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Climatic Change and Fisheries Management Volume 23 Issue 1 Winter 1983 Winter 1983 Climatic Change and Fisheries Management Ricahrd Frye Recommended Citation Ricahrd Frye, Climatic Change and Fisheries Management, 23 Nat. Resources J. 77 (1983). Available at: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/nrj/vol23/iss1/7 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Journals at UNM Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Natural Resources Journal by an authorized editor of UNM Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]. Richard Frye* Climatic Change and Fisheries Management' INTRODUCTION Human economic activity has been susceptible to climatic change throughout history and may have been responsible for changes in regional micro-climates through deforestation, overgrazing, and desertification. Recently, the scientific community has devoted considerable attention to investigating the possibility that human activity is likely to have global climatic consequences. Of particular concern are the effects of carbon dioxide accumulation due to the combustion of carbon-based fuels,' and the additional effects of trace gases2 and aerosols released into the at- mosphere by human activity. This paper investigates the possible economic impacts of climatic change on world fisheries by tracing the relationships among climatic change, ocean circulation, fisheries ecology, and fisheries management. Section 1 summarizes the mechanisms by which scientists expect carbon dioxide (CO2) accumulation in the atmosphere to induce global climatic change. Section 2 investigates the possible implications of C0 2-induced climatic change for ocean circulation patterns. Section 3 considers how changes in ocean circulation may affect productivity of marine ecosystems. Section 4 addresses the potential management implications of C0 2-induced per- turbations of marine fisheries. 1. CO2 AND ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION The concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere has increased continuously from 315 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1958, when regular measurement began, to 334 ppmv in 1979, and is currently increasing at about 1.5 ppmv per year at current rates of fossil fuel combustion. In contrast, scientists estimate that preindustrial atmospheric concentration *Ph.D. in Economics, Bellingham, Washington. tThis article was supported with funds from the National Science Foundation. Research for the article was performed at Batelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories in Richmond, Washington, while the author was an Assistant Professor at Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Wash- ington University, Bellingham, Washington. 1. COUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, GLOBAL ENERGY FUTURES AND THE CARBON DIOXIDE PROBLEM (1981). 2. Toon & Pollack, Atmospheric Aerosols and Climate, 68 AM. SCIENTIST 268 (1980). NATURAL RESOURCES JOURNAL [Vol. 23 3 of CO 2 was about 290 ppmv. Future concentrations of C02 will depend on the magnitude of carbon sources and sinks4 over time, and particularly on the cumulative levels of combustion of organic fuels. Accumulation of CO 2 affects climate directly and through the ampli- fying effects of a number of feedback mechanisms.' The primary climatic consequence of CO 2 accumulation is the so-called "greenhouse" effect: CO2 is transparent to incoming shortwave solar radiation, but absorbs outgoing terrestrial, infrared radiation, causing a heating of the lower atmosphere. A primary feedback mechanism occurs as a result of in- creased evaporation, humidity, and sensible and latent heat flux,6 which increase atmospheric warming, effectively doubling the temperature in- crease that would be anticipated from CO 2 absorption alone. A second important positive feedback mechanism occurs as atmo- spheric warming increases the melting of polar snow and ice, thereby reducing the reflectivity of the planetary surface, and increasing the amount of solar radiation absorbed. This snow-ice albedo7 feedback mechanism could add about another 40 percent to the temperature effect of CO2 alone." Some scientists anticipate that the combined effects of infrared ab- sorption, latent heat feedback, and ice-albedo feedback associated with a doubling of preindustrial CO2 concentrations will result in an average global warming of about 2.4 degrees Centigrade (C). A number of in- dependent studies using global climate simulation models and other tech- niques support these figures.9 Climate researchers generally agree that a doubling of atmospheric CO2 will lead to an average global temperature 3. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL CLIMATE RESEARCH BOARD, CARBON DIOX- IDE AND CLIMATE: REPORT OF AN AD HOC STUDY GROUP ON CARBON DIOXIDE AND CLIMATE, NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1979) [hereinafter cited as NATIONAL RE- SEARCH COUNCIL]; Watts, Climate Models and C0 2-induced Climate Change, 2 CLIMATE CHANGE 387 (1980). 4. Carbon continuously cycles through the environment in a variety of forms. Of particular interest to climate researchers are the processes by which carbon enters the atmosphere (carbon sources to the atmosphere) and leaves the atmosphere (carbon sinks). 5. Positive feedback occurs when atmospheric warming initiates a sequence of events which amplify the initial warming. Negative feedback occurs if atmospheric warning causes events which lead to atmospheric cooling, reducing the impact of the initial warming. 6. Sensible heat flux is heat transport associated with warming and movement of the air mass; latent heat flux is atmospheric heat transport associated with evaporation and cooling at one location, with subsequent movement of water vapor and condensation and warming at other locations. 7. Planetary albedo measures the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected by the planetary surface. 8. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, supra note 3. 9. Useful summaries of several climate modeling experiments are given in: Washington, Climate Responses Due to Increased C02 : Status of Model Experiment and the Possible Role of the Oceans, in U.S. DEP'T OF ENERGY, PROCEEDINGS OF THE CO 2 AND CLIMATE RESEARCH PRO- GRAM CONFERENCE (1980) [hereinafter cited as U.S. DEP'T OF ENERGY, PROCEEDINGS]. See also Watts, supra note 3. January 1983] CLIMATIC CHANGE AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT increase of 2-4'C at low and mid-latitudes, magnified by a factor of three to four (10-12C) in polar regions.' 0 Cloud and ocean interaction feedbacks from C0 2-induced warming have not yet been successfully incorporated into climate simulation models. Increasing cloudiness at low and middle altitudes could produce a neg- ative, or cooling feedback, while an increase in high-altitude cloudiness could result in a positive, warming feedback effect. Atmosphere-ocean feedbacks include important regional climatic effects of fast western boundary currents like the Gulf Stream, dissolution of CO 2 into the oceans at the air-sea interface, and equatorial upwelling. " Heat exchange among the atmosphere, surface, and mixed and deep layers of the ocean,' 2 and the interactive effects of winds on these processes and on ocean circulation may also affect climatic conditions. Accurate modeling of ocean circu- lation will be necessary before scientists are able to predict future climatic change on a regional basis.' 3 A fundamental problem with assessing the future impacts of C0 2- induced climatic change is inadequate understanding of the global carbon cycle. Not only are sources of CO 2 from human activity subject to con- siderable variation in response to social and economic variables; at the same time the disposition of CO2 in the atmosphere, oceans, and biosphere remains poorly understood. Data available since about 1950 suggest that tropical forests have probably been a large net source of CO 2. In contrast, agriculture and grassland soils have probably been a small net source, while forests and soils in temperate zones have been moderate net sinks. As a result, the biosphere is thought to have been a minor net source of CO2 since 1950. " Future projections of CO 2 concentration are uncertain, not only because information and understanding of the carbon cycle are limited, but also because the terrestrial carbon cycle is highly susceptible to perturbations by human activity. Management of forests, wetlands, water resources, 10. The Arctic will display a substantially higher temperature increase than the Antarctic, primarily due to the greater southern ocean area and the much greater thickness and stability of Antarctic ice. 11. Wind stress over water induces motion of surface waters (Ekman transport) perpendicular to wind direction. At the equator, prevailing trade winds cause surface waters to move northward in the Northern Hemisphere, southward in the Southern Hemisphere. This divergence of equatorial surface waters effectively pumps cooler, deeper water to the surface near the equator, cooling the atmosphere. See text, infra, accompanying note 30. 12. Surface action caused by winds, tides, currents, etc., "mixes" the ocean near the surface. Deeper water, below this layer of interaction, tends to be much more stable than the mixed layer with respect to velocity, temperature, and salinity. 13. WORLD METEROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION, GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH PROJECT, THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF CLIMATE AND CLIMATE MODELING, GARP PUB. SERIES NO. 16 (1975) [hereinafter cited as G.A.R.P.]. 14. Loucks, Recent Resultsfrom Studies of Carbon Cycling in the Atmosphere, in CO 2 and Climate Research, supra note 9. NATURAL RESOURCES JOURNAL [Vol. 23 agriculture, energy resources,
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