Education, Employment, and Independent Living of Young Adults Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing

Appelman, K. I., Callahan, J., O. Mayer, M. H., Luetke, B. S., & Stryker, D. S. (2012). Education, employment, and independent living of young adults who are deaf and hard oí hedsing. American Annals of the Deaf, 157(^), 264—275.

EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT, AND INDEPENDENT LIVING OF YOUNG ADULTS WHO ARE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING

ITTLE INFORMATION is available on the education, employment, and independent living status of young deaf and hard of hearing adults who have transitioned from high school. The present article reports postsecondary outcomes of 46 young adults who had attended for at least 4 years a non-public agency school in the northw^estern United States specializing in deaf education. School administrators had developed a specific philosophy and operationalized it in an academic and literacy- based curriculum incorporating a grammatically accurate signing sys- tem. The researchers found that most or all participants had finished high school, had earned a college degree, were employed, and were living independently. Findings are discussed in terms of the available literature and the study's contribution to a limited body of recent research on young postsecondary deaf and hard of hearing adults.

KAREN I. APPELMAN, JUDY Keywords: postsecondary education, 2006; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, OTTREN CALLAHAN, MARGARET academic achievement, deaf edu- Levine, & Garza, 2006), as well as those H. MAYER, BARBARA S. LLTETKE, cation, independent living. Signing concerning "the large and growing Exact English number of deaf and hard of hearing AND DEBORAH S. STRYKER young adults who are 'low-function- An extensive review of the current ing'" (Bowe, 2003, p. 485), it would be THE FIRST FOUR AUTHORS ARE ALL AFFILIATED research literature on the education unexpected that these youth would WITH THE NORTHWEST SCHOOL FOR HEARING- levels, employment status, and inde- exit high school prepared for adult life. IMPAIRED CHILDREN, SEAHLE, WA. APPELMAN pendence levels of deaf and hard and Youth who are deaf and hard of hear- AND CALLAHAN ARE DIRECTORS AND FOUNDERS, hearing who have completed high ing and who are transitioning into MAYER IS COORDINATOR OF TEACHER EDUCATION school revealed a paucity of informa- adulthood today were born before AND RESEARCH, AND LUETKE IS OUTREACH tion. Given the findings reported in newborn infant screening laws took ef- AND LITERACY COORDINATOR. STRYKER IS AN studies of postsecondary youth with fect in most states, and if they received ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IN THE EDUCATION OF special needs in general (C. Johnson cochlear implants or high-powered THE DEAF/HARD OF HEARING GRADUATE et al., 2011; D. Johnson, McGrew, digital hearing aids, they did not have TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAM, Bloomberg, Bruininks, & Lin, 1997; this equipment as infants and toddlers, BLOOMSBURG UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Wagner et al., 2003; Wagner, Newman, at the most critical time for language Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005; Wag- and speech development. When they ner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2005, were young children the legal mini-

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF mum age for implantation was 3 years, (2003), who found that about 30% of (1992), as well as by Bowe (2003), and, because the surgical procedure students age 17 years or older who who found that 70% of students who was a new one, few parents agreed to were deaf and hard of hearing (degree were deaf and hard of hearing have their child receive an implant. of hearing loss undefined) completed dropped out while attending either a As would be anticipated, students high school, but that only about 22% 2-year or 4-year college. Bowe sug- with all degrees of hearing loss con- received a high school diploma. gested that this may be because their tinue to lag behind their same-age About a fourth were labeled "low- ability to read was just too low. Lang hearing peers in reading and mathe- functioning deaf" (p. 485), defined as observed that "even with the expan- matics when assessed by means of reading at less than a second-grade sion of support and access services standardized measures applied to level and achieving in math and other provided in higher education pro- high school graduates of two residen- subjects at a second-grade to fourth- grams over the past decade, the fail- tial schools in the southeastern United grade level. Bowe claimed that so ure rate remains, on average, dismal" States, as reported by Lollis and LaSasso much attention was being given to (p. 268). (2008). These researchers character- passing state tests (a development ized this situation as having been a also considered by Lollis and LaSasso, Definition of Success "consistent finding" for the past 90 2008) that many students who were When Postsecondary years (p. 77). Students who are deaf deaf and hard of hearing were possi- Youth Have a Disability and hard of hearing have been found bly being deprived of the opportunity The definition of success when stu- to graduate from high school with "to learn what they urgently need dents with special needs are tran- sixth-grade computation abilities and to learn . . . includ[ing] the skills of sitioning from high school to fifth-grade problem-solving abilities self-care and of self-determination, adulthood was formulated in the (Traxler, 2000); this finding is based on in addition to vocational and inde- wake of a national study by the Na- the national norming data and per- pendent-living skills and competen- tional Center on Secondary Education formance standards for the Stanford cies" (p. 487). Bowe lamented that and Transition (2004). Research staff Achievement Test (ninth edition) as these competencies are seldom taught at the NCSET defined success as the derived from a population of students in integrated or mainstreamed set- ability to demonstrate self-advocacy, with a hearing loss distribution of 51% tings, where approximately 60% of make decisions, and exprcss prefer- profound, 21% severe, and 28% less students who are deaf and hard of ences. In addition, NCSET researchers than severe. Deaf students' math lev- hearing are now educated (Gallaudet recommended that school adminis- els lag behind those of hearing peers Research Institute, 2008). Bowe listed trators "ensure students have access by about 3 years (Nunes, 2004) when specific skills that need to be taught to to the general education curriculum" deaf students are in college, even students who are deaf and hard of (p. 7), "increase the school comple- though they display normal nonverbal hearing before high school graduation rates" (p. 8), "make school gradu- intelligence (see literature review by tion if they are to live independently. ation decisions based on meaningful Vernon, 2005). The degree of hearing Included on his list were social skills, indicators of students' learning and loss of the participants who were deaf the skills needed to obtain a driver's skills" (p. 9), "ensure students access and hard of hearing in the study by license, appropriate communication to and full participation in postsec- Nunes (2004) was not specified. Kelly abilities, and the ability to set realistic ondary education and employment" (2003) contended that the math ability goals; he added that "self-advocacy (p. 10), "increase informed parent of individuals who are deaf and hard of training is another area important in participation and involvement in edu- hearing influences future employment transition" (pp. 490-491). cational planning" (p. 12), "improve and earnings to a greater extent than Although some students who are collaboration and systems linkages reading ability deaf and hard of hearing are accepted [with educationally relevant groups] It seems logical that low levels of into postsecondary programs, Lang at all levels" (p. 14), and "ensurc the both reading and math ability prevent (2002) found that only about 25% availability of a qualified workforce" students who are deaf and hard of graduate (degree of hearing loss un- (p. 15). The NCSET authors stated hearing from finishing high school defined). This graduation rate is that these challenges have important and earning a high school diploma, as about the same for both 2-year and implications for special education, the majority of their hearing peers do. 4-year programs. Lang's finding is general education, community agen- This impression is supported by Bowe supported by Stinson and Walter cies, and organizations as students

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DE.«' POSTSECONDARY LiFE D/HH with disabilities transition from high More education was linked to living efit (i.e.. Supplemental Security In- school to postsecondary education, independently Because participants come, or SSI), a form of federal finan- employment, and other aspects of were adult members of a social organ- cial assistance, by young adults who adult life. Because students who are ization for deaf adults whose hearing were "hearing impaired [as defined deaf and hard of hearing are a subset status "ranged from deafness to mild or] designated by the youth's school of those in special education, the hearing loss" (p. 54), Weisel and Ka- or district" (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, characteristics of success described by mara suggested that a different pic- & Levine, 2005, p. B-3) was reported the NCSET researchers are relevant to ture might emerge for these young for almost 23% of the participants in a the present study. adults who were fully integrated so- national study of people with hearing cially with hearing peers. They stated loss ages 16-18 years (Newman, Wag- Definition of Success When that "this group deserves the atten- ner, Cameto, & Knokey, 2009). Nonac- Postsecondary Youth Are tion of future research" (p. 58). ceptance of such aid might be another Deaf and Hard of Hearing Stinson and Walter (1992) identi- way to measure independence and What constitutes success in the transi- fied other factors that were character- maturity (Bowe, 2003), as it could be tion from high school to adulthood istic of the individualization process an indicator of employment status. when students are deaf and hard of during the maturation of young adults Bowe (2003), who reported on deaf hearing is defined in the literature re- who were deaf and hard of hearing and hard of hearing individuals age 17 viewed by Convertino, Marschark, (degree of hearing loss not de- years or older, clarified that when an Sapere, Sarcher, and Zupan (2009). fined)—in this case, freshmen at the adolescent turns 18, the Social Secu- Aiming to determine predictors of National Technical Institute for the rity Administration considers that in- academic performance in college, Deaf These factors were the develop- dividual to be a " 'family of one' " if he Convertino et al. found that English- ment of social skills and the establish- or she is deaf or hard of hearing, language ability was "clearly the most ment of identity—attainments that "meaning that they can qualify for fi- important predictor" (p. 337) of high might be necessary for the transition nancial assistance on the basis of their performance on a standardized col- to postsecondary education and own earned income and personal as- lege admission test (i.e., the ACT) by young adult life in general. In agree- sets" (p. 491). Thus, an 18-year-old deaf and hard of hearing college stu- ment with this finding, Lang (2002) who was not eligible for SSI in past dents whose hearing loss ranged from said, "Social/personal factors play a years because the family income was mild to profound. Convertino et al. critical role in the success of deaf stu- too high would be eligible upon grad- also reiterated the findings of Stinson dents in higher education, as well as uation from high school. Employed and Walter (1992) with regard to moti- in subsequent success in the work- young adults who did not receive an vation among students who are deaf force" (p. 269). He called for further SSI benefit or another form of federal and hard of hearing, stating that the investigation of the "relationships financial assistance would seemingly infiuence of parental expectations, ac- between adjustment, identity, and be more independent and less de- ademic achievement, and self-esteem academic success" (p. 270) when stu- pendent on their parents than those had to be considered important fac- dents are deaf and hard of hearing. who did. tors in successful transitions from In a study that investigated attach- In the defining of a successful tran- high school to adulthood. ment and individualization of young sition from high school to adult life, With regard to defining self- adults who were deaf and hard of employment would seemingly be a esteem, Weisel and Kamara (2005) hearing, Weisel and Kamara (2005) factor to consider, yet it was difficult reviewed the available research litera- found little relevant research. Sinkko- to find information on the number of ture and found that college students nen (1994), reporting a thorough re- young adults who are deaf and hard of who were deaf and hard of hearing view of the literature on the topic, hearing and employed (degree of had lower self-esteem and a lower failed to uncover studies directly in- hearing loss undefined). When voca- level of well-being than their hearing vestigating independent living among tional rehabilitation (VR) counselors peers. The researchers' own investiga- individuals who were deaf and hard of were surveyed by Houston, Lammers, tion substantiated this finding: Stu- hearing. Sinkkonen inferred that most and Svorny (2010) in 2006 regarding dents with more education exhibited of these young adults were "depen- the perceived effects of the Americans less fear of forming boundaries with dent and immature" (p. 53). With Disabilities Act of 1990, the sur- parents and of reaching autonomy. Acquisition of a Social Security ben- vey respondents offered no specific

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF data as to the percentage of young compared to those from the first postsecondaiy academic program en- deaf adults who were employed. No NLTS, which had been conducted in rollment and attendance was 66.5%. other pertinent research could be the mid-1980s. Like the original study, Receipt of a certificate or degree from found on this topic. Houston et al. did NLTS2 included the postsecondary a postsecondary institution was re- find that VR counselors felt that there outcomes of a nationally representa- ported for 29.7%. About 63% of the were more employment options in tive sample of youth in 12 categories participants said they were employed, the labor market for individuals with a of disability that was constructed to and averaged almost 34 hours of work hearing loss than in the past, "with the represent the entire population of per week. Use of the services of a care exception of workers who lacked students with disabilities in the manager or service coordinator was postsecondary education" (p. 19). United States. It included young indicated by about 61% of the sample; The researchers also found that many adults who were deaf and hard of SSI was received by 22.9%. Most of the VR respondents "thought that lower hearing and 16 to 18 years old when young adults, 58.4%, were living at wages and more generous 'SSI bene- sampling began. Wagner and col- home. A permit to drive or a driver's fits' encouraged workers who are leagues collected data beginning in license was held by 79.0%, and 62.7% [deafand hard of hearing] .. .without 2001 (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, were registered to vote. a postsecondary education to leave Garza, & Levine, 2005; Wagner, New- Data on grade-level reading and the labor market and rely [on federal man, Cameto, & Levine, 2005, 2006; math abilities were also available from financial assistance] (pp. 19-20). Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & the NLTS2 national study, based on av- Houston et al. felt that their findings Garza, 2006), and continued sampling eraged responses as reported by New- only "opened the door" (p. 20) to fu- every 2 years until 2009 (Newman et man et al. (2009). Discussing these ture research on employment when al., 2009). The researchers used a findings in order from above average young adults are deaf and hard of questionnaire that was completed by to 4.9 grade levels behind the average, hearing. either the youths themselves or their Newman et al. reported that about Accepting the responsibility to vote parents (or guardians). Answers to 19% of the participants were above to might be included in a definition of survey questions were subjected to a less than 1.0 grade level behind in maturity. Schur, Shields, Kruse, and complex series of weightings so that reading and that almost 22% were Schriner (2002) analyzed data on indi- they would proportionately represent functioning at this same level for viduals with disabilities and voter the various disability categories in the math; 13% were 1.0 to 2.9 grade levels turnout and reported turnout to be nation (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & behind the average in reading and al- 20% lower among people with disabil- Levine, 2006). A detailed description most 18% behind to this degree in ities than those without them in a of the NLTS2, including the national math; about 35%, the largest percent- sample of "adult citizens," 17.4% of sampling, data collection, and analysis age, were 3.0 to 4.9 grade levels be- whom had a severe hearing loss (p. procedures, is provided by Wagner hind in reading, and almost 38% were 173) and 2.4% of whom were deaf (p. Newman, Cameto, and Levine (2006). behind to this degree in math. About 175). Lower voter turnout was found Pertinent results of the NLTS2 na- 33% were 5-0 or more grade levels be- in general to occur among people tional study, the most recent reported hind in reading, and almost 23% were who were unemployed. The re- by Newman et al. (2009), are as fol- this far behind in math. Older youth searchers called for studies on the lows. Participants who were deaf and were significantly farther behind than causal relationships among age, em- hard of hearing (n = 510) were be- younger participants; males were far- ployment, and efficacy as they relate tween the ages of 21 and 24 years (M ther behind than females; non-White to voter turnout. = 23.5 years). Of those, a little more racial/ethnic groups were farther be- In 2001, the U.S. Department of than 51% were male. About 10% were hind than those who were White; and Education, in response to the paucity married. In regard to unaided hearing students using a language at home of information on postsecondary-age acuity, 65% of the sample was re- other than English were farther be- citizens with special needs, funded a ported to have profound hearing loss, hind than those from English-speak- 10-year study, the NLTS2 (for second 28% moderate loss, and 7% mild loss. ing homes. National Longitudinal Transition In this nationally representative sam- C.Johnson et al. (2011) conducted Study). Descriptive findings and mul- ple of young adults who were deaf a statewide study regarding young tivariate analyses of multiple meas- and hard of hearing, the high school adults with one of 13 special needs ures of academic performance were graduation rate was 93.1%; the rate of who had exited high school and lived

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF POSTSECONDARY LíFE D/HH in the state of Washington. One group hearing would be a desired contribu- desk. All staff's receptive and expres- of young adults was deaf and hard of tion to the empirical literature in the sive SEE skills are evaluated regularly hearing. Potential participants had field of deaf education. Consequently, through observations with feedback been identified from a list of students the purpose of the present study was (Mayer & Lowenbraun, 1990), and with disabilities enrolled in state high to report specific postsecondary out- many have passed the evaluations for schools who had received special edu- comes regarding a sample of this pop- certification provided by Modern cation services. Participants or their ulation who had completed at least 4 Signs Press in its regional workshops, parents responded to questions asked years in a particular program for stu- at least one of which is held annually in telephone interviews by district dents who are deaf and hard of hear- near the NW School. There are regu- staff Data were analyzed by the Cen- ing located in the northwestern larly scheduled staff discussions about ter for Change in Transition Services a United States (referred to in the pres- the signing of vocabulary that does year after the students had exited ent article as the "NW School"). not appear in the SEE reference dic- high school. Between 73% and 79% of tionary (Gustason & Zawolkow, 1993), all young adults in the state who pos- The NW School and staff practice sign lessons (Gusta- sibly were deaf and hard of hearing, or Thirty years ago, a school for students son, 1983a, 1983b) almost weekly as their parents, were interviewed from with hearing loss was founded in the part of staff meetings. If a student 2000 to 2008. C. Johnson et al. did not northwestern United States based on signs a comment or question that is report demographic information on a specific philosophy and curriculum ungrammatical, teachers often will age, degree of hearing loss, parent in- (Lowenbraun, Appelman, & Callahan, state it in a correct or typical form and volvement, or socioeconomic status 1980), with the goal of grade-level ask the child to say and sign it again. of their participants who were deaf achievement by students who are deaf This strategy is referred to at the and hard of hearing. The authors pre- and hard of hearing. The school is not school as the 'Again Technique" sented information by percentages in private; instead, special education di- (Lowenbraun et al., 1980). If any staff table form according to various com- rectors in 20 neighboring school dis- member observes a fellow staff mem- parisons (e.g.. Percent of High School tricts, located in six counties, contract ber using an ungrammatical comment Graduates in College by Disability). with the program to serve children or question, the latter will be in- Three questions were relevant to the whom they do not have staff or pro- formed and shown the grammatically present study: (a) Did you graduate gram to educate in their own district. correct way to say and sign the com- from high school? (b) Have you at- As a nonpublic agency, the NW School ment or question. Almost daily, each tended vocational training, 2-year (as we call it here) must adhere to all student receives 15 minutes of indi- community college, or college/univer- the rules and regulations of a public vidualized tutoring in speech, listen- sity? (c) Are you employed? For the school and serves a diverse student ing, vocabulary, sentence patterns, last question, state respondents were body Approximately 60 students were and social sentences. Students are ed- asked once a year if they had been enrolled during the period germane ucated in small groups by grade level employed during the last 6 months. It to the present study for academic and literacy training. Ad- was found that 76% had graduated The guiding tenets of the NW ministrators use modeling and direct from high school, 55% had attended School have remained constant for instruction to teach staff to give stu- training or college after high school, three decades. The curriculum in- dents choices, to model and encour- and 39% had been employed for cludes the use of Signing Exact Eng- age decision making, and to provide some period within the year of the lish (SEE), a grammatically correct consequences for the choices that are interview. form of English (Gustason, Pfetzing, & made. Having reviewed the current re- Zawolkow, 1972; Gustason & Za- Most NW School students are search as to the factors that indicate a wolkow, 1993), signed and paired with mainstreamed into regular schools successful transition from high school spoken English and used by all adults beginning in kindergarten and con- to adulthood by young adults with and students at all times. The diction- tinuing through eighth grade, as ap- hearing loss, previous researchers had ary of SEE (Gustason et al, 1972; Gus- propriate and in compliance with concluded that additional investiga- tason & Zawolkow, 1993) is visible and individualized education program tions of the education, employment, used as a daily reference in all class- goals. On average, all kindergarteners and personal achievement of young rooms; each student is required to and first graders are mainstreamed in adults who were deaf and hard of own a copy, which resides in his or her at least one class at a local school.

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF Children in third through sixth grade ents and parents' involvement in the homes where English was not the first are almost all mainstreamed for at educational planning for their child, language. Participants were between least one academic class, and about collaboration with other relevant pro- 17 and 35 years old; the mean age was 10% ofthe students are mainstreamed fessional groups, and appropriately about 26 years. The participants were in two classes. By eighth grade, nearly trained educators. These eight philo- 46% male (n = 21) and 54% female 75% ofthe students are mainstreamed sophical components are in align- (n = 25). About 22% were married. for three classes, or about half their ment with the nationally recognized Sixty-three percent reported an un- school day NCSET components. Informally col- aided severe to profound hearing Graduation from high school is ex- lected information from or about loss, 28% a moderate hearing loss, pected and pursuit ofa college degree graduates over the years indicated and 9% a mild hearing loss. About 20% encouraged by the administration and that many had successfully transi- had cochlear implants. Participants teachers at the NW School. Parents, tioned from high school to adult- were not asked about their aided loss. grandparents, and others important hood. However, prior to the present Because the NW School is a nonpublic to the well-being of each student are study, no empirical investigation had agency, tuition is charged. However, invited to many school functions been conducted regarding these the full tuition of 95% of the partici- and encouraged to participate in in- young adults. pants had been paid by their school dividual and group activities (e.g., Four research questions were ad- districts. The families of 5% ofthe par- curriculum night, alumni panels, par- dressed: ticipants had paid partial tuition. ent informational sessions, sessions with successful deaf adults who work • What were the reading and math Instrument in the area). It is the specific assign- abilities of the participants while A 15-item self-report online survey, ment of one of the administrators to at the NW School? based on the NLTS2 study, was used attend and collaborate in meetings • What level of education did they for the present study. The instrument with agencies and groups dealing with achieve? included objective questions used in deaf education in the region and • What is their employment status? the NLTS2 study that could be an- state. Teachers and assistant teachers • Are they living independently? swered affirmatively, negatively, or are monitored monthly to ensure that with a one-word answer, such as "Do the school philosophy and teaching Method you receive financial aid?" Questions strategies are employed. Teacher and A survey for the present study was de- asked on the survey are listed in Ap- assistant teacher training on topics veloped from the survey used in the pendix A. No reliability or validity sta- related to literacy occurs almost NLTS2 national sample. It asked for- tistical analyses were performed monthly in 1-hour sessions. Age-ap- mer students of the NW School to re- beyond those done by the NLTS2 dur- propriate English-language and read- spond to questions related to their ing development of the original sur- ing abilities ofthe majority of students education, employment, and inde- vey (Wagner et al., 2003). enrolled at the NW School for at least pendent living status. The survey was uploaded to Survey- 4 years have been documented over Monkey (www.surveymonkey.com), an the last decade (Luetke-Stahlman & Participants Internet-based service for presenting Nielsen, 2004; Nielsen, Luetke, & Former students of the NW School surveys, collecting responses, and ana- Stryker, 2011; Stryker, Luetke, Nielsen were identified as potential partici- lyzing results. It was introduced via a & McLean, 2011). pants in the present study. Partici- personal e-mail from the directors of The philosophy of the NW School pants qualified if they were old the NW School (found in Appendix B) also includes the promotion of self- enough to have graduated from high and sent electronically to the 66 poten- determination and self-advocacy, ac- school and had attended the NW tial participants. The e-mail briefly ex- cess to general education curriculum, School for a minimum of 4 years be- plained the purpose of the research, completion of grade-level curriculum, tween 1982 and 2003. Sixty-six poten- indicated that answers would be kept graduation requirements based on tial participants were identified, and confidential, and invited participation. meaningful indicators of students' were contacted by e-mail. Responses Five weeks after the initial e-mail went learning and skills, access to and full were obtained from 46 individuals out, a second e-mail was sent to those participation in secondaiy education, (70%). Of these participants, 93% who had not responded. The potential the sharing of information with par- were Caucasian and 7% were from participants were given 6 months to re-

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF POSTSECONDARY LIFE D/HH spond to the survey before data collec- Table 1 tion was terminated. Comparison of Achievement Between Tested and Actual Grade Levels in Reading and Math for NW School Sample and NLTS2 National Sample

Procedure Reading Math Two types of data were collected for Grade level NW% NLTS2 % NW% NLTS2 % the present study. Through the use of Above to less than 1.0 level behind 73.9 19.4 jjg jiaa the results of standardized achieve- 1.0-2.9 grade levels behind 23.9 13.1 19.6 17.6 ment tests and curriculum-based tests 3.0-4.9 grade levels behind 9H|| p.2 34.9 2.2 37.8 'III obtained from the participants' cumu- 5.0 or more grade levels behind 0.0 32.6 0.0 22.9 lative files, reading and math abilities Note. NLTS2, National Longitudinal TransitionStudy-2. were averaged across the sample; this process provided "a framework for un- derstanding the match or mismatch pants had earned a high school Successful transitions to independ- between expected performance and diploma. Large majorities had gone ent living were indicated by the large students' actual proficiency" (Blocko- on to postsecondary education, earn- proportions of participants who had a rby, Chorost, Garza, & Guzman, 2009, ing degrees or certificates in most driver's license or permit and who p. 3). Grade-level reading and math cases. Education outcomes are re- had registered to vote: about 9 out of abilities of the participants were ob- ported in Table 2 along with data from 10 in both cases. Postsecondary inde- tained from school records collected the NLTS2 national survey as well as pendent living outcomes are shown in by a third-party research consultant the Washington state survey (C. John- Table 4, along with the data reported not employed by the NW School and son et al, 2011). in the NLTS2 national study. are reported in Table 1, alongside the Most of the participants reported data from the national study. being employed; on average, em- Discussion, Limitations of The second type of data collected ployed participants were working at the Study, and Suggestions consisted of the responses to the sur- about the full-time level. Outcome for Future Research vey described above. Responses were data regarding employment of the The present study contributes empiri- electronically submitted to the survey NW School participants are reported cal information to the existing body of data bank maintained by SurveyMon- in Table 3 along with the data on par- literature regarding the education, key. Survey responses for questions ticipants in the NLTS2 national survey employment, and independent living 2-15 were obtained from 46 partici- as well as the Washington state survey of high school graduates who are deaf pants (70%). Quantitative data were (C. Johnson et al., 2011). and hard of hearing. Asking individu- analyzed with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 16.0, Table 2 with averaged percentages reported Postsecondary Outcome Data From NW School, National NLTS2, and Washington for nominal data. State Surveys: Education

Achievement indicator NW School % NLTS2 % WA % Results Graduate from high school 'HH 93.1 76.0 A large majority of the participants— Attend postsecondary school 87.8 66.5 55.0 about three quarters—were above to PSpceive degrees or certificates 66.7 S HP 29.7 .IHI less than a grade level behind in read- Note. NLTS2, National Longitudinal Transition Study—2. ing achievement; the same was true for math achievement. No participants were five or more grade levels behind Table 3 Postsecondary Outcome Data From NW School, National NLTS2, and Washington in reading or math. The reading and State Surveys: Employment math achievement discrepancy between tested and actual grade levels of Achievement indicator NWSchooi% NLTS2 % WA% the NW participants are shown in Employment for postsecondary Table 1, as are data from the partici- students no longer in school 63.2 39.0 pants in the NLTS2 national survey Average hours worked per week 38.1 33.8 NA As Table 2 shows, all of the partici- Note. NLTS2, National Longitudinal Transition Study-2.

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF Table 4 Walter (1992), found that while many Postsecondary Outcome Data From NW School and National NLTS2 Surveys: students with hearing loss enroll in Independent Living college programs in the United States,

Achievement indicator NW School % NLTS2 % many do not finish their studies. Receive S^fHHF' Bowe (2003) also reported that only Have a case manager about 30% of students who are deaf Live with parents and hard of hearing who enroll in col- Have a driver's license or permit lege earn a degree. This finding was Am registered to vote substantiated by Wagner and col- Notes. NLTS2, National Longitudinal Transition Study-2. SSI, Supplemental Security Income. leagues (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005; Wagner, New- man, Cameto, & Levine, 2005, 2006; als with hearing loss about their expe- research, and specifically not in the Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & riences after high school can generate studies conducted by Wagner and col- Garza, 2006). Almost 67% of the NW information that informs educators leagues (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, School sample had earned a college and leads to educational improve- Garza, & Levine, 2005; Wagner, New- degree, a finding that possibly sup- ments (Bowe, 2003). It is possible that man, Cameto, & Levine, 2005, 2006; ports that of Convertino et al. (2009) information about the specific skills Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & that English-language ability is linked that need to be taught to students Garza, 2006), we did not collect these to academic success. English-language who are deaf and hard of hearing so data in the present study, which par- ability is "clearly the most important that they can successfully transition alleled Wagner and colleagues' re- predictor" of high performance on into adulthood could similarly assist search. Additionally, no data were college entrance measures when stu- parents. collected regarding the use of assis- dents are deaf and hard of hearing Eor a number of reasons discussed tive listening devices; nor was infor- (Convertino et al., p. 337). Language in the introductory section of the mation on participants' aided hearing data were not collected in the NLTS2 present article, many young adults loss requested or reported. These national study or in the statewide sur- with hearing loss are low functioning variables warrant future investigation vey done in Washington. and unprepared for an independent if researchers are to better under- Luetke-Stahlman and Nielsen (2004), adult life. Yet the majority of the par- stand why one group of students can Nielsen et al. (2011), and Stryker et al. ticipants in the present study were make a seemingly successfully transi- (2011) collected English-language college educated, employed at about tion to adult life while others do not. data for the former NW School stu- a full-time level, living independently In 2003, Bowe reported that only dents who had been enrolled for at of their parents, in possession of a dri- about 22% of high school students least 5 years. Seventy-four percent of ver's license or permit, and registered classified as "hearing impaired" re- these individuals who participated in to vote. ceived a high school diploma. How- the present study were above to less While the information collected in ever, in 2011, C. Johnson et al. (2011) than one grade level behind in read- the present study may be useful in reported a graduation rate of 76% in a ing achievement, and about 78% func- identifying important characteristics sample in one state, Washington. In tioned on this level in math. The of a school program that helps indi- research published in 2005 and 2006, importance of the NW School's lin- viduals who are deaf and hard of Wagner and colleagues (Wagner, New- guistic environment, that is, the use of hearing transition successfully to man, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005; SEE, English-language strategies, and adulthood, further study is needed. Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, regular assessment, as well as daily tu- Inclusion in the study of data on the 2005, 2006; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, toring in listening, speech, and Eng- level of parent participation at school, Levine, & Garza, 2006) found that 93% lish grammar, could be an important the degree to which parents signed, of the individuals in their national factor in enabling the English-lan- and different cultural groups repre- sample had graduated from high guage development necessary for aca- sented by the students would have school. The NW School alumni in the demic success. Although linguistic strengthened the analysis. Because present study had a 100% graduation environment was not studied specifi- this type of information was not avail- rate. cally in the present study, it merits fu- able regarding the participants in past Lang (2002), as well as Stinson and ture research. The study participants

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMEMCAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF POSTSECONDARY LIFE D/HH did not seem to be language deprived of college and independent living vari- References in the sense discussed by Vernon ables warrants future research. Blockorby, J., Chorost, M., Garza, N., & Guz- (2005) in regard to the general popula- Some of the findings compiled in man, A. (2009). The academic performance of secondary school students with disabili- tion of people with hearing loss; the review of the literature, as well as ties. In L. Newman, M. Wagner, R. Cameto, & nonetheless, the relationship between the results of the present study, serve A. Knokey (Eds.), The post-high school out- English-language ability and educa- as baseline information for future comes ofyoulh with disabilities up to four years after high school: A report from the tion, employment, and independent work. For example, it was difficult to National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 living also merits future research. find information on the number of (NLTS-2) (pp. 4-1-4-15). Menlo Park, CA: The results of the present study in- young adults who are deaf and hard of SRI International. Bowe, F. (2003). Transition for deaf and hard-of- dicate that not all persons who are hearing and employed (Houston et hearing students: A blueprint for change. deaf and hard of hearing can be char- al, 2010). Wagner and colleagues Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Educa- acterized as "dependent and imma- (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & tion, «(4), 485--Í93. Levine, 2005; Wagner, Newman, Convertino, C, Marschark, M., Sapere, R, ture," as Sinkkonen (1994) reported Sarcher, T, & Zupan, M. (2009). Predicting and as Weisel and Kamara (2005) Cameto, & Levine, 2005, 2006; Wag- academic success among deaf college stu- found. Wagner and colleagues (Wag- ner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & dents. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Ed- ner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Garza, 2006) found that 65% of those ucation, 12(3), 324-343. Gallaudet Research Institute. (2008). Regional Levine, 2005; Wagner, Newman, in their national sample were em- and national summary report of data Cameto, & Levine, 2005,2006; Wagner, ployed, and C. Johnson et al. (2011) from the 2007-08 Annual Survey of Deaf Newman, Cameto, Levine, & Garza, reported that 39% of those in the and Hard of Hearing Children and Youth. Washington state survey worked. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University. 2006) found that more than half of Gustason, G. (1983a). Student workbook: Be- those represented in their national About 85% of the NW School partici- ginning curricula A, B, and affixes used in sample lived with their parents, com- pants were employed; on average, Signing Exact English. Los Alamitos, CA: pared to only 22% of the NW School this segment worked almost full-time. Modern Signs Press. Gustason, G. (1983b). Teaching and learning sample, and that almost 23% of the na- More research is needed to clarify the Signing Exact English: An idea book. Los tional sample collected SSI, compared relationship between education level Alamitos, CA: Modern Signs Press. to only 15% ofthe NW School sample. and the types of employment individ- Gustason, G., Pfetzing, D., & Zawolkow, E. (1972). Signing Exact English. Los Alamitos, The results of the present study do uals who are deaf and hard of hearing CA: Modern Signs Press. not support the claim of inordinate obtain. Schur et al. (2002) called for Gustason, G., & Zawolkow, E. (1993). Signing dependency made by previous re- further research on the causal rela- Exact English. Los Alamitos, CA: Modern tionships among age, employment, Signs Press. searchers, but indicate, rather, that Houston, K., Lammers, H., & Svorny, S. (2010). individuals who are deaf and hard and voter turnout. Perceptions of the effect of public policy on of hearing can be educated to be- The results ofthe present study add employment opportunities for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. Journal of come independent and mature young to the literature on the education, em- Disability Policy Studies, 21(1), 9-20. adults. ployment, and independence ofyoung Johnson, C, Iwaszuk, J., Johnston, W, Ostergren, "More education" was found by adults who are deaf and hard of hear- M., Smith-Henry, M., & Edgar, E. (2011). An analysis of state follow-up data on the Weisel and Kamara (2005, p. 58) to re- ing and who have transitioned out of postschool status of special education gradu- sult in more autonomy and individual- high school and into young adult life. ates. Seattle, WA: Center for Change in 1i:ansi- ization. This finding is supported by These results could aid educators and tion Services. the research of Convertino et al. parents in identifying characteristics of Johnson, D., McGrew, K., Bloomberg, L., Bru- ininks, R., & Lin, H. (1997). Results of a na- (2009), but was not specifically ad- a school program that result in more tional follow-up study of young adults with dressed in the present study. Because young adults graduating from high severe disabilities. Journal of Vocational a higher number of participants from school and college, obtaining employ- Rehabilitation, 8,119-133. Kelly, L. (2003). The development ofthe men- the NW School were living independ- ment, and living independent lives. Al- tal representation of number magnitude ently, were registered to vote, and though an independent life is difficult in children with hearing impairment (Un- held a driver's license or permit, and to describe, it should be noted that published master's thesis). University of since fewer received SSI, perhaps most of the participants in the present Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland. Lang, H. (2002). Higher education for deaf stu- these positive independent living study had completed college, were dents: Research priorities in the new millen- characteristics could qualify the NW married, worked, had a driver's license nium. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf School sample as more autonomous. or permit, were registered to vote, and Education, 7(4), 267-274. Lollis, J., & LaSasso, C. (2008). The appropriate- The relationship between completion no longer lived with their parents. ness of the North Carolina state-mandated

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF reading competency test for deaf students Longitudinal Transition Study—2 (NLTS-2). R., Newman, L., Levine, P, & Davies-Mercier, as a criterion for high school graduation. Menlo Park, CA: SRI. Retrieved from National E. (2003). The achievements of youth with Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Educa- Center for Special Education Research web- disabilities during secondary school: A re- tion, 14(1), 76-98. site: www.nlts2.org/reports/2009_04/nlts2_ port from the Natiojial Longitudinal Tran- Lowenbraun, S., Appelman, K., & Callahan, J. report_2009_04_complete.pdf sition Study-2 (NLTS-2). Menlo Park, CA: (1980). Teaching the hearing-impaired Nunes, T. (2004). Teaching mathematics to SRI International. through Total Communication. Columbus, deaf children. London, England: Whurr. Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Garza, N., OH: Merrill. Schur, L., Shields, X, Kruse, D., & Schriner, K. & Levine, P (2005). Afler high school: A Luetke-Stahlman, B., & Nielsen, D. (2004). A (2002). Enabling democracy: Disability and first look at the postschool experiences study of the role of Signing Exact English voter turnout. Political Research Quarterly, of youth with disabilities: A report from and phonological awareness in reading 55(1), 167-190. the National Longitudinal Transition achievement. In B. Luetke-Stahlman & D. C. Sinkkonen, J. (1994). Hearing impairment, Study-2 (NLTS-2). Menlo Park, CA: SR! In- Nielsen (Eds.), Deaf students can be great communication, and personality devel- ternational. readers, (pp. 81-136). Los Alamitos, CA: opment (Unpublished doctoral disser- Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., & Levine, Modern Signs Press. tation). University of Helsinki, Helsinki, P (2005). Changes over time in the early Mayer, P, & Lowenbraun, S. (1990). Total Com- Finland. postschool outcomes of youth with disabili- munication usage among elementary teach- Stinson, M., & Walter, G. (1992). Persistence in ties: A report of findings from the National ers of hearing impaired subjects. American college. In S. G. Foster & G. G. Walter (Eds.), Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) and Annals of the Deaf 135, 257-263. Deaf students in postsecondary education the National Longitudinal Transition National Center on Secondary Education and (pp. 43-64). New York, NY: Routledge. Study-2 (NLTS-2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI Transition. (2004). Current challenges facing Stryker, D., Luetke, B., Nielsen, D., & McLean, International. the future of secondary education and M. (2011). Results of standardized reading Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., & Levine, transition services for youth with disabili- and English-language tests given in 2010 at P (2006). The academic achievement and ties in the United States. Retrieved from a school for the deaf in the Northwest. Man- functional performance of youth with dis- www.ncset.org/publications/discussionpaper uscript in preparation. abilities: A report from the National Longi- Nielsen, D., Luetke, B., & Stryker, D. (2011). Trader, C. (2000). The Stanford Achievement tudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS-2). The importance of morphemic awareness Test, ninth edition: National norming and Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. to reading achievement and the potential of performance standards for deaf and hard of Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Levine, P, signing morphemes to supporting reading hearing students./owrwa/ of Deaf Studies & Garza, N. (2006). Aw overview of findings development, foumal of Deaf Studies and and Deaf Education, 5(4), 337-348. from Wave 2 of the National Longitudinal Deaf Education, 160), 275-288. doi:10.1093/ Vernon, M. (2005). Fifty years of research on the Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, deafed/enqO63 intelligence of deaf and hard of hearing chil- CA: SRI International. Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., c& Knokey, dren: A review of literature and discussion Weisel, A., & Kamara, A. (2005). Attachment and A. (2009). The post-high school outcomes of oíimplicdLÜons. foumal of Deaf Studies and individualization of deaf/hard of hearing and youth with disabilities up to four years af- Deaf Education, lOQ), 225-231. hearing young zàuXls. foumal of Deaf Stud- ter high school: A report from the National Wagner, M., Marder, C, Blockorby, J., Cameto, ies and Deaf Education, 10{\), 51-60.

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF POSTSECONDARY LIFE D/HH

Appendix A

Self-Report Online Survey Questions

1. What is your name, address, and other contact information? 2. What is your age? 3. What is your gender? 4. What is your marital status? 5. How is your hearing loss defined on your audiogram? 6. Did you graduate from high school? 7. Have you attended a vocational school, 2-year community college, 4-year college/university, or other job training? 8. Have you attended graduate school? 9. Have you received any degrees or certificates? 10. Are you currently employed? 11. Do you have a case manager or service coordinator? 12. Do you receive financial aid? 13. Where do you live now? 14. Do you have a permit to drive or driver's license? 15. Are you registered to vote?

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF Appendix B

Introductory Letter for Online Survey

Dear NW School Graduate:

We are conducting a survey of graduates of the NW School. This survey will provide valuable information to us about the effectiveness of our school. Your answers will be kept private and confidential. We would greatly appreciate your help with this. Please select the following link to begin the survey:

Link to survey

Thank you so much for helping us with our survey.

Warmly,

(Names of directors were listed.)

VOLUME 157, No. 3, 2012 AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF Copyright of American Annals of the Deaf is the property of American Annals of the Deaf and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.