THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY

VOLUME VII THE OLD REGIME 1713-63

EDITED BY J. O. LINDSAY

CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS I966 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY (page 1) By J. O. LINDSAY, Formerly Fellow of Girton College and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge

CHAPTER II THE GROWTH OF OVERSEAS COMMERCE AND EUROPEAN MANUFACTURE By C. H. WILSON, Fellow of Jesus College and Reader in Modern Economic History in the University of Cambridge Changes in world trade by 1713; decline of Dutch page 27 Commercial expansion of England and France 28 Beginnings of English industrial revolution 29-30 Financing of industrial expansion 31-2 English mercantilist regulation of overseas trade 32 English naval strength 33 French commercial expansion 33 Fundamental weakness of French trade 34-5 Anglo-French commercial rivalry 36 Commercial rivalries in Atlantic 37-9 Commercial rivalries in India 39 Dutch strength in south-east Asia 40 Commercial rivalries in Mediterranean 41 Trade inside 42 Gradual decline of Dutch trade 42-3 Holland remains financial centre 43-4 Foreign trade relied on naval strength 45 Economic theories 46 Signs of change in theories 47-9

CHAPTER ΙΠ THE SOCIAL CLASSES AND THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE STATES By J. Ο. LINDSAY Eighteenth-century society apparently aristocratic and French . . . . 50 Aristocratic character supported by Church 51 Society in fact less uniform 51 Differences in relations of nobles and peasants in different countries ... 52 France 53 Central and eastern Europe 53-4 Political powers of nobles varied from country to country 55 Useless court nobility of France, Spain 55 Serving nobility of , Russia 56 Politically powerful nobles of Hungary 56 Poland, Sweden 57 England 58 V CONTENTS Aristocratic nature of society undermined by growth of middle class . . .page 58 Mercantile middle class of England 58-9 Urban patriciate Italy, Switzerland, German cities, Holland .... 59-6o Status of professional middle class 61 Bureaucratic middle class of eastern Europe 62 Society not exclusively French 63 Influence of Italy 63 Germany 64 World outside Europe 65

CHAPTER IV THE VISUAL ARTS AND IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE By PROFESSOR SIR ALBERT RICHARDSON, Past President of the Royal Academy Art and literature theoretically classical and derivative 66 Architecture, classical transformed into baroque 66-7 Early emergence of Gothic revival 69 Originality of English town planning 70 New social environment of coffee houses 70 New journalism 71 Natural treatment of contemporary life 72 Poetry both classical and original 73 Originality of satire and travel books 73 Need for new genre, degeneracy of stage 74 Rise of the novel 75-6 Romantic poetry 76 Art shows same development as literature 77 Classical French painting 77 Baroque painting 77-8 Greater naturalness of French painting 78 French sculpture remains classical 78 English painting of real life 79 Theories about art 80 Influence of illustrated books on architecture and art . . . . . 81-4

CHAPTER V THE ENLIGHTENMENT By A. COBBAN, Professor of History, University College, London Enlightenment begins before 1700 85 Early criticism of religion 85-6 Later criticism of religion in France and England ..... 86-7 Superficiality of eighteenth-century philosophy ..... 87 Science the new evangel 88 Importance of Newton 88-9 Popularity of natural science 89 Backwardness of chemistry 90 Period of diffusion rather than advance 91 Psychology of Locke ...... 91-2 Social sciences .... 92 vi CONTENTS Great importance of history page 93 Vico . 94 Theoretical presuppositions of philosophers 95 Sensational psychology 95-6 Hedonism and re-orientation of moral ideas 97 Individual hedonism and the claims of society 98 Political ideas of secondary importance 99 German ideas of natural law 100 English and French political ideas 101-2 Economic ideas 103 Optimism of the Enlightenment 104-5 Belief in possibility of reform 105 Diffusion of ideas of the Enlightenment 105-6 Journals, dictionaries, the Encyclopaedia 106 Influence of Paris salons 106-7 Backwardness of universities 107 Educational experiments 108 Religion still very strong 108-9 Protestant mysticism 109 Metaphysical thinkers · . . · . · · · · · · · 110 Emergence of romanticism in imaginative literature 110-11 Small area influenced by Enlightenment 111

CHAPTER VI RELIGION By R. W. GREAVES, Reader in History in the University of London Decline of papal political influence 113 The personalities of the popes 113 Difficulties confronting the popes 114 The renewed Jansenist controversy 114 Unigenitus 114-16 Last phase of Jansenist struggle 116 Modification of Unigenitus by Ex Omnibus 117 Similarities between Jansenists and philosophers 117-18 Growth of historical criticism 118 Reform of breviary and missal 118-19 Strength of secular influences 119 Van Espen 119 Giannone's criticism of ecclesiastical power 120 Von Honthein`s attack on Papacy 121 Declining power of the Jesuits 122 Failure of Jesuits, China 123 Jesuits expelled from Portugal 123-5 Suppression of Jesuits in France 125 Jesuits overthrown not by 'philosophers` but by anti-papal Christians . . . 126 Protestantism in England 126 The Archbishop of Canterbury 126-7 Political character of English episcopacy 127-8 The Dissenters 128 Relations of Church and State in England 129 Lutheran and Reformed churches in Germany . 130 vii CONTENTS Pietism and rationalism both anti-clerical page 131 Rationalism Projects of Christian reunion 133 Archbishop Wake's projects for union The traditions of the Church of England Growth of Methodism Evangelical awakening of Church of England 139-40

CHAPTER VII MONARCHY AND ADMINISTRATION 1. European practice, by J. Ο. LINDSAY 2. The English inspiration, by W. R. BROCK, Fellow of Selwyn College and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge

I. EUROPEAN PRACTICE Contemporary writers on political thought 141 Prevalence of absolute monarchy 141 Difference between absolutism in different countries 142-3 Improvement in central governmental institutions: Sweden 144 Russia 145 France 145-6 England 146 Spain 147 Prussia .148 Habsburg dominions 149 Financial methods still chaotic 150 Indirect taxes in Spain 150 Direct taxes 151 Beginnings of a National Debt 152 Administration of justice 152 Increased efficiency of provincial administration 153 Intendants in France 153 Intendants in Spain 154 Prussian provincial government 155 Austrian provincial government 155-6 Hungarian provincial government 157 English J.P.'s 157-8 Theories of government, cameralism 158-60 Exceptions to absolute monarchy, Poland 160

2. THE ENGLISH INSPIRATION Ideas about English liberty

CHAPTER VIII THE ARMED FORCES AND THE ART OF WAR By the late ERIC ROBSON, Formerly Senior Lecturer in History in the University of Manchester Eighteenth-century warfare governed by convention 163 Emphasis on manœuvre rather than battle 164 viii CONTENTS Strategy primarily defensive page 164-5 Limited objectives of eighteenth-century wars 165 Many wars were purely dynastic 166 Conventions of siege warfare 166-8 Armies* lack of mobility 168 Strict discipline necessary because of tactical methods 169 Tactical formations elaborate and slow 169-70 Naval tactics equally conventional 170 Winter campaigns infrequent 170-1 Formal character of warfare made few demands on officers 171 Strategic methods of characteristic of his age ... 171-2 Tactics of Frederick the Great original 172-3 British reliance on naval supremacy 173 British military methods unsuited to colonial warfare 173 Gradual changes in British methods on land and at sea 174 Armies relatively small, wars lacking in passion 174 Armies recruited from nobles and vagabonds 175 Composition of armies necessitated harsh discipline 175-6 Inadequate evidence of conditions of other ranks 176-7 Gulf between officers and men 177 Frederick U's care for his men 178 Growing consideration for men in British navy 178 Development of conscription 178-9 Use made of nobility in 179 Position of peasants in Prussian army 179-80 Savage Prussian discipline 180-1 Inadequacy of noble French military commanders 181-2 French naval commanders more able 183 French naval conscription 183 Methods of recruiting for British army and navy 183-4 Purchase of British commissions 185 Influence and promotion . . . . 186 No purchase of naval commissions 187 Conditions of promotion in the navy 188-9

CHAPTER IX INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS By J. O. LINDSAY Peace settlement, 1713-14 191 Renunciation of Philip V to French throne 191 Establishment of "barriers" 191 English acquisition of naval bases 192 English commercial benefits 192 System of alliances after 1713 192-3 Death of Louis XIV 193 French reasons for desiring alliance with England 194 England influenced by developments in Baltic to ally with France ... 195 Value to England of French alliance 195 Diplomatic storm centres, Baltic and Mediterranean 195 Baltic crisis of 1716 196 ix CONTENTS Mediterranean crisis provoked by Elizabeth Farnese page Expeditions organised by Alberoni 197 Quadruple alliance 197 Success of Anglo-French diplomacy, 1719-21 198-9 Congress of Cambrai 199 Changes of personnel in France 200 Spanish approach to the Emperor 200-1 Mission of Ripperda, 1725 201 Failure of Ripperda's policy 202 Treaty of Seville, 1729 202 Don Carlos in north Italy 202 Anglo-French diplomacy in north-east Europe 203 Holstein-Gottorp question 203 British naval expedition to Baltic, 1726 203 Emergence of Russia and Prussia as Great Powers 203-4 War of Polish Succession 204 English neutrality 205 Breakdown of Anglo-French Alliance 205 Growth of Russian power 205 War of Austrian Succession, 1740 206 Friction between England and Spain 206 Share of South Sea Bubble in causing war of 1739 207-9 French diplomacy 210 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 210 Diplomatic Revolution 211 Outbreak of Seven Years War 211 Peace of Paris, 1763 212-13

CHAPTER X THE DECLINE OF DIVINE-RIGHT MONARCHY IN FRANCE By A. COBBAN Divine-Right monarchy in France still strong 214 France best example of decline of absolute monarchy 215 Weakness of French absolutism, administrative confusion 215 Survival of independent enclaves 215 Lack of unified fiscal system 216 Decay of effective local self government 216 Limitations in powers of the intendant 216-17 Weakness of central government 217 Councils 217-18 Secretaries of State 218 Difficulty of enforcing royal will 219 Crown as symbol of the State 219 Incapacity of Louis for the role of absolute monarch .... 220 No other authority to share burden of government 220 Policy of regent . . . . 220-1 Financial problems 221-2 Financial reform of Law 223 Results of Law's experiment ·· 223 X CONTENTS Failure of regent's administrative reforms page 224 Foreign policy of the regent 224 Duke of Bourbon in power 224 Fleury's administration 224 Pacific foreign policy of Fleury 225 Louis XV in control of policy 225-6 Character of Louis XV 226 Lack of consistent foreign policy 227-8 Diplomatic Revolution and emergence of Choiseul 228 Weakness of internal policy 228-9 Religious disputes 229 Richérisme among parish clergy 229 Jansenist controversy 230 Religious policy of the regent 230 Revived Jansenist controversy, 1750 231 Persecution of the Huguenots 232 Spread of anti-religious spirit 233 Suppression of the Jesuits 233 Financial difficulties of the Crown only a symptom 234 Social structure essential cause of collapse of Divine-Right monarchy ... 235 Complex characteristics of the nobles and of bourgeoisie 236 Economic developments disrupting social structure ...... 237 Industrial developments 237-8 Economic weaknesses 238

CHAPTER XI ENGLAND By W. R. BROCK Economic conditions 241 Exceptionally low rates of interest 242 Bad communications 242 Exports of great value 242-3 Rural conditions 243 The country gentleman 243-4 Increasing political power of great landowners 244 Borough politics 245 Role of Church of England 245-6 Dissenters 246 Party alignments in 1714 246 Triumph of Whigs 247 Failure of Jacobite rising 1715 247-8 Religious policy of Whigs to Dissenters 248 Convocation silenced 249 Dissensions among the Whig leaders 249 Ascendancy of Sunderland and Stanhope, 1717 · - 249-50 South Sea Bubble 250-1 Political results of the Bubble, rise of Walpole 251 Character and achievement of Walpole 251-2 Growing opposition to Walpole 253 xi CONTENTS Walpole's successors, Carteret and Pelham page 251-4 Jacobite rising of 1745 254 Rise of Pitt 255 Accession of George III 255 Fall of Newcastle 256_ Powers of Crown in eighteenth century 256-7 Growth of cabinet government 258-9 Ministers of the Crown 259 Central bureaucracy 259-60 Local government 260 House of Lords 260 House of Commons 260 Influence and patronage 261-2 Judicial system 262-3 Nature of English liberty 264 Libel and sedition 2Ó4 Younger sons of gentry entered professions 265 Conditions of poor · 266 Industrial development 2i>7

CHAPTER XIT THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND ITALY By J. O. LINDSAY Diplomatic initiative gained for Spain 269 Spain in state of economic collapse at end of seventeenth century . . . 269-71 Economic reform hampered by Church 271-3 Nobility indifferent to reform 273-5 Bourgeoisie few and apathetic 275 Economic reforms of army 276 AlberonPs reforms 277 Ripperda's effort to restore prosperity to Spain 278 Reforms of Patifto 278 Attractive appearance of Italy in eighteenth century 280 Reality less attractive, much poverty and oppression 281 Changes in political maps of Italy, 1713-48 282 Effects of these changes, reforms in Milan and Naples 284 Rome 284 Spanish policy under Ferdinand VI 285 Carvajal's foreign policy 285 Industrial reforms 286 Ensenada's economic reforms " 287 Charles III ! ! ! " " 287 Portugal unstirred by reform till 1750 ! ! ! ! 288 Economic conditions ! " 288 Portuguese monarchy " 289 Pombal's attack on trie Jesuits ' 290 Pombal's economic reforms !" * " 291

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CHAPTER XIII THE ORGANISATION AND RISE OF PRUSSIA By W. H. BRUFORD, Fellow of St John's College and Professor of German in the University of Cambridge German historians* treatment of rise of Prussia page 292 Geographical character of Hohenzollern possessions 292 Gradual unification of Hohenzollern territories 293 Economic weakness 293 Effects of Thirty Years War 294 Creation of standing army by Great Elector and provincial Estates overcome . 294 Frederick William I's contribution to growth of strong monarchy . . . 294-5 Development of the army 295-6 Efforts to increase royal revenue 296 Exploitation of domain lands 296-7 Other taxes 297-8 Reform of civic administration 299 Encouragement of immigration 302 Reform of administration 303 Combination of domain and excise officials 304 Creation of General Directory 304-5 Religious toleration 306 Education 306 Administration of justice 306 Education of the Crown Prince 307-8 Character and abilities of Frederick the Great 308-9 Aggressive policy of Frederick the Great 310-11 Political philosophy of Frederick the Great 310-11 Frederick's reforms after 1756 3H Complete centralisation of government 312 Objects of this system 312 Attempts to improve the governmental system 312-13 Industrial reform 315 Trade 31k Reform of the judicial system 3*7

CHAPTER XÏV RUSSIA By IAN YOUNG, Formerly Lecturer in Slavonic Studies in the University of Cambridge New epoch as from 1709 318 Economic conditions, chief wealth forest products 318 Development of iron industry 318 Other industrial developments 319 Labour plentiful 319 Communications 3J9 Export trade 320 Peter's fiscal reforms 320 Population and social structure 321 Conditions of the peasants 321-2 The nobility 322-3 xiii CONTENTS

Re-organisation of the army Page 323 Reform of administrative institutions 323 Reform of provincial administration 324 Judicial system 324-5 The Church 32J Reforms of education 325 Reign of Catherine I 327 Peter II, negotiations on behalf of Anna 3^8 Anna's accession, administrative reform 329 Concessions to the nobility, Volynsky 33° Ivan VI, intrigues on behalf of Elizabeth 331 Elizabeth's accession, Diplomatic Revolution 332 Seven Years War, Bestuzhev's intrigues 333 Peter III, further concessions to the nobility 334 Orlov's revolution, the Church . 335 Education and cultural life 33^ Income of the nobility 337 Shuvalov's financial and commercial reforms 33^

CHAPTER XV SCANDINAVIA AND THE BALTIC By R. M. HATTON, Reader in International History at the London School of Economics Settlement after the Great Northern War 339-40 Benevolent absolutism of the Oldenburgs 341 Agriculture and land reform 342-3 Policy of making Denmark and Norway economically complementary . . · 344 Mercantilistic communal policy 344-5 Danish foreign policy 345 Holstein-Gottorp claims in Sîesvig-Holstein 345-7 Crisis of 1723-7 347 Danish foreign policy, alliance with France 34^ Danish efforts to secure succession to Swedish throne for Danish prince . · 34$ Tsar Peter Ill's claim to Slesvig-Holstein, 1760 ...... 349 Settlement of Slesvig-Holstein 350 Reduction of royal power in Sweden on death of Charles XII .... 350-1 Ulrika Eleonora's election and abdication 351 Swedish Constitution of 1720 352 Composition and powers of the Four Estates 353-4 Swedish political parties 355 Brief ascendancy of Hessian party, 1720-1 355 Holstein party in power, 1723-6 355 Ascendancy of Count Horn and the* Caps* 355 Hats' period of power, 1738-65 356-7 Sweden's part in the War of the Austrian Succession 358 Russian occupation of Finland 359 Charles Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp refuses Swedish succession \ \ \ 360 Sweden's dependence of Russia after Treaty of Abo 361 Party struggle of Hats and Caps 362 Further limitation of the monarchy; the Seven Years War ... • 363 Election campaign of 1764-5 364 xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVI POLAND UNDER THE SAXON KINGS By L. R. LEWITTER, Fellow of Christ's College and Lecturer in Slavonic Studies (Polish) in the University of Cambridge Political institutions page 365-6 Administration of justice 367 Backward condition of agriculture 368 Trade and industry 369 Education and intellectual life 370-1 Rivalry for Polish throne; concluded, 1717 372 Economic aspect of the settlement 372-3 Russian domination after the Treaty of Warsaw, 1717 373 Anti-Russian foreign policy of Augustus II 373-4 Persecution of Protestants 374 Religious crisis at Thorn, 1724 375-6 Attempts to secure Saxon succession 377-8 Czartoryskis and Potockis 378 Succession of Augustus III 379 War of the Polish Succession 379-8o Settlement of the War of the Polish Succession 381 Political degeneration under Augustus III 382-3 Waning influence of the Czartoryskis 384 The Seven Years War 385-6 Foreign policy 387-8 Failure of the political system 389 Russian and Prussian territorial claims · 390

CHAPTER XVII THE HABSBURG DOMINIONS By C. A. MACARTNEY, Fellow of All Souls, Oxford Conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession 391 Hungary and the Treaty of Szatmâr 391 Charles VI's conciliation of Hungary 392 The female succession in Austria . 393 Hungarian support of Charles's daughter 393-4 War with Turkey, 1716-18 394 Charles joins Quadruple Alliance 394 Female succession confirmed in Hungary 395 Rights of Hungary recognised by Charles VI 396 Pragmatic Sanction enacted 397 Friction over the Ostend Company 397 War of the Polish Succession; marriage of 398 Cultural life 399 Administrative institutions 4°° Austrian trade to East Indies; power of Church in Austria and Bohemia . . 401 Weakness of Czech nationalism; Habsburg policy of preserving territorial division in Hungary ...... -····· 4°2 XV CONTENTS Subordination of Hungary to Austria; survival of some Hungarian independence page 402-3 Habsburg support for Roman Catholicism in Hungary 4 33 The national pride of the nobility 44 Growth of population Increase in proportion of non-Magyar people 4J> Predominantly agricultural character 4 Turkish war 4 g Unsuccessful Peace of Belgrade 4 Maria Theresa's accession; the Pragmatic Sanction repudiated 40» Maria Theresa's concessions to Hungary 4O9 Hungarian support for the Pragmatic Sanction 4°9 Ultimate retention of throne by Maria Theresa, 1748 4I° Maria Theresa's reforms after 1748 4"> Military reforms; Lombardy and the Netherlands 4*l Maria Theresa's treatment of Hungary 4Π-12 Obstacles in way of reform 4i2 Administrative and judicial reforms; Haugwitz . 412-14 Foreign policy after Aix-la-Chapelle 4*5

CHAPTER XVIII THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION By MARK A. THOMSON, Professor of Modern History in the University of London Diplomatic origins , 416 Prussian invasion of Silesia 4Π British and Russian reactions 418 French support for Charles Albert of 4^ Prussian victory over Austrians at Mollwitz 419 Prussia's uneasy alliance with France and Bavaria 419 Convention of Klein Schnellendorf between Austria and Prussia .... 420 Election of Charles Albert as Emperor 421 French military reverses 421 Frederick's desire for peace, diplomatic schemes of Carteret for accommodation between Austria and Prussia 422 Dutch non-intervention, preliminaries of Breslau end Austro-Prussian War . . 423 French retreat from Bohemia 424 Austrian strategy in Germany weakened by Spanish intervention in Italy . . 424-6 French policy under personal direction of Louis XV, British victory at Dettingen 426-7 Diplomacy of Carteret 428 Treaty of Worms, 1743 429 George II discredited, naval battle off Toulon [ [ 430 French invasion of the Netherlands, prussian invasion of Bohemia . . . 431 Prussian invasion of ; Treaty of Dresden, 1745 . . . \ \ * 432 British and Dutch defeats, Franco-Spanish invasion of Sardinia [ ! ! 433 Franco-Spanish armies repulsed * 434 British naval superiority, French victories in Dutch Flanders . [ \ \ 435 Preliminary peace negotiations 436 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelie \

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CHAPTER XIX THE DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION By D. B. HORN, Professor of Modern History in the University of Edinburgh Signs of strain in the Anglo-Austrian alliance page 440 Kaunitz's plan for a French alliance 441-2 Britain's need for Austrian help increased by threats of colonial conflict . . 442 Austria's terms become stiffer 443 Austrian overtures to France, negotiations between Starhemberg and Bernis . 444-5 Anglo-Prussian relations 446-7 British convention with Russia, 1755 447-8 Reactions of Prussia to Anglo-Russian agreement ...... 448 Convention of Westminster (1756) between England and Prussia .... 449 French reactions 450 Austrian reactions 451-2 First Treaty of Versailles between France and Austria 453-5 Austro-Russian relations 456-9 Failure of Newcastle's foreign policy 460 Final breach between France and Prussia 461 Connexion between the Diplomatic Revolution and the outbreak of the Seven Years War 462-4

CHAPTER XX THE SEVEN YEARS WAR By ERIC ROBSON interconnexion of continental and colonial rivalries 465 Geographical and political conditions affecting Prussia 465 British obligations to Prussia 466 Pitt's gradual conversion to value of continuing operations on the Continent . 467 Frederick's masterly strategy 468 Defeat and occupation of Saxony by Frederick II 469 French success culminates in Convention of Kloster-Seven, Russian and Swedish attacks on Prussia 470 Prussian victories at Rossbach and Leuthen 471-2 Britain recovers the position in western Germany, Army of Observation, Prussian invasion of Moravia 473 Austrian campaigns in Saxony and Silesia, 1758 474 Russian victories, French advance into Westphalia 475 Plan to invade England, rights of neutrals 476 British privateers; campaigns of 1760 477 Military stalemate; peace with Russia 478 Peace negotiations in the West 479 Britain witholds Frederick's subsidy 480 Breach between Britain and Prussia 481 Family compact 482 483 Treaty of Hubertusburg 484 Effect of the war on Prussian economy 484-5 Results of the war for Britain and France 485-6

NCMHVD CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXÏ THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN COMMUNITIES I. Latin America, by J. H. PARRY, Principal of the University College of Swansea 2. North America, by FRANK THISTLETHWAITE, Vice-Chancellor of the University of East Anglia

1. LATIN AMERICA Administrative incompetence in Spanish America page 487~8 Defence; sale of administrative offices 4^9 Colonial administration; corregidores 49° Social structure, Creole resentment of Spanish misgovernment . . . . 491 Beginnings of Bourbon reform, enactments against the Church . . . 492 Reform of the coinage; silver mining 493 Regulation of trade; breakdown of the convoy system 494 Trading companies 495 Creoles gain nothing by the reforms 495 Grouping of administrative units 495-6 Jesuit missions 497 Brazil, reforms of Pombal 49** Visual arts, intellectual life 499

2. NORTH AMERICA Spread of European immigration and settlement 5°°~2 Expansion by colonists as well as immigrants 502 Plantation, colonies' expansion aided by new crops of rice and indigo . . . 502-3 Foundation of Georgia 5°3 Cleavage between older and newer settlements intensified by system of land holding 504-5 Friction over home government's prohibition of colonial industry 5°5 Problems of credit and prices intensify resentment of back country farmers . . 5°6 Religious revivalism encouraged by spread of settlement 507-S Many tensions within colonial society 508 Social structure, simplicity and poverty of hinterland society .... 510 Royal government identified with eastern oligarchy by farmers of the hinterland . 510-11 French expansion 511 Economy based on fur and fish 512 Trading posts; administration; the Church 513

CHAPTER XXII RIVALRIES IN AMERICA I. The Caribbean, by J. H. PARRY 2. The North American Continent, by FRANK THISTLETHWAITB

I. THE CARIBBEAN Claim of trade monopoly by Spain 514 Relations between Spain and the South Sea Company <ÎIS~Î7 War of Jenkins' Ear .. 518-19 Anglo-French warfare, 1744-8 ! ! 1 ! ! 519-20 xviii CONTENTS Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle page 520-21 Seven Years War: Pitt's strategy 521-22 Naval warfare 522 Capture of Guadeloupe; Family Compact 523 Spain's entry into Seven Years War 524 French and Spanish losses in the West Indies 524-5 Peace negotiations 526-8

2. THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT Increasing Anglo-French tension, 1713-63 528 French colonial development 528 British colonial development 528-9 Systematic French expansion, foundation of Louisbourg 529 New Orleans; Georgia 53° French attempt to control Illinois District 53* Confederation of the Six Nations; French and Dutch trade 532 Anglo-French hostilities; capture of Louisbourg 533 Acadians deported; French and Indian co-operation 534 French offensive in Ohio 535 Virginians gain support of British government 536 Failure of Braddock's campaign 537 Full-scale hostilities directed by Pitt 538 Fall of Fort Duquesne; the attack on Quebec 539 British naval victories; Treaty of Paris 54°

CHAPTER XXIII RIVALRIES IN INDIA By C. C. DAVIES, Reader in Indian History in the University of Oxford Decline of the Mogul Empire 54i-* Administrative institutions 543 Fratricidal warfare after death of Aurangzeb, persecution of Sikho ... 544 Rule of Bahadur Shah; court factions 545 Marathas under Sivaji 546 Marathas under Shahu, aims of Maratha policies 547 Maratha claims in the Deccan - 548 Raids into Malwa and Gujarat 549 Attacks on the Siddis and on Portuguese territory .... 550 Nadir Shah's invasion . 551-2 Growth of the 'country powers* 553 Maratha invasions of Bengal 554-5 Maratha invasions of the Carnatic 556-7 European trading factories; Anglo-French hostilities, 1744-8 .... 558 Condition of India in 1748; French bid for Indian Empire 559 Succession struggles in the Carnatic and the Deccan 560 Reasons for Dupleix's failure 561-2 Clive's conquest of Bengal 562-3 Marathas driven southwards by Afghans 564 Consolidation of British rule in Bengal 565 xix 2-3 CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXIV ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN AFRICA AND THE FAR EAST I. Africa, by J. GALLAGHER, Fellow of Trinity College and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge 2. Asia, by VICTOR PURCELL, Lecturer in Far Eastern History in the University of Cambridge

I. AFRICA Slave-trading regions Page 556 Techniques and units of exchange 567 Formation of national companies 568 Prussian, Danish and Portuguese companies 569 Dutch and French companies 570-1 British companies 571-2 Fierce competition and rising costs of slaving 573 European penetration in Africa limited 574 Effect of slave trade on African society 575 Dutch settlements in South Africa 576-7 Portuguese empire in Africa 578 Madagascar, Ethiopia 579

2. ASIA Dutch trading settlement in Japan 579-80 European relations with China 580 Trading ventures of British East India Company 581 Chinese control over foreign trade 582 European trading missions 583 Chinese distrust and misunderstanding of foreigners 584-5 Coffee production in Indonesia 585-6 Spread of Dutch power 587 Chinese penetration in Indonesia 588 Decline of the Dutch East India Company 588-9 Trade and economic relations in the Philippines 589-90 Persecution of the Chinese 591 Land tenure in the Philippines 592

INDEX 593

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