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City Research Online City Research Online City, University of London Institutional Repository Citation: Gaio, A. (2015). Policy formation in the European Community – the case of culture. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) This is the accepted version of the paper. This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/13689/ Link to published version: Copyright: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to. Reuse: Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] City University London Department of Culture and Creative Industries Policy formation in the European Community – the case of culture Ana Isabel Gerardo Veloso Gaio Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Philosophy May 2015 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contents . 2 List of figures and tables . 6 Acknowledgements . 7 Declaration . 8 Abstract . 9 List of acronyms and abbreviations . 10 PART ONE. 11 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . 12 1.1 Introduction . 12 1.2 Reasons for undertaking this study . 19 1.3 Questions addressed by this research . 23 1.4 Topic boundaries – what this research does not address . 25 1.5 Thesis structure . 28 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK TO EXPLAIN THE FORMATION OF CULTURAL POLICY IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY . 31 2.1 Introduction . 31 2.2 The many halves of cultural policy research . 32 2.2.1 The ‘torn halves’ . 34 2.2.2 The other halves . 41 2.3 Research on EC cultural policy . 42 2.3.1 Narratives of the EC’s cultural policy . 43 2.3.2 European integration and instrumental cultural policy . 44 2.3.3 The European civil servants’ tales: the day to day of policy making . 45 2.3.4 The legal perspective: from ‘competence creep’ to policy . 47 2.4 Toward a dynamic process model . 51 2.4.1 Institutional processualism: processes and institutions matter . 51 2.4.2 Social mechanisms . 53 2.4.3 Kingdon’s model of policy making . 55 2.4.4 Opening windows and coupling the streams . 65 2.4.5 Policy entrepreneurs . 67 2.4.6 Limits to Kingdon’s model . 72 CHAPTER 3. ALIGNING EXPLANATION AND METHOD: RESEARCH STRATEGY AND DESIGN . 75 3.1 Introduction . 75 3.2 Aligning explanation and method . 75 3.3 The empirical research: sources of historical data . 77 3.3.1 Documents . 78 3.3.2 Interviews . 82 2 3.3.3 A note on translation . 85 3.3.4 Research ethics considerations . 86 3.4 Research strategy . 89 3.4.1 Casing and modelling of the empirical data . 93 3.5 Comparative analysis of the episodes . 96 CHAPTER 4. CULTURE AS A EUROPEAN POLICY DOMAIN: IDEATIONAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS . 99 4.1 Introduction . 99 4.2 Culture as a European domain of policy . 99 4.3 EC cultural policy and Community action . 106 4.4 The historical context: the EC’s journey from Rome to Maastricht . 108 PART TWO . 112 CHAPTER 5. THE EUROPEAN RELAUNCH OF 1955-57: PROPOSING A CULTURAL PROJECT FOR THE EC . 113 5.1 Introduction . 113 5.2 Western Europe at a historical and critical juncture . 116 5.2.1 The ‘German Question’ and the German quests . 117 5.2.2 Of Cold War and cultural warfare: battling for the young . 121 5.2.3 A European role for universities? . 122 5.3 Negotiating the new European community: from Messina to Rome . 124 5.3.1 Proposing a cultural project for the new community’s agenda . 124 5.3.2 Alternative formulations in the IGC negotiations . 130 5.4 Conclusion . 140 CHAPTER 6. THE 1960-62 PLAN FOR THE POLITICAL UNION OF EUROPE: PROPOSING CULTURAL COOPERATION . 142 6.1 Introduction . 142 6.2 The political union initiative . 146 6.2.1 De Gaulle’s European vision: Europe des patries or France primus inter ‘patries’? . 147 6.3 French external cultural policy agenda under De Gaulle . 151 6.3.1 Trying to hijack the European agenda . 153 6.4 Setting political cooperation in motion: placing cultural cooperation on the agenda . 156 6.4.1 The 1961 Paris summit . 156 6.5 Negotiating the cultural cooperation agenda . 159 6.5.1 Unsettled agenda setting . 161 6.5.2 Engineering agreement . 163 6.5.3 Sett(l)ing the agenda for cultural cooperation: the Bonn summit of July 1961 . 167 6.6 Turf war in the international cultural cooperation arena . 169 3 6.7 Closing the window on the Six’s cultural cooperation . 172 6.8 Conclusion . 174 CHAPTER 7. CREATING AN EC POLICY DOMAIN OF CULTURE, 1972-77 . 176 7.1 Introduction . 176 7.2 The European Community at a crossroads – beyond an economic community 179 7.2.1 The 1969 Hague summit: moving forward . 179 7.2.2 The European Commission: in search of a new agenda . 183 7.3 Placing culture on the Commission’s agenda . 186 7.3.1 Initiating the issue: spillover from education policy . 186 7.3.2 The 1972 Memorandum ‘For Community action in the field of culture’. 189 7.3.3 Deferring decision-taking . 192 7.4 Establishing a new cultural policy domain in the European Commission. 193 7.4.1 Creating a new policy venue. 193 7.4.2 Mobilising the European Parliament. 196 7.4.3 Generating a policy proposal . 199 7.4.4 Deciding not to decide . 201 7.5 Assembling the final proposal: changing tactics . 203 7.5.1 Cultivating legitimacy . 203 7.5.2 The Commission and Parliament: win-win purposeful opportunism . 206 7.6 The protracted decision-making process . 209 7.7 Conclusion . 212 CHAPTER 8. A FRESH BOOST FOR EUROPEAN UNION AND CULTURAL POLICY, 1983-87 . 215 8.1 Introduction . 215 8.2 Reviving European integration and political union: the cultural turn? . 218 8.2.1 Building momentum . 218 8.2.2 Punctuating the equilibrium: Mitterrand, ideas, interests, institutions . 221 8.2.3 From Fontainebleau to Milan . 224 8.3 Relaunching the culture issue at a Treaty reform juncture. 226 8.3.1 Jacques Delors: policy entrepreneur and ingénieur . 226 8.3.2 The 1985 Intergovernmental Conference . 229 8.3.3 Strengthening the policy venue for culture in the Commission . 234 8.4 As the IGC window closes, that of 1992 opens: the return of old ambitions . 235 8.4.1 Agenda setting in Florence . 237 8.4.2 A (re)focusing event: the intergovernmental French Blue Book . 238 8.4.3 A ’Community focused’ alternative: the Commission’s ‘A Fresh Boost’ 240 8.5 The aftermath – decision making in the Council . 242 8.5.1 The Culture Council’s cultural policy . 242 8.5.2 Primacy to intergovernmentalism: the Commission rebuffed . 243 8.6 Conclusion . 244 4 PART THREE . 248 CHAPTER 9. COMPARING EC CULTURAL POLICY FORMATION . 249 9.1 Introduction . 249 9.2 Contextual factors . 251 9.2.1 The political stream . 251 9.2.2 Institutional framework. 256 9.3 Process design features . 260 9.4 Issue status . 263 9.5 Policy entrepreneurs . 264 9.5.1 Explaining policy entrepreneurs’ efforts in a context . 264 9.5.2 Using personal history to explain policy entrepreneurs’ efforts . 270 9.6 Generalising about the formation of cultural policy in the EC . 275 9.6.1 Why did the episodes occur?. 275 9.6.2 How did the culture progress in the four episodes? . 277 9.6.3 What explains the outcome of each episode? . 280 9.6.4 What was the role played by policy entrepreneurs and what . motivated them to intervene? . 282 CHAPTER 10. CONCLUSION. 284 10.1 Introduction . 284 10.2 Locating this research in the cultural policy researchscape . 286 10.3 So, what lessons have we learned from this research? . 288 10.3.1 EC cultural policy: historical understanding . 289 10.3.2 EC cultural policy: theoretical understanding. 291 10.3.3 EC cultural policy and Kingdon’s model: theoretical reflections . 294 10.4 Limits of this research . 296 10.5 Directions for future research . 298 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 301 I. Interviews . 301 II. Archival sources. 301 III. Official document collections. 303 IV. Secondary literature . 308 APPENDICES . 333 Appendix 1 Policy entrepreneurs, their roles and functions . 334 Appendix 2 European Commission’s cultural sector research, 1975-78 . 336 5 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1.1 Thesis outline p. 30 Figure 2.1 The causal role of a social mechanism p. 53 Figure 3.1 The inductive model p. 76 Figure 3.2 Event narrative structure p. 95 Figure 5.1 Event narrative mapping of the policy episode 1955-57 p. 115 Figure 6.1 Event narrative mapping of the policy episode 1960-62 p. 145 Figure 7.1 Event narrative mapping of the policy episode 1972-77 p. 178 Figure 8.1 Event narrative mapping of the policy episode 1983-87 p. 217 Figure 8.2 European Commission’s 1985 Treaty revision diagram p. 229 Table 2.1 Main social mechanisms operating in this policy sample p. 55 Table A.1 Policy Entrepreneurs: their roles and functions in the cultural p..
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