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WATER LORE: can be seen in , and the naga THAI-TAI FOLK BELIEFS character in literature, folktales, legends concerning city building, religious AND LITERATURE architecture, and in rituals. The role of the naga in Thai and Tai narratives has been Prakong modified or adapted in various local 1 traditions. Nimmanahaeminda River and water motifs are woven into Thai Abstract –Tai literature in both form and content. Impromptu recitation of sakawa (a form of Water is essential in the Thai-Tai way of folksong), niras (travelling-narration life. in as well as Tai ), and Karb hey Rua are related to peoples outside Thailand depend on water waterway in form; while idioms and for agriculture, domestic daily uses, metaphors, prays of characters in dilemma, transportation and recreation. This paper waterborne society in a drama or play, and is a result of an in-depth study of the marine warfare, etc. are in content. relationship between water, beliefs and literary traditions of the Thai and some Water and Way of Life of Thai- ethnic Tai groups. The findings reveal that Tai People the Thais and the Tais have religious

beliefs involving water concerning four Water is essential in man’s life. The saying important water beings: first, the water “Water is life” is more than a concise spirit, known as sua nam (เสื้อน้ํา); second, metaphor. Man depends on water for เงือก the water serpent known as nguek ( ); agriculture, sanitation, cooking and third, the great serpent or naga (นาค); and transportation. His Majesty the King of fourth; the river of the dead. Thailand who is keenly aware of the significance of water in the life of Thai Of the four beliefs, the first two concerning people has devoted a fair amount of his the water spirit and nguek could date back energy and time to water resource to very ancient times and are common development and irrigation projects geared among several Tai ethnic groups. They to give access to water for his people. His provide a clear indication that the Thais Majesty’s thoughts and concerns regarding and Tais hold nature in high reverence and water needs can be gauged from his remarks. awe. With the notion that nature is regulated and protected by a life-force, a “The important idea is -there must rite to ask permission to use water from the be water for drinking, daily uses spirit is almost always staged prior to the and cultivation of plants. Since life actual use. While Thai and Tai people is where water is, the availability of recognize the benevolence of water and water spells the difference between perceive it in life-form, they are fully aware survival and cessation of life. Man of the precariousness of nature. The can live without electricity. Given pervading influence of the mythical naga electricity but without water, man cannot survive”.

1 Associate Fellow, The Royal Institute

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)

“Water is of absolute importance to Muang Om, Muang Ai (เมืองอมเมืองอาย) and agriculture. Even with poor soil and Muang Tum Hwang (เมืองตุมวาง), identified as perhaps few other obstacles to plant Wan-Nam province in Vietnam. growing, once the access to water is

secured, all other favorable elements to agriculture should follow in due Black Tai, however, migrated along the Red time” (National Archives and River and eventually settled at Muang Lo Museum, 2541: 27). (เมืองลอ) on account of its vast flat land fed by a river. The bard sang about the sites of Thai and Tai societies are generally settlement at various river basins in verse characterized as rice cultures. Rice is the form, translated as follows: main staple and diet. Accounts to this effect can be found in Chinese as well as “We two live in different villages Vietnamese records. Rice growing Belong to the same chiefdom necessarily depends on water. The majority Are different progenies of the same of Thai-Tai rice farmers chiefly rely on progenitor water drawn from the river or man-made Hail from the rivers of Tae, Tao, U and reservoirs through a system of dykes. Khong Hence their paddy fields are known as na That are one and the same..” (Bhatiya Yimrawat 2544: 150) nam muang (irrigated-water paddy fields). As far as the Thai-Tai are concerned, water and paddy field are, as they are, two As Tai settlements were to be found at inseparable entities. Thus, for settlement, various river basins, it was natural that the the majority of the Thai and the Tai have nomenclature of was based on always shown a preference for living by a the names of the rivers near which they river basin. Tamnan Pathom Kapp, (ตํานาน settled. The first inscription describes two Tai groups that came to swear ปฐมกัปปพรหมสรางโลก) the Creation Myth of Tai allegiance to the : “The Lue in Sipsongpanna, , tells Tai U and Tai Khong also came forward to us about the migration of their ancestors join us”. Tai U and Tai Khong referred to from the original settlement known as the Tai people residing in the U River and Muang Lue Luang (translated as “main city the Khong River basins respectively. At of Lue people”). An outbreak of cholera present, the practice of naming Tai groups forced some one hundred thousand Lue by the rivers whence they came persists. people to abandon the city and settle in the Thus, Tai-Khoen are Tai people who settled River Khong basin where Sibsongpanna in the Khoen River basin, Chieng-tung, now stands. (Yanyong Jiranakorn and ; Tai-Mao, the Mao River basin, Ratanapon Sethakul 2544: 15) Dehong, Yunnan, China. The groups- naming system was also extended to The legends of Black Tai and White Tai include Tai-Tai (ไทใต) and Tai-Nua (ไทเหนือ) indicate the original settlements of the Tai at (southern Tai and northern Tai) in three sites: the Nam-U and Poo Fang (น้ําอูปู Myanmar and Yunnan, China, where Tai- ฝาง) basin, believed to be the original Thaen Tai and Tai-Nua referred to the Tai living city, now in China; the Hua-Tae Nam-Na south and north of the Kong or Salaween (หัวแตน้ํานา) of Muang Boh Tae, now in China; River. Chiengmai province was known as the Hua-Tow Nam-Dang (หัวตาวน้ําแดง) of Nakorn Pingka (นครพิงค) by virtue of being situated along the Ping River.

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Water Lore: Thai - Tai Folk Beliefs and Literature

From the perspective of the Tai people, system and the cultivation of rice. (Renu water and land appear to be equally Vichasilp 1996: 45) important. Tai-Lue has sayings which underline the significance of water and Living in close approximity to water-ways, land for life forms, especially for plants. the Thai-Tai peoples not only used water For example, the saying, “Land causes for planting, cultivating, drinking and things to happen and water fosters them,” cleaning, but also for waterway means the land is where fertilization of transportation. It was hardly surprising that plants takes place and water takes on the the dispute over the right of access to water task of nurturing them. Traditionally, Tai- did occur from time to time, hence the Lue in the past, despite referring to their system of arbitration and laws on water – leader as chow paen din (Lord of the related matters. “Mangrai Sastra” (มังราย Land), held both land and water to be the ศาสตร) or the Code of King Mangrai of Lanna sole property of their king. Hence, the Kingdom contained many clauses and saying “nam chow din chow” (น้ําเจา ดินเจา) articles related to regulation of water for meaning the water and the land of the Lord, livelihood. The excerpts from the version of and “chow nam chow phaen din” (เจาน้ํา เจา Soa-hai (เสาไห) district, Saraburi B.E. 2432, แผนดิน) meaning the Lord ruling over water transcribed by Professor Dr. Prasert na and land. Should there be a dispute over the Nakara, provide several articles in laws right to the throne, the contest was referred related to the construction of dykes, the theft to as “yaeng ching khet nam daen din” (แยง of water from neighbor’s paddy fields, ชิงเขตน้ําแดนดิน) meaning contentious strife for damage inflicted on neighbor’s dykes, or water and land. theft of aquatic animals.

The political administration of various Tai Water resource management was part and groups was closely connected to the parcel of rice cultivation, and aqua-culture administration of paddy fields. The was almost a natural occurrence to the Thai- necessity of irrigate water for rice Tai peoples who were confirmed fish eaters. cultivation led to a system of distributing The main meal of the Thai-Tai people, at water and a system of cooperative gang least in former times, was rice and fish. The labor, “long khaek,” for digging and first inscription of Sukhothai kingdom dredging dykes and also damming irrigation described, “In water, there is fish, in paddy water. Each community had a specialist fields there is rice.” presenting the image of known as kae mueng kae faii (แกเหมืองแกฝาย) a plentiful city. Other Tai ethnic groups also in charge of irrigation and related matters. had a fair share of proverbs and sayings Thus, members of the ruling class were containing the two words - rice and fish. inextricably entrusted with overseeing the distribution of water. In all likelihood the In the Thai-Tai people’s world of water, the system of water management had a very watercourse was not only exploited for early, long history. The chronicles of Tai- water in daily use and other necessities but Ahom tell us that Khun Luang Khun Lai (ขุน also for transportation –mainly by boat and raft. Rivers, big and small, provided a rich หลวงขนหลายุ ), the first two kings of Muang Ree store of exciting activities, such as boat Muang Ram (เมืองร ี เมืองรํา), rode elephants to racing. (The city of Luang Phra-Bang on inspect the city, dykes, water irrigation the Mae Khong River stages the “nang dam

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- nang don” (นางดํา นางดอน) boat rally as an on one very important idea – that prior to annual event soon after the end of Buddhist the coming of , the Thai-Tai Rains). The timing and the myth lends a were already entrenched in animism. ritualistic touch to the event. Legend has it that nang dam had the status of the first The concept of Thai-Tai beliefs in spirits is wife, and “nang don” that of the consorting divided into two classifications, i.e., the lady – both were the guardian spirits or spirit that resides in each of all things in genie of Luang Phra-Bang. The race was nature, and the spirit of the departed. arranged such that the team of “nang dam’ would prevail over that of “nang don”. The belief in the water spirit known as phii This was to ensure regular seasonal rainfall nam (ผีน้ํา) or sua nam (เสื้อน้ํา) is the extension needed for the wealth and well-being of the of the idea that each object in nature is city. Thai people in the central plain endowed with a guardian spirit. The origin maintained boats of various sizes and styles of the water spirit if ever known, has long befitting life along river and canal. The since been lost to antiquity. In any case, the offerings for kathin and pha pa were to be belief in the spirit of the water was shared seen carried in a waterborne procession by some Thai communities in various which terminated at the temple. The sight regions of the country and also by several of a Buddhist monk paddling in a small members of the Thai-Tai grouping. The rite boat on his morning alms collecting was of prolonging the life of the river or sueb once common place. In former times, the cha ta Mae Nam (สืบชะตาแมน้ํา) rite of the common folks of the central plain took to most likely stems the boat -young men on one side, young from the belief in the guardian spirit of the women on the other to banter with each river. The main idea was if the river was other via extempore dialog boat songs dry, the rite to prolong the life of the river (pleng rua-เพลงเรือ). The waterways thus not was to be performed to propitiate the spirit only provided the utilitarian advantages of of the water. Likewise, the rite to prolong living near the water but also a source of the life of the city was to appease the recreation and a venue for pursuing guardian spirit of the city. The practice of religious fulfillment. appeasing the spirit of the water is akin to the Hindu practice of revering the Goddess Thai-Tai Beliefs Concerning of the River Ganges. From all available data, it can be concluded that the Tais were Water in the habit of performing a sacrifice rite for the spirit of the water on various occasions, There are many beliefs of the Thai-Tai such as on new year day, as a prelude to people that are related to water. The channeling water into the paddy field or the deliberation that will follow will be catching of aquatic animals. confined to four main categories of belief: those relating to the water spirit, ngeuk, The Zhuang in Kwangxi Province in China naga and the River of the Dead. offered a sacrifice to the spirit or the deity

of the water before going into the river to Beliefs related to the Water Spirit catch prawn or fish, and also for the guardian spirit of the lake before casting The findings of the author are in their fishing nets. Sacrifices were also concurrence with several eminent scholars

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periodically conducted to mark the time Mangrai Shastra (มังรายศาสตร) contained and the seasons in each year. clauses which amply demonstrate the belief in the guardian spirit of the dyke. (Mangrai Tai people in Muang Tuek in Vietnam Shastra: 97) offered a sacrifice for the spirit of the water in the twelfth month (February or there Belief related to “nguek” about), known as sen phii hua nam (เสนผีหวนั า้ํ ) at the inauguration of an irrigation dyke The Lexicon of the Royal Institute B.E. 2525 before embarking on rice growing. The rite provides several meanings of nguek. First, it was a cooperative effort at the village level can mean ‘snake’ in the old Tai language. with the participation of all communal Several Tai ethnic groups spoke of nguek as members. After the rite was completed, the a large snake. Terweil believes that nguek dyke would be put into commission. Black was definitely not naga. He went on to Tai held a sacrificial rite for the spirit of the explain that nguek in the Tai belief was a water in the ninth month (March or there mythical creature residing in a swamp. (B.J. about). The sacrifice, consisting of Terwiel 1981: 80-85) bananas, sugar cane, eggs, rice, and toasted fish, were cast into the water to conclude The description was consistent with the the rite. (Prakong Nimmanahaeminda et al author’s data obtained during the interview 2544: 90-91) with Dr. Huong Luang and the research of Pathiya Yimrewat. The latter gives an Tai Khoen of Chiengtung in Myanmar had account of nguek as follows: the custom of propitiating the spirit of the Nong Tung Lake during the Songkran “The creature, “phii nguek”, (New Year) celebration in April. (Prakong possessed extraordinary strength, so Nimmanahaeminda et al 99) much that it could rip apart the whole house in a flash. Yet in spite The physical appearance of the spirit of of its awesome power, it never prey water is not at all clear. Based on an on human beings. Sudden interview with Dr. Huong Luang, a scholar encountering with “phii nguek” on Tai study of Muang Tuek Vietnam, some could frighten men to death. The Tai groups in Muang Tuek believed that the sight of “phii nguek,” resulted in all spirit of the water was in the form of a large eighty “khwan” leaving man’s body serpent known as nguek (เงือก) or tua nguek forever. Even the best of “poh mod” (ตัวเงือก), hence the term phii nguek (ผีเงอกื ). (shaman) could not retrieve all the souls by his soul-calling rite”. Pathiya Yimrewat, in an interview with Black Tai of Muang Lo, Muang La and The word nguek was sometimes used to Muang Moy, obtained similar data, i.e., the mean naga, as in the Oath of Allegiance by spirit of the water was indeed tua nguek. the Ritual Water of Curse (Ongkarn (Pathiya Yimrewat 216) Chaeng Nam - โองการแชงน้ํา) in exaltation of

Besides the belief in the spirit of the water, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva. the Thai-Tai people, who were deeply entrenched in the tradition of building In Mangtra Rop Chiengmai (Mangtra’ Raid irrigation dykes, also held a belief in the on the City of Chiengmai - มังทรารบเชียงใหม), a guardian spirit of the dyke. The Lanna Code, literary composition during the Ayutthaya

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)

period, describes the city of Chiengmai as water. Great rivers, such as the Mae Khong being fortified by a circumnavigated city River, or large swamps or lakes were wall. The protecting wall was in turn thought to be the abode of naga. surrounded by a deep and wide moat where lotus were in bloom and filled the air with Besides local beliefs concerning naga, the scent. Brimming with water, the water prevalent concept of naga in Thailand and defense line was home to “nguek” and other southeast Asian countries was crocodiles lying in the path of would-be probably brought in from India or intruders. from Hindu and Buddhist sources. Hindu works were mostly in and Dr. Bradley’s Dictionary of the Siamese belonged to the genre of great epic and Language provides several descriptions of Purana texts (ancient texts), while Buddhist nguek, e.g., nguek, a kind of animal with works were in in the form of Buddhist the body of a snake, a of man, lives in tales (“jataka”). The naga in Pali and water. Nguek nam (เงือกน้ํา) is a type of nguek. Sanskrit literature has the appearance of a Some look like fish, others like a snake. All snake and is half deity and part beast. It have the face of a man and long and was often portrayed in the posture of live in water. spreading its hood. Most naga resided in water that might be a large reservoir, an From these descriptions, it may be surmised expansive lake, or a great river, or along its that the word nguek originally applied to a banks. A big sea or ocean was sometimes very large and extremely venomous snake mentioned as the abode of naga. The forest that lives in water. Since its face is like that and the mountain were also cited as the of man, phii nguek is thought to look like a abode of naga or the naga land. nguek. However, it does not mean that all creatures known by the name of nguek are It is hardly surprising then that the local phii nguek. concept of nguek as a large snake gradually became superceded by that of naga. In It will be noted that the image of nguek as many instances, the legendary nguek in half fish –half woman sporting long hair is a native tales was entirely replaced by the relatively new concept in the Thai naga altogether. mythology. Belief in the River of the Dead Belief related to Naga The people of Lanna Kingdom had a belief Literary narratives, traditional architect, that a person upon death would make a , art, and motifs on tapestries of journey to the Land of the Dead. On the the Thai-Tai communities depict naga in funeral day, before the body was to be totality if not in part. From these items, it carried to a burial ground in the wood may be inferred that nguek in the Thai-Tai outside the village, the relatives placed a concept was a gigantic snake. Partly deity small packet of cooked rice into a and partly mythical animal, naga was bag laid in the coffin. The idea was to help considered a sacred creature with strong the dead in crossing the bridge over the spiritual linkage to water. For instance, the river to the opposite side. Once the dead amount of annual rainfall was related to the person reached the other side, there would number of naga charged with delivery of be no return, hence the River and the Land

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Water Lore: Thai - Tai Folk Beliefs and Literature

of the Dead. This belief existed among the as arduous as draining the Mae Khong Tai in general and also several other River dry single-handedly. peoples around the world. Sathirakoses, a Thai scholar, discovered that this belief is A nursery rhyme of the Tai Lue of Sibsong- shared by the Tai-Yai and the Tai-Lue. He panna composed some twenty years ago also explained that a coin put in the mouth describes the scenic beauty of the city of of the corpse was for the dead person to Chieng-rung over the bank of the Mae hire a guide to help him cross the river. Khong River and the Golden Bridge linking The Greeks also had the similar idea and the two sides of the river. gave the name of “Styx” to the River of the Dead. (Sathirakoses 2512, pp. 123-124 and Most of the Tai in Dehong Autonomous 141) The belief in crossing of the bridge Prefecture live near the Salaween River, over the River of the Dead might have a while some others live near the Ruilli River basis in the environment in which the river – Nam Mao. There is an imaginative tale was used to define territorial rights. that provides an insight into the kind of relationship between two groups of people, Water Motif in the Thai-Tai and how the two rivers --Nam Khong and Literary Tradition Nam Mao (น้ําโขงกับน้ํามาว) --came to be as they are. As the story was told: In the Thai-Tai way of life close to the water, the waterways had a fair share of “One day, a big elephant was found places in literature, especially in the form drifting along the Mow River and of metaphor. In a didactic piece of caught by Nam Mao. The beast literature of the Black Tai “song chu son was slaughtered for meat, half of saw” (สงชูสอนสาว) a young man tried to assure which was given to Nam Khong who was quite pleased. Some time his lover that his love for her was eternal. later, a porcupine was caught in the To him eternity was defined as until “Nam Mae Khong River, then slaughtered Tow haeng toh lae- Nam Tae haeng toh and cooked for food without giving tooh,” (น้ําตาวแหงทอแล น้ําแตแหงทอถ)ู meaning any to Nam Mao. On a visit to until the river bed of the Nam Tow or Red Nam Khong, Nam Mao spotted the River dried up like a flat plate or the Nam remains of the porcupine carcass in Tae or Black River was drained dry and the form the spike fur, then realized became as narrow as a chop stick. that Nam Khong had no thought for him. Nam Khong then explained Since the path of the Khong River cut that the porcupine was so small that across the land of several Tai settlements, it he decided to finish all meat by is hardly surprising that the Khong River is himself. Nam Mao was very hurt mentioned in both poetry and verse. In the by Nam Khong’s way of doing Epic of Juang (มหากาพยเรื่องทาวเจือง), Thao things and decided they should part company altogether. From that day Juang laments over the pain and loneliness onward the courses of the two rivers from departing from his lover, Nang Ngom had drifted apart to their present (นางงอม). In the poem, Thao Juang describes locations of to-day. (Prakong his hope for a reunion between them as Nimmanahaeminda and Dao being as remote as a distant star and any Chenghua 2542: 213) attempt for him to see her again would be

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)

The plot is similar to the tale of two naga bank of the Kalong River, Phra Lo decides in Urangka-that, the legend of Phra That whether or not to go to the heroine’s Phanom, the stupa in Nakorn Phanom kingdom. Phra Lo decides to seek an oracle province situated by the Mekong River in using the water as the medium. His plea is a northeastern Thailand. The naga were soliloquy expressed in a four-line poem. Its close friends. The tale of Nam Mao and translation, which inevitably left the rhyme Nam Khong and the tale of the two naga mangled, has been attempted and given as were probably designed to explain the follows: relationship between two groups of people living by two river basins who used to be “Ye, of the Kalong River close to each other but later on were I beseech thee socially separated. In my onward journey, Should I be gone and done for ever As the Thai-Tai lived near waterways, and Pray move on in swirl. earned a living by rice growing and fishing, Or all should be well with me, there appears the fish motif in Thai-Tai Flow on stealthily. stories and literary works, such as the stories of “pla boo thong” (ปลาบูทอง - the No sooner had the supplication ended, The mass of the water heaved up in Golden Fish), in Central Thailand, “along violent whirlpool, plaa som” (อลองปลาสม- Along Bhotisatva, a To Phra Lo, it was like a bloody red kind of preserved fish) and “plaa daag - liquid in a spate. plaa smoh” (ปลาแดก ปลาสมอ – preserved fish) Devastated, of Shan and Tai Khoen, “Thao Busaba” Phra Lo felt like a big log of several - (ทาวบุษบา) and “Bhutto” (พุทโธ) of the Isaan lengths in girth, and Laotian people, and “Wankarn” (วันคาร) Weighing down on his bosom. Resigned to his fate.” of the southern people. In the central plain of Thailand, the highly In some tales or legends, the waterway was developed system of waterways formed an used as a venue for sidestepping environment around which people’s lives adversaries or would-be troublemakers. In revolved. In the literary area, the poets the stories of “Sang Thong” and “Jampa si created a special genre of poetry, namely จําปาสี่ตน Ton” ( ), the heroes are set adrift in a “travelling poetry,” in which the poets raft. In most cases the hero is rescued, by undertook their journey by boat. In the early virtue of his accrued merits or his status of Ayutthaya period, there were ‘Kamsual Buddha-to-be. The first king in the history Klong Dun’ (กําสรวลโคลงดั้น) and others known of the Laotian people, Choa Fa Ngoom, as niras-นิราศ (a literary genre used when a who as a baby was prophesized as a future poet travels, being away from his love, thus menace to his parents, was put on a raft and describing his loneliness and sadness), e.g., left to float down the river. Niras Narin , travelling poetry by (นิราศนรินทร) In some Thai literary works, the water the poet Narin. Written in archaic language, course is used as a key factor in the plot, most of these poems are a poet’s lament over e.g., “Lilit Phra Lo” (ลิลิตพระลอ), a literary the pain and loneliness of departing from his work in the genre of tragedy which casts loved one, combined with the narrative of Phra Lo as the tragic hero. In a scene on the the beauty of the scenary. During the early Rattanakosin or period, travelling

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poetry was to be known by the destination In of recent times, the spirit of and written in a language readily understood water or phii sua nam is portrayed as an by the readers of modern times. Among ogress akin to a demon. A Northern Thai these works is “Niras Muang Klaeng (นิราศเมือง version of Panyasa Jataka (ปญญาสชาดก) แกลง)” by Sunthon Poo. Here is an excerpt: features both phii sua nam and naga as key players. In Phra Apai Mani by Suthon Poo, “Upon the struck of midnight, sua nam is regularly referred to as a demon The boat was gliding lazily along the or ogress, described as a demoniac creature water way without gleam in either eye. It should be Yellow moon light filtered through the noted that the concept of nguek in the sense clouds. of a large snake has never occurred in Thai Whereupon the boat reached the literary works of late. It should also be noted Temple of Dawn. that nguek in Phra Apai Mani is much Suddenly the moon became so bright different from the indigenous or original Looking back over the shoulder nguek. The former is half woman-half fish, As the mass of water filled the river which is similar to the character Suwan bed. Maccha (สุพรรณมัจฉา) in the adaptation of the Too salty, too bitter even to taste let in play form by King I, and alone drinking did not appear in the original Hindu epic. It was as painful as, A young single man stood by the palace But the Ramayana play did not refer to wall. Suwan Maccha as nguek. Most Any thought of courting the ladies on conspicuous of all, nguek in Phra Apai Mani the other side, is very much like the mermaid in Western Was to court a rattan cane, literature. It is quite probable that the Phra To an aching back -unto near oblivion”. Aapi Mani concept of nguek as half human being and half fish is a concept borrowed The Royal Barge Rhyme for the Royal from the West. Kathin Barge Procession is a tradition dating back to the Ayutthaya period and Accounts of naga are found in many gave rise to the poetry in the genre of literary works of the central plain, and other ‘garp hae ruaa’ (กาพยเหเรือ) . It is also found in local traditions of Tai-Lue, Tai-Khoen and The metaphor concerning water is found Laotian literary works. These works may in many literary works. In Inao (อิเหนา), be either tales, Buddhist literature, or legends of cities and famous temples. Jintara, Inao’s first wife, who thought that Peculiarities of the naga in these various her lover had forgotten her, lamentingly works are their wealth, their abode of compares love to a stream. extraordinary splendor, magic gifts, ability

“What is love in its ephemeral to transform themselves into other beings, manifestation? known to consort with human beings and Know it, produce human offspring and son. The Love is a river stream, naga are attendants and protectors of the Always push on mercilessly. Buddha, and Bodhisatva and of Buddhism Never to return, as a whole. Where it once was.”

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)

In Suwannasangkha Jataka (สุวรรณสังขชาดก), Phra Vishanugama does the battle cease and Phra Sangkha, a Bodhisatva, is tossed into both go their separate ways to engage a river but rescued by Phaya Naga, themselves in making rivers: - Nagasuttho, protector of Bodhisatva or Buddha-to-be. the Khong River: Suwana Naga, the Nan Laotian as well as Isaan literature on Khun River. The Vishanugama intervention is Thung Khun Thuang (ขุนทึงขุนเทือง) describes strikingly similar to that of the Buddha’s the journey of Khun Thuang, the hero, in visit to Sri Lanka to subdue Chulothorn and the forest. Coming upon a garden which Nagamahothon described in the was brought into being by the magical Mahavangsa text of Sri Lanka. creation of one female naga, Khun Thuang became captivated by its beauty. There he The legend of Doi Tung tells of a magic well finds a young maiden who is a female naga near the pagoda of Doi Tung, known as Sinful in disguise. Enamoured by the naga in the Female Naga (Nang Nagaprapha). It form of a maiden, Khun Thuang follows happened to have been the dwelling place of a her to the land of magic wonder and widow naga. Bent on having a residing splendor of the naga. nearby as husband, the female naga concocts an elixir from the well water for the rishi to Khun Thuang takes the maiden as his wife. drink and having drunk it, he develops a fancy Both enjoy the bliss of marriage for a long for her. In other part, the legend tells of Phaya time, until the naga wife forgets to go into Virupakkha (พระยาวิรูปกข) using magic to create the water. The human world is thus seized a lagoon to the east of the Doi Tung pagoda by draught, which sends men and animals guarded by Champutinaga. (History of Doi into suffering and want. In the end, the Tung, p. 111) The legend of Phra Chow female naga is cautioned for negligence. Liab Lok (ตํานานพระเจาเลียบโลก) tells of the Khun Thuang sees his naga wife in a water Buddha’s visits to various provinces in frolic on a Songkran day and comes to the Lanna, Chiengtung, Sibsongpanna, and Tai- realization that she is a beast not worthy of Dehong. Whenever there is a narrative on a husband-wife relationship. He then bids the Buddha’s footprint or the sacred farewell to her. At that moment, the remains of the Buddha, there is bound to be expectant naga splits her womb open and a description of naga coming to pay pulls out a fetus. She wraps a ‘theung leaf’ homage. In all of these legends, the naga around the fetus before delivering it to him, has the role of guiding and pointing out the hence the name Khun Theung. significance of Buddhism and religious edifices. Phra Pathom Somphothikatha (พระ The legend of two disagreeable and ปฐมสมโพธิกถา), composed by Somdej Phra quarrelsome naga and naga excavation of Maha Samana Chow Krom Phra water courses are found in the legend of Paramanuchit Chinoros (สมเด็จพระมหาสมณเจา Urankhathatu and Isaan and Laotian tales กรมพระปรมานุชิตชิโนรส), also talks about naga in on Phaa Daeng and Nang Ai (ผาแดงนางไอ). the role of projecting Buddhism. The latter tells about two naga of the (นาคสุทโธ) names Nagasuttho and Suwanna In central Thailand, there is a folktale Naga (สุวรรณนาค), both of Nong-sae (หนองแส). known as “Krai Thong” (ไกรทอง) which is the In the beginning, both are good friends, but story of a crocodile named Chalawan, a later are pitched against each other over ferocious crocodile living in an underwater food. Only through the intervention of cave of magically wondrous beauty. In the

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Water Lore: Thai - Tai Folk Beliefs and Literature

cave Chalawan appears as a handsome wind. Water, even though cool, is no less young man living with his many wives. It dangerous than fire. The Thai-Tai adopted is rather uncanny that Chalawan had the belief in naga from India and Sri several attributes similar to those of the Lanka and then transmitted it from naga in Pali and Sanskrit literature that had generation to generation, often with found their way in Thai –Tai literary modification to suit the taste and context works. It may be that the two ideas had of the locality. The waterway is related to coincided by chance, or the concept of the creation of literature in several ways, naga had been modified to fit in with a folk both in content and form. tale of the society where crocodiles were held in awe. The study of river and water lore in Thai-Tai folk belief and literary tradition can be The study of river and water lore in Thai- investigated from various angles and in a tai folk belief and literary traditions has a multi-disciplinary fashion if knowledge is to vast and intriguing scope. Belief in the be fruitful and facilitate an understanding of water spirit has an ancient basis and society. reflects both positive and negative attitudes of the Thai-Tai towards nature. References

On the positive side, the Thai-Tai people lived close to nature and were constantly ตํานานพระเจาเลียบโลก. 2541. ที่ระลึกงานทําบุญ aware of man’s dependence on nature and คลายวันเกิดครบ 75 ป  ทานเจาคุณ so had respect for nature. Nature in its พระสุพรหมยานเถร (ทอง สิริมังคโล). fragility was protected by the spirits and guardian deity. When any natural resource was to be taken for consumption or use, ทาวฮุงหรือเจือง. 2486. สมเด็จพระมหาวีรวงศ  permission had to be sought in the form of สังฆนายก พิมพเปนที่ระลึกในงาน rite and ritual. Any impious act against nature such as defilement of water, would พระราชทานเพลิงศพพระสาสนดิลก (ชิต have to be atoned for by an act of asking เสโน เสน) พระครูวิโรจน (นนตโร รอด) for forgiveness. The floating of banana- leafed offering on Loy Krathong day is an และในงานฌาปนกิจศพ พระมหารัตน act of asking forgiveness from the spirit of รฏฐปาโล กับพระอาจารยเสาร กนตสีโล the river. อุบลราชธานี.

On the minus side, the Thai-Tai people looked at the waterways as being a ประคอง นิมมานเหมินท  และคณะ. 2544. mysterious source of power not to be วัฒนธรรมขาวของชนชาติไท: ภาพสะทอน taken for granted, as they could bring disaster when least expected. Many myths จากตํานาน นิทาน เพลง. งานวิจัยเงินทุน speak of a great flood overrunning the เฉลิมฉลองสมเด็จพระเทพรัตนราชสุดาฯ banks, killing people as an inundation สยามบรมราชกุมาร ี จุฬาลงกรณ sweeps through the city- all because of impious acts committed against tradition มหาวิทยาลัย เอกสารถายสําเนา. or society. The three destructive powers threatening the world were fire, water and

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)

ประวัติพระธาตุดอยตุง. 2536. รวบรวมโดย วรรณกรรมสมัยสุโขทัย. 2528. กรมศิลปากร คณะกรรมการคนควาวิจัยประวัติพระ จัดพิมพเผยแพร  กรุงเทพมหานคร: โรง ธาตุดอยตุง มูลนิธิแมฟาหลวงในพระ พิมพหัตถศิลป, หนา 49-50. ราชูปถัมภสมเด็จพระศรีนครินทราบรม ราชชนน ี และ สถาบันวิจัยสังคม วรรณคดีอีสานเรองผาแดงนางไอื่ . 2524. มหาวิทยาลัยเชียงใหม. ชําระโดยปรีชา พิณทอง อุบลราชธาน:ี โรงพิมพศิริธรรม. ประเสริฐ ณ นคร, ผูปริวรรต. 2524. มังราย ศาสตร (ฉบับนอตอง). ศูนยสงเสริม ศักดิ์ศรี แยมนัดดา. “นาค” ใน สารานุกรม และศึกษาวัฒนธรรม ลานนาไทย วัฒนธรรมไทยภาคกลาง เลมที่7, มูลนิธิ วิทยาลัยครูเชียงใหม  เอกสารโรเนียว. สารานุกรมวัฒนธรรมไทย จัดพิมพเนื่อง ในพระราชพิธีมหามงคลเฉลิมพระ พงศาวดารไทอาหม. 2539. เรณู วิชาศิลป  ถาย ชนมพรรษา 6 รอบ. กรุงเทพมหานคร: ถอดและแปล. กรุงเทพมหานคร: สยามเพรส จํากัด, หนา 3005-3010. อมรินทรพริ้นติ้งแอนดพับลิชชิ่ง จํากัด. สํานักโบราณคดีและพิพิธภัณฑสถานแหงชาติ กรม พระสมณกุลวงศ. 2511. ขุนทึง. ศิลปากร. 2541. คูมือนําชมพิพิธภัณฑ ตรวจชําระโดยนายพิทูร มลิวัลย พิมพ ลุมน้ําปาสัก. กรุงเทพมหานคร: เผยแพรโดยคณะกรรมการฟนฟู สํานักพิมพสมาพันธ จํากัด. วรรณคดีไทยอีสาน. ธนบุรี: โรงพิมพ ประยูรวงศ. สุจิตต  วงษเทศ. 2543. นาคในประวัติศาสตร อุษาคเนย. ศิลปวัฒนธรรมฉบับพิเศษ ภัททิยา ยิมเรวัต. 2544. ประวัติศาสตรสิบสองจุไท. สํานักพิมพมติชน กรุงเทพมหานคร: สํานักพิมพสรางสรรค จํากัด บริษัทพิฆเณศ พริ้นติ้ง เซ็นเตอร  จํากัด. กรุงเทพมหานคร: ธีระการพิมพ. ------2544. แมน้ําลําคลองสาย ยรรยง จิระนคร และรัตนาพร เศรษฐกุล. ประวัตศาสตริ . ศิลปวัฒนธรรมฉบับพิเศษ 2544. ประวัติศาสตรสิบสองปนนา. สํานักพิมพมติชน กรุงเทพมหานคร: สํานักงานมูลนิธิวิถีทรรศน บริษัทพิฆเณศ พริ้นติ้ง เซ็นเตอร  จํากัด. กรุงเทพมหานคร: อมรินทรพริ้นติ้ง สุนทรภู. 2513. พระอภัยมณี. ฉบับหอสมุด แอนดพับลิชชิ่ง จํากัด. แหงชาต ิ จัดพิมพโดยแพรพิทยา พระ

นคร: โรงพิมพเจริญธรรม.

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สุมิตร ปติพัฒน  และ ดร.ฮวง เลือง. 2543. B. J. Terwiel. 1980. The Tai of Assam คนไทเมืองกวา ไทแถงและไทเมืองใน and Ancient Tai Ritual. Gaya: ประเทศเวียดนาม . สถาบันไทยคดีศึกษา Center for South East Asian Studies. มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร. กรุงเทพฯ: บริษัทสองศยาม จํากัด. อักษรลาว. 1993. ขุนทึงขุนเทือง. กะซวงถะแหลง ขาวและวดทะนะทั ํา สะถาบันคนควาวัด เสฐียรโกเศศ. 2512. ประเพณีเนื่องในการเกิด ทะนะทําและสงคมสาดั . เวียงจันทน: โรง และเนื่องในการตาย. จัดพิมพเปน พิมพชาวหนุม . อนุสรณแดนายยิบอินซอย โรงพมพิ ไทย

วัฒนาพานิช.

หล ี่ ฟู เชิน, ฉิน เซียน อานและ พาน ช ิ ชือ. 2539. ชาวจวง. เหลียง หยวน หลิง, ผูแปล ของ รัตนาพร เศรษฐกุล, บรรณาธิการ เชียงใหม: สุริวงศบุคเซนเตอร.

อนาโตล โรเจอร  แปลติเยร (Anatole Roger Peltier). 2521. ตํานานเคาผีลานนา ปฐมมูลมูลี. พิมพในโอกาส 80 ปทาน จันทร  กรุงเทพมหานคร: บริษัท อมรินทรพริ้นติ้ง กรุพ จํากัด.

อรพิมพ บุญอาภา. 2524. นาคในวรรณคดี สันสกฤตและบาลี. วิทยานิพนธปริญญา อักษรศาสตรมหาบัณฑิต ภาควิชาภาษา ตะวันออก บัณฑิตวิทยาลัย จุฬาลงกรณ มหาวิทยาลัย.

Bradley, B. 2514. หนังสืออกขราภั ิธานศรับท  Dictionary of the Siamese Language Bangkok 1873. กรุงเทพฯ: โรงพมพิ คุรุสภาลาดพราว.

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