (e.g. calls on students randomly, does not call only on students with hands raised).

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APPENDIX G: CARRINGTON’S FRAMEWORK

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APPENDIX H: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM/TOOL

Observation 5 Date Class/strength Subject Time School A 02/06/2017 1B- 34 students Maths 11:00 am - (Shapes) 11:30 am 1. Manage the classroom to 7 students in group (5 girls and 2 boys), used wooden blocks maximise learning (coloured) to build shapes 1.1 Pre-service teachers organize Students actively involved in building shapes, lots of noise and lessons that emphasis students PT kept reminding students to keep their voice low. doing and thinking over passively 2 groups- no enough blocks watching and listening to the teacher. 1.2 Pre-service teachers recognize 1 child with special needs. the individual needs of children Used same strategy for all students, PT helped the child to hold (including those of children with the blocks, and made few shapes with the child. disabilities) and adapt materials instructed other student to help build shapes. and teaching approach to meet those needs. - use different techniques and visuals to meet diverse education needs (e.g posters, time-charts, hands on materials). 1.3 Pre-service teachers Well prepared for his lesson continuously reflect, self-assess, Demonstrated how to build different shapes with wooden and evaluate the effect of their blocks. teaching. repeated his explanation to the class.

1.4 Pre-service teachers modify an None observed. activity to involve a child with differing abilities as compared to the majority of the children. 1.5 Pre-service teachers use Encouraged students to take turns in building shapes instructional groupings (e.g., PT walked around, checking whether students were student pairs, cooperative learning, participating in their work. homogeneous groups) to promote participation, cooperation, and learning. 1.6 Pre-service teachers Encouraged students to learn from each other demonstrate persistence in helping Walked around- Ok, you can ask your friends if you need help. students achieve lesson objectives. Explained how to build different shapes with different blocks

1.7 Classroom distractions are kept Class noisy and students moving around the class. to a minimum. PT was ok with the noise, just asking to be low in noise

1.8 Pre-service teachers use variety Mostly used visual and auditory techniques of instructional techniques and No other materials used, only building blocks. methods - auditory, visual, and materials when presenting material to the class 2. Promote Student Interest and PT interacting most of the students. Engagement PT walked around and talked with students. 2.1 Pre-service teachers interact frequently with each child showing affection and interest (talk in a

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friendly and courteous manner to children). 2.2 Pre-service teachers promote Encouraged students to talk to their friends if they had interactions between children of difficulty in building shapes. differing skills and abilities. 2.3 Pre-service teachers provide PT provided positive reinforcements used; very good, thank frequent and varied feedback and you, give her a clap positive reinforcements to student responses. 2.4 Pre-service teachers PT explained how to build blocks demonstrate steps in student tasks PT demonstrated in using different coloured blocks to build for clarity to help students shapes. understand what they are expected to do. 2.5 Pre-service teacher conducts PT asked questions more and more like; frequent checks for student Did you make a shape? Who is not able to make shapes? How understanding. many shapes did you make? 3. Respond to Diverse Student PT listened to students when they were responding. Needs All children comfortable talking to teacher. 3.1 Pre-service teachers treat all No differentiation by PT. students with respect and consideration (children of all family backgrounds, socio- economic levels, and both sexes). 3.2 Pre-service teachers provide PT made sure that all were seated in groups. children with equal opportunities Instructed students to take turns in making the shapes to take part in all activities. 3.3 Pre-service teachers use PT asked questions to students . questioning practices that keep all students engaged (e.g., calls on students randomly, does not call only on students with hands raised).

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APPENDIX I: TEACHING MODULE

1. Title of the module : Teaching and Including Exceptional Children 2. Code : EDN 414 3. Programme : Bachelor of Education (Primary) 4. Credit Value : 12 5. Level : Year IV, Semester 1

6. General Objectives: This module aims to develop skills and strategies, knowledge, understanding and ability to identify and respond to the education of children with special needs. Also, it will develop an understanding of the policies and practices of an inclusive education setting.

7. Learning Outcomes: On completion of the module, a student teacher will be able to: 7.1 differentiate social and medical models of disability. 7.2 differentiate segregated education, inclusive education and child- friendly schools. 7.3 identify children who are marginalized, disadvantaged and who are denied access to education because of other reasons. 7.4 identify challenges or potential challenges and implement appropriate strategies to address them. 7.5 develop Individual Education Plans, implementation and recording documents. 7.6 use professional literature and course content to inform decisions about curriculum, classroom management and assessment for children with special needs. 7.7 develop knowledge of a range of methodologies and of task analysis. 7.8 help and collaborate with parents and other appropriate personnel to become informed about issues related to special education. 7.9 communicate the needs and rights of special education students and their families. 7.10 demonstrate understanding of the role of personnel and their responsibilities in special education. 7.11 demonstrate knowledge and understanding of current trends in special education. 7.12 realize that not all children can benefit from an academic programme but might need one which focuses on living skills including social skills. 7.13 demonstrate an awareness of diversity and importance of inclusive education. 7.14 demonstrate the connection between theory and practice 7.15. Develop skills and knowledge to identify and respond to the education of gifted children. 7.16. Reflect on the current practices of services providers. Appendices 286

7.17. Recognize the issues in providing the inclusive services.

8. Learning and teaching approaches 8.1 Lecture: Material from the text is combined with research and current classroom practice data. The lecture format provides an opportunity to explain, explore and integrate information from a wide variety of sources.

8.2 Dialogue/Debate/Discussion: The text for this course consists of a compilation of case studies. The wide variety of case studies provides an impetus to identify, and explore the problems of children with different abilities. Student-teachers are encouraged to debate the issues, explore personal reactions and determine the solutions to the problems. Use videos as available.

8.3 Application and Analysis – Student-teachers be provided as possible with numerous opportunities to examine actual situations involving students with disabilities. Each activity is directly related to discussion and text information. Students analyze the situations and determine the implications for the special education setting.

8.4 Student Presentations – As circumstances permit student-teachers be required to make oral presentations in this course. Working in small, cooperative learning groups, they are required to discuss barriers to learning and how those barriers could be solved and then prepare a presentation. Each individual is responsible for a portion of the presentation.

8.5 Critiques – Student-teachers are asked to respond to readings and articles on issues and trends in the field and write several position papers on various topics.

8.6 Cooperative Learning Groups - Cooperative learning techniques are demonstrated and utilized throughout the course. Student-teachers participate in small, learning groups as they analyze and discuss course issues, examine strategies and devise group presentations.

8.7 Expert speakers as available - Guest lecturers present on several topics throughout the course. These experts can directly relate course information to application in the field.

8.8 Field visit – students teachers are required to visit schools that cater to the special educational needs. This will also enable them to gain practical knowledge and related skills to deal with exceptional children.

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9. Mode of Assessment 9.1 Exam 50% 9.2 Major Assignment 30% 9.3 Minor Assignment 10% 9.4 Group work presentation 10% Total 100%

Subject Matter of the Module

1. Introduction to Special Education

1.1 Concept/meaning of Special education 1.2 Background to Special Education 1.3 Why are children with disabilities treated differently? 1.4 History of special education in Bhutan and other countries

2. Policies on Special Education

2.1 Policies on Special Education in Bhutan and internationally 2.2 Convention of the Rights of Disabled Persons (CRDP) x relevant articles relating to children x CRPD- What it means in Practice 2.3 Principles of special education 2.4 Needs of special education

3. Concepts and Models of disabilities

3.1 Definition of impairment, disability and handicap 3.2 Social and medical models of disability 3.3 Move to Right based approach 3.4 Needs Vs. Rights approach 3.5 SEN indicators 3.6 SEN team/process/referral 3.7 Language about disability

4. Types of disabilities

4.1 Types of special needs 4.2 Causes and remedies of disabilities 4.3 Preparing teachers for Gifted Children

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5. Teaching children with disabilities

5.1 Education for Children with Disabilities 5.2 Teachers for all: Inclusive teaching for children with disabilities (article) 5.3 Quality inclusive teacher – 5 dimensions 5.4 Barriers to education 5.5 Teachers, parents, child, family, government/organization, socio-culture, school environment, community members x Overcoming barriers and challenges

6. Child- friendly school

6.1 Concept of child-friendly school 6.2 Objectives of child-friendly school 6.3 Five dimensions of child-friendly school 6.4 Benefits and drawbacks of child-friendly school 6.5 Are our schools in Bhutan a child-friendly?

7. Inclusive education

7.1 Inclusion/inclusive education for children with disabilities 7.2 The shift from segregated special education to inclusive education x Characteristics of inclusive education x Advantages and disadvantages of inclusive education x Challenges to fostering an inclusive education 7.3 Index for Inclusion 7.4 The three dimensions of Inclusion

8. Individualised Education Plan (IEP)

8.1.1 Development of Individual Education Plans and task analysis 8.1.2 Ability to effectively programme for a variety of needs including academic living skills, social skills, communication skills etc. 8.1.3 Prepare IEP based on the Case study given.

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9. Screening and assessment

9.1 Screening Tools: Brigance, Core Assessment and San Diego Quick Assessment

10. Strategies/ methodologies

10.1 Specific technologies, strategies and methodologies relevant to teaching children with special needs in the regular classroom 10.2 Explicit instructions

11. Service learning

11.1 Service learning / school visit\ 11.2 Preparation of IEP based on the given case study 11.3 Reflection writing (4Rs-report and respond, relate, reason and reconstruct)

12. Role and responsibilities

12.1 Concept and Principles of Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) 12.2 Role and responsibilities of the schools 12.3 Role and responsibility of parents, communities and education system

13. The future of Special Education

13.1 Ingredients for building a SEN School 13.2 WHO-World Disability report- Summary of recommendations

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APPENDIX J: QUT ETHICS APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

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APPENDIX K: RESEARCH LOCATION AND PARTICIPANTS

Western Bhutan School A, B, C Focus Group = 12 PT Open-ended questionnaire = 8 BT Eastern Bhutan Schools E, F Open-ended questionnaire = 8 BT

Southern Bhutan School D Open-ended questionnaire = 4 BT

PT= Pre-service teachers BT= Beginning teachers

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APPENDIX M: FIELD NOTE FROM FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW

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