THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY VOLUME VII THE OLD REGIME 1713-63 EDITED BY J. O. LINDSAY CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS I966 CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY (page 1) By J. O. LINDSAY, Formerly Fellow of Girton College and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge CHAPTER II THE GROWTH OF OVERSEAS COMMERCE AND EUROPEAN MANUFACTURE By C. H. WILSON, Fellow of Jesus College and Reader in Modern Economic History in the University of Cambridge Changes in world trade by 1713; decline of Dutch page 27 Commercial expansion of England and France 28 Beginnings of English industrial revolution 29-30 Financing of industrial expansion 31-2 English mercantilist regulation of overseas trade 32 English naval strength 33 French commercial expansion 33 Fundamental weakness of French trade 34-5 Anglo-French commercial rivalry 36 Commercial rivalries in Atlantic 37-9 Commercial rivalries in India 39 Dutch strength in south-east Asia 40 Commercial rivalries in Mediterranean 41 Trade inside Europe 42 Gradual decline of Dutch trade 42-3 Holland remains financial centre 43-4 Foreign trade relied on naval strength 45 Economic theories 46 Signs of change in theories 47-9 CHAPTER ΙΠ THE SOCIAL CLASSES AND THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE STATES By J. Ο. LINDSAY Eighteenth-century society apparently aristocratic and French . 50 Aristocratic character supported by Church 51 Society in fact less uniform 51 Differences in relations of nobles and peasants in different countries ... 52 France 53 Central and eastern Europe 53-4 Political powers of nobles varied from country to country 55 Useless court nobility of France, Spain 55 Serving nobility of Prussia, Russia 56 Politically powerful nobles of Hungary 56 Poland, Sweden 57 England 58 V CONTENTS Aristocratic nature of society undermined by growth of middle class . .page 58 Mercantile middle class of England 58-9 Urban patriciate Italy, Switzerland, German cities, Holland .... 59-6o Status of professional middle class 61 Bureaucratic middle class of eastern Europe 62 Society not exclusively French 63 Influence of Italy 63 Germany 64 World outside Europe 65 CHAPTER IV THE VISUAL ARTS AND IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE By PROFESSOR SIR ALBERT RICHARDSON, Past President of the Royal Academy Art and literature theoretically classical and derivative 66 Architecture, classical transformed into baroque 66-7 Early emergence of Gothic revival 69 Originality of English town planning 70 New social environment of coffee houses 70 New journalism 71 Natural treatment of contemporary life 72 Poetry both classical and original 73 Originality of satire and travel books 73 Need for new genre, degeneracy of stage 74 Rise of the novel 75-6 Romantic poetry 76 Art shows same development as literature 77 Classical French painting 77 Baroque painting 77-8 Greater naturalness of French painting 78 French sculpture remains classical 78 English painting of real life 79 Theories about art 80 Influence of illustrated books on architecture and art . 81-4 CHAPTER V THE ENLIGHTENMENT By A. COBBAN, Professor of History, University College, London Enlightenment begins before 1700 85 Early criticism of religion 85-6 Later criticism of religion in France and England ..... 86-7 Superficiality of eighteenth-century philosophy ..... 87 Science the new evangel 88 Importance of Newton 88-9 Popularity of natural science 89 Backwardness of chemistry 90 Period of diffusion rather than advance 91 Psychology of Locke ......................................................................................................91-2 Social sciences .... 92 vi CONTENTS Great importance of history page 93 Vico . 94 Theoretical presuppositions of philosophers 95 Sensational psychology 95-6 Hedonism and re-orientation of moral ideas 97 Individual hedonism and the claims of society 98 Political ideas of secondary importance 99 German ideas of natural law 100 English and French political ideas 101-2 Economic ideas 103 Optimism of the Enlightenment 104-5 Belief in possibility of reform 105 Diffusion of ideas of the Enlightenment 105-6 Journals, dictionaries, the Encyclopaedia 106 Influence of Paris salons 106-7 Backwardness of universities 107 Educational experiments 108 Religion still very strong 108-9 Protestant mysticism 109 Metaphysical thinkers · . · . · · · · · · · 110 Emergence of romanticism in imaginative literature 110-11 Small area influenced by Enlightenment 111 CHAPTER VI RELIGION By R. W. GREAVES, Reader in History in the University of London Decline of papal political influence 113 The personalities of the popes 113 Difficulties confronting the popes 114 The renewed Jansenist controversy 114 Unigenitus 114-16 Last phase of Jansenist struggle 116 Modification of Unigenitus by Ex Omnibus 117 Similarities between Jansenists and philosophers 117-18 Growth of historical criticism 118 Reform of breviary and missal 118-19 Strength of secular influences 119 Van Espen 119 Giannone's criticism of ecclesiastical power 120 Von Honthein`s attack on Papacy 121 Declining power of the Jesuits 122 Failure of Jesuits, China 123 Jesuits expelled from Portugal 123-5 Suppression of Jesuits in France 125 Jesuits overthrown not by 'philosophers` but by anti-papal Christians . 126 Protestantism in England 126 The Archbishop of Canterbury 126-7 Political character of English episcopacy 127-8 The Dissenters 128 Relations of Church and State in England 129 Lutheran and Reformed churches in Germany . 130 vii CONTENTS Pietism and rationalism both anti-clerical page 131 Rationalism Projects of Christian reunion 133 Archbishop Wake's projects for union The traditions of the Church of England Growth of Methodism Evangelical awakening of Church of England 139-40 CHAPTER VII MONARCHY AND ADMINISTRATION 1. European practice, by J. Ο. LINDSAY 2. The English inspiration, by W. R. BROCK, Fellow of Selwyn College and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge I. EUROPEAN PRACTICE Contemporary writers on political thought 141 Prevalence of absolute monarchy 141 Difference between absolutism in different countries 142-3 Improvement in central governmental institutions: Sweden 144 Russia 145 France 145-6 England 146 Spain 147 Prussia .148 Habsburg dominions 149 Financial methods still chaotic 150 Indirect taxes in Spain 150 Direct taxes 151 Beginnings of a National Debt 152 Administration of justice 152 Increased efficiency of provincial administration 153 Intendants in France 153 Intendants in Spain 154 Prussian provincial government 155 Austrian provincial government 155-6 Hungarian provincial government 157 English J.P.'s 157-8 Theories of government, cameralism 158-60 Exceptions to absolute monarchy, Poland 160 2. THE ENGLISH INSPIRATION Ideas about English liberty CHAPTER VIII THE ARMED FORCES AND THE ART OF WAR By the late ERIC ROBSON, Formerly Senior Lecturer in History in the University of Manchester Eighteenth-century warfare governed by convention 163 Emphasis on manœuvre rather than battle 164 viii CONTENTS Strategy primarily defensive page 164-5 Limited objectives of eighteenth-century wars 165 Many wars were purely dynastic 166 Conventions of siege warfare 166-8 Armies* lack of mobility 168 Strict discipline necessary because of tactical methods 169 Tactical formations elaborate and slow 169-70 Naval tactics equally conventional 170 Winter campaigns infrequent 170-1 Formal character of warfare made few demands on officers 171 Strategic methods of Frederick the Great characteristic of his age ... 171-2 Tactics of Frederick the Great original 172-3 British reliance on naval supremacy 173 British military methods unsuited to colonial warfare 173 Gradual changes in British methods on land and at sea 174 Armies relatively small, wars lacking in passion 174 Armies recruited from nobles and vagabonds 175 Composition of armies necessitated harsh discipline 175-6 Inadequate evidence of conditions of other ranks 176-7 Gulf between officers and men 177 Frederick U's care for his men 178 Growing consideration for men in British navy 178 Development of conscription 178-9 Use made of nobility in Prussian army 179 Position of peasants in Prussian army 179-80 Savage Prussian discipline 180-1 Inadequacy of noble French military commanders 181-2 French naval commanders more able 183 French naval conscription 183 Methods of recruiting for British army and navy 183-4 Purchase of British commissions 185 Influence and promotion . 186 No purchase of naval commissions 187 Conditions of promotion in the navy 188-9 CHAPTER IX INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS By J. O. LINDSAY Peace settlement, 1713-14 191 Renunciation of Philip V to French throne 191 Establishment of "barriers" 191 English acquisition of naval bases 192 English commercial benefits 192 System of alliances after 1713 192-3 Death of Louis XIV 193 French reasons for desiring alliance with England 194 England influenced by developments in Baltic to ally with France ... 195 Value to England of French alliance 195 Diplomatic storm centres, Baltic and Mediterranean 195 Baltic crisis of 1716 196 ix CONTENTS Mediterranean crisis provoked by Elizabeth Farnese page Expeditions organised by Alberoni 197 Quadruple alliance 197 Success of Anglo-French diplomacy, 1719-21 198-9 Congress of Cambrai 199 Changes of personnel in France 200 Spanish approach to the Emperor 200-1 Mission of Ripperda, 1725 201 Failure of Ripperda's policy 202 Treaty of Seville, 1729 202 Don Carlos in north Italy 202 Anglo-French diplomacy in north-east Europe 203 Holstein-Gottorp question 203 British naval expedition to Baltic, 1726 203 Emergence of Russia and Prussia as Great