UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
THE EFFECTS OF WATER SHORTAGES AT THE HOUSEHOLD LEVEL:
CASE STUDY OF KUMAWU TOWNSHIP IN THE SEKYERE KUMAWU
DISTRICT
BY
ADJEI-MENSAH KWAME
(10291415)
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
MPHIL GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT DEGREE
JULY, 2017 DECLARATION
I, Adjei-Mensah Kwame, declare that this research and its entire contents represent my own work. I remain answerable to every question pertaining to this work and duly acknowledged all secondary sources in the list of references. No part whatsoever has been presented to any other Institution for the award of degree.
ADJEI-MENSAH KWAME
(10291415)
SIGNATURE……………………..
DATE……………………………..
SUPERVISORS
DR. CHARLOTTE W. ASANTE DR. JOHN M. KUSIMI
(PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) (CO-SUPERVISOR)
SIGNATURE…………………. ……………………………..
DATE…………………………… ……………………………..
i
DEDICATION
To my lovely family that has remained my strength and support throughout the entire duration of the study.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am highly indebted to many who contributed in the production of this thesis. First, to my principal supervisor, Dr. Charlotte Wrigley Asante, whose critical assessment of the work has been nothing but impeccable and thorough. Her advice, motivation and encouragement have also opened many opportunities for me. I also thank my co-supervisor, Dr. John
Kusimi, whose constructive comments and criticisms, especially in the analysis, helped to put so much shape to the work.
I also thank Mr. Kwabena Asubonteng of UNU/INRA at Legon, and Colleagues at the
Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana especially
Mr. Godwin Odikro for the support rendered for the completion of this work.
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ABSTRACT
Globally, there have been increasing demands for water by increasing populations.
Demands however outstrip supply in most regions creating water shortage situation. Water shortage is noted to have effects on the socio-economic livelihood development of households. This study assessed the effects of water shortage and coping strategies of households as well as the role of stakeholders in addressing the situation in Kumawu.
Using the mixed method, 200 household questionnaires were administered and 6 in-depth interviews also conducted. Landsat ETM+ images were used for Land use/Land Cover changes. The study found that, pipe borne water is the principal source of water with rainwater and groundwater as alternative sources. It is found out that water supplied was inadequate and the shortage is exacerbated by climate change, population increase, cutting down of trees, settlement expansion and water pollution over the years. Water bodies however have disappeared over the years in Kumawu. The water shortage has led to significant effects on the socio-economic livelihood of residents with increases in reported cases of water related diseases at health centres. Also, women are affected more by water shortage than men. Other affected livelihood areas included education, food security and poverty. As a result residents have adopted water storage and treating stored water for use as coping strategies. The construction of a 5.3cubic metres ground water plant is underway among other institutional intervention. These however are inadequate in meeting the current demand for water placed at 15000 cubic metres annually. The study recommends stronger collaborations among institutions in addressing the water shortage situation. The study also recommends that, District level strategies should be formulated to tackle climate change, vegetation loss, rapid urbanisation and education on ecosystem conservation in the District.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ...... i DEDICATION ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... xi
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 1 1.1 Introduction to the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ...... 3 1.3 Research Questions ...... 5 1.4 Objectives of the Study ...... 5 1.5 Hypotheses ...... 6 1.6 Justification of the Study ...... 6 1.7 Organization of the Study ...... 7
CHAPTER TWO ...... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ...... 9 2.1 Introduction ...... 9 2.2 Global Perspective on Water Shortages ...... 9 2.3 Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals on Water Sustainability ...... 11 2.4 Factors Underpinning Water Shortages ...... 12 2.4.1 Demographic Changes ...... 12 2.4.2 Urbanization and Economic Growth ...... 13 2.4.3 Environmental Pollution ...... 14 2.4.4 Climatic Factors ...... 15 2.5 Effects of Water Shortages at the Household Level ...... 16 2.6 Coping Strategies of Water Shortages ...... 22 2.6.1 Harvesting of Rainwater ...... 22 2.6.2 Groundwater Use ...... 23 2.6.3 Surface Water (rivers, pods, streams) Use ...... 23 2.6.4 Water pumping Technology ...... 23 2.6.5 Water Vendors Services ...... 24 2.7 Water Management Concept ...... 24 2.8 National Water Policies in Ghana ...... 26 2.9 National Community Water Supply and Sanitation Policy ...... 27 2.10 Theoretical Framework ...... 28 2.10.1 Sustainable Livelihood Approach ...... 28
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2.11 Conceptual Framework ...... 31 2.12 Chapter Summary ...... 34
CHAPTER THREE ...... 35 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY ...... 35 3.1. Introduction ...... 35 3.1.1 Location and Size...... 35 3.1.2 Geology and Soil ...... 35 3.1.3 Climate and Vegetation ...... 37 3.1.4 Demographic Characteristics ...... 39 3.1.5 Water and Sanitation ...... 39 3.1.6 Economic Activities ...... 39 3.1.7 Social Amenities ...... 40 3.2 Research Methodology ...... 41 3.2.1 Research Design ...... 41 3.2.2 Selection of the Study Area ...... 41 3.2.3 Primary Sources ...... 42 3.2.4 Sample size ...... 42 3.2.5 Sampling Technique ...... 43 3.2.6 Observations ...... 44 3.2.7 Secondary Data ...... 44 3.2.8 Techniques of Data Analysis ...... 44 3.3 Land Use Land Cover Analysis ...... 45 3.3.1 Participatory Geographic Information System ...... 47
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 48 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 48 RESPONDENTS CHARACTERISTICS, CAUSES AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF WATER SHORTAGE ...... 48 4.1 Introduction ...... 48 4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ...... 48 4.2.1 Age Distribution of Respondents ...... 48 4.2.2 Respondents Duration of Stay in Community ...... 50 4.2.3 Gender of Respondents ...... 50 4.2.4 Household Size of Respondents ...... 50 4.2.5 Level of Education of Respondents ...... 51 4.2.6 Occupation of Respondents ...... 52 4.3 Major Sources of Water for Kumawu Township ...... 53 4.3.1 Perceived Factors Causing Water Shortage in Kumawu ...... 58 4.3.1.1 Perception on Climate Change as Cause of Water Shortage ...... 60 4.3.1.2 Rainfall and Temperature Conditions in the Sekyere Kumawu District...... 61 4.3.1.3 Land Cover Change in Kumawu ...... 65 4.3.1.4 Gendered Perceptions on Climate Change and Water Shortage ...... 69
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4.3.2 Perception of Settlement Expansion as the Cause of Water Shortage in Kumawu ...... 70 4.3.3 Population Increase as the Cause of Water Shortage ...... 74 4.3.4 Perception of Cutting Down of Trees around Water Bodies as the Cause of Water Shortage ...... 77 4.3.5 Perception of Water Pollution as the Cause of Water Shortage in Kumawu ..... 79 4.6 Chapter Summary ...... 81
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 82 EFFECTS, COPING STRATEGIES AND THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS IN ADDRESSING WATER SHORTAGE IN KUMAWU ...... 82 5.1 Introduction ...... 82 5.2 Effects of Water Shortage on Socio-Economic Livelihoods ...... 82 5.2.1 Effect of Water Shortage on Children’s Education ...... 86 5.2.2 Effects of Water Shortage on Food Security ...... 87 5.2.3 Effects of Water Shortage on Health ...... 88 5.2.4 Effects of Water Shortage on Poverty ...... 90 5.3 Coping Strategies of Water Management...... 93 5.3.1 Water Storage as a Coping Strategy ...... 93 5.3.2 Treating of Stored Water ...... 96 5.4 Stakeholder Roles in Sustainable Water Provision ...... 99 5.4.1 Provision of Support Systems ...... 99 5.4.2 Rules and Regulations on Water Management ...... 101 5.4.3 Education and Sensitization ...... 103 5.4.4 Local Assembly’s Support in Solving Water Shortage Problems in Kumawu 104 5.4.5 Supports by Non-Governmental Organizations in Solving Water Shortage Problems in Kumawu...... 105 5.5 Chapter Summary ...... 106
CHAPTER SIX ...... 107 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 107 6.1 Introduction ...... 107 6.2 Summary of Key Findings ...... 107 6.2.1 Sources of Water and Factors Contributing to Water shortage ...... 107 6.2.2 Effect of Water Shortage on Socio Economic Livelihoods ...... 108 6.2.3 Household Coping Strategies to Water Shortages ...... 109 6.2.4 Institutional Roles in Addressing Water Shortages ...... 109 6.3 Conclusion ...... 110 6.4 Recommendations ...... 112
REFERENCES ...... 114
APPENDICES ...... 122
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Sustainable Livelihood Framework ...... 31 Figure 2.2: Approach for Analyzing Effects of Water Shortages at the Household Level . 33 Figure 3.1 Map of Sekyere Kumawu Districtshowing Study Areas ...... 36 Figure 3.2 Image Processing Flow Chart ...... 46 Figure 4.1 Main Sources of Water for Kumawu Township ...... 55 Figure 4.2: Sources of Water for Communities ...... 56 Figure 4.3: Perceptions on Causes of Water Shortage ...... 59 Figure 4.4 Graph Showing Rainfall Distribution at Kumawu (1982-2012) ...... 63 Figure 4.5 Graph Showing Temperature Distribution at Kumawu (1982-2012) ...... 63 Figure 4.6: Land Use Land Cover Map of Sekyere Kumawu District...... 68 Figure 4.7 Gender Perceptions on Climate Change and Water Shortage ...... 69 Figure 4.8 Cross Tabulation between Settlement Expansion and Gender Groups ...... 73 Figure 4.9 Cross Tabulation between Gender and Population Increase Perceptions ...... 76 Figure 4.10 Cross tabulation Between Cutting down of Trees and Gender...... 79 Figure 4.11 Cross Tabulation between Pollution of water and Communities ...... 80 Figure 5.1 Perceptions on the effects of water shortage on women and men ...... 83 Figure 5.2 Storing Water as a Coping Strategy to Water Shortage ...... 94 Figure 5.3 Storage Types Used by Respondents ...... 95 Figure 5.4 Treatment of Stored Water before Usage ...... 97 Figure 5.5 Linkages between Water Treatment and Sex of Respondents ...... 99 Figure 5.6 Stakeholder Institutions Provision of Support Systems ...... 100 Figure 5.7 Formulations of Rules and Regulations on Water Management ...... 102 Figure 5.8 Educations and Sensitization on Water Use in Kumawu ...... 103 Figure 5.9 Local Assembly Supported in Solving Water Shortage in Kumawu ...... 104 Figure 5.10 NGOs Have Supported In Addressing Water Shortage in Kumawu ...... 106
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Classification of Images ...... 47
Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ...... 49
Table 4.2: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Occupation ...... 53
Table 4.3 Change Detection of Image Classes...... 66
Table 4.4 Width and Depth of River Onwam in Seasons/Years ...... 67
Table 4.5: Chi-Square Test of Gender and Climate Change Perceptions ...... 70
Table 4.6: Correlation Test between Gender and Settlement Expansion ...... 73
Table 5.1: Effect of Water Shortage on various Variables ...... 82
Table 5.2: Water Shortage Affects Women More Than Men ...... 83
Table 5.3: Perceptions of Male and Female Respondents on the effect of water shortage on
Women and men ...... 85
Table 5.4: Chi-square Test on Sex and Perception Water Shortage Affect Women More
Than Men ...... 86
Table 5.5: Effects of Water Shortage on Education by Community...... 87
Table 5.6: Effects of Water on Food Shortage by Community ...... 88
Table 5.7: Effects of Water Shortage on Health by Community ...... 89
Table 5.8: Effect of Water Shortage on Poverty ...... 91
Table 5.9: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Effect of Water Shortage ...... 92
Table 5.10: Chi-Square Test on Sex and Effect of Water Shortages ...... 92
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1 Source of Water...... 57
Plate 5.1 Water Storage Media...... 96
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CERSGIS Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems DFID Department for International Development EUWF European Union Water Framework FAO Food and Agricultural Organization GIS Geographic Information Systems GoG Government of Ghana GSS Ghana Statistical Service GWCL Ghana Water Company Limited GWSS Global Water Supply and Sanitation IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development MDGs Millennium Development Goals SKDA Sekyere Kumawu District Assembly SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences UN United Nations UNDESA United Nations Development And Economic and Social Affairs UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund WHO World Health Organization
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CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction to the Study
All over the world, water is essential in human, plant and animal lives and therefore must be protected for its sustainability (Potter et al., 2008). The United Nations Development
Programme (2012) explains water shortage as irregular available water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a region. The Global Water Supply and Sanitation
Assessment report (2000) explains that around 2.8 billion people around the world make use of water and it is estimated that at least one month out of every year, more than 1.2 billion people face shortage of clean drinking water. According to Ellis (2000), if an individual person consumes less than 1000cumetres of water per year, then those individuals are considered to be facing water shortages. Around one fifth of the world's population currently live in regions affected by water shortages, where there is inadequate water resources to meet a country's or regional demand (UNDP, 2012).
Water related issues are very critical in development and for this reason, programmes are organised by the United Nations with the aim of sustaining water resources. Such programmes include the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). The Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 2 was to look at portable water supply and the current Sustainable Goal 6 is also looking at clean and sufficient water supply (UN, 2015). Both of the goals highlight the water shortages and the effort to address water challenges for sustainability. Studies have shown that water shortages have a negative effect on the lives of people especially women and children, which invariably affect their socio- economic lives (Sjoberg, 2009). Since most of the
1 effects are directly or indirectly related to their activities, the solution to their activities and behaviours would in the long term curtail and help sustain their lives.
Many factors contribute to the water shortages which include changing in the elements of the climate such as temperatures, rainfall, and humidity. There are also environmental factors which include demographic changes, pollution, economic development, urbanization and others. The weakness of institutional regulations also poses a challenge to sustain water for production (Ellis, 2000).
In Africa, the arid regions frequently suffer from water shortages which may become a major constraint on the socio- economic lives of the people at the household level
(Achebe, 2000). When the different sources of water supply such as rainfall, dams, springs, boreholes, etc., are irregularly spread over space and are often not found where they are needed, the result is deeply felt by the vulnerable. Meanwhile, water use are essential, especially for domestic and industry use (Potter et al, 2008). Where water is not sufficient to support the household, the impact is felt in the area of health, hunger, education, poverty, gender discrimination of which both men and women as well as children are deeply affected (Archer, 2009).
However, there are gender differences in water use and management. Morse et al. (2009) was of the view that differences in gender can also affect water quantity and water quality mainly due to the usage differences with females noted to use more water. Gender refers to the different roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women and the relations between them. Gender is generally associated with unequal power and access to choices and resources like water (Warren, 2007). Women and men are faced with mounting cost of water shortages, water management, well deepening and development of new sources
(UNDESA, 2010).The affected people, not only have limited means to expand the supply
2 of water and maintain its quality, but also need to expand water supply to meet the ever increasing needs to support the livelihood at the household level (Sjoberg 2009).
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
In Ghana, men and women manage water resources not only for productive uses, but also for domestic purposes, sanitation and hygiene for good health. They often play an active role in the construction and preventive maintenance and repair of sanitation facilities
(Adofo, 2005).Women and girls are the most vulnerable; they walk for hours to fetch drinking water (Dennis, 2006) and hence are exposed to threats of violence, economic and health hazards.
Kumawu town as the District capital of Sekyere Kumawu District with 5 settlements has a population of 23,899 constituting 25.78% of the District with the growth rate of 3.4% per annum (GSS, 2010). The composition of female and male in the population is 50.7 % and
49.3% respectively (SKDA, 2010).The economic activity, settlement expansion and other climactic conditions pose a threat to the water supply system in the region (SKDA, 2010).
In Ghana, areas like Kumawu and its environs face water shortages (Arthur, 2009). People manage water resources not only for productive uses, but also for domestic purposes, sanitation and hygiene for good health. In Kumawu Township, the common source of water for households is the pipe born water which is not in regular supply (Dennis, 2006).
Alternatively, people resort to rainwater collection, boreholes, wells, water vendors, surface water like rivers, lakes, ponds and other waters as the strategy for household survival (Arthur &Sarpong 2013).
According to the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) (2013), the supply of water per person for household use has reduced. That is, in 1989 to 1994 the total water supply was about 15000cu metres, with an annual supply of 3000cu metres. Unfortunately, from 1995
3 to 2000, water supply reduced to 6000cu metres, with an annual supply of 1200cu metres.
From 2000 to 2013, annual water supply has dropped to about 1000cu metres per year causing it to be in short supply. SKDA (2010) and GWCL (2013) explain that this water supply shortage resulted from the expansion of economic activities, settlement expansion and other climatic conditions in the region. This implies that water supply per person drops as population and other factors grow in Kumawu Township (Clement, 2012).
Also, the breakdown of the only water treatment plant on River Onwam in 1995, has made water insufficient for all purposes (GWCL, 2013). Coupled with this water pollution has also contaminated available water sources for household consumption. According to the
UN-water (2011), the major sources of water pollution are from human settlements and industrial and agricultural activities. It was noted that, unhygienic disposal and inadequate treatment of human wastes, deficient management and treatment of industrial wastes as well as inappropriate agricultural practices accounts for water pollution leading to water shortage for household use (UN-water, 2011). The water shortages affect social and economic lives of residents, particularly that of women and children in Kumawu
Township.
Most researchers who have carried out works on water shortages in the region, focused on only the climatic and the human factors of water shortage and its implications in the region. For example, Adofo (2005) researched on the effects of temperature and human activities on water shortages and came out that water shortages has a strong impact on agriculture in Sekyere Kumawu District. Also, Sarpong, (2013) researched on how change in rainfall pattern and human activities affect water supply and found out that rainfall and human activities pose threat to water supply management in Kumawu. Both Adofo (2005) and Sarpong, (2013) identified human activities such as excessive cutting down of trees for settlement, farming, and road constructions near water bodies, dumping of rubbish into
4 the water bodies and others destroyed water sources. Consequently, the combined effects of these factors have pushed residents to resort to other water sources such as water vendor services, rainwater among others for survival.
Notwithstanding the existence of these researches in the study area, very little is known on the perceptions of community members on water shortages and the effects on households in Kumawu. It is in the light of this gap in knowledge that this research sought to ascertain the causes of water shortages and its effects, coping strategies at the household level as well as institutional roles in addressing water shortages in Kumawu Township in Sekyere
Kumawu District.
1.3 Research Questions
• What are the factors contributing to water shortages in Kumawu?
• How does water shortage affect the socio-economic lives of people and what are
the gender dimensions at the household level in Kumawu?
• What are the household coping strategies to water shortages in Kumawu?
• What roles do institutions play in addressing household water shortage?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The general objective of the study is to find out the factors contributing to water shortages and its effects at the household level especially at Kumawu in the Sekyere Kumawu
District. The specific objectives are to:
• Identify the factors contributing to water shortages in Kumawu.
• Investigate how water shortages affects the socio-economic lives of people at the
household level in Kumawu
• Evaluate the coping strategies to water shortages in Kumawu.
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• Identify the role of institutions in addressing water shortages at the household
level.
1.5 Hypotheses
The hypotheses of this study are as follows:
Ho: there is no significant relationship between gender and water shortage
Ha: there is a significant relationship between gender and water shortage
Ho: there is no significant relationship between gender and perception of climate change as cause of water shortage
Ha: there is significant relationship between gender and perception of climate change as cause of water shortage
1.6 Justification of the Study
All over the world, water sustainability has become very critical especially among developing countries. These countries hoped water sustainability bridge the gap between the rich and the poor and also improve the lives of people at the household level in the urban areas.
Water is essential for life and must be accorded the necessary protection and effective use.
Water shortages therefore pose challenges to water availability and usage at the household level. Effective water use has the potential of improving the socio economic lives of people at the household level.
Most of the studies done on water shortages approached with a broader perspective with limited focus on the household level where the socio-economic welfare of the people are directly or indirectly affected. Information available on water shortages at the household 6 level have not been adequate. Data available in various literature on water shortages are based on national and regional levels and very little has been done at the household level in Ghana to determine the extent of the effects of water shortages. Water supply researchers such as Doe (2007), GoG (2007), Kamkam-Yeboah et al (2010), National
Population Council (2014) and Osumanu (2008) have all focused on the National level water supply in Ghana. The specific objectives of the study therefore seeks to investigate the factors, socio-economic effects, coping strategies and the institutional roles in addressing water shortages at the household level in the Kumawu township. Also, various researchers have sought to establish if water supply effect is gender based. This will help to determine which gender is more affected resulting in effective interventions. The findings of this study will contribute to knowledge on water shortages and other water related issues. Kitchen (2005) explains that knowledge in findings of research help build policies to solve respective problems. It is a fact that, a report from this study will become a very useful document to serve as a secondary source of information in addressing water shortages at the household level. The research will also bring out the differential effects of water shortages on men and women at the household levels for a more targeted policy intervention program.
1.7 Organization of the Study
The study is organized into six chapters. The chapter one is devoted to the introduction of the study and covers the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives, hypotheses, justification of the study and organization of the study.
Chapter two focuses on the literature review and conceptual framework that is applied to the study. The key issues discussed includes the global perspective on water shortages;
Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals on water; factors underpinning water shortages, effects of water shortages at the household level, gender
7 and water shortage, household coping strategies of water shortages and the national water policies in Ghana. The chapter finally highlights the conceptual and theoretical frameworks used in the study.
Chapter three deals with the background information of the study area, under the themes location and size, geology and soil, climate and vegetation, demographic characteristics, water and sanitation, economic activities, tourism attractions, health, educational facilities and the map of the study area. Also, the research methodology examines the sources of data, research strategy and design, population, sample and sampling techniques, research instruments and data analysis. The chapters four and five further look at the data analysis and discussions. Chapter four examines respondents’ characteristics and the causes of water shortages in Kumawu. Chapter five also looked at the socio-economic effects, coping strategies and institutional roles in addressing water shortages. The sixth chapter covers the summary of the key findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews literature on global views on water shortages. This includes discussion on Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals on water. Factors underpinning water shortage and its effects, gender and water shortages as well as water resource management. Finally, the conceptual framework of the study is discussed.
2.2 Global Perspective on Water Shortages
The UNDP (2012) explains water shortage as irregular available water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a region. It is estimated that by 2025, 800 million people will be living in absolute water shortages which means that people will be consuming 1000cu metres per year per capita especially in the arid regions (UN-Habitat,
2014).
Consequently, there is an alarming widening of the gap between water demand and water supply by women and men, and between consumption and potentially available safe water resource (Achebe, 2000). For example, the Middle Eastern and North African countries are home to about 300 million people. These people constitute about 5% of the world total population with a mere 1% of the annual water resource on the globe (UNDP, 2012). Also,
Latin America with a population of about 77million people has insufficient water supply to meet water demand in the region (Sjoberg, 2009). In Northern America, there is rapid a growth of population which makes water supply limited despite the large number of small dams available (Heinberg, 2013).
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Furthermore, in Asia, Heinberg (2013) indicates that the rapid urbanization, economic growth, industries and extensive agricultural development are accompanied by the intensive use of water resource, creating pressure on aquatic ecosystem and affecting the region’s capacity to meet its water needs. It has been estimated that, in 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited like the Middle East, Africa and parts of Asia if checks are not put on the rate of expansion of urban centres, climate change activities, population growth, water pollution and other negative human activities which affect water supply (Potter et al, 2008).
The Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment report (2000) explains that many occurrences of flooding, dryness as well as decrease in volumes of water bodies like Lake
Volta, Kanji Dam, River Niger and others are due to misuse and mismanagement of water in communities. Approximately 277 million people live in Southern African Community and according to the United Nations medium projection report in (2015), the population is expected to double by 2030. Using the water shortages concept, majority of the Southern
Community countries like Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and others will experience water shortages during the dry season and few countries such as Botswana will be below the benchmark level of 1000 cubic meters per person per year. There will be competition between sectors with agriculture alone averagely consume about 70% of the available water. It is estimated that other Industries and water needed for maintaining eco-system will increase by 2030 (SADC, 2015).
In Africa and Sub- Saharan regions, the arid regions frequently suffer from physical water shortages. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over- committed, such as when there is over development of hydraulic infrastructure for irrigation (Achebe, 2000). Signs of water shortages include environmental degradation and declining groundwater as well as other forms of exploitation or overuse (Camila, 2009).
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For example, the sub -Saharan regions faces acute water shortages which affect the household. Also, in some parts of central Africa, water demand exceeds water supply which retards growth and development (Camila, 2009). It is estimated that by 2030, 75 million to 250 million people in Africa will be living in areas of high water shortages, which will likely displace anywhere between 24 million and 700 million people as conditions increase (United Nations Medium Projection Report, 2015).
2.3 Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals on Water
Sustainability
The report however noted that the statistics show that the most progress was made in
Eastern Asia, where access to drinking water improved by almost 30% from 1990 to 2008.
In comparison to Africa, although the water coverage expanded in sub Saharan Africa
(22%) over the same period, it remains very low with only 60% of the population served
(Abbey, 2013). In addition, the rural- urban gap, which is narrowing is much wider with households having pipe drinking water. In sub Saharan Africa, this percentage gap is 47% for rural areas as against 83% for urban areas (UN, 2010).
The Sustainable Development Goals are a new agenda for United Nations which is to be achieved by 2030 (UNDP, 2015).The global challenge of water shortages cannot be ignored and in the expiration of MDG’s led the United Nations to consider water again in the SDG’s to support the environment. For instance, goal 6 of the SDG’S made emphasis on the clean water and sanitation. This means that, by 2030 all or majority of the people in the world especially in the developing world must get access to clean water and sanitation in various households. Also, goal 14 captures water as a necessity for life. This emphasizes that water is the sustenance of life and for that matter water must be treated as such to sustain mankind (UNDP, 2015).
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Awudu (2014) explains that after the expiration of the MDG’S, more than 40% of people around the world faced water shortages and it was expected to increase as a result of global temperature as a consequence of climate change and other factors. Although, in the global perspective about 2.1 billion people have gained access to water since 1990, water supply for households is a major challenge confronting some communities especially in
Asia, Africa and some part of Ghana (Abbey, 2013).
The UN believes that if by 2030, access to clean water and sanitation is achieved, then all sectors of development like social, economic, political and others will be improved to meet the development of the people (UNDP, 2015).
2.4 Factors Underpinning Water Shortages
More than 1.2 billion people face shortage of clean drinking water (FAO, 2008). Camila
(2009) indicates that the intensive use of water resources, creates pressure on aquatic ecosystem and affecting the regions capacity to meet its water needs.
The 2015 edition of the United Nations World Water Development Report demonstrates how water resources and services are essential to achieving global sustainability.
However, the study by the FAO (2008) explains that water supply is under threat due to natural and artificial factors which have adverse effects on both man and animals.
2.4.1 Demographic Changes
The demographic changes in the world and for that matter Africa is based on the mortality and fertility rate (WHO, 2010). Several theories like the demographic transition theory explain the relationship that exist between total population, death and birth rate which influences the demography of a region. The theory as explained by Fouberg et al., (2009, pg. 53) show that the stage one is characterised by fluctuations of the death and birth rate
12 accounting for low population. The stage two identifies the falling of the death rate whiles birth rate is at an almost stable position in relation to the rise of the total population. The stage three shows the decline of the birth rate, rising of the total population and continuing falling of death rate. The model explains that, at stage four and five, the total population keeps on rising while the birth and death the rate are equal. There are several reasons accounting for these changes which include health, living standard, gender differences and other economic reasons.
Increase in birth rate and decrease in death rate leads to population growth (Awumbila,
2008). The expansion of family sizes need to have access to better health care and health conditions to live (Adofo, 2005). The use of wholesome water for domestic and sanitation as well as agriculture increased and there is no doubt that these place pressure on the water within the region (Potter, 2008).The factors leading to population growth and pressure on water resources discussed are not different in the case of Sekyere Kumawu District.
2.4.2 Urbanization and Economic Growth
Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of population living in urban areas (UN-
Habitat, 2014). Africa and Asia are among leading continents of high urbanisation rate.
The rate at which urbanisation is increasing is an important issue in the 21st century. That is, more than half of the world population now live in towns and cities and it is expected to increase to 75% by 2050 (UNPD, 2015).
Even though, urbanisation is critical for economic growth, for poverty reduction, controlling population growth, effective utilization of resources and long term sustainability, there is no doubt that it put pressure on scarce resources like water. The urbanisation rate in Asia and Africa indicates that the focus of global urbanisation has shifted to developing countries and merging economies like Ghana. Several causes of
13 urbanisation has been identified. For example, in Ghana, causes of urbanisation include natural increase, rural urban migration (Awumbila, 2008).
Towns and cities absorb greater number of people than villages. Settlement and human activities that accompanied human settlement destroy water bodies and cause them to dry.
Also, activities like cutting of trees for human settlement cause the climate to change in its rainfall patterns which serves as primary sources of water which poses a lot of threats to human life (Awumbila, 2008).
Economic growth is the adoption of new technologies, transition from old base economic industry and general improvement in living standards (Adofo, 2005). This development comes as a result of increase in the capacity to produce goods and services and for this to materialised facilities like road network, housing, health, and others must be improved to meet the growth of a region. Economic growth in regions call for construction of facilities like industries, road networks and other infrastructure which are constructed at the expense of water bodies (Dennis, 2006). The water required for production also needs to increase to meet demand; pressure is therefore placed on the same amount of water that is available
(Achebe, 2000).
2.4.3 Environmental Pollution
Rose (2013) explains environmental pollution as the unfitted materials in the environment which are either caused by human or nature as part of development processes which have adverse effect on the people. One of the environmental resources that is commonly polluted by human activities is water. The pollution of the water resources has a long term effect which needs to be addressed for sustainability (UNDP, 2012).
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The world contamination of water affects the household use of water. This form of environmental pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies (Dennis 2006).
Clean and plentiful water is the support of prosperous communities (WHO, 2007). In the
21st century, swelling demand and changing climate patterns are draining rivers and other water bodies and pollution is threatening the quality of the remaining water resources
(Achebe, 2009).
Camila (2009) explains that all forms of pollution like that of water, air and land facilitate the loss of water quantity and quality. Poor sanitation, oil discharge from industries dumping of refuse into water, waste from mining and other industries contribute to water pollution. Water contamination also makes water in short supply for production.
2.4.4 Climatic Factors
Climate is defined as the average weather conditions of a geographical area. It describes the average temperature and precipitation over time (Goose et al, 2010) as well as other elements including humidity and wind speed.
The distribution of rainfall, temperature, humidity within space is not fixed, which is leading to tremendous temporal variability in water resources worldwide (Clement, 2006).
The availability of water for use is highly dependent on the climate elements including rainfall, temperature and humidity (Dennis 2006). For instance, low rainfall causes shortages of the surface water which in turn affect the underground water. Also, the rate of evaporation varies depending on the temperature and relative humidity which affects the amount of water available to replenish groundwater supplies and surface water (Achebe,
2009). Moreover, Potter et al (2008) explain that, the variations in temperature determine the amount of water on the earth surface and underground for production. High level of
15 temperature increases the rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration which affects the available water (Dennis 2006). In the region of glaciers, increase in temperature causes glaciers to melt at a faster rate (Clement, 2006). Glaciers are an important source of freshwater worldwide, once these glaciers are melted, they cannot be restored. Regions that depend on the glacier for their fresh water will need to seek other source of water when the need arises (Clement, 2012).
Consequently, climate change is reducing the freshwater available for production which includes domestic and industrial use. This is having a serious threat on the socio economic lives of the people which need to be addressed (Potter et al, 2008). For example, in Africa and sub Saharan Africa, the rate at which the climate is changing is disturbing the eco- system which is making sustainability difficult.
In Ghana, Dennis (2006) explains that the rate of economic growth, urbanisation, demographic changes as a result of change in climatic factors like unfavourable change in rainfall pattern, temperature, humidity among others are making water supply irregular to meet the demand at the household level. Adofo (2005) emphases that weak water regulations, poor management of water supply and weak legal backing of water usage are also contributing to the shortages of water in some parts of Accra and Kumawu in Ghana.
2.5 Effects of Water Shortages at the Household Level
In the coming decades, about 3 billion people will need to be served with water supply and more than 4 billion with sanitation (Abbey, 2013). In effect, providing water supply and sanitation services to such a population need extra effort to maintain regular supply.
Projected urban population growth especially in Africa and Asia, suggests that, urban services will face great challenges over the coming decades to meet fast-growing needs
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(Bates et, al. 2008). At the same time, rural areas also face the daunting task of meeting the existing large water services (Abbey, 2013).
Water shortages may become a major constraint on development at all levels if pressure is put on the underground and surface water. This means that water supply is irregularly spread over space and often is not found where it is demanded. It is also irregularly spread overtime. That is, climate change and other related factors of regions determines the supply of water, for household use (Potter et al, 2008). United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs identifies various areas of which water shortages affect most in the lives of individual and these includes social, economic, political aspect of human life.
Social Effects
Asiedu (2000) explains the tremendous contribution of water to the development of humanity in the areas of health, education, economic and other related sector of human development.
World Health Organisation (2005) defines health as the complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
WHO (2008) explains that in communities suffering from water stress, residents often faces poor health conditions. That is, men and women as well as children at the household level are forced to drink low quality water from flowing streams, many of which are contaminated (Clement, 2012). There are many water-borne diseases that people die of due to the poor condition of drinking water (WHO, 2008). Also, less water also means sewage does not flow, and mosquitoes and other insects breed on still (stagnant) dirty water, which result in malaria and other infections of nearby people (Archer, 2009). It is an therefore undisputed fact that poor sanitation at the household level has a serious
17 impact on health. In the absence of sanitary facilities as a result of water shortage, women often have to wait until dark to go to the toilet. That is why women often drink less, causing all kinds of health problems. Attempting to wait until darkness comes may result in physical harm, such as urinary tract infections and so on (Cleaver, 1995).
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) (2008) concludes that water shortages affect social and economic life of women and men at the household level, particularly that of women and children. “The active participation of women, who comprise more than half the population is critical for ensuring sustainable human development through their actions on environmental management” (Cecilia, 2000).
Hunger Effect
Achebe (2000) explains hunger as the insufficient food supply to meet the satisfaction of a person at the household. The United Nations World Food Programme (2006) explains that being hungry is an uncomfortable feeling on ones’ health. Ellis (2000) explains that some causes of hunger include natural disaster, conflict, poverty insufficient water supply.
According to Potter et al, (2008) hunger comes as a result of inadequate water supply. This means that water is used all over the world to grow food and care for animals. IFAD
(2008) explains that globally, we use 70% of our water sources for agriculture irrigation, and only 10% on domestic uses. This implies that farming need water to grow for consumption at the households will have lower yield (Achebe, 2000). It also means that, farm animals will die and others will not do well without water. The result is constant hunger and thirst which affects mankind at the households (Potter et al, 2008).
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Educational Effect
Education is the process of acquiring knowledge skills, values, beliefs and habits which is part of human development. Some people are often denied education at the expense of household chores (Sarpong 2013).
In Africa and Sub Saharan regions, one social effect of water shortages is poor education.
In Ghana, school children both boys and girls at an early age of seven and above have to be up at dawn to collect water for the family. Dennis (2006) explains that they have to walk for several miles to get sufficient water for the household. The children get tired and some have to miss school as a result doing this for many years take away school time and the cycle continues. In other places, girls and women are not allowed to go to school at all, so that they can serve the family by getting sufficient water among other things to care for the household (Crow and Sultan, 2002).
Economic Effect
The well-being of the people depends on the standard of living an individual enjoys to make a living. Poverty as a factor determines ones standard of living (Clement, 2012).
Poverty is a condition where people’s basic needs for food, clothing and shelter are not being met (Sarpong 2013).
The UN (1995) defines absolute poverty as ‘a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information’. Poverty comes as a result of mismanagement of natural resource, such as water, which affects the activities of the household (Achebe,
2000). Availability of water is a key to economic prosperity and better living standards.
Businesses and schools thrive when men and women come to work on time and not have to spend all day looking for water (Sarpong 2013). Also, intermediary company’s which
19 support the economy need safe drinking water to attract tourists and foreign investments
(Asiedu, 2008). Manufacturing activities, commercial farms, and mining processes all need a lot of water for productivity (Sjoberg, 2009).
To manage a home effectively, one needs money. The life style of a household is characterized by the ability to control financial matters of a households (UNICEF, 2008).
Thus, the ability to meet household supplies such as water depends on the capacity to control water resources. In search of water for household survival, several approaches are used to get water for households which include collection of underground water, surface water and so on (Sarpong 2000). People who do not get access to such water sources have to buy from Water Vendors for household (Arthur, 2009). These water vendors’ supplies are expensive to cope with (Asiedu, 2000). Those who cannot afford buying safe water for households have to risk their health by using infected waters for survival (Arthur, 2009).
Gender and Water Shortage Effect
Globally, gender and water has largely focused on particular elements, such as the division of tasks and labour between men and women, rights and access to water and women’s participation in decision-making through their involvement in water shortages management (Ouedrago, 2007).
In most part of the world, women have the primary responsibility for the management of household water supply and sanitation (Warren, 2007).
Gender heightens the relationship between available water quantity and water quality
(Morse et al. 2009). Women and men are faced with mounting cost of water shortages, water management and searching for new sources of water (UNDESA, 2010).This means that they have limited means to expand the supply of water and maintain its quality but
20 also need to expand water supply to meet the ever increasing needs to support the household demand (Awudu, 2014).
At the household level in Ghana, water shortage call for an observable divide between women and men, is in fetching water, sanitation and hygiene (Cornwall et al, 2007). Crow and Sultan (2002) explains that the provision of hygiene and sanitation are often considered women’s task. That is, women are promoters, educators and leaders of household and community-based water supply practices (Dennis, 2006). However, women’s concerns are rarely addressed as societal barriers often restrict women’s involvement in decision regarding water supply, sanitation programmes and projects
(Cecilia, 2000).
Furthermore, at the household, women and children often bear the brunt of the water shortages. The roles women play in water provisions and maintenance cannot be overlooked. Therefore there is the need to involve them in water provisions and management programmes to be able to sustain water at all levels and to achieve the aims and objectives of the integrated water resource management (Sjoberg 2009). Awudu
(2014) defines politics as the making of a common decision for a group of people; it includes a general and a uniform decision applying in the same way to all members concern. It makes use of power by one person to affect the behaviour of another person
(Sjoberg, 2009).
Politics at the household level is often characterized by culture which differs from one society to another. The decision making in terms of resources at the household level is strongly influenced by the culture of a particular society (Sjoberg, 2009).For instance, in some societies, men are often the head of the household and with that all the resources available and women in the household are controlled by them (Warren, 2007).
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Again, Cecilia (2000) posited that in Ghana, gender discrimination is one of the household political effects when there is water shortage. Both women and men search for water when water is in short supply in the household (Sarpong 2013). However, women and girls are the most vulnerable who walk for hours to fetch drinking water (Dennis, 2006), which exposes them to threats of violence, economic and health hazards (IFAD, 2001).
Meanwhile, Cornwall et al, (2007) believes that women prefer to spend less time fetching water for household use in order to use their time for income-generating activities.
2.6 Coping Strategies of Water Shortages
All over the world, the common source of water supply for household in the urban areas is the pipe born water. However, water supply is irregular over space and often is not found where it is needed (Potter et al, 2008). Alternative water sources help cope with the shortages. Diversifying water sources help secure water supply against shortages. Using alternatives water sources to meet demand makes better use of all the water available to the people, and saves drinking water for household use where high quality is needed.
2.6.1 Harvesting of Rainwater
This is the process of collecting rain water to be used by the household. It is popular during rainy season and uncommon during dry season in areas whose alternate sources of water for consumption is rainwater. In Ghana, harvesting of rainwater is a common coping strategy to water shortage (Sarpong 2013). Rain water collection is done in areas where water is in short supply for household consumptions. The rainwater is collected directly from roofs, before the water becomes polluted from the ground or drainage system.
However, rainwater may be contaminated and the people would have to treat it before use for drinking or cooking (Arthur, 2009).
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2.6.2 Groundwater Use
Another strategy is the use of groundwater. This is found below the earth surface in the pores and crevices of soil and rocks (Adofo, 2005). It is considered an alternate to the surface water, and has supplemented water supplies in areas of water shortages (Dennis,
2006). Boreholes and wells are used to extract groundwater from aquifers for households
(WHO, 200). Some communities in developing countries who experiences water shortages make uses of ropes and tyre bucket to collect water from underground for household
(Sarpong 2013). However, WHO (2008) exposes the danger that underground water could be polluted which becomes unwholesome for household consumption.
2.6.3 Surface Water (rivers, pods, streams) Use
According to the WHO (2008) surface water is a source of water supply in most part of the developing countries where water is in short supply. The household only survival is to depend on the rivers, ponds, streams and other running waters for consumption. However,
Dennis (2008) explains that accessing these sources of water for household consumption exposes them to health related problems which affect their socio-economic lives. United
Nations International Children Emergency Fund (2008) reports some communities expose the people especially women and children to threat of social attacks when it comes to fetching the water for households. However, the WHO (2008) highlighted that because of the poverty and low level of education; only few of the communities are able to treat the waters from these sources before use in the household.
2.6.4 Water pumping Technology
This alternative source of water supply for household is the use of pumping machines from wells, surface water intakes or into storage reservoirs and other barrels for use
(Dennis, 2006). Human and animal power is often the most readily available power for
23 pumping water for small communities in developing countries like Ghana, both in rural and urban areas (Adofo, 2005). Under suitable conditions wind power is of relevance
(Arthur, 2009). Diesel engines and electric motors are sometimes used to pump water. It is however dependent on the availability of fuel and power as well as local capacity to manage these machines (UNICEF, 2008).
2.6.5 Water Vendors Services
In Asia and some part of Southern America where water is in short supply, water vendor services to the people are used as a resort to cope with the situation (Achebe, 2000). Also, in Africa especially in sub-Saharan regions, water vendor’s services are used to control the situation (Osumanu, 2008). For example, in Ghana areas where water supply is not regular, people cope with it by resorting to the water vendor service for survival. Asiedu
(2000) explains that the water vendors in Ghana get their water sources from different areas and treat it by adding chlorine, alum and other treated substance to make it wholesome before used for consumption. Some vendors get it from the GWCL and sell it to the people in the communities (Asiedu, 2000). The household who are able to afford these water supplies get access to water neglecting those who cannot afford to other cheap sources of water for household, which may affect their health (WHO, 2005).The water policies in Ghana like National Community Water Supply and Sanitation Policy make special emphasis on safe and clean drinking water for the household and these water vendors help cope with the water shortage situations in Ghana.
2.7 Water Management Concept
Water resource management is the practice of planning, developing, distributing and optimum utilization of water under defined water policies and regulations. In other words, water management involves the optimal development, exploitation, control of population
24 growth and conservation of the resource (Adombire, 2012).The concept of Integrated
Water Resource Management emerged in responds to realization that conventional water management practices are ineffective for planning, developing and distributing this useful resource. Integrated Water Resource Management ensures co-operatives at administrative levels, households and the community. Human activities like farming, settlement expansion, building construction and other environmental factors may lead to pollution and encroachment in water catchment areas which eventually leads to shortage of water
(Sarpong, 2008). According to the Coalition of Water Resources, a Non - Governmental
Organization report (2011) climate change, destruction of forest at the bank of water bodies, population increase, urbanization, pollution among others also affect the quantity and quality of water supply. Water resources can be better managed, if various groups e.g. environmental administrators, farmers, mining companies, forestry organizations are involved in the management of the water resource (GWCL, 2011).
Although, water management frame-works based on this concept vary from country to country and community to community, they all tend to incorporate the principle of River
Basin Management to control the use of water in the world (Harvey, 2008). The integrated water management comes with so many benefits. It ensures the utilization of ideas and expertise from professionals with different background e.g. engineers, foresters, hydrologists, geographers etc. This promotes holistic and effective water management.
The approach also ensures that traditional knowledge and techniques are combined with scientific water management principles. Again, integrated water management system can ensure that activities that affect water quantity and quality are controlled. The European
Union Water Framework Directives (2000) notes, for instance, that by involving farmers, environmental administrators, miners and other stakeholders in the design and implementation of water policy, it should be possible to reduce water shortages.
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Furthermore, the plural participation that goes with integrated water management can reduce management cost. For instance, local communities can provide protection of water resources and free labour for activities such as the planting of trees at the bank of water bodies, controlling settlement expansion, reducing activities that affect climate change like over cultivation (Friends of Rivers and Water Bodies, 2013).
2.8 National Water Policies in Ghana
There have been a number of water policies in Ghana to address the increasing demand for water supply in the country. The current water polices in Ghana are based on the international standard of providing, managing and sustaining water resources which is being championed by the UN Water Policy ‘Integrated Water Management Resources’.
The Government of Ghana, GoG (2007) National Water Policy was to provide a framework for the sustainable development of Ghana’s water resources. It is target to all water users, water managers and practitioners, investors, decision-makers and policy makers within the central government, municipal and District Assemblies, non- governmental organisations and international agencies (Morse et al., 2009). The policy also recognises the various cross-sectorial issues related to water use and the links to other relevant sectorial policies such as those on sanitation and other water related activities
(Osumanu, 2008).
Water is essential for both animal and plant life. Human uses water for survival for all kinds of activities including sanitation. (Amega, 2013). It is therefore a resource that has a growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS 2) of the republic of Ghana and it is in relation to the MDG’s (Osumanu, 2008). The use of water helps in the social, economic, political and other developmental sectors of humans (Amega, 2013). On the other hand,
26 water shortages exposed human health and other fields to danger, especially women and children for household consumption (Morse et al (2009)). It is in the light of this that the
GoG came out with the National Water Policy in 2007 which is to provide the framework for sustainable development of Ghana’s water resources to ensure that household and communities get constant water supply (Osumau, 2008).
The Ghana National Water Policy focuses on integrating Water Resource Management with the aim of facilitating improved access to safe, sanitation and sufficient water in rural and urban areas (NPC, 2014). To support these efforts, the European Union using 9th
European Development Fund resources, has funded a series of project which were completed between 2008 and 2012, to provide efficient household water (Arthur, 2009).
To date, nearly half a million rural and urban Ghanaians have benefited from access to safe, sufficient water and sanitation (Osumanu, 2008).
2.9 National Community Water Supply and Sanitation Policy
Ghana for many years experienced shortage of water which poses threat to the development in various communities (Dennis 2006). In the light of this, the government adopted a National Community Water Supply and Sanitation Policy and prepared a
Strategic Investment Programme 2008-2015, to rationalise the rural and urban water sector to promote and improve the delivery of water supply in the household and sanitation services in terms of economy, efficiency, effectiveness and satisfaction (Amega, 2013).
In light of this policy, the GWCL continued with the extension of distribution pipelines to other un-served communities nationwide (GSS, 2010). Effort have also been put in place to fully capture the need by using Geographic Information System to facilitate the management of service to household effectively as well as to improve water demand
27 management in the communities (Clasen, 2006). That is why the government with partnership from the agencies, has put much effort to providing and rehabiliting and expanding medium capacity water treatment plants in to serve household in the communities in urban areas using internally generated funds and the government budgetary allocation (NPC, 2014).
2.10 Theoretical Framework
This section focuses on theoretical concepts and approaches that are necessary for this study. The theories serve as a basis on which the study is conducted. The study is based on
Sustainable Livelihood Approach to examine water shortages and its socio-economic effects at the household level.
2.10.1 Sustainable Livelihood Approach
There are several approaches in the resource supply management with the dominant one in the resource development by International Organisations since the 1990s being the
Sustainable Livelihood Approach. This is the central concept of the Department for
International Development of the United Kingdom in the early 1990’s (Mihaye, 2013).
This approach was endorsed by the UN in their conference in 1992 as the approach to save water in the environment and to improve the living conditions of the people. The central idea of this approach is to find out how individual households and communities of a certain environmental condition like shortage of water supply, use other sources of water supply within to cope with the situation to make a living with the help of institutional and cultural rules. It underlies a couple of principles which includes: people centred, holistic, dynamic, building on strengths, macro-micro links and sustainability. The framework sets out to conceptualize;
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1. How people within a vulnerable context that is shaped by different factors-shifting seasonal constraints (an opportunities), economic, social, natural, political and longer-term trends cope.
2. How they draw on different types of livelihood assets or capitals in different situations which are influenced by; the vulnerability context, a range of institutions and processes, how they use their asset to develop a range of livelihood strategies to achieve desired livelihood outcomes (Machette, 2011).
The United Kingdom Department For International Development aims to promote sustainable livelihoods through direct support of assets, that is, providing poor people with better access to the resource as a foundation for their livelihood (Hamdza, 2002).It also support the more effective functioning of the resource policies, public and private-sector organizations, markets, social, political, economic and all development partners of resources (DFID, 1999). Also, the DFID approach is unique in that, it takes into account the resources and environmental sustainability as a consideration to the social, political and economic lives of the people (Adom, 2006).
In this study, the DFID framework per its application implies that people based on their activities directly or indirectly affect their lives. The effect is influenced by the ability of the authorities to enact laws and rules to reduce the human activities. Alternatively, the
DFID framework explains how the vulnerable are able to manage the situation by employing strategies to harness the resources available for survival. However, there are some limitations with the sustainable livelihood approach. A differentiated livelihood analysis needs time and both financial and human resources (Kollmair and Gamper, 2002).
Development projects often lack these conditions and the claim of being holistic inevitably delivers a flood of information hardly possible to cope with (Sarpong 2013).Additionally,
29 by improving the livelihoods of a specific group either males or females without balancing the strategies, a negative effect may occur on livelihoods of other groups.
This may lead to a normative dilemma on the decision about what to consider with priority
(Carney et al., 2000). In light of this, the approach could be beyond practical applications of many local resource managers. It is therefore good to modify the framework to meet local demands. This is because different factors like, gender effect exist in different communities which need to be considered in the theory to suit all people (Sarpong, 2013).
Also, in this framework, not much attention is given to the informal structures and the processes that affect resource (water) supply. This is due to the fact that resources (water) and other livelihood opportunities distributed locally are often influenced by informal structures of social dominance and power within the communities and households
(Mihaye, 2013). Generally, if people have better access to resources like water, they will have more ability to influence structures and processes so that these become more responsive to their needs (Carney, 1991).
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Figure 2.1: Sustainable Livelihood Framework
Source: DFID (1999)
2.11 Conceptual Framework
The sustainable livelihood framework by DFID (1999) presents the factors that affect the livelihood of people in communities as well as the typical relationships that exist among the elements defined in Fig.2.1. Being a people centred framework, it sought to provide a checklist of issues and their linkages, focussing on the core influences and processes as well as emphasizing multiple interactions among various factors that affect the livelihood of people. The framework holds that a number of livelihood assets including human, natural, financial, social and physical capitals are influenced by a set of structures and processes. The interaction leads to varying livelihood strategies adopted by households in order to achieve a set of livelihood outcomes including increased income, wellbeing, reduced vulnerability, improved food security among others.
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The conceptual framework used for the study shows how water shortage affects the socio- economic lives of people in the Kumawu Township in the Sekyere Kumawu District
(Figure 2.2). Water is identified as a resource that households depend on for survival.
From the framework in figure 2.2, vulnerability context which includes climatic factors such as temperature, rainfall humidity, etc. Also, the Environmental factors include demography, pollution, economic expansion urbanization etc. These factors directly or indirectly mediate access to the available livelihood resources (water).The influences of these factors determine the effects it has on the health, education, hunger, gender discrimination (social capitals), etc. and Economic capital e.g. poverty, finance etc. It is perceived that the most affected groups are the women and children whiles men are less affected.
The livelihood assets like the social and economic structures are influenced by the management, such as demand management, which includes increase water resource productivity, water re-allocation etc. Institutional and legal frameworks like water rights/regulations. Technical planning and Investment in water provision, government policies as well as cultural norms which influences individuals and households ability to get water for consumption (IFAD, 2008). In light of this, Clement (2012) explains that households and communities under such conditions harvest rainwater, collect groundwater, and also depend on surfaces water (rivers, ponds, sprigs etc.), Water pumping technology, water vendor services, boreholes and other means to get water for households. Considering figure 2.2, the study looks at the effects of water shortages at the household level in the Kumawu Township in the Sekyere Kumawu District. In addition, the contributing factors, management and coping strategies were examined in relation to the sustainable livelihood approach. It is perceived that women and children are more affected than men.
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Household and Factors Effects Management 1.Climatic: 1.Social eg. Health, Community education, hunger etc. 1. Demand Strategies: temperature, rainfall, humidity Management: increase 2. Political eg. Gender 1.Rainwater etc.FFAC water resource discrimination etc. productivity, water re- harvesting 2. Environmental 2.Groundwater 3. Economical eg. allocation etc. Demography, collection Poverty, financial etc. 2. Institutional legal pollution, framework: water 3.Surfaces water economic rights/ regulations use (rivers, development, 3.Technical planning ponds, sprigs urbanization etc. etc.) & Investment in water provisions 4. Water pumping, technology
PERCEIVED AFFECTED
MOST AFFECTED LESS AFFECTED
Women and Children Men
Household water
Figure 2.2: Approach for Analyzing Effects of Water Shortages at the Household
Level
Sources: Adapted from DFID Livelihood Framework (1999).
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2.12 Chapter Summary
This chapter devoted to literature review examined various themes that help understand the study from the broader perspective. The discussions however centred specifically on the global perspectives on water resources, MDGs and SDGs on water. Also, the factors underpinning water shortages were explored as well as the effects and coping strategies of water shortages. The chapter finally examined the National Water Management policies and National Community Water Supply and Sanitation policy in Ghana were adequately discussed. The chapter closed in on the sustainable livelihood approach as the theoretical framework adopted for the study.
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CHAPTER THREE
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
This chapter provides information on the study area which includes location and size, geology and soil, climate and vegetation, demographic characteristics, water and sanitation, economic activities, health and educational facilities.
3.1.1 Location and Size
The Sekyere Kumawu District is located between latitude 0 20° N and 1 20°N and longitudes 6 52°W and 7 32°W. It covers an estimated land area of 3,500.56 square kilometers (SKDA, 2014). The District shares common boundaries with other Districts in the region. They are Sekyere Central to the West, Sekyere East and Asante Akim North
District s to the South. Besides sharing boundaries with these Districts in the Ashanti
Region, it also shares boundaries with other Districts outside Ashanti Region. They are
Kwahu North District in the Eastern Region to the East and the Sene District in the Brong
Ahafo Region to the North. Kumawu, is the District capital (SKDA, 2014).
3.1.2 Geology and Soil
According to Sekyere Kumawu District Assembly (2010), the soil in the area can be grouped according to their geological formation from which they have developed. It further explains that the four (4) main geological formations are Granitic, Birrimian,
Voltaian and Alluvium rocks. The geology of the area makes access to water like springs and other underground form of water difficult partly due to the porosity of the soils.
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Figure 3.1 Map of Sekyere Kumawu Districtshowing Study Areas Source: GIS Lab, Department of Geography (2016)
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On the other hand, some areas are rocky in nature which do not encourage infiltration for soils to hold water (SED, 2004). Soils that developed over granitic rocks are subdivided into two, namely Kumasi-Offin Compound and Bomso-Offin Compound. Kumasi – Offin compound Association is made up of six (6) members namely: Kumasi, Asuansi, Akroso,
Nta, Offin and Densu series. The Kumasi series normally occur on summits to upper slopes sites and followed by the Asuansi, Akroso, Nta, Offin and Densu in that order
(SED, 2004).
Dennis (2006) explains that the Densu series are normally found within the valley bottoms and are very poorly drained. The Bomso-Offin compound has large muscovite mica flakes and less of biotic mica flaskes which are characteristics of Kumasi and Asuansi series
(SED, 2004). The Kumasi-Asuansi series are ideal for production of tree crops such as cocoa, citrus, coffee, oil palm and food crops such as maize, plantation, cassava and cocoyam (SED, 2004). The Akroso series are better suited for both food and cash crops
(Dennis 2006).The soils however have a low inherent fertility, moderate water holding capacity and slight to moderate erosion hazard (SED, 2004). The Offin-Densu series are only suitable for rice, vegetables and sugar cane especially in the dry seasons under appropriate agronomic practices and fertilization. The Bomso-Offin soils are as fertile as the Kumasi and Asuansi but are easily prone to drought so that cocoa does not survive on them (Dennis 2006).
3.1.3 Climate and Vegetation
Climate
Climatic conditions in the District conform to that of the middle belt of Ghana (SKDA,
2014).
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It has a double maxima rainfall with the first rainy season starting from March to July and the second starting from September to October every year (Mihaye, 2013). Annual rainfall is recorded in 1500mm to 2000mm.The mean annual rainfall is around 125cm and 174cm
(Mihaye, 2013).The dry season which is really distinct starts in November and ends in
February. With this, water seems to be available during the raining season and the lack of it in the lean seasons.
The District has monthly mean temperature of 26ºC even though some part of the area records lower figures. The maximum temperature is about 29ºC (SKDA, 2010). Large scale of clearing vegetation and water sheds for farming and settlement particularly around
Kumawu is likely to be one of the major causes of dwindling rainfall and effect of perennial water supply shortages (Adofo, 2005). Logging and Removal of trees is also another threat to the environment, it is therefore having a negative impact on the ecosystem (Dennis 2006).
Vegetation
The southern part of the District is covered with semi-deciduous forest. Also, around the area can be found the BoumFum Forest Reserve (SKDA, 2014). Efforts are being made to plant teak within the forest (Dennis 2006). The northern part is covered with Guinea
Savannah and consists of short deciduous fire resistant trees. The country is divided into two parts, the transitional and forest zones (SKDA, 2010).The transitional zone covers about 70 percent while the forest zone covers about 30 percent (SKDA, 2014).
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3.1.4 Demographic Characteristics
Population
The Kumawu Township has a population of 23,899 constituting 25.78% of the District population and growing at a growth rate of 3.4% per annum (GSS, 2010). The composition of female and male in the population is 50.7 % and 49.3% respectively and it is expected to increase in future years (SKDA, 2010).
3.1.5 Water and Sanitation
Inadequate access to potable water is one of the main problems confronting the District for many years. Meanwhile a water supply project is currently underway to bring potable water to the people of Kumawu and its environs (SKDA, 2014). The construction company, Tahal Construction, is expected to complete the project as soon as possible. The overall progress of Kumawu, Konongo and Kwahu Ridge, otherwise known as the 3Ks
Water Supply Project is not yet completed (SKDA, 2014). A critical analysis of data collected on water and sanitation facilities in the District vis-a-vis the population revealed that access to potable water and sanitation facilities by the people in the District is woefully inadequate (SKDA, 2014). The inadequate supply of water in the District poses a threat to the socio- economic development of the people in the District especially the inhabitants within Kumawu Town (SKDA, 2010).
3.1.6 Economic Activities
The main economic activities engaged in by the people in Kumawu are cultivation of food and cash crops, and small scale processing of agricultural produce (Adofo, 2005). Over four out of every five households (81.1%) undertake an agricultural activity (SKDA,
2010). The food crops grown are maize, cassava, plantain, cocoyam and yam. Dennis
(2006) explains that cash crops such as cocoa and palm nuts are grown in the District on a
39 small scale farms. The major livestock in the District are sheep, goats, cattle, rabbit, grass cutter and pigs (SKDA, 2010).In spite of the abundance of farming and agricultural raw materials, some people work in few cottage industries engage in palm oil and palm kernel oil production, soap making, shoe making, batik and tie and dye, pottery, carpentry, blacksmithing and kente weaving exist in communities (SED, 2004). There is a considerable amount of clay deposits in other communities which can be used in the pottery industry (Adofo, 2005).
The District is endowed with a lot of tourism sites that people serve as officers and tour guides as a form of employment; some of the sites are the Onwam Crocodile Pond,
Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Bomfoum Forest Reserve, Bomfobiri Waterfalls and
Dwentiso Sites at Bodomase (SKDA, 2010).
3.1.7 Social Amenities
There are seven (7) public health centers, one private hospital and three (3) private clinics in the District. These health facilities offer health service to the inhabitants. However, cholera and malaria are common in the area due to the poor sanitation and poverty among the people. For instance reported cases of malaria in 2011 were around 19,823 and increased to about 24,455 in 2013 (SKDA, 2010).
There are One Hundred and Sixty-Two (162) schools in the District; 56 kindergartens with
56 primary schools,44 Junior High Schools, 5 Senior High Schools and a
Technical/Vocational School. Kumawu Township alone has 82 schools as at 2010 ranging from Kindergarten to Technical/Vocational level in the District capital (SKDA, 2012). All public schools are benefiting from the Capitation Grant of which few are enjoying School
Feeding Programme. There are neither Tertiary Schools nor schools for the Physically
Challenged in the District (SKD, 2010).
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3.2 Research Methodology
This part of the research deals with the methods and procedures that were used in collecting data for the study. These are discussed under various themes including research design, the study area, sources of data, household survey, sampling techniques, in-depth interviews, and data analysis.
3.2.1 Research Design
The research design involves the overall plan used to obtain information in the research.
The design identifies the tools and procedures needed to achieve reliable and valid results of research (Teye, 2012). The research design used in this study is mixed method. It included both quantitative and qualitative strategies. The quantitative strategy was used for household survey whiles the qualitative technique was applied in the in-depth interviews and observation at the study area. This is because mixed method designs corroborate each other; the qualitative helps bring out the subjective analysis to complement statistical outcomes (Tewksbury, 2009).
3.2.2 Selection of the Study Area
Sekyere Kumawu District is one of the 30 administrative and political Districts in the
Ashanti Region of Ghana. Kumawu Township is the District capital. The township consists five of settlements which are Etia, Apebiakyere, Kyreremim, Hyiawu and
Ahenboboano. These townships were selected because it is impossible to study the entire
District within a short time. Again, the five towns together have a total population of about
23,899 constituting 25.78% as compared to other areas in the District. The growth rate of the town is 3.4% per annum (GSS, 2010).The researcher also considered the findings on water related issues done in the District. Further, the inhabitants have a homogeneous way of life which describes their livelihood for survival (Sarpong 2013).
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3.2.3 Primary Sources
The primary sources of data collection included household surveys in Kumawu Township in the Sekyere Kumawu District by the use of household questionnaire survey, in-depth interviews and observations. The study area was visited and questionnaires were distributed to the household heads to elicit responds on the effects of water shortages. In the quantitative research, questionnaire is noted as one of the most effective instruments for measuring and gathering numerical data (Mihaye, 2013). Mellenbergh (2008) explains questionnaire as the tool consisting of different question styles and modes asked to individuals to obtain useful numerical information on given topics. In-depth interviews were also conducted for the agencies like staffs of GWCL staff of Gender, Children and
Social Protection ministry and the Assembly Members and opinion leaders in the Kumawu
Township. Conducting interviews is reliable method as it brings quick and factual response (Sarpsford, 1999). The use of in-depth interview method is noted to involve a face to face interaction to pursue a specific topic that the respondent may raise during the discussion (Luci, 2012).
3.2.4 Sample size
There were 200 respondents for the household survey and an additional 6 stakeholders for in-depth interview. The researcher used the population of these settlements to proportionally allocate sample sizes to each settlement. Thus, the Yamane (1967:886) formula for sample size calculation, n=N/1+N (e2), where n = sample size, N= the population size, and e= level of precision was used to determine the sample size for the study. Using the proportional allocation formula, the sample size for each settlement was determined by using the formula, S= (sP/TP)*n, where S= sample size, sP= Population of settlement, TP= Total population and n= sample size. Again, the researcher divided the sample size by a constant factor to obtain the sample interval which was then used to
42 select houses and then household heads. However, in the absence of a household head, any elder person available considered for the survey.
3.2.5 Sampling Technique
The multi stage sampling technique was adopted for the questionnaire survey. At the first stage, the study randomly selected all five communities including Etia, Apebiakyere, kyreremim, Hyiawu and Ahenboboano. At the second stage, the systematic sampling technique was used to select individual households based on the formula S= (sP/TP)*n.
This allowed for the research to select every nth house. The household heads were finally reached using the purposive sampling technique at the third stage. The study made attempts at giving fair representation to all sexes especially females. The female is believed to be the most user of household water and so have the ability to offer detail information on the effects of water on households. In some cases where the mother of the home (wife of head of household) is available, she is considered to be the main respondent where her knowledge on water usage in the household is weighty.
The study also conducted in-depth interviews with purposively selected respondents who constitute the major stakeholders in the management of water resources at the local and national levels. Tongco (2007) explains purposive sampling technique as the deliberate choice of an informant due to qualities the informant possesses. Purposively, 6 respondents (key stakeholder) were selected from the Staff of GWCL (1), Assembly
Members (2), and opinion Leaders (3) to provide information for the study in the Sekyere
Kumawu. The use of this technique is unique due to the fact that it helps solicit detailed information from experts in the field of study. Interview is also said to be a reliable method as it brings quick and factual response on subject investigated (Sarpsford, 1999).
43
3.2.6 Observations
Observations involve the use of our natural sense of seeing, hearing and testing to whatever goes on in the surroundings (Tewksbury, 2009). In undertaking the research, observation was critically undertaken at the selected water sites and households in all five settlements within the Kumawu Township. One of the uses of this qualitative instrument in this study was to help bring out the perception of people, their understanding and giving meaning to some cultural norms varies based on differences in age, interest and educational levels (Tewksbury, 2009). Observations helped in facilitating the achievement of the objectives of this study. Through observation the researcher also made certain descriptions and analysis of the study area.
3.2.7 Secondary Data
Secondary data were also collected from journals, published thesis, and documented materials from various water related institutions. Also, data on population growth trends covering 1984, 2000 and 2010 was retrieved from the Sekyere Kumawu District
Assembly. These information sources facilitated the achievement of the set objectives 1, 3 and 4 in this study. Rainfall and temperature data (1982-2012) was also retrieved from the
Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet, 2017) to analyse variability in climatic conditions in the Sekyere Kumawu area. The secondary data gathered provided background information as well supporting views to the primary data. Finally, satellite images of the study area were also sourced from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website for land use/land cover analysis.
3.2.8 Techniques of Data Analysis
Data analysis is the stage where the researcher makes critical observation and examination of the research data collected through both qualitative and quantitative method which assisted in interpreting the results and draw conclusions (Tewksbury, 2009). The data
44 collected were subjected to different data analysis. The research used the statistical package for the Social Science (SPSS V.20.0) to analyse the questionnaires and the
Microsoft Office Excel to theme interview responses. Again, the results were displayed as pie and bar graphs as well as tables in Excel spreadsheet for quicker visual impression on cases presented. The hypotheses stated were tested using a non-parametric test (chi- square) using SPSS.
3.3 Land Use/Land Cover Analysis
To monitor changes in land use/cover changes, 30m resolution satellite images from
LANDSAT 5, 7 ETM+ and 8 sensors were obtained for the periods 1990, 2003, and 2015 respectively. These satellite data were obtained from UGSG
(www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) for row 55 and path 194. ArcGIS and ERDAS Imagine software were the software used to process the images. Figure 3.2 shows a flow chart outlining the steps adapted to produce land cover maps. The images downloaded were geometrically accurate as they are rectified to WGS 84 Cartesian Coordinate System. The resulting images were clipped to the extent of the study area. The study used the supervised classification method using the maximum likelihood classifier. The specific classes included built up/bare land, vegetation and water (refer to table 3.1). The change detection was conducted for the periods 1990-2003 and 2003 to 2015 (See table and the percentages subsequently calculated.
Using visual interpretation supported by high resolution data of the study area, the land use classes were identified and sampled for use as training sites in supervised classification. Where pixels exhibit similar reflectance to information classes, they were grouped using maximum likelihood algorithm. This algorithm Maximum likelihood
Classification is a statistical decision criterion to assist in the classification of pixels to a
45 class of highest probability. Area statistics in each category were calculated in square kilometres (See figure 3.2).
Landsat 5 Landsat 7 Landsat 8 1990 ETM+ 2003 2015
Geometric Projection
Classification by Maximum
Likelihood Algorithm
Land Cover Land Cover Land Cover 1990 2003 2015
Change Change Detection (Rate of Statistics change)
Figure 3.2 Image Processing Flow Chart
Source: CERSGIS, UG, 2017
Change detection was performed after classification to produce statistics about land cover transitions over the periods studied. Land use/land cover maps and temperature maps were
46 composed using ArcGIS map making capabilities with uniform legend and appropriate mapping scale.
3.3.1 Participatory Geographic Information System
The Landsat Images used for the study was unable to show the river body in Kumawu.
This was due mainly to the thick tree cover on the surface of the water. The study however adopted the participatory GIS method in determining the width and depth of the river over the study periods (1990, 2003 and 2015).
The major river, Onwam used to be the major source of water supply for the Kumawu
Township. In order to get estimates on the width and depth of river Onwam, 4 elders
(opinion leaders) and a surveyor together with the researcher visited the river site. The elders provided information regarding the past dimension and depth of the river as the surveyor also measured the descriptions provided. The surveyor tape measure was used in carrying the measurement as directed by the elders. The measurements were taken at various points as directed before the averages were calculated over each of the years
(1990, 2003 and 2015). Finally, the exercise was conducted over two periods including the major raining season (June-September) and the dry season (December-February).
Table 3.1: Classification of Images Land Use Category Description Built-up Built areas (residential, commercial, industrial, transportation) and all other impervious surfaces Bare land All bare lands/areas without any vegetative cover Vegetation Grassland/pasture, forest, cropland and shrub land Water All water bodies both natural and man-made Source: CERSGIS, UG, 2017
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
RESPONDENTS CHARACTERISTICS, CAUSES AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
EFFECTS OF WATER SHORTAGE
4.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the results and discussion on the characteristics, causes and socio- economic effects of water shortage on residents in Kumawu. The first part of the chapter covers an analysis of the socio demographic characteristics of the respondents. The chapter also asses the perception of residents on the causes of water shortage in the community.
4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
The socio-demographics examined includes the age distribution, duration of stay in the study area, gender, household size, level of education and major occupation of residents in
Kumawu. The results of the demographic characteristics are summarised in Table 4.1.
4.2.1 Age Distribution of Respondents
The age characteristic of Kumawu is structured into three (3) classes as presented in the table 4.1. These classes include those within the ages of 18-34 years, 35-49 years, and 50 years and above.
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Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Variable Freq(%) Variable Freq(%)
Sex Length of Stay Male 81 (40.5) 0-10 19 (9.5)
Female 119 (59.5) 11-20 1140 (70)
Age 21 and above 41 (20.5)
18-34 48 (24) Marital Status
35-49 93 (46.5) Married 139 (69.5)
50 and above 59 (29.5) Unmarried 12 (6.0)
Occupation Divorced 32 (16)
Farmer 86 (43) Widow 7 (3.5)
Trader 66 (33) Widower 10 (5)
Civil/Public servant 38 (19)
Artisan (10) 5
Educational Level Household Size No Education 53 (26.5) 1-3 21 (10.5)
Prim/JHS/Middle school (93) 46.5 4-6 77 (38.5)
SHS/Voc/Tech (38)19.0 7-10 76 (38)
Tertiary (16) 8.0 10 and above 26 (13.0)
Source: Field Data, 2016
It is observed from table 4.1 that majority of respondents were between 35-49 years representing 46.5 percent. This is followed by those 50 years and above of age with 29.5 percent. Those within 18-34 years represent 24 percent of respondents. The fact that about two-thirds of the respondents fall within the age group of 18-49 years indicates a very youthful population in Kumawu. The findings are in tandem with the Ghana Statistical
Service findings that the population of Kumawu is youthful with 50.8 percent of the residents falling within the ages 15-64 years (GSS, 2010).
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4.2.2 Respondents Duration of Stay in Community
The study found that majority of respondents (70%) had stayed in Kumawu Township for
11- 20 years. Also, 20.5 percent of the respondents have lived in the community for over
20 years with the remaining 9.5 percent of respondents staying 10 years or less in the community (See Table 4.1). Thus, it is evident that nearly all respondents have spent a significant part of their stay in Kumawu. This justifies respondents’ ability to provide in- depth views on their experiences with the water situation over the years in the study area.
4.2.3 Gender of Respondents
Gender is an important demographic variable. It helps to understand the vulnerabilities in society and how social and economic conditions affect men and women differently. It is evident as shown in Table 4.1 that most respondents representing a total of 59.5 percent were females and the men accounted for 40.5 percent of respondents. A higher number of females corroborates data from the GSS (2010) which indicates that the female population of the District dominates across all age groups except for the ages between 0-4 years. This explains partly the higher number of female respondents in the study. Also, during the household survey, many men were rather ready to allow their spouse to respond to the questions since they widely held the perceptions that, women were the most users of water.
4.2.4 Household Size of Respondents
Household refers to the basic residential unit that includes all individuals living in the same dwelling (Sullivan & Stevens, 2003). Household size is a key determinant in assessing the capacities, choices and coping strategies available to household members in a particular geographical setting. In the context of this study, household size is very important in terms of the level of usage of water and the number of people who are likely affected by water shortage in each household. The study shows that 38.5 percent of the
50 respondents have a household size of 4-6 members. Also, 38 percent of respondents have a household size of 7-10 members. Furthermore, households with sizes above 10 and 1-3 had 13 percent and 10.5 percent respectively. The observations however points to the fact that most households in Kumawu have usually large sizes averaging between 4-10 members. This finding, however, makes the regional and District level figures of 4.2 and
4.6 respectively fall within (GSS, 2010). The higher household size in Kumawu town is as a result of a number of factors. The compound housing system offers a plausible explanation to the observed large household sizes together with other factors including the traditional extended family ties that encourages close and distant families living together within the same household.
The relationship between the large household sizes and the issue of water shortage is that, demand for water increases with increasing household sizes. On the flip side, this puts a lot of pressure on the inadequate water resource. It also puts a lot of stress on their finances in their quest to find water for the usage of each member of the household (This is further examined in the proceeding paragraphs).
4.2.5 Level of Education of Respondents
Literacy and education are important for successful community development. Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that develop individual capacities for well-being and social development. There is a relationship between education, human resource development and economic growth (UNDP, 2012). Education enlightens people about their social responsibilities and thus awakes their consciousness about the sustainable use of resources. Sustainable use of water resources improves when people are aware of their responsibilities to preserve such water sources especially rivers.
Where level of education is very low, the likelihood of people engaging in activities that
51 deplete water resources is high more so because they are not aware of the repercussions of their actions.
From table 4.1 the study reveals that there is an appreciable level of literacy among respondents. Aside a 26.5 percent of respondents made up of 10 percent females and 16.5 percent males who have not had any education, the rest 73.5 percent have had some level of education (see table 4.1). Majority of those who are educated had basic education with just 8 percent of respondents having reached the tertiary level.
Furthermore, a cross tabulation was conducted to ascertain the percentage of women to men who had formal education in Kumawu. The results reveal that out of those who had no formal education at all, there were more males than females. More females have had basic education than males with 32.5 percent for the former and 14 percent for the latter.
In the secondary education category, 14 percent of females have had secondary education and just 5 percent of males have had secondary education among the respondents.
Similarly, data from the GSS (2010) also indicated that the level of education in Sekyere
Kumawu District is high with 42 percent of resident’s currently attending school and 40.2 percent having attended school in the past. This, thus confirms the findings of the research that significant percentages of residents of Kumawu are literates with those with formal education higher than those without any formal education.
4.2.6 Occupation of Respondents
Table 4.1 also shows the occupation of the respondents in Kumawu. It is observed that agriculture remain the major occupation of most respondents with 43 percent of respondents engaged in farming. Also, 33 percent of the respondents are engaged in trading and 19 percent of the respondents are civil servants. A few respondents are engaged in artisanal works (5 percent). This confirms data from the GSS (2010) which
52 shows agriculture as the major occupation, followed by service, sales and trade among other small based economic professions.
The study further included a cross tabulation (see Table 4.2), where more males (55.6 percent) were found to engage in farming than females (34.5 percent). In trading, whereas
49.1 percent of females were traders compared to 12.3 percent of males who were into trading. Further, 19.8 percent of males were engaged as civil/public servants with similarly
18.5 percent females also employed in this sector. For artisanal workers, a total of 12.3 percent of males were engaged with no female employed as an artisan worker. This confirms widely held views among the people, who noted that farming and artisanal works were the preserve of men who are to put food on table, whereas, trading also offered a handy employment to many women in the study area.
Table 4.2: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Occupation Farmer Trader Civil/Public artisan servant
Male 55.6 12.3 19.8 12.3
Female 34.5 49.2 18.5 0
Source: Field Data, 2016
4.3 Major Sources of Water for Kumawu Township
Environmental resource analysis manifests itself with regards to the appraisal of resource supply and the demand on available resources. In the case of water resource, it is important to explore the main source of water that people depend on and appraise the extent to which people get stressed to get water. The sources of water to the people of
Kumawu are presented in Figure 4.1.
53
The findings show that the principal sources of water for the people of Kumawu is pipe water with mainly rain water and ground water as alternative sources for residents. From the three sources of water, majority of respondents depended on pipe as their principal source of water supply making up 59.5 percent. Groundwater making up 38 percent and
2.5 percent for rainfall are the alternative sources. There is heavy reliance on pipe water in the communities even though residents indicated the struggles they have to go through to access pipe water at vantage points across the communities. They reported that access was limited due mainly to unreliability in supply.
According to a respondent during field interviews she indicated that,
“it is quite difficult relying solely on pipe water, then you have to get up early and go to fetch otherwise if its morning you meet very long queues. It is mostly frustrating for those of us who do not have the pipes in our houses or the public one far from us” (a 52years old mother at Ahenboboano)
Another opinion leader also reported that:
“the Kumawu communities are facing water problems. People including school children spend good productive hours in search of water. We continue to make efforts with several promises of increasing the pipes by extending the pipelines to neighbourhoods for people to connect to their homes but that is still yet to happen. Getting water has become stressful in Kumawu”. (Opinion Leader, Hyiawu).
The results however differ from the picture painted at the District level. According to the
GSS (2010) majority of residents rather depended on the river/stream, followed by borehole/pump/tube well and tanker supply/vendor services. These sources however did not feature strongly in the responses. Pipe water the reliable source to those in Kumawu however accounts for 15.7 percent at the District level. The variations observed in the source of water for residents in Kumawu and that at the District level, according to some residents is as a result of the shift from relying primarily on river/streams to pipe borne
54 water as the water bodies were facing various forms of human pollution as well as drying up due to silting. The GWCL has become quite reliable in their supply of good clean water at its inception. This saw many people shifting their reliance on streams/rivers, and boreholes especially, to pipe borne water.
59.5
60
50 38 40
30
Percentages 20 2.5 10
0 Pipe Rainwater Underground Water Sources
Figure 4.1 Main Sources of Water for Kumawu Township
Source: Field Data, 2016
The sources of water for the individual communities in Kumawu however vary from the general picture. From figure 4.2, it is observed that the main source of water for
Ahenboboano (30%) and Etia (9%) is pipe borne water. Underground water sources represent an alternative source of water. Rainwater however is not recognised as a water source for the people of Ahenboboano and Hyiawu. In Hyiawu, Kyeremin and
Apobiakyere residents depended more on underground water accounting for 14.5 percent,
7.0 percent and 9.5 percent respectively with pipe being their other source. They noted the supply challenges with the pipe water as the main reason for the shift to groundwater an
55 alternative source. Rainwater harvesting and usage is low across all communities in
Kumawu accounting for only 1%, 0.5% and 1% respectively in Kyeremin, Etia and
Apebiakyere. Even though pipe borne water remains the principal source of water in
Kumawu, access and reliability has accounted for the heavy reliance on alternative sources in some communities. For example according to a woman:
“The pipe water is clean and good, but it is so unreliable now, and I spend so much time queuing for water. That is the reason I mostly now go and fetch from the well (ground water) there” (46years old woman at Hyiawu)
Also, in Kyeremin, an opinion leader indicates that;
“Water is a major problem for us in our community. Look the taps do not flow as you think for the very few people who have connection to their homes. Also, the number of public stand pipes is woefully inadequate. We struggle always (school children, parents and others) getting water and the situation if not addressed it affect us in many ways” (66years old opinion leader, Apebiakyere)
30 30
25
20 14.5 15 11.5 9 9.5 Pipe Percentages 10 7 7 4.5 Rainwater 5 2.5 2 Groundwater
0
Communities
Figure 4.2: Sources of Water for Communities
Source: Field Data, 2016
56
Rainwater Collection at Borehole at Etia Kyeremin
Plate 4.1 Source of Water Source: Field Data, 2016
The sources of water to these communities are without doubt limited as there is much reliance on either pipe or the alternative ground water and rainfall. The dependence on the two alternative sources of water however raises questions of quality, adequacy and availability of supply as is partly the case for the principal source (Pipe). Reports from residents in this chapter demonstrate the struggles people go through daily to have access to water. The study therefore has demonstrated a clear case of water shortage in Kumawu.
Albeit, a key focus of this section sought to explore the factors accounting for the shortage of water supply to the people of Kumawu either from the principal sources or alternative sources of water supply.
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4.3.1 Perceived Factors Causing Water Shortage in Kumawu
The study further attempted to establish the factors accounting for the shortage in water in
Kumawu. The communities enumerated a number of factors as the major causes of water shortage in Kumawu. The factors, however, cut across all five communities affecting the entire District rather than as a peculiar case to individual communities. They further noted that any problem encountered in one community goes a long way to have damaging effects on adjoining community water sources.
Also, residents perceptions on whether these factors have an even effect on their water courses or there are variations in the extent of effect. These factors however were the perceptions of community members based on their varied experiences and observations over their stay in Kumawu. The factors presented in Figure 4.3 indicate clearly that for each of the perceived causes of water shortage, it was critical and needs urgent attention.
Except for water pollution that recorded 70.5 percent for respondents who agreed it is a cause to the water shortage, all others scored beyond 96 percent. All factors nevertheless need attention.
Under climate change, people believed that they have seen an increase in the daily temperatures as well as a change in the pattern of rainfall which has become erratic in recent years. Climate change is perceived to have very significant effect on the waters as high temperatures leads to drying and reduction in water levels (higher evaporation rates) as well as erratic rainfall which leads to reduced levels of groundwater to access.
According to a male farmer in Hyiawu, he stated that:
"our community has depended heavily on groundwater for our daily use. But I tell you that, there are certain periods that the water levels reduces and goes far down. Sometimes when there is rainfall, you see the water levels in the wells coming up
58
but after the sun's heat the well water level reduces in a matter of hours" (54years Old Farmer, Hyiawu)
Again, another resident in Apebiakyere also reported that:
"this climate change is becoming very serious. There is total change in temperature and rainfall here and in other places. Look walking out in the sun sometimes feels like your skin is going to get burn or peel off. It's the same thing our groundwater and water bodies suffer. They dry up due to the high temperatures and the rain too has not been regular as it used to be many years back" (38 years old teacher, Apebiakyere)
97 93 96.5 96.5 100 90 70.5 80 70 60 50 29.5 40 30
Percentages 20 3 7 3.5 3.5 10 0 Yes No
Causes of Water Shortage
Figure 4.3: Perceptions on Causes of Water Shortage Source: Field Data, 2016
Others view population change as a cause of water, many residents noted that there is increasing demand for water for domestic and industrial use as populations continue to grow. They noted that it appears in Kumawu, the population's demand for water has outstripped the water available and the sources of water. This they believe accounts for the shortage of water in Kumawu. Listening to the discussions on population increase as a cause of water shortage some residents shared their views.
"This was not the situation some 20 years back at all. Look our population has not been this huge, households were smaller in sizes but the situation is different now. Here (Kumawu) is now the capital of the district and because of that many people
59
have moved in here. They didn't come in with water so what we have available, is what we all struggle for" (43years old Female resident, Ahenboboano)
Another resident in Kyeremin expressed a differing view on population. He indicated that:
"People are giving birth to more children making family sizes larger in all our communites. Over two decades now, do you think our numbers will be the same, No. But the sources to water has not improved or increased much apart from few boreholes which have become non-functional. So how does all these people depend on this few water sources" (36years old man, Kyeremin)
Other respondents have also noted that the expansion of communities has necessitated that people cut down trees for use in the communities. The continued reduction in tree cover has exposed water bodies to intense and direct sunlight causing evaporation of surface waters. Furthermore, as settlements expand due to demands for housing spaces, people have built near some water bodies and continue to cut down trees along the river banks for better access. These factors have affected the water bodies. Others also indicated that these the water bodies have been polluted as a result of the uncontrolled use. It was noted that the struggle for water has led to large numbers of people moving to fetch water at the same time causing the water's colour sometimes to change. People also leave materials they come along with including rubbers, papers and sticks along the river banks that eventually moves into the water course. Finally, increased siltation along the river banks is seen as a major factor as clearing is not done on a regular basis. These reasons featured strongly during interviews across the study communities.
4.3.1.1 Perception on Climate Change as Cause of Water Shortage
Climate change has become a global concern, in many ways. Many have identified climatic variables as playing a key part in the supply of water resources across the globe. It is often perceived that with increasing temperature and reduction in rainfall in many places especially in the tropical regions, there is concern on shortage in water supply. The
60 research therefore sought to find out the perception of local people about climate change as a cause of shortage of water in Kumawu. From the figure 4.3, the residents across all communities demonstrate high knowledge on climate change and the resultant effects on their water bodies and other aspects of their livelihoods. Most residents indicated that, apart from anthropogenic factors, climate change exacerbated the water shortage phenomenon in Kumawu. Noting among many other physical indicators, a farmer described the high heat experienced in recent years as a sign of climate change.
“Now, all these period there is abundance of firewood, and trees easily get dried and are cut down for firewood, either for personal uses or to be sold for money” (a 54year old Farmer, Ahenboboano)
Again, a female farmer, also observed that, the rainfall pattern has changed as it appears it has rather been shortened over the recent past. She stated that
“Planting usually begins with the rains over here but now the planting season is delayed due to changes in the rainfall pattern. My husband got most of his maize seeds burnt last year before the initial rains set in as he missed his timing for the first rain” (a 36years old female, Etia)
Lastly, another male farmer was of the view that,
“the nature of the ground gives them so much stress in trying to tap ground water. The excessive sunshine with declining rainfall patterns means we keep digging deeper into the ground before reaching water. This used not to be the case” (a 43years old male resident, Hyiawu)
4.3.1.2 Rainfall and Temperature Conditions in the Sekyere Kumawu District
The study first examined the rainfall and temperature situation to support the views of residents on the changing climate in the District. The rainfall graph (Figure 4.4) showed a general fluctuating distribution with peak rainfall periods occurring in 1985, 1988, 2000 and 2002. Over the period, the minimum rainfall value at 891.5mm was recorded in 1982.
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The year with the highest rainfall however occurred in 2007 (1794.9mm).The annual variations in rainfall amounts show that there has been a decline in rainfall amount from
2007 to 2012 (1164.6mm) (See figure 4.4). The gradient of the graph showed that rainfall increased at 6.4716mm annually. However, only 7.35% of the variations in rainfall are accounted for by time (year). The larger variations therefore are caused by other factors rather than time, possibly climate change.
On the other hand, temperature had similarly gone through fluctuations over the 30 years period under study. The temperature graph (see Figure, 4.5) indicates that temperature rose steadily from 26.1ºC in 1982 (the minimum over the last 30 years). In 1989 however temperature was high at 27 ºC. Again, the year 1998 also recorded a higher temperature at
27.3 ºC. Annual temperature values for 2008, 2009 and 2010 however remained quite stable with the highest ever at 27.4ºCin 2010 and over the 30 years period under study.
The gradient of the temperature however showed that, temperature increased at 0.0186 ºC per annum. Only 33.97% (R2) of the variations in temperature is accounted for by variations in time (years) leaving about 66% of the variations to be explained by other factors, perhaps climate change occurrences (See Figure 4.5).
The variations observed in the rainfall and temperature data confirms the perceptions of residents and further depicts that climate change is affecting the Sekyere Kumawu District and hence had definite impact on water supply in the District.
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1800 y = 6.4716x + 1216.9 1600 R² = 0.0735 1400
1200
1000
800
600 TotalAnnual Rainfall (mm) 400
200
0 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year Figure 4.4 Graph Showing Rainfall Distribution at Kumawu (1982-2012)
Source: Data from GMet, 2017
27.5 y = 0.0186x + 26.427 R² = 0.3397 27.0
26.5
C) ° 26.0
25.5 Average Average Temperature ( 25.0 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year
Figure 4.5 Graph Showing Temperature Distribution at Kumawu (1982-2012) Source: Data from GMet, 2017
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In Ghana, climate change effects are discussed widely in various contexts with considerations for water supply among the key sectors. Climate change predictions indicate that extreme weather events will change future rivers and other water bodies will be impacted negatively. Also, there are expected increases in flood cases leading to pollution of water bodies that will restrict their availability and use (Kankam-Yeboah et al., 2010). Again, according to the CSIR-WRI, it is predicted that even without climate change, Ghana is likely to suffer from water stress by 2025 (cited by Kankam-Yeboah et al., 2010). Similarly, Charlton and Arnell (2014) noted that climate change has dire consequences to water security due to changes in climatic variables including precipitation and temperature. This argument however relates strongly with the findings of the study as
Kumawu is also experiencing climate change which is among the chief factors affecting water supply in the area.
Even though the study established that the principal source of water is pipe, it is noteworthy that reduction in rainfall and increasing temperatures leads to the drying up of water streams. The water bodies themselves serve as alternative source of water for local people, and also serve as supply source to water treatment plants and dams from which pipes get their water supply. Thus climate change as a cause of water shortage can both be direct and indirect. Directly, it limits alternative sources of water for people and indirectly as it reduces supply to pipe water reservoirs. Furthermore, as indicated in Figure 4.2 an equally significant number of respondents depend on underground water including boreholes and hand dug wells. Thus with limited rains, there is the likelihood that the water table will reduce and that affects underground water supply. This exacerbates the constraints on water supply in Kumawu.
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4.3.1.3 Land Cover Change in Kumawu
The study also conducted a land use/land cover change of the Sekyere Kumawu District to ascertain the level of expansion in population and changes in vegetation and water bodies.
From figure 4.6, the study classified the images into built up areas, bare land and vegetation over a 25 years period (1990, 2003 and 2015). The map shows that the physical area has seen an extension mainly in the form of built up areas or human settlements. In
1990, the built up area covered a total area of 3.92sq.km. This saw an increase to about
4.2093sq.km in 2003. In 2015, the total coverage reached 7.461sq.km. The percentage change over the period’s show a 28 percent from 1990 to 2003 and 77.25 percent change between 2003 and 2015. The reasons adduced to the astronomical increase in the built up area in the district is as a result of the population increase as discussed under section 4.3.4.
Similarly, bare lands have seen a decrease over the period of study. In 1990, the total land area remaining bare constituted 60.836sqkm. This increased to 128.6991sqkm in 2003 and
139.113sqkm in 2015. The percentage changes observed however showed that between
1990 and 2003 bared lands changed over a total of 112 percent. The figure drastically reduced to 8.1 percent between 2003 and 2015. This in part is attributed to the assembly’s efforts in reducing burning rates and largely due to the fact that all images used for the study were captured in the dry season (1990- December, 2003- March and 2015 –
December). Finally, Over the selected periods, vegetation cover in the District has seen continues reduction, decreasing at a rate of 16.2% and 3.9% both between 1990 and 2003 and 2003 and 2015 periods respectively.
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Table 4.3 Change Detection of Image Classes
Change Detection Area(sq.km) Class 1990-2003 2003-2015 1990 2003 2015 28% 77.3% Built 3.29 4.2093 7.461 112% 8.1% Bare 60.836 128.6991 139.113 16.2 3.9% Vegetation 451.195 388.3239 373.7412 Source: CERSGIS, UG
The Onwam River according to oral history was an open source of water for residents in
Kumawu until the Ghana Water Company provided a water treatment plant on the river to serve the Kumawu Township and its environs. Over the years the decrease in the water levels of the river has led to a shutdown of the treatment plant as further production could result in the damage of the plant. The participatory GIS results on the depth and width of river Onwam was conducted to ascertain the state of the river. From table 4.4, the river has decreased in width and depth since 1990 (5.5m and 6.2m) to 3.2 m and 6.0m respectively in 2003 during the raining seasons. In 2015 however, the river further shrank to 3m in width and 5.9m in depth. The factors as according to a resident is as a result of poor management. He stated that:
“The river has been heavily silted because no one is responsible for its protection. Also, people only come around to cut trees for their own purposes along the banks leaving huge amounts of debris (leaves, tree barks, branches) that have fallen into the water to decay and silt the water course” (A 72years old Male resident)
The situation in the dry season is however not different as water levels continue to fall in the Onwam river. The very low levels are mainly due to the fact that the period December to February records the lowest amount of rainfall coupled with extremely low humidity levels.
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Table 4.4 Width and Depth of River Onwam in Seasons/Years YEARS Raining (June –September) Drying (December - February width depth width depth 1990 5.5m apart 6.2m 3.33m apart 2.1m 2003 3.2m apart 6.0m 3.0m apart 2.0m 2015 3m apart 5.9m 2.0m apart 1.9m Total 11.7m apart 18.1m 8.33m apart 6m Source: Field Data, 2016
According to the manager of the GWCL in Kumawu,
“the water treatment plant has been relocated from its former location (on the Onwam River) to the Afram River due mainly to the low levels of water recorded on the Onwam River” (Manager, GWCL).
The view is supported by table 4.3 which shows the continued decrease in water levels in the Onwam River.
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Figure 4.6: Land Use Land Cover Map of Sekyere Kumawu District Source: Field Data, 2016
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4.3.1.4 Gendered Perceptions on Climate Change and Water Shortage
Further the study sought to find out the gendered variations in the perception of climate change as the cause of water shortage in Kumawu. The result as shown in Figure 4.7, shows the perception of climate change as the cause of water shortage was high among both male and female groups in Kumawu. Notwithstanding, the high perceptions among the two gender groups, a total of 5% of the total female respondents do not perceive climate change as the cause of water shortage whereas all males perceived climate change as the cause of water shortage. Similarly, the Global Gender and Climate Alliance
(GGCA, n.d) noted that in Senegal and Uganda, men tend to have more weather change information than women and this affects their perception on various aspects of their economic lives. According to Damptey and Essel (2012) climate change has significant impact on water supply and tend to affect women more than men at the household level.
100 95 100 90 80 70 60 50 Male 40 Female Percentages 30 20 5 10 0 0 Yes No Gender Perceptions on Climate Change
Figure 4.7 Gender Perceptions on Climate Change and Water Shortage Source: Field Data, 2016
They established that women were more concerned about water provision at the household level and therefore needed to spend more time in search of water. With climate change
69 perceptions higher among male populations than female populations, its effect on water availability tend to place significant burden on females than males.
The study further conducted a chi square test to determine whether there is any relationship between gender and perceptions of climate change as a cause of water shortage. With a chi-square value of X2= 4.210 at a 1 degree of freedom and a p-value of
0.040, the test is considered a significant one at test level of 0.05. This therefore implies that perceptions of climate change as a cause of water shortage is dependent on gender.
The second hypothesis therefore had the alternate accepted that there is a significant relationship between gender and perceptions of climate change as cause of water shortage.
Table 4.5: Chi-Square Test of Gender and Climate Change Perceptions Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (1- (2-sided) sided) sided) Pearson Chi-Square 4.210a 1 .040 Continuity Correctionb 2.656 1 .103 Likelihood Ratio 6.356 1 .012 Fisher's Exact Test .083 .042 Linear-by-Linear 4.189 1 .041 Association N of Valid Cases 200 a. 2 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.43. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
4.3.2 Perception of Settlement Expansion as the Cause of Water Shortage in
Kumawu
A major problem that associated with increasing population is the growth in settlements.
Many communities expand in physical extent with increasing population and urbanization.
This puts pressure on existing free lands and outlying areas that were hitherto not occupied by buildings. This quest for space for settlements has also seen the conversion of wetlands into settlements through various activities such as diversion and blocking of water ways as
70 well as filling of wetlands with sand and gravel. As a result there has been marked water shortages in many areas experiencing settlement expansion due to this encroachment to areas occupied by rivers and streams. The study therefore sought to find out the extent to which settlement expansion accounted for water shortage in Kumawu.
From the observed statistics in Figure 4.3, 96.5 percent of respondents indicate that settlement expansion account for shortage in water supply in Kumawu. Also, 3.5 percent of respondents however indicate that settlement expansion does not cause shortage in water supply.
Settlement expansion has been noted during discussions with some residents. Taking turns, a group of women made similar points, noting that
“Settlements in Kumawu have all expanded in size. There are new buildings springing up every day as even young people want to leave on their own now with freedom. This community (Apebiakyere) some few years back was far smaller. Now it has expanded to include new sites stretching all the way to the other side of the road. This expansion means that many people need water from virtually the same existing sources” (FDG, 2016)
Also, in the Hyiawu community, an old trader was of the view that,
“the increase expansion in the size of the community has increase competition for space with some going near the water bodies. The constructions also involve people demanding river sand and some wood for construction. These activities directly go to affect the water body. There is pressure also on the available water resources” (48 years Old Trader, Hyiawu)
Further, a female trader also stated that,
“we used to spend less time assessing water from the community pipe but now, unless you wake up early otherwise the colour of the water might even change before you go there. The water vendors spend much time before getting to our neighbourhood due to the expansion in size which demands that they supply so
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many people all the way near the school before getting to us here”(39 years Old Trader, Ahenboboano)
The views on settlement expansion in the Sekyere Kumawu District is corroborated by the land use/land cover map in figure 4.6 which shows that the built up area indicating areas of human habitations have increased between 1990 and 2003 and further till 2015.
Settlement expansion again has links with the reduction in the vegetation cover of the
District. There is evidence from the map that as vegetation cover reduced, human settlement areas expanded in size. This shows that loss of vegetation can be partly explained by the increasing settlement expansion. Both processes have direct consequences for water supply as demonstrated in earlier discussions on population increase and cutting down of tress.
Again, the study further included a cross tabulation between gender of respondents and expansion in settlement as the cause of water shortage. Figure 4.8 indicates that, both male and females perceive settlement expansion as a cause of water shortage in the Kumawu.
All female respondents shared their views indicating that as settlements expand it has direct impact on the water available for populations. Male respondents (91.4%) agreed with the assertion that settlement expansion affects water availability and demands.
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100 100 91.4 90 80 70 60 50 Male 40 Female Percentage 30 20 8.6 10 0 0 Yes No Gender Perceptions on Settlement Exapnsion
Figure 4.8 Cross Tabulation between Settlement Expansion and Gender Groups Source: Field Data, 2016
Table 4.6: Correlation Test between Gender and Settlement Expansion Correlations Sex of Does settlement respondent expansion affect water supply Sex of respondent Pearson 1 -.231** Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .001 N 200 200 Does settlement Pearson -.231** 1 expansion affect Correlation water supply Sig. (2-tailed) .001 N 200 200 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: Field Data, 2016
Only few respondents making up 8.9 percent do not think that expansion in the settlement population will have consequent effect on the demands for water. From table 4.4, the study can establish that there is a significant correlation between gender and perceptions on settlement expansion as a cause of water shortage at a 0.01 significant level. However at a value of –0.231, the correlation can be described as a weak negative correlation between the two variables.
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4.3.3 Population Increase as the Cause of Water Shortage
The study sought to find out if increase in population is an underlying cause of shortage in water supply. From the investigations presented in figure 4.3, it is observed that 93% of respondents perceive population increase as a cause of shortage of water supply in
Kumawu. However, 7% were of a varying view that population increase is not a cause to inadequate water supply in Kumawu. This view relates strongly to the study findings of
Doe (2007) who found out that the expansion in populations and the rate of urbanisation in
Accra, Ghana is a major cause to the water situation of the area. The assertion was however confirmed by the GWCL officials who further indicated the lack of financial support to expand and improve on existing lines coupled with irregular supply of electricity as additional causes. According to the GWCL, in Kumawu annual water supply for the entire population is at a minimum of 15000cubic meters meanwhile in 2014 only
2000 cubic meters was supplied by the company. The figure reduced to an abysmal level of 985 cubic metres in 2015. The inability of the company to meet the annual water requirement of Kumawu has been linked to climate change as well as continued change in the population of the District. Furthermore, Figure 4.6 showing the land use/land cover change map of the District indicates that settlement/built up areas in the District has seen positive changes since 1990. This is supported by the GSS (2010) population of the
District which shows a total population of 65,402. During interview sessions with residents, most of them further stated that, increasing population has directly affected the available water for use. An old woman in Etia, stated that;
“Growing in this community, I have observed that the sources of water have not significantly increased but the community has kept expanding with increasing population. I tell you the number of people living here has increased a lot but we need to increase access to water” (68years Old Resident, Etia)
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Further, a female trader at Kyeremin also expressed her view that,
“We used to have this hand dug well serving all the whole neighbourhood. At a point our landlord has to place lock on it since the water volume kept going down because the number of people who come around kept rising. Now he does not allow other homes, unless few people who are related in some way" (42 years Old Trader, Kyeremin)
The population data of the Sekyere Kumawu District revealed changing population trends in the District. The Sekyere Kumawu District (formerly Sekyere Afram Plains District) was established in 2008 by LI 1838 (Republic of Ghana, 2008). The Sekyere Afram Plains
District was carved out of the then Sekyere East District. The Sekyere Afram plains
District was inaugurated on the 29th February 2008 with Kumawu as its capital. In 2012, the Afram Plains part of the District was carved out of the original Sekyere Afram Plains
District to become Sekyere Kumawu District (GSS, 2010). According to the Sekyere
Kumawu District Assembly (2017), after the 1984 census the District had a total population of 75,350 with Kumawu Township exclusively accounting for 5,238 making up
6.9% of the total District population. However, in 2000 the District population shot up to
132, 701. This represents 43.2% increase from 1984 population. The Kumawu Township as at 2000 had a population of 10,204 representing 7.7% of the population of Sekyere
Afram Plains District. Recently, the 2010 population and housing census indicated that the population of Sekyere Kumawu District was at 65,402 with the Kumawu Township having
23,899 representing 36.5% of the District population. The rise in the percentage population of the Kumawu township is partly due to its new status as the District capital as well as the increase in economic activities including agriculture and trading.
The population data analysed however confirms perceptions of residents on the increasing population in the Sekyere Kumawu District that has affected water supply demands. The rising population is not commensurate with the water supply in the District leading to
75 shortages. The views expressed by the residents also confirms earlier researches that tend to show that increasing population leads to increase demand and pressure on water resources. For example Sun et al. (2013) identified that increasing urbanization which sees population numbers concentrating in particular areas has brought about increased pressure on the demand for freshwater resources. Similarly, Okello et al. (2015) further indicates that many areas in the world especially in Africa have resorted to groundwater to meet increasing demands by large populations. The extensive exploitation of groundwater alongside other freshwater sources has led to the depletion of such water sources. From the observed statistics in Figure 4.3, it is concluded that an overwhelming majority believe an increase in population influences the volume of water available for use. Population increase therefore has the tendency to limit the supply of sufficient water to households.
An overwhelming majority (93%) agreed with the assertion that population rise increases demand for water.
56% 60% 50% 37% 40% Male 30% Female 20% 10% 3.5% 3.5% 0% Yes No
Figure 4.9 Cross Tabulation between Gender and Population Increase Perceptions Source: Field Data, 2016
The study also established that respondents’ perceptions on population increase as a cause of water shortage in Kumawu does not vary among male and female residents. Both sexes with male accounting for 37 percent and female 56 percent (See figure 4.9) of total
76 respondents, indicate that population increase in Kumawu remains a critical factor to water supply and account for the shortage situation experienced.
According to Population Action International (2011), water remains a fundamental element for life, and as populations increase or grow the demand for water mounts pressure on the limited water sources. Similarly, Tarrass et al. (2012) also noted that rapid growth in communities with the same water source over the years has added pressure to the existing sources. This has subsequently led to breakdown of the bore holes in several communities including Bunglung in the Savelugu-Nantong District in Northern Ghana.
4.3.4 Perception of Cutting Down of Trees around Water Bodies as the Cause of
Water Shortage
There has always been the belief that vegetation around water bodies gives life to the watershed by reducing siltation, external pollutants and excessive evaporation. Thus, in the absence of vegetation around water courses, water bodies are exposed to all sorts of threats including excessive evaporation and eventual drying up of the water bodies. From the results in Figure 4.3, 96.5 percent of respondents perceive the cutting down of trees in and around watersheds as the cause of shortage of water supply in Kumawu. The high percentage of affirmation shows its severity of this cause as an underlying cause of water shortage in the area. Again, 3.5 percent of respondents are however with contrary view that cutting down of trees lead to shortage of water supply in Kumawu. The findings however does not stand alone as the GSS (2010) holds the view that the whole District appears to be fast degenerating into a secondary forest due to residents incessant clearing of water sheds. Kumawu however has been noted as typically engaging in such activities which is a major cause of the acute water shortage in the area. This assertion is strongly further supported by the land use/land cover map in figure 4.6 which shows continued reduction in vegetative cover since 1990 up until 2015. Also, there is clear evidence from
77 the map that the water bodies in the District have disappeared in 2015. This has further worsened the water shortage situation as surface waters provide freshwater for domestic and industrial use.
Interviews held with community members further gave insights into the severity of vegetation loss along watersheds in Kumawu. According to a 53years old farmer in
Hyiawu, he stated that
“the vegetation along the water bodies when we were young was very thick but now even you hardly find two trees growing to interlock their branches. The demand for wood for fire and as a building material has increased, resulting in indiscriminate cutting down of the trees, now the whole area exposesthe water bodies to the heat and it makes the water finish or die away”
Further, in Ahenboboano a family head insisted that
“Indiscipline and the lack of punishment is the cause of the indiscriminate cutting down of trees along watersheds, even after all announcements and education people still go and cut them down. You, see the trees use to hold firmly the soil along the banks so that the water course is free from silt. But now the soils along the banks are loose and breaking into the water causing siltation” (62years old Male Family head)
On the other hand, the Figure 4.10 further reveals that the few people (3.5 percent) who were of the view that cutting down of trees is not the cause of water shortage in Kumawu were all males. All females however stated that such activities have the potential to reduce water volume to the direct exposure of the water bodies to intense sunlight. The following quotes are from some female respondents.
“You see, when we were growing up, our grandfathers always were concerned about the water body because they told us how important water bodies are. No one was allowed to cut trees around the water sheds but now, especially the men they do anything. You see the waters there are drying up” (46 years old mother, Etia)
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“I know the trees provide shade for the waters even the ground one. But if you continue to remove all of them (trees) the sun will dry the water up and even the ground one will fall, so that is what is affecting our water supply now” (30years old graduate from KNUST, Ahenboboano)
59.5% 60%
50% 37% 40% Male 30% Female
Percentages 20%
10% 3.5% 0 0% Cutting down of trees
Figure 4.10 Cross tabulation Between Cutting down of Trees and Gender Source: Field Data, 2016
4.3.5 Perception of Water Pollution as the Cause of Water Shortage in Kumawu
Water is an important resource that is needed by every human for life. According to
Lenntech (2015), Water pollution refers to any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of water that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses the water. For household demands, there is the need therefore to ensure water consumed is not contaminated. Contaminated sources of water therefore may not be useful for consumption and may limit the total water available to populations. Figure 4.3 provide results on the views of respondents on water pollution as the cause of water shortage in Kumawu. The study reveals that 70.5 percent of respondents indicate that water pollution causes shortage in supply of water in Kumawu. Also, 29.5 percent of respondents objected to the view that water pollution causes water shortage in Kumawu. Water pollution is noted as a major
79 cause of global water shortage (Yang et al., 2004). Farid (2002) noted the various sources of water pollution noting anthropogenic activities as contaminant sources making water not conducive for human consumption.
25% 21% 16%16.5% 20% 14% 15% 10% 9.5% 10% 5% 4.5% 3.5%
Percentages 5% 0% Yes 0% No
Communities
Figure 4.11 Cross Tabulation between Pollution of water and Communities Source: Field Data, 2016
Similarly, to Fewtrell and Colford (2004), water may be polluted through the air, silt from erosion, chemicals from fertilizers, industrial chemicals and urban and town wastes to mention a few. These views dovetail into the perceptions of residents that water pollution is a cause of water shortage in Kumawu. The study included a cross tabulation between the communities and pollution as cause of water shortage. The results as shown in Figure
4.11 clearly indicates that the community’s views were varied except for Kyeremin where all respondents indicated that pollution of water bodies was the cause of water shortage. In
Ahenboboabo, respondent could not agree on pollution as the cause of water shortage as
16 percent agreed and 16.5 percent objecting to this view. Again in Hyiawu, most respondents confirmed the view that water pollution was a cause of water shortage with only 5 percent of the population disagreeing. Same trend of responses were reported in
Etia and Apebiakye (See Figure 4.11). The overwhelming response on water pollution as a
80 cause of water shortage is also highlighted by Van Vuuren (2009) who noted that water pollution was among the numerous challenges faced by the South African water sector.
4.6 Chapter Summary
The chapter examined the demographic characteristics of respondents, sources of water for residents as well as the causes of water shortage. The population of Kumawu is very youthful with 70.5% of respondents falling between the ages 18-49. There were more female respondents than males. The females accounted for 59.9% of the respondents. This is reflective of the District profile which indicated that the female population is higher than that of the males. Most of the households have large family sizes with majority of the households having a size of 4-10 members. The level of education of the respondents is relatively good with 73.5% of respondents having had some form of education. The main occupation of the people of Kumawu is farming. This is shown with 43% of respondents engaging in farming as their primary occupation. The main source of water for local people is pipe borne water. This accounted for 59.9% of main water supply source for households. Respondents indicate that climate change (97%), settlement expansion
(96.5%), cutting down of trees around water bodies (96.5%), population increase (93%), and water pollution (70.5%) account for shortage of water supply in Kumawu.
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CHAPTER FIVE
EFFECTS, COPING STRATEGIES AND THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS IN
ADDRESSING WATER SHORTAGE IN KUMAWU
5.1 Introduction
Shortage in water supply has been identified as a major problem in Kumawu Township.
This chapter examines the effects of water shortage on household and the household coping strategies to water shortage. The chapter finally assessed the role of institutions in addressing the water shortage challenge in Kumawu.
5.2 Effects of Water Shortage on Socio-Economic Livelihoods
Water is a very important resource for the survival of mankind. Many household activities rely on water use. Thus, the shortage in supply of water puts immense stress on the activities of the household. With the aforementioned water shortage problem in Kumawu receiving little attention, the effects of water shortage on households continue to be a major concern.
Table 5.1: Effect of Water Shortage on various Variables Variables (Effect of Water Frequency Percentages Shortage on…) Yes No Yes No Gender 147 53 73.5 26.5 Children’s Education 193 7 96.5 3.5 Food Security 187 13 93.5 6.5 Health 184 16 92 8 Poverty 157 43 78.5 21.5 Source: Field Data, 2016
Nonetheless, the effects of water shortage on people at the household level may vary. The table 5.1 presents the perceptions of respondents on the effects of water shortage on
82 selected aspects of the socio-economic livelihood. The effect of water shortage on each of the variables is discussed comprehensively in the proceeding paragraphs.
44% 45.0% 40.0% 29.5% 35.0% 30.0% 25.0% 15.5% Male 20.0% 11% Female Percentages 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% Yes No Sex
Figure 5.1 Perceptions on the effects of water shortage on women and men Source: Field Data, 2016
The study first explores the various ways by which water shortage has affected the socio- economic livelihoods of men and women. Whiles the effects of water shortage on men and women is so evident, it is unclear which gender is more affected by this problem. The study thus sought to find out whether women are more affected by water shortage in
Kumawu than men.
Table 5.2: Water Shortage Affects Women More Than Men Community Yes No Ahenboboano 56.9% 43.1% Hyiawu 80.8% 19.2% Kyeremin 100% 0 Etia 67.9% 32.1% Apebiakyere 82.9% 17.1% Source: Field Survey, 2016
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From the Figure 5.1, it is observed that both men and women perceived water shortage as affecting more women than men in Kumawu. A total of 29.5 percent of males agree that water shortage affects women more whiles 44 percent of the female respondents also concur to this view.
The Table 5.2 shows that in all the study areas of the Kumawu Township, the perception is similar, that water shortage affects women more than men. Majority of the respondents in each of the five communities agree to this perception. However, this perception appears strongest in Kyeremin and weakest in Ahenboboano. Furthermore, it was found that in the case of men, the shortage in supply of water affects their income. The study found that
Kumawu is a typical male-headed household community and this is supported by the data from the GSS (2010). Thus the responsibility of providing the basic needs rests on the man. Thus, men typically spend extra money trying to access alternative supply of water especially from water vendors. A male respondent in an interview noted:
“The tap does not flow for weeks. I have to give money to the children to get water from a vendor in the neighbourhood. Sometimes that one too gets finished and you have to be buying pure water. If you want to calculate the amount that goes into water provision, you will just be angry at nothing” (Male Resident, Kyeremin)
Some of the men also noted that instead of bathing twice, they now bath once or reduce the water quantity so as to reduce water usage cost of water provision. Most of the female respondents, also noted that the shortage of water supply affects their finances too. When asked how water shortage affects their finances, a female respondent noted:
“I am a food vendor. We use water at every point in time, cleaning of the vegetables, for cooking and for washing of the dishes. So now that the supply of water is not regular, I have to pay more to tanker people to fill my tank.
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Sometimes, the tanker services don’t come and I have to send my workers over long distances to get water” (38years old food vendor).
Other women also noted that the shortage of water supply has made the upkeep of the household more difficult. Getting water for cooking, washing, bathing the children, and even drinking has become an added responsibility.
Chi-square Test
Table 5.3: Perceptions of Male and Female Respondents on the effect of water shortage on Women and men Sex of respondent Does water shortage affect Total (%) women more than men (%) Yes No Male 29.5 11.0 40.5 Female 44 15.5 59.5 Total 73.5 26.5 100 Source: Field Survey (2016)
The study conducted a cross tabulation between sex and perceptions on water shortage affecting more women than men. The table 5.3 show that the perception of water shortage affecting women more than men in Kumawu was high among both male and female populations. Majority of residents making up the population including men (29.5%) and female (44%) were of the view that women were the most affected by water shortage at the household level.
The pearson chi-square test of independence reveal that at a value of X2 = 0.30 and df =1, the P-value of 0.861 is greater than the test significant level of 0.05 (0.861 > 0.05). This shows that there is no signification relationship between sex and the perception of water shortage affecting women more than men. In other words perceptions of water shortage affecting more women than men is not dependent on the sex of the person. The null hypothesis is therefore retained and the alternate rejected.
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Table 5.4: Chi-square Test on Sex and Perception Water Shortage Affect Women More Than Men Value df Asymp.Sig (2 sided) Person Chi-square 0.30 1 .861 Continuity correction 0.000 1 .991 Likelihood ratio 0.30 1 .861 Fisher’s Exact Test .030 1 862 Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 200 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 21.47
5.2.1 Effect of Water Shortage on Children’s Education
The study sought to find out if water shortage affects the education of children.
Respondents were thus asked to indicate with a yes or no response. From the results presented in table5.1, 96.5 percent of respondents indicate that the water shortage in
Kumawu has affected the education of children. Also, 3.5 percent of respondent however noted that it does not affect their education. It is evident based on the overwhelming majority`s indication that water shortage affect the education of children in Kumawu.
The study therefore sought to find out the reasons why water shortage has affected the education of children. During interview session, one respondent noted that:
“Because there is no water in the house, the children have to go to look for water each morning before going to school. Sometimes they have to walk several kilometres to the stream to get water. Because of this, they get to school very late and other times they are unable to even go to school. This affects their performance because they lose when they don’t go to school, and even when they go, because they are already tired, they are unable to concentrate”(42 years old Mother, Ahenboboano)
Another respondent was also of the view that, children are mostly tasked with ensuring that water is available for use of the household. To that extent, their primary duty is to get up early to comb every area to ensure there is sufficient water.
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“the kids here are now tasked to ensure water is supplied to their homes each morning and evening. I believe this will take a toll on their education due to the many hours spend on securing water needs of the household. Limited time to study, lateness to school and the stress” (56 years old man, Etia)
Table 5.5: Effects of Water Shortage on Education by Community Community Yes No Ahenboboano 100% 0% Hyiawu 88.5% 11.5% Kyeremin 100% 0% Etia 100% 0% Apebiakyere 97.1% 2.9% Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 5.5 shows that all respondents perceive that water shortage affect children’s education in Ahenboboano, Kyeremin and Etia. This is followed by Apebiakyere with just one respondent (2.9%) opposing this perception and Hyiawu with 6 respondents (11.5%) opposing the perception. However, the results show that the perception that water shortage affects children`s education cuts across all the communities significantly.
5.2.2 Effects of Water Shortage on Food Security
This study sought to find out also whether the shortage of water supply has affected food security in Kumawu. Respondents were thus asked to agree or disagree with the view that water shortage affects food security. From the results presented in table 5.1, it is observed that whiles 6.5 percent of respondents disagree with the notion that water shortage has affected food security in Kumawu, an overwhelming majority (93.5%) agree that water shortage has affected food security in Kumawu. The study, therefore, sought to clarify ways by which water shortage has affected food security in Kumawu. The study, found that unpredictable patterns of rainfall accounts for the low yields in food production.
Those who used to rely on streams for vegetable gardening are unable to do that due to the drying up of streams. Furthermore, buying food from food vendors have become more
87 expensive because of the added cost these vendors incur in securing water to prepare the food. Mancosu et al. (2015) noted that water remain a critical resource in a decade of increasing population and rising demands for food resources. Water therefore is continually needed for food production through irrigation activities. They argued that there is the need to make clear policies to the management of water sources so as to avoid the incidence of water shortage.
The results in table 5.6 show that the effects of water shortage on food security cuts across all the communities. Majority of respondents in each of the study area indicate that water shortage affects food security. There is no significant spatial variation in the perception of water shortage as a cause of food security in the Kumawu Township.
Table 5.6: Effects of Water on Food Shortage by Community Community Yes No Ahenboboano 92.3% 7.7% Hyiawu 88.5% 11.5% Kyeremin 100% 0% Etia 96.4% 3.6% Apebiakyere 96% 4% Source: Field Survey, 2016
5.2.3 Effects of Water Shortage on Health
This study sought to find out the effect of water shortage on the health of people in
Kumawu.
The results in table 5.1 indicate that 92 percent of the respondents indicate that water shortage affects their health whiles 8 percent of the respondents indicate that water shortage has no effect on their health.
In an interview, a respondent noted that:
“We use water for everything. Now that there is shortage in water supply, we buy water from vendors. Sometimes too we fetch from well and streams. These other
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sources of water are often not clean like the pipe water so it affects our health.. We are not able to bath regularly; we don’t wash our clothes with enough water. Even our foodstuffs that we buy from the market are not properly washed because we are managing the water. So at the end of the day, we get sick” (62 years old resident, Kyeremin).
Thus the effect of water shortage is both direct from consuming polluted water, and indirect from the inadequacy in water usage in other ways such as washing, bathing, scrubbing and cooking.
Table 5.7: Effects of Water Shortage on Health by Community Community Yes No Ahenboboano 90.6% 9.4% Hyiawu 88.5% 11.5% Kyeremin 100% 0% Etia 96.4% 3.6% Apebiakyere 94.3% 5.7% Source: Field Survey, 2016
The perception of respondents about the effects of water shortage on health did not vary much across the study communities. The dependence of people on water for virtually all home activities means that the health of people is also dependent on the quality of water accessed. From Table 5.7, nearly all respondents in all five communities allude that water shortage has effects on the health of people in their communities. This suggests that the water sources accessed by residents in Kumawu are not entirely clean. This view was corroborated by the statistics from the Sekyere Kumawu District Health directorate which shows that the year 2013 recorded a total of 192 water related sickness. This included 20 reported diarrhoea cases (2 deaths), 60 reported cholera cases (4 deaths) and 82 reported cases (3 deaths). In 2015, the total recorded cases increased to 229, indicating a 19.2% increase in cases over the two years period. The individual cases included 70 reported cases of diarrhoea (1 death), 74 cases of cholera (3 deaths) and 85 cases of typhoid (5
89 deaths). The total deaths both years remained at 9 persons. The situation might not look alarming but clearly provides an early warning signal to the providers of water to check water quality of available water sources in the District that is suffering from water shortage. The findings however do not vary entirely from earlier researches as the importance of safe water for human consumption cannot be underestimated. Smith et al.
(2006) expressed the view that access to safe water is a fundamental issue to survival, a basic right and a vital component in providing effective health protection. Further Tarrass and Benjelloun (2012) noted that an estimated 1.6 million deaths occur every year as a result of water related diseases that emanates from water shortages including the lack of access to portable water, inadequate water supply among others. To Nazare et al. (2005) water shortage affects several aspects of human development including causing diseases, mortality and hunger (cite in Machethe, 2011). The views of respondents across communities is however in tandem with data from the district hospital and literature which suggests that inadequate water supply can lead to health consequences of the populace.
5.2.4 Effects of Water Shortage on Poverty
Poverty affects all aspects of human development and its measurement is seen as a lack thereof of the needs of individuals and societies to meet a sustainable livelihood. This section examined the effect of water shortage on poverty conditions of communities in the
Sekyere Kumawu District. The results presented in table 5.1 shows the perception of local people about water shortage effect on poverty in Kumawu. From the results, 78.5 percent of respondents indicate that water shortage exacerbates the poverty situation in Kumawu whiles 21.5 percent indicate that it does not affect poverty. Respondents indicate that water is a necessity.
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Table 5.8: Effect of Water Shortage on Poverty
Community Yes No
Ahenboboano 66.2% 33.8%
Hyiawu 80.8% 19.2%
Kyeremin 100% 0%
Etia 82.1% 17.9%
Apebiakyere 82.9% 17.1%
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Thus, the extra burden of incurring high cost on provision of water puts pressure on their livelihoods and exacerbates their poverty. Asked how poverty is affected by water shortage, a respondent noted:
“Because I can’t produce more crops to sell, my income has reduced. And now too, I have to pay for water every day for the provision of food and general water needs of the house like bathing and washing. We are now struggling to even survive due to this water problem”(53 years old male Farmer)
This view according to Machethe (2011) is very prevalent in most communities. He reported that, respondents in Limpopo (South Africa) indicated the high financial drain on their limited cash as they spent some percentage on searching for water traveling for long hours, purchase of more vegetables for food as they cannot maintain their vegetable gardens among others. Again, water shortage was noted to affect every activity including washing, cooking, bathing and flashing of toilets among others.
The study conducted a cross tabulation between the sex of respondents and the effect of water shortage on household health, education and food. Table 5.9 shows that both male and female respondents agreed to the fact that water shortage has profound effect on the household health, education and food.
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Chi-square Test
Table 5.9: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Effect of Water Shortage
Effect of water Male (%) Female (%) shortage Total (%) Yes No Yes No Health 37 3.5 55 4.5 100
Education 37 3.5 59.5 0 100
Food 37 3.5 56.5 3 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016
For health, men (37%) and female (55%) believed that water shortage affected household health. Also, for education and food, men recorded 37% and 37% respectively with female counterparts making 59.5% and 56.5% respectively stating that water shortage affected household health, education and food.
Table 5.10: Chi-Square Test on Sex and Effect of Water Shortages
Chi-square df Asymp. Sig. (P- Interpretations Value value)
Health 0.076 1 0.782 P-value > 0.782
Education 10.657 1 0.001 P-value < 0.001
Food 1.028 1 0.311 P-value > 0.311
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The study also performed a chi-square test to validate the second hypothesis of this research. From Table 5.10 the test shows variations in the chi-square test of independence between sex and effects of water shortage. For health, the P-value of 0.782 at 1 degree of freedom, the chi-square value of 0.076 indicates that there is no significant relation between effect of water shortage on health and sex. In other words, people’s perception of effect of water shortage on household health is not dependent on the respondent’s sex.
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Similarly, food recorded a chi-square value of 1.028 at a 1 degree of freedom and with a
P-value of 0.311 greater than the test level significance of 0.005, there is no significant relationship between sex and effect of water shortage on food. Unlike the first two variables discussed, Education showed a significant relationship between sex and effect of water shortage on education. The chi-square test revealed a value X2= 10.657 at a 1 degree of freedom. The P-value of 0.001 is less than the test significant level of 0.005, therefore the null is rejected in favour of the alternate. Resident’s perceptions on the effects of water shortage on education is therefore dependent on their sex.
5.3 Coping Strategies of Water Management
The study also assessed the various coping strategies adopted by the households to resolve water shortage at the household level. The study identified water storage and treating stored water as common practices among households in ensuring water is available for use despite the water shortage.
5.3.1 Water Storage as a Coping Strategy
Water storage is being applied in many areas facing water shortages. The reliance on the current erratic water supply in Kumawu has become more difficult due to the increasing demands. Further, it is very difficult to both access and afford alternative water sources.
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5.5
Yes No 94.5
Figure 5.2 Storing Water as a Coping Strategy to Water Shortage
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Thus, in the case of availability or scarcity of water, households adopt storage strategies to cope with the erratic supply of water. Some of the typical storage facilities used by people include tanks, gallons, bowls, and buckets. In this study, respondents were asked if as part of their coping strategies to water supply, they do store water.
The results presented in figure 5.2 shows that majority of respondents in Kumawu engage in water storage as a coping strategy to shortage in water supply. Also, 94.5 percent of respondents indicate that they store water, whiles 5.5 percent of respondents do not store water as a coping strategy.
Furthermore, the results in figure 5.3 shows that gallons are the most widely used medium of storing water. This accounted for 40 percent of the response. This is followed by the use of barrels with 29.5 percent representation.
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40 40 35 29.5 30 25 25 20
15 Percentages 10 5.5 5 0 Gallons Open Barrels Buckets Containers Water Storage Media
Figure 5.3 Storage Types Used by Respondents
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Open containers and buckets account for 25% and 5.5% representation respectively. Some respondents however during interviews noted that they use multiple mediums for storing water.
“because the pipes don’t come regularly, I get water stored in these gallons and barrels you see there. Even the rubber buckets and bigger bowls sometimes we use it to collect rainwater and keep it for use later during shortages. Without doing this, I don’t think we can ever survive the erratic water supply in our community. It’s just too much my son”(49years old mother, Hyiawu)
Similarly, other people also shared their views on the storage media adopted for keeping water. Another woman also shared the view that almost everybody including those who have the pipes connected to their homes also has different water storage mediums.
“See the water problem is so annoying this days that, even those with the pipes fully connected to their homes themselves get bigger containers because that is the only way out now. We all have these yellow and white gallons as well as other barrels and basins just to store water at any point in time”(54years old female respondent, Etia)
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Plate 5.1 Water Storage Media Source: Field Data, 2016
5.3.2 Treating of Stored Water
The section 5.3 discussed coping strategies adopted by households in the face of water shortages in Kumawu. It is important to examine the demand management strategies adopted at the household level to make stored water healthy for consumption. This is important because some of the sources of water such as streams are often polluted by activities of herdsmen who lead their flocks to drink from these streams. Other surface sources of water supply have also been exposed to some level of water pollution. Thus,
96 respondents were asked to indicate if they treat the water that they store in the gallons, barrels and other reservoirs before consumption. The result of the investigation is presented in figure 5.4.
25.5%
No 74.5% Yes
Figure 5.4 Treatment of Stored Water before Usage Source: Field Survey, 2016
From the figure 5.4, it is found that majority of the respondents do not treat the water they store before usage in the house. From the results, only 25.5 percent of the respondents indicate that they treated stored water before usage. The number is rather low compared to
74.5 percent of respondents who do not treat the stored water before consumption.
Respondents who indicate that they treat water before usage indicate that they do so by adding aluminium (alum) and also by boiling. Most respondents who do not treat stored water before use however provided some reasons to their actions. According to one woman in an interview, she indicated that;
“I know very well that we have to treat the water before use but the resource to do this is not free and already so much money goes into getting the water itself. Getting fuel to boil all this water we store here is also another money you see. Now how much am I making before spending so much on water alone before other things in the house” (43year old mother, Kyeremin)
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Similarly, two other residents shared their own views on why they do not treat water for storage before they use it. They also lamented over time, cost and traditional perceptions of strong body systems of the African man.
“its good to treat the water my son, but to tell you the truth, where is the time to sit and be boiling all these gallons of water. I go to work every day and return home late. It is only when someone wants to bath hot water that it is boiled apart from that I don’t do any other treatment, the cost and the time is too much burden”(36years old mother, Kyeremin)
“eeeeeiiiiii treat all the water here? That is not possible because even as you hear there is water available somewhere you are just going to get it and fill your containers. I cannot buy additional containers and bigger pots just because I need to boil the water. Maybe I could have bought those medicines and put into the water but there is no money. Nothing will happen to us anyway the water is not bad at all" (48 years old mother, Etia)
The study further sought to find out if the views to treating stored water before use varied among male and female respondents. The responses however reveal that treating stored water was more prevalent among females than men. Out of the number of respondents who indicated that they treated their water before use, 18.5 percent were females with men accounting for only 7 percent of total respondents. The responses for those who do no treat water before use however was high for both men and women constituting 33.5 percent and
41 percent respectively (Figure 5.10). It can be deduced therefore that generally, stored waters including all alternative water sources are used untreated most households.
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45 41 40 33.5 35 30 Yes 25 18.5 20 No
Percentages 15 7 10 5 0 Male Female
Figure 5.5 Linkages between Water Treatment and Sex of Respondents Source: Field Survey, 2016
5.4 Stakeholder Roles in Sustainable Water Provision
Stakeholders play very important roles in the management of water as provided for in the conceptual framework (figure 2.1). This section examines the various roles played by both government and private institutions in the provision of water in the Sekyere Kumawu
District.
5.4.1 Provision of Support Systems
This study assessed stakeholder institutions responsibility in supervising the regular supply of water and other sort of support systems to address the water shortage problem in
Kumawu. To understand the role of stakeholder institutions in managing the water shortage challenge in Kumawu, the views of residents were sought on the roles and supports provided them by these stakeholder institutions.
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92.5 100
80
60
40 Percentages 20 7.5
0 Yes No Provision of Support System
Figure 5.6 Stakeholder Institutions Provision of Support Systems Source: Field Survey, 2016
The results presented in figure 5.6 shows that 92.5 percent of respondents indicate that there has not been any support system to support households in the water shortage challenge that confronts them. Others however were of the view that there have been support systems put in place to address the water shortage situation in Kuamawu (7.5%).
The respondents, who believed stakeholders are doing their bit stated education on protecting water courses and avoid tree cutting along river banks. Others provided contrary view to this assertion as they stated such things do not reach everyone and they have never participated in any educational session. They rather noted the neglect by the assembly as well as the inefficiency of the GWCL as contributing to the water challenge they face. One household head during interviews stated that:
“The assembly for long has not shown any concern to this problem. Some of us have always gone there to ask questions and we don’t get the necessary response, assurances that do not resolve the problem. For the GWCL, they are directly in charge but you don’t even see them to find out what they do” (68years male household head, Apebiakyere)
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Another resident also stated that:
“for those people they don’t think about us at all. They may always have access to good water so for the rest of us we go on and suffer. They are only interested in things that concern them alone. The water problem we face now may even worsen unless we have some interventions from the government directly but we have to rely on the institutions around here, then we will suffer for long” (64 years male household head, Apebiakyere)
5.4.2 Rules and Regulations on Water Management
The Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) has undergone various structural reforms since its inception in 1928, as the Water Supply Division of the Public Works Department responsible for rural and urban water supply. Various decentralizations have also taken place to give the District assemblies autonomies to take full charge of water supply and sanitation (GWCL, 1957). The act establishing the company sets out the following objectives;
1. The provision, distribution and conservation of water in Ghana for domestic and industrial purposes.
2. The establishment, operations and control of sewerage systems for such purposes. The company was mandated among others to construct and operate works, set standard relative to water supply and sewerage, determine rates, charges and effective methods of collection of revenue.
The District assemblies under the regulations provided above are responsible for the provision of water in both rural and urban areas under their jurisdiction. The Sekyere
Kumawu District Water Company has over the years made efforts at addressing water shortage challenge. In an interview with the operations manager of the company, he stated that,
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“we are aware of the water shortage situation in the Sekyere Kumawu District. The company has made a number of efforts geared at addressing the challenge and currently a ground water treatment plant is under construction with a designed capacity of 5.3 cubic metres of water per year at Aframso in Kumawu”(Operations Manager, GWCL)
This notwithstanding, the upcoming plant capacity is still inadequate considering the huge demand by the entire District. However, the Sekyere Kumawu District Water Company further indicated that, various maintenance strategies are being implemented to bring back on stream non-functional public pipes, replacing old pipelines as well as educating and sensitizing the communities on indiscriminate deforestation activities among other bad environmental practices.
Water management is essential as a way of making judicious use of water and also preserving water for current use and for posterity.
17.5
Yes No 82.5
Figure 5.7 Formulations of Rules and Regulations on Water Management
Source: Field Survey, 2016
In the absence of rules and regulations bordering the usage of water resources, people misuse water, for instance, through pollution and encroachment on wetlands among others.
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The study sought to find out if there are rules and regulations guiding the use of water in
Kumawu. Majority of the respondents (82.5%) allude to this whiles 17.5 percent also noted that there are no rules and regulations on water management in Kumawu. The majority of respondents who indicated that there are rules and regulations governing water use in Kumawu cited the procedures to get connected onto the GWCL line for pipe borne water. Noting that illegality is not condoned but punishable by law, others also noted community level regulations on protecting water resources and its use.
5.4.3 Education and Sensitization
Education and sensitization are two key approaches to creating awareness in society.
Awareness creation enlightens people on how to first of all, make sustainable use of water such that it benefits current needs and conserved for posterity. Secondly, it enables people to take good care of the water they consume in order to prevent water-borne diseases.
11.5
Yes No 88.5
Figure 5.8 Educations and Sensitization on Water Use in Kumawu
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The results in figure 5.8 shows that there has been limited awareness creation exercise on water in Kumawu. This is evident as majority of respondents representing 88.5 percent indicated that there has not been any education or sensitization on water use or water
103 management in Kumawu Township. This information however contradicts assertions made by the project manager of the District Water Company who indicated that they organize education and sensitization programmes for communities in the Sekyere
Kumawu District.
5.4.4 Local Assembly’s Support in Solving Water Shortage Problems in Kumawu
All over the country, local assemblies play significant role in the provision of social amenities for communities within the assembly. Water is an essential resource and demand that local assemblies play a leading role aside the central government in its provision.
Where local assemblies support in the provision of water service to local people, they are also able to monitor and regulate supply and effective use. Where local assembly is very active in water management, they are able to enact by-laws that protect watersheds from pollution and encroachment.
From the survey conducted, it was found that some of the respondents had a neutral opinion on the support of the local assembly in the provision and management of water.
Nonetheless 47 percent of the respondents agree that the assembly have played supporting roles in addressing the water problems.
47 50 35.5 40 30 20 9.5
Percentages 4.5 10 3.5 0 Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree Respondents Views
Figure 5.9 Local Assembly Supported in Solving Water Shortage in Kumawu
Source: Field Survey, 2016
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Also 4.5 percent of the respondents strongly agree to the view that the assembly had supported in solving water shortage problem in Kumawu. However, 35.5 percent and 3.5 percent disagree and strongly disagree respectively on the assembly supporting in addressing the water problem in Kumawu. From the interviews conducted the respondents who agreed that assemblies played significant roles in resolving the water shortage problem indicated varying reasons including guarding against the pollution of water bodies and other sources of water and prevention of buildings along water courses and in wetlands especially in Ahenboboano and Hyiawu. The control of these activities however reveals that the local assembly continue to play major role in intervening on the water shortage problem faced by the area. In the interviews conducted with the District’s water company project manager he indicated that, the water company takes decision with the
District Assembly in providing water to communities.
“We usually do discussions on the ways forward in resolving the water challenges facing the Kumawu townships and communities even at the District assembly level. Collaborative efforts are what we have used over the years. We provide technical assistance and support as the assembly in most cases leads in securing funds for the projects. I can say this collaboration has worked pretty well over the years”(Manager, district Water Company)
5.4.5 Supports by Non-Governmental Organizations in Solving Water Shortage
Problems in Kumawu
Non-Governmental Organizations are major stakeholders in the provision of social services in many communities. This study investigated if NGOs have played a role as part of institutional stakeholders in addressing water shortage in Kumawu.
From the results in Figure 5.10, 89 percent of the respondents agreed on the view on the role of NGOs whiles 11 percent indicate that NGOs have been supportive in addressing
105 the water challenges. The two main NGOs operating in Kumawu are the Friends of rivers and water bodies and the Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP).
11
Agree Disagree 89
Figure 5.10 NGOs Have Supported In Addressing Water Shortage in Kumawu
Source: Field Survey, 2016
5.5 Chapter Summary
The chapter examined the effects of water shortage on households, coping strategies adopted by residents and the role and support of stakeholder institutions in responding to the water shortage challenge in Kumawu. The first section examined the effects of water shortage on the socio-economic livelihood of residents of Kumawu. It explored the effects of water shortage on selected variables including gender, children’s education, food security, health and poverty. The second section examined the coping strategies of water management including water storage as treating stored waters for household consumption.
The final section looked at the role of stakeholders in the sustainable provision of water to
Kumawu townships.
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
This previous chapter concludes the research on the effects of water shortage at the household level in Kumawu Township in the Sekyere Kumawu District. The chapter focuses on the key findings from the research, the conclusion and recommendations from the study findings on resolving the perennial water shortage in Kumawu.
6.2 Summary of Key Findings
The following section provides the key findings of the research based on the objectives of the study.
6.2.1 Sources of Water and Factors Contributing to Water shortage
The study found out that the main source of water for local people in Kumawu Township is pipe-borne water. The use of pipe borne water as the main supply source of water cut across all the study areas of the Kumawu Township. The alternative sources of water include ground water and surface water. The supply of water has seen perennial shortages as pipe borne water supply has become unreliable. Residents indicate that several factors account for the shortage in supply of water in Kumawu. Major among these factors is climate change effects such as low rainfall and high temperatures. Other factors of equally significant impact on water supply include settlement expansion and its antecedent encroachment and expansion into wetlands, cutting of trees around watersheds, population growth and increase in water pollution. These interlinked causal factors have been supported by the land use/land cover map of the study area which showed that vegetation between 1990 and 2003 and 2015 has decreased at a rate of -1.1 percent. On the other
107 hand settlements and built up area has increased over the same period at 46.6 percent and
16.5 percent respectively (Table 4.3). The water bodies in the District however have disappeared over the 25 years period.
6.2.2 Effect of Water Shortage on Socio Economic Livelihoods
Furthermore, the study found that water shortages have negatively affected various socio- economic aspects of residents. Selected socio-economic factors examined included gender, health, education of children, poverty, and food security in Kumawu. The study established that women are affected more by the water shortage in than men in Kumawu.
A significant reason adduced for the gender variation in the effect of water shortage is that women are perceived to spend more time doing household chores and engage in more activities that require the use of water more than men on a daily bases. Overall, the water shortage situation has placed a lot of stress on household chores as women and children continue to spend productive time in search of water. Generally, there were overwhelming support to the effect that water shortage has negatively affected children education as they spend many hours in search of water, food security as a result of inadequate rainfall for production and irrigating plants. Statistics from the Kumawu Health Directorate further show that increasing number of residents were suffering from water related sickness including diarrhoea, cholera and typhoid which recorded about 19.2 percent increase in cases between 2013 and 2015 with 18 deaths over the same period. Residents again spent part of their minimal income on securing water for household use coupled with productive time lost has exacerbated their poverty conditions.
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6.2.3 Household Coping Strategies to Water Shortages
In addition, residents’ indicate that in the midst of the prevailing shortages in water supply in Kumawu Township, they resort to some coping strategies including storing water as well as treating water for use. The study established that water storage is a common household practice in Kumawu as there are struggles for water on a daily basis. As such many homes have acquired various storage facilities/media in preserving water. The use of gallons is the most common (40%), barrels (29.5%), open containers (25%) and 5.5 percent of residents making use of buckets. Although treating stored water was not a wide practice among residents, few people who practice make use of potassium alum and also the tradition boiling method. This however is intended to make the stored water safe and clean for drinking. The inability of many others to treat stored water is mainly due to cost and time factors. There was however no variations among men and women in the treatment of water showing that the decision is related more to cost and time factors rather than gender perceptions.
6.2.4 Institutional Roles in Addressing Water Shortages
The study established that despite the presence and efforts of mainly the District assembly and the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) their efforts at resolving the water shortage situation in Kumawu are rather inadequate. The proposed construction of a 5.3 cubic meter capacity ground water plant by the GWCL remain woefully inadequate in meeting water demands of 20,000 cubic meters annually. Currently the statistics from the company show that there is decline in total water supplied decreasing from 3000 cubic meters in 2013 to 2000cubic meters in 2014 and a further decrease to 985 in 2015.
Institutional roles of sensitization and education on protecting water sheds, vegetation among other good environmental practices have also been low among the populace.
Although NGOs (Friends of Rivers and Waster bodies) have been noted by the most
109 respondents as assisting in addressing the water shortage in the District, there is little known on their actual and current activities in the District.
6.3 Conclusion
Sustainability means development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs (WCED,
1987). Water supply therefore should meet the needs of the current generation and posterity of Kumawu Township in a sustainable manner.
The study has established that there is water shortage in Kumawu. The situation of water shortage cuts across all communities. Thus, approaches to solve this problem must recognize the spatial spread of the problem and bring about equitable and sustainable distribution of water for all people in the Kumawu Township.
The consistent water shortages in Kumawu has affected the socio-economic livelihood of societies including their health, education, gender, food security as well as poverty as established in the study. The DFID framework adopted in this study holds that various management strategies in the form of demand driven and institutional roles are needed to effectively deal with water shortage. Whereas the demand driven is likely to lead to individual and household defined coping strategies to deal with the situation, institutional roles on the other hand lead to the formulation of policies and programs and technical inputs to ensure sustainable supply of water. Ineffective management strategies will however increase the vulnerability rate of households to water shortage with mostly women and children perceived to be more vulnerable than men. The study recognizes the fact that shortage of water affects households through the incurring of additional cost of getting water from alternative sources, delay in carrying out household activities like
110 cooking and bathing, lateness of children to school due to hours spent in searching for water, and general effects of water shortage on the health of household members. The household level effect of shortage in supply of water is felt by women more than men. The study noted that anthropogenic factors like pollution of water bodies, encroachment on wetlands, and natural factors like climate change have affected the availability of water for residents.
With high population and competing use of limited water supply sources, there are questions on the quality of water used by households. This study found that water storage is a common practice among households in Kumawu whereas treating of water still remain uncommon among the people. But what has been the institutional remedy or management intervention? The study noted that though there are rules and regulations guiding the use of water, there is nonetheless the failure of stakeholders like the local assembly and the
Ghana Water Company Limited in addressing the water shortage problem in Kumawu.
This is evidenced in the declining amount of water supplied to the District since 2013 as established by this study. Further, education and sensitization role of the stakeholders have also not been effective as vegetation loss and environmental practices (cutting of trees along river banks) is still occurring at disturbing rates. The work examined through the conceptual framework of the study reveals that the climatic and environmental factors including temperature and rainfall, pollution, urbanization, economic development, demography constitute the causes of the perennial water problems. Resident’s inability to resolve such issues has brought effects on varied aspects of their livelihood including socio-economic lives. Various coping strategies however were adopted by residents although to large extent, these do not look sustainable. The management section of the framework holds that water demand is managed as well as institutional stakeholders play
111 major roles in resolving the situation. Nonetheless, the ineffectiveness of the stakeholders has rather exacerbated the situation.
6.4 Recommendations
On the basis of the outcome of the study, some recommendations are made to help mitigate the effects of water shortage on the people of Kumawu.
1. It is recommended that proactive measures be taken to ensure regular flow of pipe-
borne water which is the widely used water supply. The current demand of 20,000
cubic metres of water has to be met by the GWCL. The GWCL should make
efforts in increasing water supply to the Kumawu areas as the alternatives remain
very limited and costly.
2. There must be a District level strategy targeted at mitigating climate change,
controlling rapid urbanization and vegetation loss and pollution. This could be
achieved through mainstreaming the District level strategies into the national
policies on addressing these issues. Strong collaborations should be established
with various government institutions including EPA and GWCL.
3. Stakeholders led by the local assembly should educate and sensitize the residents
to protect water supply sources such as rivers and streams by managing the
available water sheds and reduce the cutting of trees along banks. The sensitization
process should include promoting the use of water storage mechanisms to reduce
the stress that irregular water supply causes households.
4. The Kumawu Assembly should enforce rules and regulations governing the water
usage in Kumawu. These rules and regulations should include that which protects
the water bodies, and also the ones that prevent the exploitation of households by
tanker water suppliers and water vendors who charge at their own desired rates.
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5. The local assembly should promote the use of ground water by helping households
to construct wells or hitherto provide mechanized boreholes across the
communities. This is meant to augment the water provision by the GWCL.
Underground water is very important where the aquifer or water table is high.
6. The use of water treatment should be encouraged at the household level as part of
the Assemblies educational outreach to prevent the occurrence of water borne
diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and diarrhoea.
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APPENDICES
DRAFT 1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR KUMAWU TOWNSHIP
I, Kwame Adjei-Mensah,a student of the University of Ghana is researching on‘The Effects of water shortages at the household level’. All responses are solely for academic purposes and will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Please, tick where applicable
A. BACKGROUND OF RESPONDENTS
1. Name of settlement…………….
2. Sex…………. Male [ ] Female [ ]
3. Age………… 18-34 years [ ] 35-49 years [ ] 50 years and above [ ]
4. For how long have you live here?0- 10 years [ ]11-20 years [ ] 21 years & above[ ]
5. What is your major Occupation? Farming [ ] Trading [ ] Civil/public Service [ ] Artisan [ ] other (specify)……
6. Are you engaged in any minor economic activity? Yes [ ] No [ ]
7. If yes, to question 6, what is it? ......
8. Marital status: Married[ ] Single[ ] Divorced [ ] Widow [ ] Widower [ ]
9. Educational Level: No Education[ ] Primary [ ] JHS/Middle School [ ] SHS/Voc/Tch [ ]
Tertiary [ ]
10. Number of people in household: 1-3 [ ] 4-6 [ ] 7-10 [ ] 11 and above [ ]
11. Ethnicity: Ashanti [ ] other (specify)………..
12. Religion: Christian [ ] Muslim [ ] Traditional [ ] other (specify)……….
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B. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO WATER SHORTAGES IN KUMAWU TOWNSHIP
13. Main source of household water: Pipe [ ] Rainwater [ ] Underground water [ ] Water vendors [ ] Surface water [ ] 14. In your opinion, do you see any activity that affects water supply in town? Yes [ ] No [ ]
15. If yes to question 15, kindly explain …………………………………………………
16 Does the increase in population cause pressure on water supply? Yes [ ] No [ ]
17. If yes to question 17, kindly explain……………………………………………………
18. Does the expansion of settlement affect water supply? Yes [ ] No [ ]
19. If yes to question 19, explain………………………………………………………….
20. Does cutting down of trees around the waters and its sources for farming and fuel Contribute to the shortage of water supply? Yes [ ] No [ ]
21. Can change in climatic factors like rainfall, temperature etc. affect water supply?Yes [] No [ ]
22. If yes to question 22, kindly explain some activities that causes climate to change……….………………………………………………………………………………
23. Is water pollution a factor of water shortages in Kumawu Town? Yes [ ] No [ ]
24. If yes to question 24, please how……………..…………………………………………
25. Apart from the factors raised, is there any other contributing factors of water shortages at the household level? Yes [ ] No [ ]
26. If yes to question 25, kindly state some factors causing water shortages at the household ……………..…………………………………..…………………………………
C. HOW WATER SHORTAGE AFFECT THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIVES OF PEOPLE
27. Do water shortage affect your health? Yes [ ] No [ ]
28. If yes to question 28, please kindly explain………..………………………………… 29. Does water shortages affect women more than men? Yes [ ] No [ ]
30. If yes, to question 30, how do you explain ………………………… 31. Does the water shortages at the household level affect children education? Yes [ ] No [ ]
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32. If yes to question 32, Please explain…………………………………………………..
33. In your own opinion, would you affirm that food supply are reduced as a result of water shortages causing hunger ? Yes [ ] No [ ]
34. If yes to question 34, Please explain……………………………………………….….
35. Does water shortages account for poverty among women? Yes [ ] No [ ]
36. If yes to question 36, please kindly explain......
D. COPING STRATAGIES OF WATER SHORTAGES IN KUMAWU TOWNSHIP
37. Apart from pipe borne water supply what other sources of household water do you rely on? Pipe [ ] Rain water [ ] water vendors [ ] underground water [ ] surface water [ ] Other (specify) …………..
38. What is the distance covered to get water from these sources: Less than 30metres [ ] 31-
50metres [ ] 51- 70metres [ ] 71-150 metres [ ] 151-300metres [ ] 301-500 metres [ ] 501-1km [ ] 1km or more [ ]
39. How many times do you get water from these sources?
Every day [ ] At least once a week [ ] At least once a month [ ] occasionally [ ] other (specify) …………..
40. Do you reserve water in your home? Yes [ ] No [ ]
41. If yes to question 41, Please explain the form of storage you use. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42. Is your reserved water enough to meet your household daily needs? Yes [ ] No [ ]
43. Do you treat the reserved water before consumption? Yes [ ] No [ ]
44. If 44 is yes, how do you treat the water for consumption?
45. If no to question 44, what else do you do to get sufficient water for household consumption? ………………………………………………..…………………………………………… …………………………………………..…………………………………………………
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F. INSTITUTIONAL ROLES IN ADDRESSING WATER SHORTAGES
46. Do the authorities educate you on causes of water shortages? Yes [ ] No [ ]
47. If yes to question 47, please in what form? …………………………………………….……………………………………….
48. Do the institutions like Ghana Water Company provides sufficient pipe born water supply to you? Yes [ ] No [ ]
49. If no to question 49, please mention other sources of water provided by the water company……………………………………………………………………………………
50. Are there any construction of dams and other sustainable mode of water supply in the town? Yes [ ] No [ ]
51. If Yes to question 51, kindly state some…………………………………………………
52. Are there any rules and regulations to reduce water pollution in the town?Yes[ ] No[ ]
53. Base on the statement below, please show the extent of your agreement or disagreement by ticking the required box:
The scale for the response is as follows:
1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Undecided, 4= Agree, 5= Strongly agree.
CATEGORY OF STATEMENT
INSTITUTIONAL ROLES IN ADDRESSING WATER SHORTAGES SCALE
54. The Non - Governmental Organization support water provision 1 2 3 4 5 in the town.
55. Water Vendor Suppliers are not sustainable 1 2 3 4 5
56. The local Assembly prevents people from building around water 1 2 3 4 5 catchment areas
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GUIDELINE INTERVIEW FOR GHANA WATER COMPANY LIMITED AT KUMAWU
A. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO WATER SHORTAGES IN KUMAWU TOWNSHIP
1. Do you find any encroachment in water sites catchment areas?
2. Does the increasing population growth cause the water to be in short supply?
3. Do you agree that the company failure to repair the Water Treatment Plant has increase the rate of water shortages in the Town?
4. Does the increasing urbanisation putting pressure on the water to be in short supply?
5. Does your company experience water pollution by human activities?
6. Is climate change a threat to water supply?
B. HOW WATER SHORTAGE AFFECT THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIVES OF PEOPLE 7. Is your company aware of the socio- economic effects of water shortages in the town?
8. Does water shortages affect the health of the people?
9. Would you agree that water shortages affect women more than men?
10. Does your company know that water shortages at the household level affect socio- economic welfare of the people?
11. In your own opinion, do you see food supply are reduced as a result of water shortages causing hunger in Town?
12. Is water shortages causing poverty among the people?
C. COPING STRATAGIES OF WATER SHORTAGES IN KUMAWU TOWNSHIP
17. Does your company supply water regularly for the household consumption?
18. Does your company have copping strategies to deal with the irregular supply of water for household use?
19. Would you say that the coping strategies are reliable?
20. Do you provide chemicals to consumers to treat collected water to be used by the households?
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D. INSTITUTIONAL ROLES IN ADDRESSING WATER SHORTAGES
21. Has your company laid down any rules and regulations to manage water supply in the town?
22. Does the Ghana Water Company Limited involve the community in managing water supply?
23. Do you think the involvement of the communities will ensure effective management of water supply?
24. Do the involvement of both women and men in water supply promotes effective management of water supply in the town?
25. Should your company encourage water education in the town?
26.In your own opinion, do you see involving stakeholders like the NGO’s in planning and managing water supply would help reduce water shortages?
27. Does your company receive support from the State and Non-Governmental Organizations to manage water supply?
GUIDELINE INTERVIEW FORGENDER, CHILDREN AND SOCIAL PROTECTION DEPARTMENT
1. Is your Department aware of the socio- economic effects of water shortages in the town?
2. Does water shortages affect the health of the people including children?
3. Would you agree that water shortages affect women more than men?
4. Does your Department know that water shortages at the household level affect education?
5. In your own opinion, do you think resource like food are in short supply as a result of water shortages causing hunger in Town?
6. Do you see poverty among the people especially women as a result of water shortages?
7. Are you taking good measures to protect Gender, Children and Socio-Economic wellbeing of the people as far as water resource is concern in town?
8. Do you see equal involvement of both women and men in water supply management would make effective water supply in the town?
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GUIDELINE INTERVIEW FOR STAKEHOLDERS AT KUMAWU TOWNSHIP
1. How do you get water for household use when water is in short supply?
2. Do you see the strategies to get access to water as reliable? 3. Does the scarce water is polluted?
4. Do you walk far away to get water for household use?
5. Does the breaking- down of the only Water Treatment Plant since 1995 has contributed to water shortages in the town?
6. Does some activity here affects water supply in the town?
7. How does the increase in population cause pressure on water supply?
8. Does the expansion of settlement affect water supply?
9. Can change in climatic factors like rainfall, temperature etc. affect water supply?
10. Would you say climate change needs to be addressed to sustain water supply
11. Is water pollution a factor of water shortages in Kumawu Town?
12. How does water shortages affect your health?
13. Does water shortages affect women more than men?
14. How does the water shortages at the household level affect education?
15. Does the reduction in food supply comes as a result of water shortages causing hunger in Town?
16. Do you see poverty among the people as a result of water shortages?
17. Are there any rules and regulations to manage water supply in the town
18. Does the Ghana Water Company Limited involve the community in managing water supply?
19. Would you support the idea of equal involvement of both women and men in water supply management to reduced water shortages in the town?
20. Would you encourage water education in the town?
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