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BLACKWELL BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD the editors A COMPANION TO A COMPANION TO

Antony Augoustakis is Associate Professor of l l i a r t d n a s i k ta s u o g u a BY D E T I D E A COMPANION TO at the University of Illinois at Urbana- terence Champaign. He is the author of Motherhood and E D I T E D B Y the Other: Fashioning Female Power in Flavian Epic Contributors to this volume: (2010) and ’ Mercator (2009). antony augoustakis and ariana traill Antony Augoustakis, John Barsby, Peter Brown, Andrew Cain, Ariana Traill is Associate Professor of Classics David M. Christenson, Stavros Frangoulidis, George Fredric Franko, O T N O I N A P M O C A at the University of Illinois at Urbana- terence A Companion to Terence offers the first Champaign. She is the author of Women and the Mary-Kay Gamel, T.H.M. Gellar-Goad, Robert Germany, comprehensive collection of essays on Terence Comic Plot in (2008) and numerous Daniel P. Hanchey, Mathias Hanses, Sharon L. James, EDITED BY Antony Augoustakis in English. It includes a detailed study of articles on Greek and Roman and its Evangelos Karakasis, Ortwin Knorr, Eckard Lefèvre, Timothy J. Moore, Terence’s plays, situating them in their socio- reception. Roman Müller, Z.M. Packman, Alison Sharrock, John H. Starks, Jr., terence and Ariana Traill historical context and exploring their reception Ariana Traill, Martine van Elk, Benjamin Victor, Heather Vincent from the Classical through late antiquity, the , the , to present-day literature and performance. ALSO AVAILABLE IN THIS SERIES: Each chapter discusses key issues in Terence, including Terence’s relationship with his Greco-Roman models, his language and style, the question of performance and dramatic technique, and the socio-political background that shapes the themes, characters, structures, and cultural-political concerns.

A Companion to Terence is a useful research tool for the growing number of scholars, students, and critics of Terence and Roman Comedy.

A Companion to Terence BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises ­approximately ­twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

Ancient History A Companion to the Classical Tradition Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf Published A Companion to the A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall A Companion to the A Companion to Greek Rhetoric Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx Edited by Ian Worthington A Companion to the A Companion to Ancient Epic Edited by David S. Potter Edited by John Miles Foley A Companion to the Classical Greek World A Companion to Greek Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl Edited by Justina Gregory A Companion to the Ancient Near East A Companion to Literature Edited by Daniel C. Snell Edited by Stephen Harrison A Companion to the Hellenistic World A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought Edited by Andrew Erskine Edited by Ryan K. Balot A Companion to Late Antiquity A Companion to Edited by Philip Rousseau Edited by Peter E. Knox A Companion to Ancient History A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language Edited by Andrew Erskine Edited by Egbert Bakker A Companion to Archaic A Companion to Hellenistic Literature Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss A Companion to Julius A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and Edited by Miriam Griffin its Tradition Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Liz James A Companion to Edited by Gregson Davis A Companion to Ancient Egypt Edited by Alan B. Lloyd A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds A Companion to Ancient Macedonia Edited by Beryl Rawson Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington A Companion to Greek Mythology A Companion to the Punic Wars Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone Edited by Dexter Hoyos A Companion to the Latin Language A Companion to Augustine Edited by James Clackson Edited by Mark Vessey A Companion to A Companion to Edited by Victoria Emma Pagán Edited by Marcel van Ackeren A Companion to Women in the Ancient World A Companion to Ancient Greek Government Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon Edited by Hans Beck A Companion to Sophocles A Companion to the Neronian Age Edited by Kirk Ormand Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter A Companion to the Archaeology of the And Culture Near East Published Edited by Daniel Potts A Companion to Classical Receptions A Companion to Roman Love Elegy Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray Edited by Barbara K. Gold A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography A Companion to Greek Art Edited by John Marincola Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos A Companion to A Companion to Persius and Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood A Companion to Roman Religion A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic Edited by Jörg Rüpke Edited by Jane DeRose Evans A Companion to Greek Religion A Companion to Terence Edited by Daniel Ogden Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill A Companion to Terence

Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

Associate Editor John Thorburn

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2013 © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to Terence / edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill ; associate editor John Thorburn. pages cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world ; 103) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9875-2 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-118-30199-9 (epub) – ISBN 978-1-118-30197-5 1. Terence–Criticism and interpretation. 2. Latin (Comedy)–History and criticism. 3. Theater– History–To 500. 4. Theater–. I. Augoustakis, Antony, editor of compilation. II. Traill, Ariana, 1969– editor of compilation. III. Thorburn, John E., editor of compilation. PA6768.C66 2013 872′.01–dc23 2012048374 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover image: Folio from Terence’s , mid-twelfth century. Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS Auct. F.2.13, folio 82v Cover design by Workhaus

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1 2013 Contents

Notes on Contributors viii Acknowledgments xiii

Introduction 1 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

PART i terence and Ancient Comedy 15 1. Terence and Greek New Comedy 17 Peter Brown 2. Terence and the Traditions of Roman New Comedy 33 George Fredric Franko 3. Terence and Non-Comic Intertexts 52 Alison Sharrock 4. Fabula Stataria: Language and Humor in Terence 69 Heather Vincent 5. Meter and Music 89 Timothy J. Moore

PART II Contexts and Themes 111 6. Terence and the Scipionic Grex 113 Daniel P. Hanchey 7. opera in bello, in otio, in negotio: Terence and Rome in the 160s bce 132 John H. Starks, Jr. vi Contents

8. Religious Ritual and Family Dynamics in Terence 156 T.H.M. Gellar-Goad 9. Gender and Sexuality in Terence 175 Sharon L. James 10. Family and Household in the Comedies of Terence 195 Z.M. Packman 11. Masters and Slaves 211 Evangelos Karakasis

PART iii the Plays 223 12. 225 Robert Germany 13. Heauton Timorumenos 243 Eckard Lef èvre 14. 262 David M. Christenson 15. 281 Stavros Frangoulidis 16. 295 Ortwin Knorr 17. 318 Ariana Traill

PART IV reception 341 18. History of the Text and 343 Benjamin Victor 19. Terence in from the Second Century bce to the Second Century ce 363 Roman Müller 20. Terence in Late Antiquity 380 Andrew Cain 21. Hrotsvit of Gandersheim Christianizes Terence 397 Antony Augoustakis 22. ‘‘Thou shalt present me as an eunuch to him’’: Terence in Early Modern England 410 Martine van Elk Contents vii

23. mulier inopia et cognatorum neglegentia coacta: ’s Tragic Take on The Woman of Andros 429 Mathias Hanses 24. Terence in 446 John Barsby 25. Performing Terence (and Hrotsvit) Now 466 Mary-Kay Gamel

References 482 General Index 515 Index Locorum 523 Contributors

Antony Augoustakis is Associate also edited a collection of essays Greek Professor of Classics at the University and Roman Drama: Translation and of Illinois (Urbana–Champaign, Performance (J.B. Metzler, 2002). Illinois, USA) and editor of the jour- He is currently working on a history nal Illinois Classical Studies. He is the of the Otago Classics Department. author of Motherhood and the Other: Fashioning Female Power in Flavian Peter Brown is an Emeritus Fellow of Epic (Oxford, 2010) and Plautus’ Trinity College, Oxford University Mercator (Bryn Mawr, 2009). He has (United Kingdom) and a member of edited the Brill Companion to Silius the Advisory Board of the Archive of Italicus (Leiden, 2010), Ritual and Performances of Greek and Roman Religion in Flavian Epic (Oxford, Drama. He has published extensively 2013), and co-edited with Carole on Greek and Roman drama, and his Newlands ’ Siluae and the translation of the Comedies of Terence Poetics of Intimacy (Arethusa, 2007). appeared in the Oxford World’s He is currently working on a com- Classics series in January, 2008. He is mentary on Statius’ Thebaid Book 8 co-editor with Suzana Ograjenšek (Oxford) and the Oxford Readings in of Ancient Drama in Music for the Flavian Epic, co-edited with Helen Modern Stage (Oxford, 2010). Lovatt (Oxford). Andrew Cain is Associate Professor John Barsby is Emeritus Professor of of Classics at the University of Classics at the University of Otago Colorado (Boulder, CO, USA). He is (Dunedin, New Zealand). He has the author of The Letters of : published editions of Ovid’s Amores I Asceticism, Biblical Exegesis, and the (Oxford, 1974), Plautus’ Bacchides Construction of Christian Authority (Aris & Phillips, 1986), and Terence’s in Late Antiquity (Oxford, 2009), Eunuchus (Cambridge, 1999) and is St. Jerome, Commentary on Galatians the editor of the new Loeb edition (Catholic University of America of Terence (Harvard, 2001). He has Press, 2010), Jerome’s Epitaph on Contributors ix

Paula: A Commentary on the Nebenhandlung: Theater, Metatheater Epitaphium Sanctae Paulae, with und Gattungsbewusstein in der an Introduction, Text, and Translation ­römischen Komödie (Stuttgart, 1997) (Oxford, 2013), and Jerome and the and of Roles and Performances in Monastic Clergy: A Commentary on ’ Metamorphoses (Stuttgart, Letter 52 to Nepotian, with an 2001). His latest monograph is Introduction, Text, and Translation Witches, Isis and Narrative: Approaches (Brill, 2013). He also has edited to Magic in Apuleius’ Metamorphoses Jerome of Stridon: His Life, Writings, (Berlin, 2008). and Legacy (Ashgate, 2009) as well as The Power of Religion in Late George Fredric Franko is Professor of Antiquity (Ashgate, 2009). Classical Studies at Hollins University (Roanoke, Virginia, USA). He holds David M. Christenson is Professor degrees from the College of William of Classics at the University of Arizona and Mary and Columbia University. (Tucson, AZ, USA). He is the author Although a generalist, much of his of an edition with ­commentary of scholarly work has been on Plautus. Plautus’s Amphitruo (Cambridge, 2000), and is currently working on a Mary-Kay Gamel is Professor of new edition of Plautus’s Pseudolus Classics, Comparative Literature, (Cambridge) and a book on Roman and Theater Arts at the University comedy for I.B. Tauris Publishers’ of California (Santa Cruz, CA, USA), Understanding Classics series. He and has been involved in staging has published two volumes of transla- twenty-six productions of ancient and tions, Roman Comedy: Five Plays by medieval drama, many in her own Plautus and Terence (2010) and Four and versions. She has Plays by Plautus: Casina, Amphitryon, written widely on ancient drama in Captivi, Pseudolus (2008), both with performance, and is completing a Focus Publishing, and his collection, book on definitions of authenticity in Four Ancient Comedies About Women: staging this drama. She received the Lysistrata, Samia, Hecyra, Casina, is 2009 Scholarly Outreach Award from forth­coming in 2013 (Oxford). the American Philological Association.

Stavros Frangoulidis is Professor T.H.M. Gellar-Goad is the Teacher- of Latin at Aristotle University of Scholar Postdoctoral Fellow in Thessaloniki (Greece). He has been Classical Languages at Wake Forest co-organizer of several RICAN con- University (Winston-Salem, NC, ferences (devoted to the study of the USA). He has published on Plautus Ancient Novel) and co-editor of the and Roman religion, and holds relevant proceedings (published as degrees from the University of Ancient Narrative Supplementa). He North Carolina at Chapel Hill and is the author of Handlung und from North Carolina State University. x Contributors

His other major research interests are Classical Studies at UC Santa and Roman satire. Cruz, and her M.A. and Ph.D. in Comparative Literature at UC Robert Germany is Assistant Berkeley. She is Associate Professor Professor of Classics at Haverford of Classics at the University of North College (Haverford, PA, USA). He Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC, USA). is the author of “The Politics of She has published articles on gender, Roman Comedy” in the forthcoming , and Roman comedy, Cambridge Companion to Roman including Learned Girls and Male Comedy and has a forthcoming Persuasion (2003), a study of Roman monograph­ entitled Mimetic Conta­ love elegy. She is presently complet- gion: Art and Artifice in Terence’s ing a major book project on women Eunuchus. His next project is a study in New Comedy. of the unity of time in ancient drama. Evangelos Karakasis is Assistant Daniel P. Hanchey is Assistant Professor of Latin at the University Professor of Classics at Baylor of Ioannina (Greece). He is the author University (Waco, TX, USA). He of Terence and the Language of Roman has published several articles on Comedy (Cambridge, 2005), Song , and is currently working on a Exchange in Roman Pastoral (Berlin, larger project focusing on the ideas 2011), and of several articles on of ­memory and social/commercial Roman comedy, elegy and pastoral. exchange in Cicero’s dialogues. Ortwin Knorr is Associate Professor Mathias Hanses is a Doctoral Student of Classics at Willamette University in Classics at Columbia University (Salem, OR, USA), Chair of its (NY, USA) and holds Master’s degrees Classical Studies Department, and in both Classics (M.Phil., Columbia; Director of its Center for Ancient M.A., University of Illinois) and Studies and Archaeology. Trained in American Studies (University of Göttingen, Heidelberg, and Berkeley, Münster, Germany). He has published he received his Ph.D. from the on political bias in Roman historio­ University of Göttingen in Germany. graphy, the Classics in the American He is the author of Verborgene Revolution, and the History of Kunst: Argumentationsstruktur und Classical Scholarship. In New York, he Buchaufbau in den Satiren des Horaz is preparing a dissertation on “The Life (Hildesheim, 2004) and articles on of Comedy after the Death of Plautus,” Terence, Plautus, Horace, and early tracing the Romans’ creative engage- Christian writers. ment with the comic heritage from Terence to Seneca (and beyond). Eckard Lefèvre is Professor Emeritus of Classics at the Albert-Ludwigs- Sharon L. James earned B.A. Universität at Freiburg (Germany). He degrees in Spanish Literature and holds degrees from Christian-Albrechts- Contributors xi

Universität at Kiel (Dr. phil. 1962; ­criticism, rhetoric, history of poetry, habilitation 1967) and Université interdependence of language and Marc Bloch at (Dr. h.c. literature. 2000). He is author of several­ books on Greek and Roman literature, par- Z.M. Packman is retired from North ticularly on Roman comedy (Plautus Carolina State University (Raleigh, and Terence). NC, USA) after earlier service of some length at Washington University in Timothy J. Moore is John and St. Louis (Missouri) and The University Penelope Biggs Distinguished of Natal in Pietermaritzburg (South Professor of Classics at Washington ). She has published several University in St. Louis (Missouri, ­articles on Roman comedy, and several USA). He holds degrees from on related aspects of . Millersville University and the University of North Carolina. He is Alison Sharrock is Professor of the author of Artistry and Ideology: Classics at the University of ’s Vocabulary of Virtue (Frankfurt, Manchester (UK). She is the author 1989), Playing to the Audience: The of several books and articles on Theater of Plautus (Austin, 1998), Latin poetry and comedy, including Roman Theatre (Cambridge, 2012), Reading Roman Comedy: Poetics and and Music in Roman Comedy Playfulness in Plautus and Terence (Cambridge, 2012), and of articles (Cambridge, 2009). on ancient music, Latin literature, and Japanese kyōgen comedy. John H. Starks, Jr. is Assistant Professor at Binghamton University, Roman Müller is Privatdozent at the State University of New York University of Heidelberg (Germany). (Binghamton, NY, USA), with degrees 1996 Dr. phil. in Classics (University from Washington & Lee University of Heidelberg), 2001 Habilitation. and the University of North Carolina. He is the author of books on He has published on Punic and Syrian Terence’s dialogues (Sprechen und stereotyping in Plautus and racially Sprache: Dialoglinguistische Studien tinged epigrams in Vandal-era satire zu Terenz, Heidelberg, 1997), on (Oxford, 2011), as well as extensive ­stylistic ­consciousness in Roman work on actresses in the Greek and ­literature (Sprachbewußtsein und Roman worlds (Oxford, 2008, and Sprachvariation im lateinischen two Cambridge monographs in Schrifttum der Antike, München, ­progress). He has also adapted and 2001) and on poetic theory in Greek directed a dozen productions of ancient and Latin (Antike Dichtungslehre: comedy, including Plautus’ Curculio Themen und Theorien, Tübingen, and Poenulus in Latin. 2012). Additionally he has published numerous articles in his fields of Ariana Traill is Associate Professor interest: ancient comedy, literary of Classics at the University of Illinois xii Contributors

(Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA). Benjamin Victor is Associate Professor She holds degrees from the University of Latin Language and Literature at the of Toronto and Harvard. She is the Université de Montréal (Canada). His author of Women and the Comic Plot interests include textual criticism and in Menander (Cambridge, 2008) and the history­ of the book. He is co-editor,­ several articles on Greek and Roman with Albert Derolez and Wouter drama and its reception. She is cur- Bracke, of Corpus Catalogorum Belgii rently working on a commentary on (Brussels, Royal Flemish Academy, Plautus’ Cistellaria. 1994–present). He is currently work- ing on a new edition of Terence for the Martine van Elk is Associate Budé series of classical texts. Professor at California State University (Long Beach, CA, USA). Heather Vincent is Associate She has co-edited,­ with Lloyd Professor of Classics at Eckerd College Kermode and Jason Scott-Warren, a (St. Petersburg, FL, USA). She holds collection of essays entitled Tudor degrees from Vanderbilt University, Drama Before Shakespeare (Palgrave, the University of Maryland, and 2004) and is the author of numerous Brown University. She is the author of articles and essays on Shakespeare, book chapters and articles on Roman early modern vagrancy, and early satire and modern humor theory. She modern women writers. She is cur- is currently­ working on a book manu- rently working on a comparative script concerning cross-disciplinary study of early modern English and approaches to verbal and performative Dutch writers. humor in ancient satire. Acknowledgments

As editors of this volume, we would like to thank first and foremost all the authors for their contributions and their patience for as long as this Companion took to be published. To Haze Humbert, Young, Ben Thatcher, and the whole team at Wiley Blackwell, we extend a warm thank you, for the ­several extentions and supreme display of patience and indulgence. A lesson we have learned is that a Companion of this size does obviously meet with several delays and other obstacles along the way, but ultimately we hope that this publication will make its readers as proud as it has made us, authors and editors alike. John Thorburn, the associate editor, is to be thanked for ­dropping the idea for a Companion to Terence initially and for having helped at various points during this long trip. Both of us would like to thank our families and colleagues for their moral support and general patience with the endless needs of book editors. A note on texts and translations used: the Latin text comes from the Kauer, Lindsay, and Skutsch OCT edition of Terence (1958) or from Barsby’s (2001) Loeb edition; translations of Terence are taken from Barsby’s (2001) Loeb edition (at times modified); the only exceptions are to be found in Brown’s and Christenson’s essays, since both authors have used their own published translations (2006 and 2010 respectively), as well as Victor’s who often cites a passage of Terence as given by the manuscripts. For Plautus, we used the text and translation of De Melo’s Loeb edition (2011–), at times modified, and for Menander, Arnott’s (1979–2000, with modifications from Kassel and Austin). Quotations from Donatus are taken from Wessner’s Teubner edition (1902–8). All translations of other sources are the authors’ own, unless ­otherwise indicated. The spelling of ancient authors and abbreviations follows the system of the OLD, OCD4, LSJ, and L’Année Philologique.

Introduction

Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

1 Biography

According to the very important biography composed by C. Tranquillus in the second century ce (Vita Terenti, edition Wessner 1902–8, translation modified and adapted from Rolfe 1914, 2.452–63) and preserved by Terence’s fourth century ce commentator, (see chapters 18 and 20, this volume), Publius Terentius Afer was born in in 195/4 bce (or ten years later, see the fifth chapter of the Vita) and was a slave of the senator Terentius Lucanus at Rome (on the life and times of Terence, see most recently Kruschwitz 2004, 9–24 and Manuwald 2011; on later lives, such as Petrarch’s, see Ruiz Arzálluz 2010). Allegedly, Terence was good looking, and his master granted him his freedom, as well as a good grounding in liberal education. His charming looks are given as the reason for Terence’s connections with the rich and famous of the mid-republic (see chapter 6, this volume). According to the biographer, however, ultimately Terence did not profit from his relations with the mighty men, , Laelius, or Furius:

1. Publius Terentius Afer Carthagine natus servivit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob ingenium et formam non institutus modo liberaliter sed et mature manu missus est. quidam captum esse existimant: quod fieri nullo modo potuisse docet, cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium ter- tii < et > natus sit et mortuus: nec, si a Numidis vel Gaetulis captus sit, ad ducem Romanum pervenire potuisse nullo commercio­ inter Italicos et Afros nisi post

A Companion to Terence, First Edition. Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill. © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

deletam Carthaginem coepto. 2. Hic cum multis nobilibus familiariter­ vixit, sed maxime cum Scipione Africano et C. Laelio, quibus etiam corporis gratia con- ciliatus existimatur: quod et ipsum Fenestella arguit contendens utroque maiorem natu fuisse, quamvis et Nepos aequales omnes fuisse tradat et Porcius suspicionem de consuetudine per haec faciat “dum lasciviam nobilium et laudes fucosas petit, dum Africani vocem divinam inhiat avidis auribus, dum ad Philum se cenitare et Laelium pulchrum putat, dum [se amari ab his credit] in Albanum crebro rapitur ob florem aetatis suae: suis postlatis rebus ad summam inopiam redactus est. itaque e conspectu omnium < ubi > abit Graeciae in terram ultimam, mortuust Stymphali, Arcadiae < in > oppido. nil P < ublio> Scipio < tum > profuit, nil Laelius, nil Furius, tres per id tempus qui agitabant nobiles facillime: eorum ille opera ne domum quidem habuit conducticiam, saltem ut esset quo referret obitum domini servulus.” 1. Publius Terentius Afer, born at Carthage, was the slave at Rome of the ­senator Terentius Lucanus, who because of the young man’s talent and good looks not only gave him a liberal education, but quickly gave him his freedom. Some think that he was captured in war: Fenestella shows that such a thing could not have happened, since Terence was born and died between the end of the Second Punic War and the beginning of the Third; and even if he had been seized by Numidians or Gaetulians, he could not have come into the hands of a Roman general, because commercial ­activities between the Italic and the African people did not begin until after the destruction of Carthage. 2. He lived on intimate terms with many men of high rank, in particular with Scipio Africanus and Gaius Laelius. It is even thought that he won their favor by means of the beauty of his body. Fenestella, however, denies this too, main- taining that he was older than either of them. But Nepos writes that they were all three of the same age, and Porcius rouses a suspicion of great intimacy with the ­following words: “While he courted the wantonness of great men and their counterfeit praise, and with greedy ears he drank in the divine voice of Africanus; while he thought it fine to frequent the tables of Philus and Laelius, and he was often carried off to the Alban villa because of his youthful charms, having neglected his affairs he was reduced to utmost want. So when he withdrew from the sight of men to a remote part of Greece, he died in a town of Arcadia, Stymphalus. Publius was not at all then helped by Scipio, Laelius, Furius—the three aristocrats who at the time lived most comfortably.­ Their help did not give him even a rented house, to provide at least a place where his slave might announce his master’s death.”

Ancient biography is marred by the invention of stories that verge on the romantic or sentimentalist side. Terence’s poverty could easily be disputed, as well as his alienation from his circle of friends; and the story with Caecilius Introduction 3 could easily be discounted based on Caecilius’ own death in 164 bce. Certainly, Terence’s provenance from Africa cannot be coincidental; the Afer indicates some connections with the continent, and surely such rise to ­prominence is intriguing if we stop to think that a generation before Terence, Rome had beaten Hannibal and a few years after Terence’s death, Carthage was raised to the ground during the and became a Roman colony. Appropriation of a child prodigy from Carthage, who comes to Rome to be educated and rises to prominence, is certainly something that makes the Romans very proud, a validation of the mechanisms in place of so-called­ . The didascaliae of Terence’s plays, preserved in the fourth century ce ­commentary to Terence by Donatus, inform us of the details of the ­performances of his plays. From 166 to 160 bce, Terence produced six plays; of these, Hecyra was performed three times, since the actors abandoned the stage during the two previous performances, as Terence informs us in his Prologue: Andria (Megalesian Games, 166); Hecyra 1 (Megalesian Games, 165); Heauton Timorumenos (Megalesian Games, 163); Eunuchus (Megalesian Games, 161); Phormio (Roman Games, 161); Adelphoe and Hecyra 2 (Funeral Games for Aemilius Paullus, 160); Hecyra 3 (Roman Games, 160).

3. Scripsit comoedias sex, ex quibus primam Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus­ ante Caecilio recitare ad cenantem cum venisset, dicitur initium quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore vestitu, subsellio iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos vero versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera ­percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione. et hanc autem et quinque reliquas aequaliter populo probavit, quamvis Vulcatius < in > dinumeratione omnium ita scribat “sumetur Hecyra sexta ex his fabula”. Eunuchus quidem bis die acta est meruitque pretium, quantum nulla antea cui- usquam comoedia, id est octo milia nummorum. propterea summa quoque tit- ulo ascribitur. <… > nam Adelphorum principium Varro etiam praefert principio Menandri. 4. Non obscura fama est adiutum Terentium in scriptis a Laelio et Scipione, eamque ipse auxit numquam nisi leviter refutare conatus, ut in prol- ogo Adelphorum (15–21). videtur autem ­levius < se > defendisse, quia sciebat et Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc opinionem, quae tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit. C. Memmius in oratione pro se ait “P. Africanus, qui a Terentio personam mutuatus, quae domi luserat ipse, nomine illius in scaenam detulit.” Nepos auctore certo comperisse se ait C. Laelium quondam in Puteolano kalendis Martiis admonitum ab uxore, temperius ut discumberet, petisse ab ea ne interpellaretur seroque tandem ingressum triclinium dixisse non saepe in scribendo magis sibi successisse, deinde rogatum ut scripta illa profer- ret, pronuntiasse versus, qui sunt in Heautontimorumeno (723). Santra Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo adiutoribus indiguerit, non tam 4 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

Scipione et Laelio uti potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint, quam C. Sulpicio Gallo, homine docto et quo consule Megalensibus ludis initium fabularum ­dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone et M. Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. ideo ipsum non iuvenes designare, qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros quorum operam et in bello et in otio et in negotio populus sit expertus. 5. Post editas comoedias nondum quintum atque vicesimum (XXX?) egressus annum, animi causa et vitandae opinionis, qua videbatur aliena pro suis edere, seu per- cipiendi Graecorum instituta moresque, quos non perinde exprimeret in scrip- tis, egressus < urbe > est neque amplius rediit. de morte eius Vulcatius sic tradit “sed ut Afer populo sex dedit comoedias, iter hinc in Asiam fecit. navem ut semel conscendit, visus numquam est: sic vita vacat.” Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in mari dicit cum [C et VIII] fabulis conversis a Menandro. ceteri mortuum esse in Arcadia Stymphali †sive Leucadiae† tradunt Cn. Cornelio Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore consulibus morbo implicitum ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum, quas in nave prae- miserat, ac simul fabularum, quas novas fecerat.

3. He wrote six comedies, and when he offered to the the first of these, Andria, they urged him to read it to Caecilius in advance. Having come to the poet’s house when he was dining, Terence is said to have read the beginning of his play sitting on a bench near the great man’s couch, because he was not dressed properly. But after a few lines he was invited to take his place at table, and ­afterwards he ran through the rest of the play to his host’s great admiration. Moreover, this play and the five others were equally pleasing to the people, although Vulcatius in enumerating them all, writes the following: “The sixth play, Hecyra, will not be included.” Eunuchus was even acted twice in the same day and earned more money than any previous comedy of any writer, that is, eight ­thousand sesterces, and for this reason the amount is included in the ­title-page. <… > For Varro rates the beginning of Adelphoe above Menander’s. 4. It is ­common gossip that Scipio and Laelius aided Terence in his writings, and he let the rumor grow by never attempt- ing to refute it, except in a half-hearted way, as in the prologue to Adelphoe (15– 21). Now he seems to have made this half-hearted defense, because he knew that the report did not displease Laelius and Scipio; it gained ground then and came down even to later times. Gaius Memmius in a speech in his own defense says: “Publius Africanus, who borrowed a mask from Terence, put upon the stage under his name what he had written himself for his own amusement at home.” Nepos says that he learned from a trustworthy source that once at his villa at Puteoli on the Kalends of March Gaius Laelius was urged by his wife to come to dinner at an earlier hour, but he begged her not to be interrupted. When he at last entered the dining-room at a late hour, he said that he had rarely written more to his own satisfaction; when she asked him to read what he had written, he declaimed the lines of Heauton Timorumenos (beginning at 723). Santra thinks that if Terence had really needed help in his writing, he would not have Introduction 5

been so likely to use Scipio and Laelius, who were then mere youths, as much as Gaius Sulpicius Gallus, a scholarly man, in whose consulship during the Megalesian Games he brought out his first play, or to Quintus Fabius Labeo and Marcus Popillius, both of whom were ex-consuls and poets. For this reason, Santra says, he spoke not of young men who allegedly helped him, but of men whose services the people had tried in war, in peace, and in their daily business. 5. After publishing these comedies before he had passed his twenty-fifth (thirty- fifth?) year, for the sake of diversion and to escape from the gossip, according to which he seemed to pass the work of others as his own, or else to become versed in Greek manners and customs, which he felt that he had not been wholly suc- cessful in depicting in his plays, he left Rome and never returned. Of his death Vulcatius writes in these words: “But when Afer had presented six comedies to the people, he journeyed from here to Asia. From the time he embarked, he was never seen again: thus he was deprived of life”. Quintus Cosconius writes that he was lost at sea as he was returning from Greece with [one hundred and eight] plays adapted from Menander. The rest of our authorities declare that he died at Stymphalus in Arcadia †or at Leucadia† in the consulship of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella and Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, having fallen ill from grief and annoyance at the loss of his baggage, which he had sent ahead by ship, and with it of the new plays which he had written.

According to Suetonius, the death of Terence is placed a year after the ­staging of the last play, Adelphoe, in 159 bce (in 158 according to Jerome), and the reasons for his trip to Greece (Achaia is most probably meant, not Asia) at the age of twenty-five (or thirty-five, by an alternate reading accord- ing to MS V) are variously explained. The last part of the Vita comprises some further standard elements of ancient biographies and the epitaphs composed for the playwright, who is widely admired for the morals lessons and his use of language, though criticized for his “lack of force” (for criticism, cf. ’s Institutio Oratoria 10.1.99: Terenti scripta ad Scipionem Africanum referan- tur (quae tamen sunt in hoc genere elegantissima, et plus adhuc habitura gra- tiae si intra versus trimetros­ stetissent): “Terence’s works are attributed to Scipio Africanus (and they are in fact the most elegant of their kind, and would have possessed even more attraction if they had been written wholly in trimeters)”, trans. Russell; see also chapter 19, this volume).

6. Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili corpore, colore fusco. reliquit filiam,­ quae post equiti Romano nupsit, item hortulos XX iugerum via Appia ad Martis [villam]. quo magis miror Porcium scribere: “Scipio … servulus” [vide supra 2]. 7. Hunc Afranius quidem omnibus comicis praefert scribens in Compitalibus “Terenti num similem dicetis quempiam?” Vulcatius autem non solum Naevio et Plauto et Caecilio, sed Licinio quoque et Atilio postponit (cf. Gellius 15.24). Cicero in Limone hactenus laudat 6 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

“tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti, conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum in medium nobis sedatis vocibus effers, quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia dicens.” item C. Caesar “tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander, poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator. lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis, comica ut aequato polleret honore cum Graecis neve hac despectus parte iaceres! unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti.” 6. He is said to have been of moderate height, slender, and of dark complexion.­ He left a daughter, who afterwards married a Roman knight, and also gardens twenty acres in extent on the Way, near the villa of Mars. I am therefore surprised that Porcius should write: “Scipio … slave” (see above 2). 7. Afranius ranks Terence above all other writers of comedy, writing in his Compitalia: “You will not declare anyone else is the equal of Terence, will you?” But Vulcatius puts him not only below Naevius, Plautus, and Caecilius, but even below Licinius and Atilius (cf. Gellius 15.24). Cicero in his Meadow gives him this much praise: “You, Terence, who alone re-clothe Menander in choice speech, and render him in the Latin tongue, you present him with your quiet utterance on our public stage, speaking with a certain graciousness and with sweetness in every word” (Cic. fr. 2 FLP3). Also Gaius Caesar: “You too, are ranked among the highest, you half- Menander, and justly, you lover of language ­undefiled. But would that the grace- ful verses had force as well, so that your comic power might have equal honor with that of the Greeks, and you might not be scorned in this regard and neglected. It hurts and pains me, my Terence, that you lack this one quality” (Caes. fr. 1 FLP3).

Suetonius ends his biography with the above epitaphs, and Donatus supplements­ the Vita with three short chapters. In the eighth chapter, he reports two poets under the name “Terence,” Terentius Libo and Terentius Afer. In chapter 9, he adds Volcacius’ (Vallegius, in the MS) epigram on Terence’s use of Scipionic scripts in his plays, passing them as his own:

“tuae, , quae vocantur fabulae, cuiae sunt? non has, iura qui populis dabat, summo < ille > honore affectus fecit fabulas?” “Whose are the comedies, which are called yours, Terence? He wrote them, who was ruling the people and was bestowed with the highest rank, did he not?”

In the final chapter (10), Donatus reports that two comedies were based on Apollodorus of Carystus and the rest on Menander; then he repeats the infor- mation concerning the success of Eunuchus and the failure of Hecyra. Introduction 7

2 Terentian Scholarship

By contrast to Plautine studies, literary criticism on Terence has remained in the relative margins of Classical scholarship for many decades: the author has avowedly suffered in comparison to his popular predecessor. In the 1980s and 1990s, new commentaries appeared, sometimes accompanied by ­translation (for example, Barsby 1999a, Brothers 1988, 2000, Gratwick 1999, Ireland 1990), and in 2001 J.A. Barsby produced a new, elegant Loeb edition of Terence. Most recently, a greater interest has also been shown in a more comprehensive study of Terence’s plays and their context, as exempli- fied by P. Kruschwitz’s German monograph and introductory study of the playwright (2004). In 2006, two new translations appeared (Brown and Clayton), while two collections of essays (special issue of Ramus 2004, appeared in 2007, edited by A.J. Boyle; Kruschwitz, Ehlers, and Felgentreu 2007) point to the need for a wide-ranging guide to studying Terence’s plays within the historical and socio-political context in which they were produced, a gap that this volume aims to cover (there is a third collection­ in Spanish, less widely circulated, by Pociña Pérez, Rabaza, and Silva (2006) that addresses a variety of topics, from Terence’s use of Menander to the modern reception of the playwright in Spain). If one must single out the most important Anglophone studies of Roman comedy in general in the past six years, then three present themselves: G. Manuwald’s detailed and judicious overview of Roman republican theater (2011); A.R. Sharrock’s reading of Plautus and Terence through intertextual- ity (2009); and C.W. Marshall’s penetrating study of the mechanisms of stage- craft and performance (2006). T.J. Moore’s most recent monograph on music in Roman comedy must be consulted by students and scholars of the field (2012). N.J. Lowe’s introduction to comedy offers a quick overview dedi- cated to Terence and his plays (2007). The work of all these scholars is based on earlier studies on various topics related to Roman theater and the traditions of Roman comedy. Cupaiuolo’s (1984) exhaustive reference book offers a synopsis of bibliography on Terence from 1470 through 1983. Büchner’s monumental The Theater of Terence, written in German (1974), addresses the question of Terence’s orig- inality: thematic and stylistic, the Terenzisches im Terenz so to speak (cf. Beare’s 1964 and Beacham’s 1991 essential books on Roman theater). The question of Terence’s use of his Greek models is an old one, perhaps best handled early on by Haffter (1967) and Ludwig (1968), while Lefèvre’s systematic examination of individual plays and their antecedents in Greek New Comedy (1994), (1999), (2003), (2008) is an indispensable guide. But even before Büchner and others, Norwood’s (1923) study of Terence 8 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill and Duckworth’s (1952) study of Roman comedy in general and Plautus and Terence in particular laid the groundwork for students and critics of the playwright, addressing, among others, issues such as Terence’s use of his models and of the technique of contaminatio. Among the early useful and meticulous studies of Terence, three also deserve special mention here: Lefèvre’s (1969) investigation of the Expositionstechnik; Denzler’s (1968) analysis of the monologues; and Perelli’s (1973) influential Teatro Rivoluzionario of Terence. J. Wright’s (1974) Dancing in Chains: The Stylistic Unity of the Comoedia Palliata, made a strong case for Terence’s exceptionality. S. Goldberg’s (1986) Understanding Terence was another milestone in Terentian scholarship (partially visible in Forehand’s 1985 short study). Here Goldberg situates Terence in the intellectual and cultural ­environment of the period (issues which are further developed in Goldberg 2005 and Konstan 1983). This systematic study of the socio-politics­ of lit- erature in the 160s bce leads Goldberg to conclude that Terence’s world is different from Plautus’ in terms of Greek culture: “The comic fantasy of Plautus’ Greece … became more difficult to maintain. Greeks were no longer so exotic, and the conflict Plautus exploits between Greek and Roman values was no longer so laughable” (215). As Goldberg observes, “Terence’s response to the new interests and demands of his time has turned the comic conventions upside down (217) … By inverting the comic forms, [Terence] also took the fun out of them. Terentian comedy thus gained a certain inner tension” (219). As a result, Goldberg concludes, the successors of Terence were not dramatists but satirists, such as Lucilius. This is what Goldberg dubs “the death of comedy” (contra see most recently Manuwald 2011: 257). This approach to Terentian comedy can also be found in Gruen’s (1990, 1992) and Leigh’s (2004) historicist readings of the plays; both try to find the relevance of Terence’s plays in Rome of 166–160 bce (on the centrality of legalistic disputes in Greco-Roman New Comedy, and Terence in particular, Scafuro’s 1997 study is essential). An important aspect of Terentian artistry studied in the scholarship is, of course, Terence’s language: it has attracted the attention of scholars in the past decade, especially Müller (1997), Bagordo (2001), and Karakasis (2005); the German monographs of the first two examine aspects such as dialogue in Terence and colloquialisms, whereas Karakasis provides the most systematic analysis of Terentian usages vis-à-vis Plautus and other writers of Roman New Comedy and the playwright’s differentiation, as well as the stylistic unity within the tradition of the Roman palliata. Some older works, such as Fantham (1972), are still well worth consulting. Finally, recent gender studies focus on the role of women, going back to Fantham (1975). For instance, Dutsch (2008) both gives a wide-ranging study of female speech in Roman and illustrates some of Terence’s verbal Introduction 9 similarities and differences from Plautus, while much ink has been spilled on the ­interpretation of rape in Terentian plots (a good starting point is Rosivach 1998).

3 Essays in this Companion

This Companion is divided into four parts. The essays in the first section (“Terence and Ancient Comedy”) address the relationship between Terence and his Greek models from Middle and New Comedy, his precursors and con- temporaries on the Roman stage, Terentian contaminatio, and the influence of other genres, such as Roman epic and tragedy. They also discuss issues of performance, as well as Terence’s dramatic technique (language and music). P. Brown surveys the evidence furnished by Donatus, the Menander papyri, and Terence himself for both large- and small-scale changes made to Terence’s Greek models. It is not easy to deduce his specific purposes or even his broader approach to adaptation. He famously incorporated material from secondary source plays and eliminated divine prologues—probably as much for their artificiality and awkwardness, coming after his literary prologues, as for the purpose of maintaining suspense. Terence preserved more of the Athenian ambience of his plays than Plautus: he omitted minor references to Greek customs but retained larger plot-points, Greek titles, and settings. He has, accordingly, been accused of rejecting Roman Comic traditions. G.F. Franko argues that he did critique and modify them but operated within the bounds of Roman Comic precedent. Specifically, he emphasized the double plot and the element of surprise but curtailed traditional farcical elements, such as the clever slave, and allowed the events of the plays to effect permanent changes in characters’ lives. Terence gave his stock types a level of complexity not found in Plautus and a restrained style of speaking closer to Menander than to the palliata. Moreover, his preference for accompanied iambs over ­complex meters reinforced the naturalism of his dialogue. Terence’s poetics, as A.R. Sharrock demonstrates, place him in a direct line between Callimachus and Catullus. The polemical and programmatic content of his prologues is markedly Callimachean, but he engages with other genres too—tragedy, love poetry, philosophy, didactic, and even rhet- oric – which furnish more than just occasions for parody. Tragic models provide serious tone, complex structural relationships, and the talismanic items that effect resolutions. Terence’s discourse of romantic love traces back to Greek lyric, offering a missing link to Lucretian parodies of a tradi- tion seemingly older than Catullus. Philosophically, Sharrock argues, the plays offer more than just aphorisms in ludicrous contexts: they make space for serious ethical debate. 10 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

H. Vincent explores how sound effects mark humor in the text of Terence. She surveys his use of iterative effects at the phonemic level, such as puns, , anaphora, and homoioteleuton, as well as bilingualisms, register shifts, metatheatrical humor, and reported speech (as a parodic device). Drawing on Attardo’s General Theory of Verbal Humor, Vincent identifies new examples of each phenomenon and shows how they mark, facilitate, or trigger jokes in the text, thus indicating opportunities for physical humor. The fabula stataria, in Terence’s hands, allowed for a fine balance between ­performative and linguistic humor. Terence’s meters also accomplish diverse effects, from setting emotional tone and characterizing speakers, to providing structure, unity, and contrast. The meters shed light on musical elements in the plays. T.J. Moore explains how they work, starting with a review of Latin quantitative verse and a survey of the meters in use in the plays. One prominent­ effect in Terence is the alternation between accompanied meters, such as the trochaic septenarius, which often marks movement and excitement, and the unaccompanied iambic senarius, which is often used to transmit essential information. Eunuchus furnishes an illuminating case study of these metrical effects at work. In the second section (“Contexts and Themes”), the essays examine the socio-political background that shapes the themes, characters, structures, and political concerns in Terence’s comedies. These include Terence’s association with the so-called Scipionic circle. D.P. Hanchey reassesses the evidence that Scipio headed a circle of leading figures in second-century Rome, brought together by their shared love of Greek culture. The principal source, Cicero’s dialogues, do not represent historical reality, while earlier texts attest only to Scipio’s friendships with Laelius and Lucilius and his influence on and Panaetius, without proving connections between these figures, much less that Terence—any more than Lucilius—served as Scipio’s mouthpiece. Terence certainly knew Scipio and Laelius, but they are not the homines nobiles mentioned in his prologues, whose identity must remain a mystery. Terence does refer to Roman conventions, locales, and even recent events in his plays, despite his tendency to universalize culturally specific material from his source plays. J.H. Starks surveys these “intruded cultural memes,” ranging from debt slavery, family gods, and patronage relationships, to the defeat of Pyrrhus and tensions with Rhodes. He argues that Terence upholds Roman aristocratic ideals, foiling attempts to subvert the power of the paterfamilias and ­educating his characters in the proper balance of otium and negotium, a politically salient topic in the 160s. The plays all resolve with a conservative message of the containment, socially and politically, of the nouveau riche. T.H.M. Gellar-Goad looks at religion in Terence, drawing attention to the striking absence of the act of sacrifice from the plays. Unlike Menander and Plautus, Terence’s characters do not refer to sacrifice, or even sacrificial meats, Introduction 11 offer no significant prayers to the gods, make virtually no use of the stage altar, and use little religious language in general. His suppression of normal religious activity is at odds with genre conventions and lived reality alike: ­sacrifice was a sign of a healthy and stable community and also integral to the wedding ritual. Its exclusion communicates a strong message of familial ­dysfunction and instability in Terence’s households. S.L. James examines ten- sions within the family along gender lines. She argues that sex and gender in Terence are subordinate functions of class and age, and sexuality is often a marker for development into proper gendered behavior. Female characters are subject to men and repeatedly victimized, despite their strict adherence to the rules for their gender and class. Wives, senes, young women, and slaves are not allowed active sexuality—only courtesans, who often have no choice, and young men, who exhibit a range of sexual development, from helpless inactivity­ to a full sense of sexual privilege, often expressed by rape. Because women’s chastity was a state concern, rape marks the asymmetry of gender roles in Terence in specifically Roman terms. Z.M. Packman surveys the types of characters and households represented in Terence. The plays center on the challenges faced by citizen class, ­propertied families in ensuring that their grown sons marry citizen woman with dowries, in order to maintain the household into the next generation. Fathers struggle to avoid alienating sons who, lacking access to eligible women, form attachments­ to meretrices, slaves, or dowerless citizens. The marked shortage of legitimate daughters raised in their birth families is regularly addressed by the fortuitous recovery of exposed or lost girls, a comic solution to the ­underlying problem of the competing interests of community, household, and individual. Focusing on the figure of Syrus in Adelphoe, the playwright’s only servus callidus in the Plautine mold, E. Karakasis surveys Terence’s slave types. Syrus exhibits the characteristic traits and behaviors of Plautine tricksters— eavesdropping, boasting, impudence, conniving in furtherance of a young man’s love affair, and ultimately succeeding in his deceit. The scenes involving Syrus reflect a Plautine aesthetic both in their use of slapstick comedy and farcical motifs and in their linguistic choices, including Romanisms, innuendos,­ Plautine idioms, and even syntax. Syrus has been assimilated thematically and aesthetically to Plautine models. In the third section (“The Plays”), a thorough analysis of the six Terentian plays is offered, not as a mere summary of each play but as an engaging discussion of the key issues that make each play unique. Is Terence just a stylist or also a playwright shaping the genre in a different direction than Plautus had before him? R. Germany shows how the literary rivalry recounted in the Andria prologue offers a template for the play’s innovations, such as beginning the first scene in medias res and leaving the audience to play catch-up, as elements of the argumentum appear later. The prologue 12 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

­foregrounds the ­oxymoron of a “woman from man-land,” and offers the critical lens of source play combination, as well as the idea of an antithesis between Terence’s felicitous neglegentia, which is duplicated by the passive but successful Chremes, Charinus, and Byrria, and his rivals’ obscura dili- gentia, echoed in Simo’s futile overactivity and Davos’ complex and shifting schemes. E. Lefèvre’s essay on Heauton Timorumenos offers a thorough overview of the key aspects of Terence’s play by examining the combination of various plots between old and younger men to show that Terence’s aim is to produce a unified whole: the intrigues are certainly more sophisticated than scholars have allowed. Furthermore, this essay considers the role of the meretrix Bacchis, the influence from Plautine comic scenes, and Terence’s differentiation from Menander. D.M. Christenson’s analysis of Terence’s most famous play, Eunuchus, focuses on the role of rape in the comedy and its various ramifications for ancient and modern audiences. Why does Terence underscore the act by placing a vivid description in the middle of the play? And what is the role of Thais, the bona meretrix, in this comedy? As Christenson concludes, Eunuchus challenges comic conventions by parading a set of finely nuanced and surprising characters. S. Frangoulidis looks at Terence’s Phormio from the perspective of disease and its cure, a recurrent motif in the play. The parasite Phormio assumes the role of the poet himself and comes up with several plots to treat the sicknesses­ of the other characters; Phormio performs these plots as embedded plays in a man- ner distantly reminiscent of works by Terence himself. Through these embedded performances, Phormio ultimately cures the morbus amoris of the young men, while the old man is punished for his anomalous behavior. O. Knorr studies Terence’s Hecyra, a play performed three times and fairly marginalized in modern discussions of Terence. As Knorr points out, this is a fast-paced farce, full of comic plot twists and suspense, eye-catching spec- tacle, and dramatic irony. The play’s dramatic innovation must have been one of its most appealing aspects, especially its unusual employment of char- acters, subverting­ comic conventions. In Hecyra, a lot of attention is placed on unjustly suspected women, in relation to the male character, Pamphilus, who by refusing to take back his wife and son, stands in the way of his own happiness. Finally, A. Traill offers a thorough examination of Terence’s cel- ebrated Adelphoe. The play’s main theme is devoted to a contest between opposing theories of parenting, a “battle” between the two different broth- ers, the stern and the easy-going. Adelphoe poses questions and offers answers; its end is open-ended. Traill discusses how ambivalent this play is by looking at Terence’s models, especially Menander’s Dyskolos and Samia. While Terence’s innovation is evident, the Menandrian plays offer a tem- plate for the characterization of Demea in this comedy: both Dyskolos and Samia show actual change of conduct, in response to new revelations, Introduction 13 but no wholesale transformation of the distinctive qualities that make up the character’s tropos. Finally, the fourth and last section (“Reception”) of this volume examines the long reception of Terentian plays from antiquity to modern times. B. Victor presents a detailed analysis of the history of Terence’s text and ­scholia through antiquity and the earlier Middle Ages. The direct tradition is ­discussed, followed by an overview of the various classes of ancient manu- scripts and the relations among the families of manuscripts. Victor looks at the ancient ­scholiasts, such as Donatus, and gives examples from the scholia; he also discusses some of the modern editions. R. Müller examines the reception of the playwright through the second century ce, while A. Cain continues the same investigation through late antiquity. Müller surveys the first perfor- mances, didascalic notices, and revivals, before looking at Terence’s influence on Cicero and Horace through Apuleius. Terentian intertexts are exploited in rhetorical praxis, and the various comic characters are interpreted as moral examples. Cain reviews late antique editions of the playwright and Terence’s use at schools; he also discusses how Christian authors exploit specific aspects of Terentian comedy. Augustine is especially fond of Terence’s observations on the human condition, while he also recognizes the harm that may come from reading certain scenes, such as rapes. Several centuries after Terence, the nun Hrotsvit of Gandersheim undertakes the task of Christianizing the ancient playwright, as A. Augoustakis discusses. By looking at Hrotsvit’s plays and especially the role of women in them, Augoustakis concludes that the German nun appropriates Roman comedy to turn it into tragedy with a happy ending, with the finale involving a marriage–reunion in heaven with God through martyrdom. M. van Elk studies the reception of Terence in early modern England, especially by Shakespeare. As she demonstrates, “determining the importance of Terence to early modern England is not merely a matter of detecting his presence as an explicit source in plays, but rather requires ­reading historically, socially, and intertextually, with an awareness that the different histories in which Terence is involved, including dramatic, theatrical, educa- tional, and social histories, are frequently in tension with each other.” Van Elk surveys Terence’s role in the formulation of comic theory, his use at schools, his appropriation by the dramatists, and finally his pervasive presence in Shakespeare as well as in later English drama. M. Hanses takes us a few centu- ries later to the world of Thornton Wilder and his tragic take on Terence’s Andria in his own The Woman of Andros. In his novel, Wilder does not engage with a mere reproduction of Terence’s play, but rather endorses, rejects, or expands various elements he finds in Terence, with a propensity towards the tragic versus the comic. J. Barsby’s discussion of English translations of Terence goes back to Udall in the sixteenth century. Barsby offers examples from every period through the eighteenth century and beyond, ending with 14 Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill the twentieth-century translations of the plays. In the final essay in this section,­ M.-K. Gamel elaborates on the performance of Terence and Hrotsvit on the modern stage, as she discusses her experience staging Terence’s Eunuchus and Hrotsvit’s The Conversion of Thais in 2003.