16-30 APRIL, 2021

DownToEarthSCIENCEFORTNIGHTLY AND ENVIRONMENTON POLITICS OF FORTNIGHTLY DEVELOPMENT, ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Subscriber copy, not for resale `60.00

AFRICA Inequitable global distribution of vaccines will only prolong the pandemic for every country AT RISK AT

INDIA The government must revitalise public sector units to meet COVID-19 vaccine requirements

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02JSES- Magazine Advt- Feb 2021- PDF.indd 2 09/04/21 12:32 PM SUNITA NARAIN \EDIT Zero-zero, net zero E HAVE seen furious activity on climate change in the first weeks of April in Delhi. No, I am not talking about action to fight climate change. I am talking about words and more words—much has been W written about the position that India must take or not take when it comes to declaring a net-zero goal. Much has been discussed in closed-door meetings on the same. John Kerry, the US climate envoy, was in town in the lead up to President Joe Biden’s climate leaders summit on April 22-23. He wanted to cajole and push us to act—say something big when the leaders meet. The good news is that climate change is back on the agenda. The bad news is that we are discussing the wrong things; we are in danger of once again losing the opportunity to drive home the need for ambition and equity in climate change action. Just consider the narrative in Delhi. It was not about the need to take stock of what has been done or not done to meet the Paris commitments—the voluntary targets countries have taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in this decade; it was not about how minuscule, completely off track and inequitable the Paris targets are. It was not about the emission pathways countries are choosing to make drastic reductions as needed to avoid the climate change catastrophe. It was not about anything that matters. Instead, the entire discourse was distracted by the completely meaningless discussion on net-zero—it is widely accepted that Joe Biden will declare his country’s net-zero target for 2050 at the summit. The question was if, should and could India follow its net-zero date? Why do I say this is meaningless? Firstly, let’s be clear that there is no substance in the net-zero target that countries have declared. It is but an aspirational idea—something that they will work towards. Practically all the countries that have made the grandstanding declaration have no plans on how they will get to net-zero by 2050, or in the case of China, by 2060. So, it means nothing. It’s about the idea of getting there and the hope that some so-called disruptive technologies will get scaled up and be ready The fact that Joe for delivery when the date comes. Biden is not a Secondly, net-zero as an idea itself is flawed. It means that countries will emit more; climate denier is but they will mop up these emissions to say "net-net". How will they soak up the good news. But it emissions? Two methods: one, plant trees that will sequester carbon dioxide that we will is not enough continue to emit and two, take the carbon dioxide and pump it back into the ground— carbon capture and storage technologies. But there are still many unanswered questions about this approach; there are huge challenges in estimating the "tree-soak" and there are issues to sort with the set of technologies, fancifully called negative emission. So, it’s a scam—at least today—to talk about these as the real options going forward. You can argue that these so-called disruptive technologies will come and so we should not be rejecting this idea today. I would say yes, but our dependence on these still experimental technologies to save us will distract attention from what can and must be done today. That needs to be our conversation. Not net-zero. Thirdly, net-zero is intrinsically inequitable. It was the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (ipcc) that had said global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide would need to fall by 45 per cent from the 2010 levels by 2030, reaching net-zero by 2050. Given the fact that there is a huge and completely disproportionate difference in the emissions of the old-developed world and now newly developed China and the rest of the world, it would be logical to say that if the world needs to be net-zero by 2050, then these countries needed to have already turned net-zero or do so by 2030. No later. Then it would provide space for countries like India—way below in the historical emissions and current emissions—to declare a net-zero goal by 2050. In today’s scenario, what could or should India do? Declare a net-zero goal by 2070? Twenty years after the US and Europe; 10 years after China. What does it even mean? As things stand today and when Joe Biden grandstands his country into the net-zero world of 2050—do not clap. Do not cheer. It is not enough. Not by a stretch. Only ask if his country will meet the Paris commitments—so ridiculously meagre—by 2025. The US has to be 26-28 per cent below its peak levels in 2005 by 2025. In fact, US greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were higher than that at the end of 2016. We also need real ambition by 2030, not talk of 2050. The fact that Joe Biden is not a climate denier is good news. But it's not enough. Let’s not end up losing another decade squabbling over yet another chimera. Climate change is real. It is time we stood up to it. DTE @sunitanar

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03Editors.indd 3 09/04/21 4:00 PM Down To Earth Founded in 1992 to arm you with knowledge critical to shaping a better world FOUNDER EDITOR Anil Agarwal Contents EDITOR Sunita Narain MANAGING EDITOR Richard Mahapatra ASSOCIATE EDITORS Vibha Varshney, S S Jeevan, Snigdha Das, Arnab Pratim Dutta (Multimedia) CREATIVE DIRECTOR Ajit Bajaj SUPPLEMENT EDITOR Sorit Gupto 30 REPORTING TEAM Ishan Kukreti, Akshit Sangomla, Africa is the other Banjot Kaur, Shagun Kapil continent after ASSISTANT EDITORS Aditya Misra, Rajit Sengupta Europe which is SUB EDITOR Dakshiani Palicha under a tight grip of WEB EDITORS Joyjeet Das, Rajat Ghai, Anshika Ravi, the COVID-19's Preetha Banerjee second wave. If the DESIGN TEAM Chaitanya Chandan, Sanjit Kumar, Shri Krishan, Vijayendra Pratap Singh, Ritika Bohra world remains PHOTOGRAPHER Vikas Choudhary uninvolved, it will only PHOTO LIBRARY Anil Kumar prolong the course of the pandemic for PRODUCTION Rakesh Shrivastava, Gundhar Das every country TECH SUPPORT Rajendra Rawat, Jaidev Sharma MULTIMEDIA Sunny Gautam, Adithyan P C INFORMATION AND RESEARCH SUPPORT Kiran Pandey, Susan Chacko,Madhumita Paul, Sheeja Nair, Lalit Maurya, Dayanidhi Mishra CONSULTING EDITOR Anumita Roychowdhury 20 India must utilise Vol 29, No 23; Total No of Pages: 60 its idle public Editorial, subscriptions and advertisements: Society for Environmental Communications, sector assets to 41, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, overcome the New Delhi 110 062, COVID-19 vaccine Phone: 91-11- 40616000, 29955124,

COVER STORY COVER supply crunch 29956110, 29956394, 29956399 Fax: 91-11-29955879. Email: [email protected] 2021 Society for Environmental Communications. All rights reserved throughout the world. Reproduction in any manner is prohibited. Printed and published by Richard Mahapatra on behalf of Society for Environmental Communications. Printed at International Print-o-Pac Limited, B-204, 205, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase I, New Delhi-110020, India, and published at 41, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi 110 062. 07 Digest 54 Book excerpt To subscribe, sms 'dte Subscribe' to 56070 Uttarakhand village uses Oonga explores the or visit www.downtoearth.org.in/subscribe technology to revive a spring human impact of FOR ADVERTISEMENTS Jyoti Ghosh environmental conflict [email protected] 12 Soil FOR SUBSCRIPTIONS The world’s 175-year-long 56 Opinion K C R Raja, [email protected] agricultural study has great Water assets built under insights about farming practices MGNREGA must suit the ground typologies 18 Warm start Despite prevalence of cold 58 Civil Lines La Niña conditions, spring and Mass poverty has returned to 16-30 APRIL, 2021 summer arrive early this year India after 45 years DownToEarthSCIENCEFORTNIGHTLY AND ENVIRONMENTON POLITICS OF FORTNIGHTLY DEVELOPMENT, ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Subscriber copy, not for resale `60.00

AFRICA Inequitable global distribution of vaccines will only prolong the pandemic for every country 52 Patently absurd Will rights waiver make COVID-19 vaccines cheaper to produce? Probably not AT RISK AT

INDIA The government must revitalise public sector units to meet COVID-19 vaccine requirements Cover design: Ajit Bajaj Cover photo: istock, Reuters

01Cover.indd 1 09/04/21 5:41 PM

Down To Earth does not endorse the content of advertisements printed in the magazine. All disputes are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of competent courts and forums in Delhi/New Delhi only.

04Contents+Credits.indd 4 12/04/21 10:12 AM Engage

Nuclear is the answer This is in reference to the column “Why nuclear is still unclear” (16-31 March, 2021). The major obstacle faced by renewable energy is its low capacity factor (the ratio of actual electrical energy output of a system over a given period of time to the hypothetical maximum possible output). Since nuclear energy has the highest capacity factor of any other energy source, it clearly is the answer. The Fukushima and Chernobyl accidents were simply failed experiments. PURNIX VIA EMAIL

Difference in degrees This refers to the article“Cold comfort: The sun is cooling; doesn’t mean there’ll be no global warming” published online Viable model to save on September 23, 2020. I agree with the article. I live in the desert region of rainwater in India Phoenix in Arizona, US. Annual monsoons cool the middle of the Arizona desert. This is with reference to the editorial “Water in age of climate change” (16-31 Less evaporation from the oceans mean March, 2021). Roughly two decades ago, Himachal Pradesh took up an initiative hotter temperatures. Last summer, we to trap rainwater. A series of contour trenches were built across the region, from only saw one storm. It would have been the hilltop to the valley, in a staggered manner. Earlier, the first few days of good to include such examples in the monsoon in the region ended in a deluge. But the trenches helped prevent this by article to help people understand that soaking up a lot of rainwater. During the monsoon months, the 5,000 trenches lower temperatures in one region can remain nearly always full of water. Since a single trench (about 30 cm deep, 30 sometimes mean more heat elsewhere. cm wide and 150 cm long) holds about 135 litres of water, the hills trap a good JOHN 675,000 litres of rainwater several times during the monsoon season, eventually VIA EMAIL adding moisture to the ground. The mounds now yield bumper harvests of fodder and fuel crops—the two Farming solutions most sought-after items in the agricultural landscape of the mountainous region. The cover story “An agrarian biopsy” (16- And when shared equitably among the local people, the crops are automatically 28 February, 2021) portrays a multi- guarded throughout the growing season without any fencing. This is a low-cost faceted analysis of farmers’ crises that model of trapping rainwater, checking soil erosion, improving soil moisture and show no signs of abatement. But figures thereby local people’s livelihood. If implemented on a large scale, it could act as and statistics alone cannot provide an effective pushback against water depletion and climate change. solutions. Firstly, all states cannot VINAY implement the same solution. Secondly,

ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE VIA EMAIL

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05-06Engage-April 16-30.indd 5 12/04/21 9:29 AM Letters

DTE TV

River revival changes people's fortunes The Odi rivulet in the drought- prone Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh has water through

the year, courtesy MGNREGA. This has increased total arable land in eight villages and raised the incomes of local people.

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NOTICE BOARD

to say that farmers are shunning agriculture because it is a loss-making enterprise, is not entirely true. Some are leaving this profession because the population growth has divided the already small landholdings into smaller pieces. Cropping patterns that have evolved due to the advent of chemical fertilisers are also to blame. Farmers grow only staple crops like wheat, paddy, sugarcane for high yields. If this pattern is reversed in favour of mixed cropping, involving pulses, oilseeds and spices, along with activities like beekeeping, pisciculture and sericulture, the profession can be turned profitable. L R SHARMA SUNDERNAGAR, HIMACHAL PRADESH

SHOLAI SCHOOL Errata Located in the campus of the Centre for Learning, The article “Women take charge” in the cover story “The chase and the Organic Agriculture and Appropriate Technology, in a beautiful sylvan valley of the Palani Hills, we are change” (16-31 March, 2021) erroneously states that at Birbandh village of a non-conventional, 70 acre residential School Bankura district in West Bengal, harvesting structures trap water flowing from registered with the University of Cambridge International Examinations (IN499). The students higher land after 30 m from where the runoff starts over a horizontal spread take IGCSE (Xth standard) and A level exams. Having a teacher : student ratio of 1:6 we are able to of 40 m. The correct measurements are 30 ft (9 m) and 40 ft (12 m). explore learning well beyond the confines of syllabi. The panel on p26 in the cover story “Charging” (1-15 April, 2021) Comprehension of conditioning and its limiting effect on incorrectly says that India produced 3,400 MT of iron in 2019. The figure the mind and reflecting on responsibility and sensitivity in relationships are some of the themes explored should be 3,400 MMT (million metric tonnes). between students and teachers. Send for brochure to: Both the cover stories have been corrected in the online version. We Sholai School, P.O.Box 57, Kodaikanal - 624 101. Telephone-04542-230393/297/487

ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE regret the errors. Email: [email protected] Website: sholaicloaat.org

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05-06Engage-April 16-30.indd 6 12/04/21 9:30 AM DigestWHAT’S INSIDE

Women in rural Uttarakhand step Nepal shuts schools due to More lightning strokes up to end their water woes P10 unhealthy air quality P11 over the Arctic P12

1,000 WORDS VIKAS CHOUDHARY

Garbage dumps are changing food habits of animals such as this langur seen in Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, chewing on a wrapper. A 2019 study published in Current Science says some species are becoming increasingly dependent on anthropogenic food waste and can accidentally ingest plastic leading to several health problems such as stomach ulcers, reproductive disruptions and premature death.

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07-11Digest.indd 7 09/04/21 12:19 PM Digest/IN FRONT Spring back to life

FOR DECADES, women in Uttarakhand's Dubroli A non-profit's decided to set up a water committee to draw a village spent a large part of the day fetching plan to end their water woes. "We identified a water. They would make five to 10 trips on technological spring that runs right in the middle of the village foot to the lone spring some 2 km from approach for and is on top of an aquifer which is close to the the village, carrying water in buckets for surface," says Neeta Saha, a resident and head of household chores. springshed the water committee. Next, they made recharge Like other villages in Lamgara block of rejuvenation pits at the source of the channels that feed the Almora district, Dubroli was perpetually aquifer and the spring. "We also planted trees water-scarce. The monsoon was scanty and helps Uttarakhand along the channels and made check dams to government-installed pipes would run dry for women end ensure all rainwater gets drained into the spring," months on end. But in 2019, Dubroli's women she says. The spring today has water round the took matters into their own hands with some their water woes year and the women need to walk a mere help from Central Himalayan Rural Action Group 200-300 m to fetch water. It helped them ADITHYAN P C (CHIRAG), a Uttarakhand-based non-profit that immensely during the lockdown last year. works on changing people's lives in the state. The committee looks after the maintenance Using GIS (geographic information system), of the structures and collects money from each CHIRAG's engineers mapped aquifers in the household for the same. They have also region through which groundwater moves or requested the Uttarakhand government to remains deposited. "In the conventional connect their households with the spring approach, watershed management activities through pipelines. are carried out over, say, 50 to 60 hectares (ha) "The community engagement has facilitated around the aquifer. Using GIS mapping ownership of the projects among the people," technology, this area of focus can be reduced says Abhishek Likam, assistant team leader, to just 3 to 15 ha while guaranteeing water spring water recharge, CHIRAG. The non-profit availability," says Badrish Singh Mehra, launched its water revival programme in 2008 executive director of CHIRAG. and has since rejuvenated 211 springs across After the mapping, the village residents eight districts in Uttarakhand.

Water warriors of Dubroli village: Nata Devi (extreme left), Neeta Saha, Deepa Bisht and Meeta Devi

07-11Digest.indd 8 09/04/21 12:19 PM SPOTLIGHT/Digest POLLUTION Nepal chokes under forest fires

ON MARCH 30, Nepal was forced to shut down all its educational institutions for five days after air quality of the Himalayan country dipped to hazardous levels. The country, in its advisory, also asked the elderly to stay at home. On March 27, Kathmandu's air quality index reached 421, making it the most polluted city in the world. Scientists say the reasons behind the pollution and haze, particularly over the Kathmandu valley, are quite a few, which ranges from vehicular have exacerbated the situation in a decade. Forest fire season in emissions, smoke from coal-fired this time is an increase in forest Nepal starts in the winter month brick kilns and construction works fires in Nepal. The government of November and lasts until the to the burning of forested land has reported over 2,700 forest onset of monsoon in June. This to grow fodder. Westerly winds fires between November 2020 and winter was drier than usual— that brings dust from South and March this year. This is 14 times Nepal received 25 per cent of the South-West India also adds to this higher than in the same period normal rainfall—which could have pollution load. What appears to last year and could be the worst increased the risk of fires.

ENERGY ENVIRONMENT Companies oppose deep Solar geoengineering sea mining of minerals test axed amid concerns

INDUSTRY GIANTS Google, bmw, Volvo and Samsung sdi SCIENTISTS FROM the US and Europe called off a have announced a moratorium on deep sea mining test flight under the Stratospheric Controlled of critical battery minerals like cobalt, manganese, Perturbation Experiment (scopex) programme in nickel and copper. The companies have committed Sweden on April 1 amid environmental concerns. neither to use such minerals in their respective scopex is a Harvard University project that aims technologies nor to fund this activity. Deep sea to use solar geoengineering techniques to inject mining involves extraction of the battery minerals sunlight-reflecting aerosols such as sulphur dioxide from nodules (rock concentrations) that pepper the into the upper reaches of the Earth's atmosphere to sea floor—they are particularly abundant in the minimise the Sun's impact on the planet's surface. North Pacific Ocean. Activists say such extraction Experts say it could adversely effect the Earth's would disrupt marine ecosystems and want more climate and give a free pass to polluting industries research. The companies' announcement comes at to continue harmful practices. However, its a time when many countries are planning to ratify proponents argue it should be considered as a viable deep sea mining to meet their mineral requirements. option to combat climate change. On March 25, the Norway may grant licences by 2023. India is US' National Academy of Sciences, Engineering awaiting approval from the International Seabed and Medicine released a report recommending the Authority, an intergovernmental body that regulates country consider investing US $100-200 million mineral-related activities on international waters, for in a solar geoengineering programme to facilitate

PHOTO: ADITHYAN P C / CSE its own programme. research and implementation.

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07-11Digest.indd 9 09/04/21 12:19 PM Digest/SNIPPETS

QUERY BITS GLOBAL

Lightning How do warm WHO, EU and 25 other countries are pushing temperatures affect for a new global pandemic treaty to avoid over Arctic lightning frequency? the uncertainty and inequity seen during the Lightning strokes COVID-19 spread. The treaty would aim to How has lightning occur2 when ice crystals inside ensure that any information on outbreaks, activity over the convective clouds collide and virus pathogens, technology and vaccine Arctic changed? produce an electric charge. development is shared with all nations. The proponents of the treaty hope to build a Scientists with the Convective clouds are formed firm resolution in time for the World Health University1 of Washington, US, when warmer air rises through Assembly in May this year. have found that the lightning the cooler atmosphere. Hence, strokes above 65oN latitude the increasingly warm (includes most of the Arctic temperatures over the Arctic countries) increased from region may be resulting in more 18,000 in 2010 to 150,000 convection and exacerbating in 2020. The share of Arctic the lightning activity. lightning strokes in global activity rose from 0.2 per cent What effect will the in 2010 to 0.6 per cent last year, increase in strokes with most activity concentrated have on the Arctic? over northern Siberia. The In recent times, scientists have mapped the there3 has been an increase in Brazil has become the 130th country to ratify frequency of strokes during shipping activity over the Arctic the Nagoya Protocol that lays out specific the summer months of June, due to its melting ice cover. The rules for protecting a country’s claims to its July and August and attribute increase in lightning strokes biodiversity. Under the protocol, nations agree the rise in number to warming puts such ships in danger. The to not remove biological material from other temperatures worldwide strokes can also cause wildfires countries such as indigenous plants without (see graph). on Arctic land. the latter's permission and to share profits from products developed from that material. UPWARD In the last decade, the global share of summer lightning STREAK strokes over the Arctic has tripled as a result of warming Australia saw its quietest fire season in a decade, with good rainfall and cooler La Niña 10 0.95 0.93 1.0 0.89 0.89 conditions offsetting the spread of bush fires. 0.92 The state of New South Wales saw 31,000 8 0.8 hectares hit by fires during the bush fire danger 0.73 0.71 0.8 0.77 6.7 period (October 1, 2020-March 31, 2021) as 0.68 against 5.5 million hectares last year. 6 0.65 0.6 5.18 4.85 4.26 Sixty-four per cent of agricultural land 4.77 4 0.4 across the world is at risk for pesticide pollution, says a new study. 3.4 Nature Geoscience 2.09 2.87 Scientists produced a map depicting pollution 2.52 2.68 2 0.2 risk of 92 chemicals commonly used in 1.64 pesticides across 168 countries. Land areas in 0 0.0 Asia are at the highest risk—especially China, Japan, Malaysia and the Philippines. 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Share of lightning strokes above 65oN Three-month summer latitude in global strokes (x10-3) (%) temperature anomaly (oC)

Source: R H Holzworth, J B Brundell, M P McCarthy, A R Jacobson, C J Rodger , T S Anderson (2021), Lightning in the Arctic,Geophysical Research Letters, March 22, 2021

10 DOWN TO EARTH 16-30 APRIL 2021 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN

07-11Digest.indd 10 09/04/21 12:19 PM Digest/SNIPPETS

BITS INDIA FRAMEWORKS

India deferred deadlines for coal-fired n The coal minister introduced the Mines and Minerals (Development plants in less populated areas to adopt new and Regulation) Amendment Bill 2021 in the Lok Sabha. The Bill aims emission norms by three years, as per a to remove the distinction between captive and merchant mines and empowers the government notice. The Centre had earlier set Centre to issue directions regarding District Mineral Foundation funds. 2017 as the deadline for thermal power plants to install flue gas desulphurisation units to cut n The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways notified the draft Motor Vehicles sulphur dioxide emissions, which was later (Registration and Functions of Vehicle Scrapping Facility) Rules, pushed to 2022. Now, plants in areas with a 2021 that lay down the procedure for setting up,authorisation and operation of population less than one million have till 2025 registered vehicle scrapping facilities. for the same. Those that miss the target can continue operating after paying a penalty. n Bihar has become the first state to launch an Ethanol Production Promotion Policy, 2021, under the National Policy of Biofuels, 2018. The policy The Union environment ministry's expert will allow the extraction of ethanol from maize and introduce investment incentives. appraisal committee (EAC) considered 837 infrastructure project proposals in 2020, the highest in three years, of which it cleared 439. Some EAC members said time given IN COURT to scrutinise the proposals was insufficient. NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL SUPREME COURT However, the ministry said all environmental nIn a case regarding the revision n The apex court has sought appraisals and field assessments were done of the monitoring mechanism to the Union government's reply in while considering the proposals. oversee compliance of environmental a case alleging that the Centre norms, the National Green Tribunal cancelled around 30 million ration (NGT) has told the Central Pollution cards, including those of tribal and Control Board, the Union environment impoverished communities, because ministry and state authorities that they could not be biometrically frequency norms for inspection must linked to Aadhar cards. The petitioner form part of clearance conditions. alleges such cancellations have led to several starvation deaths across nIn an issue regarding illegal coal the country. The Supreme Court (SC) mining by cement companies in has labelled these allegations as East Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, serious if true. NGT has directed a 12-member committee to look into the matter and nThe apex court has constituted a India slipped 28 places to the position take appropriate action. of 140 among 156 countries in the World seven-member committee to develop scientific and policy guidelines for Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report n NGT has directed the Uttar governance matters related to felling 2021, becoming the third worst performer in Pradesh Chief Secretary to look of trees for developmental projects. South Asia. The country closed 62.5 per cent into allegations that waterbodies The SC bench headed by Chief of its gender gap to date, as per the report. in Ghaziabad district were being Justice S A Bobde has passed the Most of the decline occurred on the political diverted for industrial purposes, order taking into account the value of empowerment subindex, where India slipped leading to increased encroachments trees in protecting the environment 13.5 percentage points due to a significant and violating environmental laws. decline in the number of women ministers. and combatting climate change.

India's biggest floating solar power plant will start operations within the next month at So far... NATIONAL SUPREME HIGH Ramagundam thermal power plant reservoir in Number of cases on GREEN COURT COURTS TRIBUNAL Peddapalli district, Telangana. Commissioned environment and development by the National Thermal Power Corporation tracked from January 1 to (NTPC), the plant has an estimated capacity of March 26, 2021 134 36 45 100 MW—in line with the country's mission to achieve 175 GW of renewable energy capacity Compiled by DTE-CSE Data Centre FOR DETAILED VERDICTS, SCAN by 2022.

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07-11Digest.indd 11 09/04/21 12:19 PM SPECIAL REPORT/SOIL

Breaking new ground The world’s longest running agricultural study adds to the debate on organic-inorganic farming SHAGUN KAPIL NEW DELHI

HE FARMLAND in field named Broadbalk. Every on the same land, a practice the picture might look year since then, researchers from considered bad farming in the T unremarkable to most. the institute have sown winter 19th century; Lawes and Gilbert But for agricultural scientists, it wheat on all or some parts of the had realised this was the best is part the planet’s most famous field to compare crop yields, when way to learn about the individual 4.5 hectares (ha). The field in grown using inorganic fertilisers crop nutrient requirements. Hertfordshire county of southern with those when grown using England has been under organic or farmyard manure AND STAGE WAS SET continuous scientific experiments (fym). A patch that receives no Under Broadbalk experiment, the for the past 178 years, making it fertiliser or manure inputs is also land was divided into 19 strips of the world’s oldest and longest maintained for control treatment. wheat field, each 300 m long and 6 running study. The aim of the Broadbalk m wide. To test the benefits of dif- The research was started by experiment is to test the effects of ferent combinations, some strips agricultural scientist John different organic and inorganic received inorganic fertilisers, Bennet Lawes and chemist fertilisers on soil fertility and some organic and some others a Joseph Henry Gilbert under the study the optimum nutrition combination of both. One strip Rothamsted Research institution requirements to improve crop was left received neither of these. in the autumn of 1843, when the yield. The research took shape by Modifications were made over

first crop of wheat was sown on a growing the same crop each year the years. Wheat was grown con- INSTITUTION RESEARCH ROTHAMSTED COURTESY: PHOTOGRAPHS

12 DOWN TO EARTH 16-30 APRIL 2021 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN

12-16Appraisal soil copy.indd 12 09/04/21 4:01 PM Scientists have been sowing wheat on this field, named Broadbalk, every year since 1843 to understand how to use fertilisers to improve crop yield

YIELDS GROWN AFTER A TWO-YEAR BREAK WERE MUCH HIGHER THAN YIELDS OF CONTINUOUSLY GROWN WHEAT. THIS WAS BECAUSE THE EFFECTS OF SOIL-BORNE PESTS AND DISEASES WERE MINIMISED section where wheat was grown with a two-year break, were higher (2 tonnes per ha) than tinuously till 1968, when the remaining five sections. from sections where wheat was strips were further divided into These experiments were not grown continuously. The effects of sections, with 10 of them growing envisioned to be long-term initially, soil-borne pests and diseases are the crop in rotation after a two- but Lawes and Gilbert later minimised in case the field gets a year break. On six sections, wheat thought more useful information two-year break, they say. was grown in two different three- could be gained by continuing them Another important finding is course rotations with oats and over many growing seasons. And related to the use of soil nutrition. beans. In 1978, one of the six they were not wrong. In the 1860s, the average yield of sections reverted to continuous After 175 years of study, the continuous wheat treated with wheat; potatoes, oats, maize and scientists have come up with some organic manure was 2.35 tonnes beans were grown under a five- interesting observations. They per ha; yield from strips treated course rotation with wheat on the have found that yields from the with inorganic fertilisers—phos-

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12-16Appraisal soil copy.indd 13 09/04/21 4:01 PM SPECIAL REPORT/SOIL

“Incorporation of crop residues into soil has considerable benefits for soil health” ANDY MACDONALD, manager, Rothamsted long-term experiments, Rothamsted Research, UK, speaks to Down To Earth on the key findings of the study

What does it take to sustain an What are the key takeaways in terms of experiment like this for almost two soil health? centuries? In addition to good management of Broadbalk is one of the several organic manures, the management of agricultural field experiments established crop residues is also important. In by John Lawes and Henry Gilbert between Broadbalk, there is an indication that 1843 and 1856. Lawes supported the inputs of mineral fertilisers, especially N experiments with funds from his fertiliser and P, have resulted in slight increases manufacturing business and eventually in soil organic C and N contents, perhaps established the Lawes Agricultural Trust to due to enhanced crop growth and ensure that the experiments continued increased returns of crop residues in after his death. The management of the roots and stubble. These increases were experiments was subsequently taken over by the British associated with a decrease in the energy required to government as part of their support for agricultural plough the soil (plough draft). Other long-term studies research and development. Some of the experiments have shown that straw incorporation has also resulted in continue today and are supported by the UK Biotechnology small increases in soil organic carbon and soil microbial and Biological Sciences Research Council (part of UK biomass. There is evidence that these increases have Research and Innovation) and the Lawes Agricultural Trust, beneficial effects on soil physical properties including under its experimental facility, the National Capabilities, aggregate stability, water infiltration and plough draft. for use by scientists in the UK and abroad for new Consequently, the incorporation of crop residues into the agro-ecological research. soil may well have considerable benefits for soil health.

How beneficial are long-term agriculture experiments What is the best treatment for wheat yields—organic for modern agriculture? manure, inorganic fertilisers or a combination of both? Long-term experiments provide a unique insight into the The Broadbalk experiment demonstrates that both mineral effects of changes in land use and management on fertilisers and organic manures are beneficial for crop agricultural systems, because these effects occur over production. Wheat yields from plots under rotation, given extended periods of time and are characterised by farmyard manure plus mineral fertilisers or higher rates of considerable variability. It is only by collecting data over mineral fertilisers alone, are similar. However, the annual long periods of time that clear trends become apparent. farmyard manure inputs used on Broadbalk greatly exceed Such data can be used to develop and test models to help those which can be used in current commercial practice understand the effects of changes on the crop/soil system. because of limited availability of manure. Such experiments also act as a physical demonstration of the key factors necessary to maintain food production. Do you think there are any lessons for a developing and densely-populated country like India, where What are the two or three most important findings from agriculture is one of the main occupations but is the research till now? not lucrative enough? With sufficient input of fertilisers, lime and pesticides The many differences between the climate and agriculture along with the use of new higher-yielding crop varieties, systems in Europe and India make it difficult to translate sustainable crop production can be achieved on the same findings directly from the Rothamsted experiments. site for generations. However, for optimum yields, inputs of However, they demonstrate some principles common to all fertiliser N which greatly exceed crop requirements and agricultural systems, including the importance of organic manure are not environmentally sustainable. maintaining soil fertility and other aspect of soil health Consequently, it is important to manage nutrient inputs, (organic matter content, pH, structure and biological whether from mineral fertilisers or organic manures, to activity) necessary to ensure global food security for a match crop demand as carefully as possible. growing population in a changing climate.

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12-16Appraisal soil copy.indd 14 09/04/21 4:01 PM phorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), nitrogen (N)— was 2.85 tonnes per ha. Between 1890 and 1940, the field strips treated with both combinations resulted in almost similar yields. Between 1950 and 2019, the average yield with fertilisers was 4.9 tonnes per ha, while the aver- age for fym was 4.8 tonnes. But research showed that the use of organic manure had increased the soil organic matter content on some plots. “It also had beneficial effects on many soil properties, including fertility, structure and water holding capacity. This can make the soil more easily work- able and decrease the energy required to plough it. It may also improve soil conditions for plant establishment and growth,” says Andy Macdonald, manager of Rothamsted Research’s long-term experiments (see interview, p14). However the Broadbalk exper- iment indicates such benefits may not require large increase in soil organic matter. For instance, in temperate north-western Europe- an climates, modest applications of manure on a regular basis (once during crop rotation) may be sufficient to improve the health of soil, adds Macdonald. A comparison of recent yield

between 2016 and 2018 of both Among the findings include the fact that soil has the ability to act as a sink for methane continuous and rotational wheat plots shows that the higher the Although the difference in yield greenhouse gas that leaks when amount of nitrogen, the greater is between wheat treated with fym water drains through the soil. the yield. This was observed by and N6 was not much in Another significant finding of comparing plots that received continuous plots, in the rotational the ongoing experiment is about only fym, those that received plots, the average yield from fym organic matter in the soil. A different amounts of N fertiliser was 6.9 tonnes per ha as agasinst century after the experiments (N1 to N6 with N1 having lowest 10.7 tonnes per ha from N6. began, it was found that the amount of nitrogen and N6 the The finding shows that there amount of organic carbon (C) in highest ) and those that received is little benefit for farmers using topsoil (0-23 cm) in fym-treated same amounts of P, K and Mg. fertiliser with such high levels of plots was more than double of The highest average yield was nitrogen. Also, since most of the that in fertiliser-treated plots. was in wheat treated with N6 nitrogen gets converted to nitrate, Similarly, long-term changes in fertiliser, grown in both continu- any residue not retained in soil the total percentage of nitrogen ous and rotational manner. may convert to nitrous oxide, a concentration in the topsoil where

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12-16Appraisal soil copy.indd 15 09/04/21 4:01 PM SPECIAL REPORT/SOIL

Towards optimum yield experiments where they have been Broadbalk average wheat yields improved from 1 tonne per hectare (ha) trying to find a balance in the use in 1843 to 9 tonnes in 2020; scientists aim to attain 20 tonnes by 2032 of chemical fertilisers for 176 years. Long-term experiments are really 12 When grown continuously, on unfertilised field needed when the world is talking When grown continuously, with farm yard manure about evidence-based agronomy. 10 When grown continuously, with inorganic fertiliser and We need to learn from these moderate amount of nitrogen instead of taking decisions, 8 When grown in rotation, with farm yard manure political or otherwise, based on one and highest amounts of nitrogen or two years of research.” Such 6 When grown in rotation, with finorganic experiments help in devising long- fertiliser and highest amounts of nitrogen term strategies by putting together 4 data from past climatic conditions Grain, tonnes per ha tonnes Grain, and understanding what can help 2 build soil health. India has also been conducting 0 its own long-term experiments, 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 especially related to fertiliser and Year nutrient management. Long-term Source: Rothamsted long-term experiments, a 2018 report by Rothamsted Research, UK fertiliser experiments are being carried out at 17 Indian Council of winter wheat was grown in most comparison with other plots that Agricultural Research (icar) years since 1843 were also tested. received the same fertiliser as well centres since 1970 to study chang- Between 1840 and 2010, nitrogen as herbicides, showed that the es in soil quality, crop productivity concentration in fym treated plots mean yields were lower in the for- and sustainability. According to was the highest, followed by a plot mer. An assessment from 1985 to icar, these experiments show that receiving both fym and nitrogen 2014 showed mean yield from sec- it is not possible to sustain fertiliser. Soil nitrogen concentra- tion 8 was half of the yield from one productivity without external tion remained almost constant in another section. supply of nutrients. The research the unfertilised plot (nil) and the With this knowledge, Rotham- has led to the development of plot given phosphorus-potassium sted Research scientists have integrated plant nutrient supply since the start of the experiment. improved wheat yields from and management strategies for The other aspect was the soil’s 1 tonne per ha since 1843 to improving soil fertility, enhancing ability to act as a sink for methane 9 tonnes per ha in 2020 (see and sustaining productivity of

(CH4). Preliminary findings showed ‘Towards optimum yield), boost- intensive cropping systems—rice-

less CH4 is oxidised in the soil when ing Lawes’ statement in his first wheat, rice-rice, maize-wheat, nitrogen was applied as against soil Rothamsted paper in 1847, where finger millet-maize, soybean- receiving fym or that with neither he described Broadbalk soil as a wheat and groundnut-wheat—in fertiliser nor manure. heavy loam resting upon chalk, major soil groups of India. The In 2000, another important capable of producing good wheat results shows application of change was to withhold the when well manured. The current N alone has a detrimental effect on P fertiliser from selected plots. goal of the institution is to attain soil productivity, but a balanced Doing this allowed plant-available 20 tonnes per ha in 20 years use of NPK can help maintain phosphorus to decline to a level under its 20:20 programme that organic carbon in soil. Jat says, which is suitable to achieve began in 2012. experiments like these are assets maximum yield without any Calling Rothamsted the to the nation. The database can detrimental effect on the soil. birth-place of systematic agricul- help plan strategies, help policy- The research has also tural research, M L Jat, principal makers understand what is emphasised the importance of good scientist with Mexico-based happening in the field and serve as weed control to protect the yield. International Maize and Wheat capacity development play-farms, One of the 10 sections (section 8) Improvement Center, says, “We can generating scientific evidence. DTE was not given herbicides and its learn a lot from these kinds of @shagun_kapil

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17DTE subscription ad update 2021.indd 17 09/04/21 12:33 PM All of Eurasia is warmer than usual; the La Niña winter pattern is bringing warmth to the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea as well Uneasy spring The world is heating up even in La Niña years that are associated with cooler temperatures AKSHIT SANGOMLA NEW DELHI

ANGO TREES across the recorded its third hottest January India saw a spike of 5oC or more in country this year are laden and February in 2021. In terms of their daytime temperatures. India M with dense clusters of minimum temperatures, the first also saw the third warmest March greenish-white and pinkish flowers. two months were the second hottest in 121 years. The warmest March In Uttarakhand and Himachal on record after 2016, suggests data was in 2010, followed by 2004. Pradesh, the rhododendron has with the India Meteorological But more than the rising painted the hills red and pink more Department (imd). Maximum temp- temperatures, what has confounded than four weeks ahead of schedule. eratures soared 5-7oC above normal scientists is their occurrence In Jammu and Kashmir, almond, in Odisha, Chhattisgarh and despite the prevailing La Niña peach and gul-tour (a yellow flowering Jharkhand on January 9. On conditions, which typically bring in herb), too, have flowered earlier than February 17, Jammu and Kashmir strong cold winds from the Pacific usual. But rather than spreading recorded a maximum temperature Ocean and keep the mercury low cheer, this early arrival of spring has of 17.1oC, which is usually felt in across the subcontinent. raised concerns among scientists. March. In fact, an analysis of imd La Niña is one of three phases of Such early flowering is usually data shows that on January 17, the El Niño Southern Oscillation associated with long exposure to February 21 and 28, as many as 10 (enso), an important climate light and heat, which is now states and Union Territories across phenomenon over tropical Pacific

sweeping the subcontinent. India northern, eastern and western Ocean that influences rainfall and PHOTOGRAPH: REUTERS

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18-19Special Report-CC.indd 18 12/04/21 10:47 AM LA NIÑA \CLIMATE CHANGE

140C, average global annual temperature (mean of temperature patterns around the annual temperatures from 1900 to 2020) world. enso oscillates between La Niña and the warm El Niño phases, 2020 0.88 2016 along with a neutral phase in the 2015 0.87 middle of the continuum. “Though 2012 0.63 the La Niña event appears to have La Niña years 2011 0.60 peaked in October-November 2020, El Niño years 2010 0.71 0.99 there is a 65 per cent likelihood that All figures are in oC 2008 0.54 2007 0.66 La Niña conditions will persist 2003 0.62 during February-April 2021,” says the 2000 0.42 World Meteorological Organization. 1999 0.42 Yet, says Roxy Mathew Koll, 1998 0.64 climate scientist at the Indian 1995 0.46 1992 0.23 Institute of Tropical Meteorology 1989 0.29 (iitm), Pune, all of Eurasia is 1988 0.41 currently warmer than normal and 1987 0.33 the La Niña winter pattern is 1983 0.3 bringing warmth to India as well. 1980 0.27 1978 0.07 The Indian Ocean is much warmer -0.11 1976 than usual; the Arabian Sea is -0.07 1974 Role reversal slightly warmer, says Koll. 1973 0.15 An analysis by Down To Earth -0.07 1971 All the seven La Niña years (dte) shows that this pattern has -0.05 1966 in the past four decades 1962 0.03 have been warmer than been disrupted since the 1980s (see 1958 0.07 the average global annual ‘Role reversal’). Between 1900 and -0.2 1956 temperature of 140C, but the 1980, there were 18 La Niña years -0.15 1955 and only two (1943 and 1962) were -0.07 1951 current one that began in warmer than the average annual -0.18 1950 2020 is the warmest so far 1943 0.13 global temperature. There have 1942 0.09 been seven La Niña years since the 1941 0.12 1980s, and in all of them the world -0.03 1939 has recorded higher temperatures -0.14 1934 than the average annual of 14oC. -0.09 1931 -0.1 1926 dte analysis further shows that -0.21 1925 on seven occasions since 1950, La -0.22 1919 Niña years have been warmer than -0.26 1918 El Niño years. And since 1980, -0.4 1917 every successive La Niña year has -0.11 1915 -0.44 1911 only been warmer. The La Niña in -0.42 1910 1989 was 0.29oC warmer than the -0.47 1909 annual average. During the next -0.23 1906 La Niña event in 1999-2000, the -0.44 1904 world was 0.42oC warmer. The 2008 -0.35 1903 o -0.09 1900 La Niña was 0.54 C warmer. During 2011 and 2012 La Niña events, the -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 o Coolers years Warmer years world was 0.6 C warmer. The current Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US La Niña year, which began in 2020, is the warmest on record. Is it indicative of a greater fluctuation in the climate? DTE @Aks7489

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18-19Special Report-CC.indd 19 12/04/21 10:47 AM COVER STORY/VACCINE SHORTAGE CHALLENGE

India has enhanced its global standing by supplying COVID-19 vaccines to rich and poor countries alike. It must now scale up its manufacturing by roping in public sector units to cement its position in the changing geopolitics VIBHA VARSHNEY NEW DELHI

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20-29Analysis.indd 20 12/04/21 12:25 PM T'S DIFFICULT to fathom how in this for the pharmaceutical companies. The first protracted war against the pandemic, one is waiving patents and intellectual I the virus, sars-cov-2, has managed property rights (iprs) so that countries with every time to gain the upper hand over vaccine manufacturing capacity can humanity, its ingenuity and its scientific immediately start production. Yet in breakthroughs. In the beginning, the world October 2020, when India and South Africa scrambled to decode the novel virus and its put forth a proposal before the World Trade infection strategies and to churn out enough Organization (wto) to temporarily suspend personal protection equipment, hand ipr on covid-19 vaccines, not a single sanitisers, ventilators and other medical developed country supported the move. supplies. Then it was the race to develop The other who recommendation requires worthy vaccines in record time. Despite maximum partnerships among pharma- humanity successfully crossing these ceutical companies and bilateral technology hurdles, the novel coronavirus disease transfers to ramp up production. While (covid-19) continues to rage and the world “We must private firms are entering into partnerships, now stares at yet another challenge of urgently it is only to maximise profits. AstraZeneca, vaccinating everyone well in time. for instance, has entered the maximum Consider these numbers. Till April 8, work partnerships with 26 firms in 15 countries. only 711 million jabs had been administered together But the alliances have been forged without across the world, as per the Johns Hopkins much transparency and the partnerships University, US. This has ensured complete to prevent have been mostly with the developed world. inoculation of a little more than 2 per cent of shortages This is what was sensed by who way the world’s adult population. According to back in May 2020, when vaccines were still data analytics company Airfinity, the world from under development. It had then created a will manufacture 9.5 billion doses by the slowing covid-19 Technology Access Pool (c-tap) to end of 2021. It, however, needs over 14 billion the delivery encourage companies to share their know- doses as soon as possible to vaccinate its how with manufacturers in lower-income entire adult population. This is almost three of the countries, but not a single company signed times the number of vaccines the world was vaccines” up for it. In fact, on May 28, a day before producing in the pre-pandemic period for c-tap was to launch, pharmaceutical RICHARD other diseases, as per vaccine alliance gavi. multinationals like Pfizer, AstraZeneca and HATCHETT A worried pharmaceutical industry met GlaxoSmithKline ridiculed the initiative CHIEF EXECUTIVE on March 8 and 9 at the Global covid-19 OF THE COALITION publicly. “At this point in time, I think it is Vaccine Supply Chain and Manufacturing FOR EPIDEMIC nonsense, and also dangerous,” said Pfizer PREPAREDNESS Summit in London, UK, to iron out INNOVATIONS chief executive Albert Bourla at an online production glitches and distribution snags (CEPI) forum organised by industry body in the vaccination drive. “We must urgently International Federation of Pharmaceutical work together to prevent shortages from Manufacturers & Associations. AstraZeneca slowing the delivery of the vaccines we need chief executive Pascal Soriot argued that in order to end the pandemic,” said Richard intellectual property (IP) is “a fundamental Hatchett, chief executive of the Coalition for part of our industry and if you don’t protect Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (cepi), a IP, then essentially, there is no incentive for non-governmental organisation based in anybody to innovate”. Oslo, Norway, at the summit. Such claims by the industry are ludicrous But the pharmaceutical companies are as all the 13 covid-19 vaccines that are not used to sharing and this fault line has currently in the market have drawn heavily been clearly exposed by the pandemic. on public funding for development. The To ramp up production and ensure a Moderna vaccine, mrna-1273, is based on a smooth supply, the World Health Organi- technique that was developed at a public- zation (who) has spelt out some clear steps funded university lab. The company in

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20-29Analysis.indd 21 12/04/21 12:25 PM COVER STORY/VACCINE SHORTAGE

February said it will earn US $18.5 billion years, the country has excelled at providing from its vaccine this year. Even azd1222, the high-quality medicines at low prices by most popular vaccine in the market right utilising the economies of scale, and the now, was developed at the Oxford University work of many very innovative companies in the UK with the idea of free use by all. such as sii who have found ways to produce Later, on the recommendation of the Bill & products at lower cost than elsewhere,” says Melinda Gates Foundation, the University Anthony Mc Donnell, senior policy analyst, signed over exclusive rights to British- global health, Center for Global Development Swedish company AstraZeneca. The private in Europe. In terms of covid-19 vaccine company further signed a contract with the manufacturing, the country has now lost the Serum of Institute of India (sii), which is supremacy. Yet, it seems to be doing better. now manufacturing the vaccine under the “Under Vaccine Maitri initiative, India name Covishield. has provided 60 million doses of covid-19 The attitude of rich countries is no better “Under vaccines to 70 countries including the UK, (see ‘An unequal world’, p23). At a time when Vaccine Brazil, Morocco and Bangladesh,” says almost 50 countries, mostly in sub-Saharan Sudarshan Jain, secretary-general of the Africa, are yet to administer their first shot, Maitri Indian Pharmaceutical Alliance that repre- a cepi report published in March shows initiative, sents 24 Indian pharmaceutical companies. wealthy and middle-income countries have The country’s vaccine export efforts have booked more than two-thirds of the vaccines India has helped strengthen external relationships that companies promise to produce by the provided 60 with neighbours in South Asia, he says. end of the year. The remaining doses would million India, in fact, is faring better than the cover as little as 28 per cent of the populations other Asian giant, China, which is now the of 92 of the world’s most impoverished doses of top vaccine maker. nations. In fact, rich countries are COVID-19 In May 2020, just a month before rolling deliberately holding on to their own doses out its covid-19 vaccine Convidecia, the first knowing very well that the virus can be vaccines to in the world, China had announced that it controlled only by suppressing its 70 countries was for “global public good”. Since then transmission everywhere at the same time. China has shipped vaccines to 35 countries, Till March-end, China had manufactured including but has used it as a business opportunity, the most covid-19 vaccines, followed by the the UK, write Ivana Karásková and Veronika US, India, EU and the UK. The US and the Blablová, researchers at Association for UK have kept all their vaccines for domestic Brazil and International Affairs in Prague in an article consumption. The EU nations are sharing Morocco” published on March 24. There is some the vaccine within themselves. Call it a SUDARSHAN JAIN concern that China does not treat its tactic to forge diplomatic relations or plain SECRETARY-GENERAL customers equally. “Some countries received empathy, at present, China and India are OF THE INDIAN vaccines in the form of donations, while the only countries exporting almost half of PHARMACEUTICAL others purchased them or were offered a ALLIANCE their vaccines to others, mostly those in the loan to buy them—an alternative aimed developing and underdeveloped world. primarily at the Latin American and Caribbean countries,” say Karásková and INDIA RISING Blablová. Global shortage and India's smart India was quick when China failed to diplomacy are likely to work in deliver 300,000 doses to Myanmar, and the country’s favour supplied 1.7 million instead. In Nepal, both Till the pandemic struck the world, India China and India offered vaccines, but only was the world leader in vaccine production. India provided additional vaccines. Its pharmaceutical companies used to churn Bangladesh also opted for Indian vaccines out 60 per cent of the vaccines required for after it refused to co-fund Chinese vaccine the global immunisation programmes. “This trials. India promptly delivered a batch of was in part been possible because, in recent covid-19 vaccines to Brazil after its president

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20-29Analysis.indd 22 12/04/21 12:25 PM AN UNEQUAL WORLD Only rich countries have been able to order more than two doses of vaccine for each of their adult population China USA UK Russia Convidecea, CoronaVac, Janssen, AstraZeneca/ Sputnik V, CoviVac, Sinopharm Beijing Comirnaty, Oxford EpiVacCorona (BBIBP-CorV), ZF2001, Moderna Sinopharm wuhan

Doses ordered

Country’s adult India population Covaxin

<2 doses per adult 2 or more doses per adult XX The 13 approved vaccines and countries that are majorly manufacturing them Source: Johns Hopkins University and McGill COVID19 Vaccine Tracker Team

Jair Bolsonaro rejected a deal of 46 million in India. Russia is already in talks with at doses being developed by a Chinese company, least five Indian companies to manufacture saying that the “Brazilian people will not be 850 million doses of Sputnik V vaccine by anyone's guinea pig”. India is also the major 2021. Hyderabad-based Dr Reddy’s Labora- supplier to covax, a global initiative aimed tories has carried out clinical trials for at equitable access to covid-19 vaccines led Sputnik V and has applied for an emergency by unicef, gavi, who, cepi and others. The use authorisation (eua) licence in India. On country provides more than 80 per cent of March 12, the US International Develop- doses for the initiative, which particularly ment Finance Corporation, the country’s aims to supply vaccines to poor countries. development bank, announced it will help India has another advantage. Since the Hyderabad-based firm Biological E country has been providing a major chunk manufacture 1 billion doses of covid-19 of the vaccines needed for immunisation vaccines by 2022. This portfolio is likely to programmes across the world, the quality of include Ad26.cov2.s vaccine by Johnson & its supplies is established. Compared to Johnson, which is already approved in 37 this, China is secretive about scrutiny and countries. “There are several prominent In- quality is doubtful. “China is out of fashion dian companies such as Zydus, Genentec politically too,” says S Srinivasan, managing (Emcure), and Wockhardt that are working trustee of locost, a generic drug company. towards entering the covid vaccine market,” As a result, several multinationals are says Mahesh Doshi, president of the Indian interested in manufacturing their vaccines Drug Manufacturers’ Association.

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20-29Analysis.indd 23 12/04/21 12:25 PM COVER STORY/VACCINE SHORTAGE

SUPPLY IS ALL ABOUT ATTITUDE facturers are producing about 70 million The US and the UK are not sharing their vaccines with other countries doses a month right now. The country, however, needs around 90 million doses Covid vaccines produced by top 5 countries/regions, in million doses every month to ensure the vaccination drive Kept for domestic use Exported continues without a glitch. 0 50 100 150 200 250 This strain on India’s vaccine industry is being felt both within the country and China abroad. On March 25, gavi notified that deliveries of Covishield will be delayed in United States March and April. Though the government India says it has not put any restriction on exports, Adar Poonawalla, chairperson of sii, claims European Union that this shortage has happened because of increased domestic demand. In a recent Britain interview, he suggested that the government should pay `3,000 crore to the company to India alone to provide over 80 per cent of the doses for Covax ramp up its production. initiative set up to supply vaccines to poor nations Bharat Biotech, the lone Indian company Pune, India Andong, South Korea Marburg & Mainz, Germany with exclusive manufacturing rights of covaxin, is also struggling to cater to the 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% growing demand. This is a cause for concern as the vaccine is the easiest to scale up because it has been developed by the Indian Council of Medical Research (icmr), the Source: Airfinity, as on March 29, 2021 country’s apex body for formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical These deals are expected to increase the research. On March 17, the Union health country’s vaccine manufacturing capacity ministry set up a six-member inter- substantially in the coming days, helping governmental panel to explore to look at India regain its position. ways to ramp up vaccine production. “Among other things, we have suggested STILL NOT ENOUGH Bharat Biotech and sii to set up more sites Indian firms face the tall order of or repurpose the existing facilities to ramping up production to meet produce the vaccine,” says Samiran Panda, increased demand here and abroad head of epidemiology and communicable India’s pharmaceutical industry is being diseases division at icmr, who is part of the f looded with deals at a time when the panel. Bharat Biotech has subsequently country is in the middle of a second wave of announced that it will increase its covid-19 infections—this time, the rate and production by seven-fold by manufacturing pace of infection are much higher than what covid-19 vaccine at its facilities in Malur in India witnessed during the first wave that Karnataka and Ankleshwar in Gujarat. It lasted from June to September 2020—and is currently being produced at the company’s has fully immunised barely 0.8 per cent of Hyderabad facility. its adult population with double doses of the vaccine; another 8.5 per cent have received a PUBLIC OVERSIGHT single dose till the first week of April, as per Existing pharma PSUs in India have data with the Johns Hopkins University. all the infrastructure, scientists and There are reports of shortages across the technicians for vaccine production country—from Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan During this scramble for more and more and Maharashtra. The two Indian manu- vaccines, India’s seven public sector vaccine

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20-29Analysis.indd 24 12/04/21 12:25 PM manufacturing institutes are sitting idle country’s Universal Immunisation Prog- (see ‘Mighty seven’, p26). They have ensured Medical staff at ramme. But the data provided by him Ahmedabad vaccine security for India for decades. These district of suggests otherwise. Gujarat unload include the Central Research Institute (cri) vaccines. India cri discontinued production of tetanus in Himachal Pradesh, bcg Vaccine sees a surge toxoid in 2018-19. pii, which has an installed in domestic Laboratory (bcgvl), Pasteur Institute of demand for capacity of 60 million doses per annum of India (pii) and hll Biotech in Tamil Nadu, vaccines as combination dpt vaccine, 55 million doses it battles a Bharat Immunologicals and Biologicals second wave of per year of tetanus toxoid vaccine and 15 Corporation Limited, Uttar Pradesh, COVID-19 million doses per year of diphtheria vaccine, Haffkine Bio-Pharmaceutical Corporation has not produced a single dose since 2016. Limited, Maharashtra, and Human Similarly, bcgvl’s manufacturing plant in Biologicals Institute, Telangana. Guindy, Tamil Nadu, has not produ-ced a In 2008, the Union government cancelled vial between 2016 and 2020, despite an the manufacturing licences of three of these installed capacity of 80 million doses of bcg public sector undertakings (psus)— cri, bcgvl vaccine a year. The first batch of 450,000 and pii—for not meeting good manufacturing doses was only rolled out in July 2020. The practices under the Drugs and Cosmetics Centre has assigned a new role to cri. When Rules 1945 (see ‘Deliberate?’, p29). The three the Sputnik V and AstraZeneca vaccines psus, set up in pre-Independence India, were came to the country, it carried out safety reopened in 2012 because of public interest tests on them before they were allowed to be petition in the Supreme Court, and used in a clinical trial. The psu also provides castigation by two parliamentary committees adverse events following immunisation on health. In July 2019, Union health (aefi) assessment services to the government. minister of state Ashwini Kumar Choubey Public health experts question icmr’s said the units were in different stages of decision to partner with a private firm

PHOTOGRAPH: REUTERS vaccine production for supplying to the alone for manufacturing covaxin. “The

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20-29Analysis.indd 25 12/04/21 12:25 PM COVER STORY/VACCINE SHORTAGE

It is not that people have forgotten about psus. On March 17, Maharashtra’s chief MIGHTY SEVEN minister Uddhav Thackeray at a video- The government has not considered any of its conferencing asked Prime Minister institutes for manufacturing COVID-19 vaccines Narendra Modi to allow the transfer of covaxin technology to state-owned Haffkine Vaccines it can Ministry/ Institute’s name produce department Institute in Mumbai. For this, the institute would need money to upgrade and has asked Bharat Oral poliovirus Department of for funds from the centre under the recently Immunologicals vaccines (OPV) Biotechnology, launched Mission covid Suraksha. The and Biologicals Ministry of Science Corporation Limited, and Technology Centre has not yet given a go-ahead. Bulandshahr, The country also has a state-of-the-art Uttar Pradesh Integrated Vaccine Complex based in Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu that has been Haffkine Bio- OPV, Antitoxin Government of lying idle since its inauguration in 2016. Pharmaceutical (tetanus, diphtheria), Maharashtra Corporation, sera (rabies, undertaking The Centre came up with the idea of the Mumbai, antiscorpion), 40-hectare complex in 2008 after the Maharashtra snake antivenin manufacturing licences of the three psus were cancelled. The facility was meant to be Human Biologicals Rabies, DPT, Tetanus National Dairy the nodal centre for manufacturing, Institute, Hyderabad, toxoid (TT), Diphtheria Development Telangana (DT) and Hepatitis B Board research and supply of vaccines at affordable prices under the government’s Universal HLL Biotech Ltd, Hepatitis B, Ministry of Health Immunisation Programme. So far, it has not Chennai, Tamil DTwP-HepB-Hib and Family developed a single vaccine. In January 2020, Nadu Welfare Bharat Biotech offered to provide `600 crore BCG Vaccine BCG, Tuberculine Ministry of Health to revive the complex. The discussions did Laboratory, Guindy, and Family not move forward. On January 9, 2021, just Tamil Nadu Welfare days before India’s vaccination drive began, Central Research DTP, TT, DT, Japanese Ministry of Health Union Minister of Health and Family Institute, Kasauli, encephalitis and and Family Welfare Harsh Vardhan visited the plant to Himachal Pradesh yellow fever Welfare inspect the facilities. On January 16, 2021, hll Lifecare Limited, the psu that is running Pasteur Institute of DPT, TT, DT and Ministry of Health India, Coonoor, Inactivated rabies and Family the complex through its subsidiary hll Tamil Nadu vaccine Welfare Biotech Ltd, issued an expression of interest from vaccine manufacturers to use the Source: Directorate General of Health Services plant. “The facility has the infrastructure, trained technicians and scientists for the government can ask Bharat Biotech to production of vaccine and could contribute transfer the technologies to psus and other in the production of covaxin,” says C S Rex private companies in the country through Sargunam, president of the Tamil Nadu the provision of compulsory licensing,” Health Development Association, a non- says Malini Aisola of the All India Drug government organisation. Action Network, an alliance of non-profits working towards improved access to A GLOBAL RUT essential medicines. With a little invest- Several countries weakened their public ment, these psus can enhance the production institutes in the 1980s. They are feeling capacity of covid-19 vaccines, says K M the pinch now Gopakumar of Third World Network, an India is not the only country where the advocacy organisation. "We need political public sector has been sidelined. Stuart will to make this happen," he adds. Blume, professor emeritus at the Faculty of

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20-29Analysis.indd 26 12/04/21 12:25 PM KNOWLEDGE SHARING TO ENSURE CONTINUOUS LEARNING

There is a 76% survival rate for children fighting cancer in India when they receive good medical treatment. But due to extensive treatment and chemotherapy sessions, these kids miss out on going to school or continuing their education. Providing educational support to these kids while they undergo treatment at the hospital boosts their morale and helps them return to school with dignity and confidence. Himalaya is supporting Samiksha Foundation, a creative learning initiative for children with cancer and their caregivers. Samiksha has centers at the Kapur ward in Kidwai Memorial Institute and Mazumdar Shaw Cancer Center, Narayana Health, Bengaluru. The initiative focuses at motivating these children by providing them with educational, creative, and spiritual support while they undergo treatment. As part of the curriculum, the children are taught yoga, meditation, art, and have access to a multilingual library with a plethora of books. Storytelling sessions are also conducted to make these knowledge-sharing activities more engaging and are very popular among the children at the hospitals. Himalaya has been actively associated with Samiksha Foundation from 2016 and has supported around 1800 children so far. Children getting admitted to these hospitals for cancer treatment can enroll with Samiksha and avail all the facilities provided to help them continue with their education. Himalaya has always been committed to addressing primary and community healthcare challenges. Through initiatives such as comprehensive community health camps, we have strived to take care of the basic healthcare needs of socially and economically marginalized groups. We have also worked towards spreading awareness about menstrual hygiene management, WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene), CHD (Congenital Heart Disease), zero hunger, and cleft-lip treatment.

27Himalaya ad.indd 27 09/04/21 12:33 PM COVER STORY/VACCINE SHORTAGE

Social and Behavioural Sciences in the Mambisa and Abdala. China and Russia A nurse in University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Mayanmar have also developed vaccines through the explains that the 1980s saw the rise of shows a vial public sector. of Covishield neoliberal thinking and privatisation of vaccine flown “In India, the public sector should be from India, on health services. “Experts in the 1980s April 6 revived to its full capacity with adequate insisted on patents and intellectual property support to strengthen its inherent strengths rights that were harmonised across the on expertise and skilled human resource,” globe. This is what the pharmaceutical says Y Madhavi, researcher at the Council industry wanted too,” he says. of Scientific and Industrial Research– Now, covid-19 has given the public National Institute of Science, Technology sector a second chance, as countries are And Development Studies. realising profit-driven private players This may not be as straightforward as might not be enough during a crisis. In the character of the psus has changed over Canada, efforts are underway to time. “The institutes we used to have can’t manufacture vaccines domestically. This be reconstituted in today's climate. A new realisation came when after identifying a model, a good example for the world, isn’t vaccine candidate, the country realised it readily available,” Blume says. The chara- did not have the manufacturing capability cter of immunisation has also changed in to create its components. Similarly, Cuba India. The country now prefers combination has started developing its own vaccine vaccines in the Universal Immunisation after it failed to pre-book enough doses. Programme and the old psus do not have the The first million doses of Soberana 02 necessary infrastructure for that. Most new vaccine are expected to be released in late vaccines are also under patents, making it April. The country is developing three difficult for thepsu s to make them.

more vaccine candidates: Soberana 01, Officials with the Union health ministry PHOTOGRAPH: REUTERS

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20-29Analysis.indd 28 12/04/21 12:25 PM Deliberate? 2001 did not respond to Down To Earth’s queries Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, on whether it is looking at the public sector India disbanded its amended to set up National Regulatory to augment vaccine production. The private public sector vaccine Authority. The body was to check if players also refused to comment on whether vaccine firms are following WHO’s good manufacturers to make they are considering psus for collaboration. manufacturing practices (GMP) way for private players Madhavi says complete dependence on private industry is a mistake. There are 2007 examples where private players have failed WHO inspects public sector 2008 undertakings (PSUs) and finds NRA to deliver. In 2015, a lack of vaccines led to Union health ministry suspends has failed to ensure GMP compliance an outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in licences of three PSUs— Uttar Pradesh. “Currently, 80 per cent of CRI, PII and BCGVL*—over 2009 the Indian government’s need for vaccines is GMP-noncompliance.Integrated A public interest litigation filled in the met by private firms in India and abroad. vaccine complex (IVC) announced Supreme Court against the closing The prices are up to 250 per cent higher in Tamil Nadu down of the PSUs. Two parliamentary than those of the public sector, as a result standing committees (34th and 38th) accuse government of acting in haste pushing India’s immunisation budget up seven times in only five years,” she says. 2010 and question the rationale behind IVC. The Javid Chowdhury committee The Javid Chowdhury committee set up The major fault line in the health sector report says PSUs should be revived to find ways to revive the PSUs. that the current crisis has exposed is the within three years. It advices the 2011 absence of good policies. India, for example, setting up of a National Vaccine National Vaccine Policy announced. It has two guiding health documents and they Security Advisory Board is widely criticised for spending public both have opposing views. India’s National money on public private partnerships Vaccine Policy 2011 encourages public- 2012 (PPPs) or privately produced vaccines CRI revived with additional private partnership, but its National Health manufacturing capacity. Policy 2017 focuses on building more public HLL Lifecare Ltd, a PSU in 2013 sector manufacturing units to generate Kerala, awarded N Elangeswaran, former healthy competition, uninterrupted supply the contract to build IVC director of PII and BCGVL, writes of quality vaccines and anti-sera. On to Union health ministry about ground, only privatisation is happening. 2015 a nexus between the drug DPT vaccine production stopped The way to move forward would be to controller general, PSU officials at PII and its units for filling, provide a level playing field for both public and private industry that led to packing and formulation for and private sectors with around 50 per cent the closing down of the PSUs retail supply handed over to HLL of vaccine production to remain with the for modernisation public sector. All vaccines which are of 2016 national importance should be reserved for BCGVL opened with a capacity 2017 the public sector. says Madhavi. This would of 80 million doses of BCG vaccine National Health Policy help in another way. The focus on covid-19 recommends building more vaccine could take away resources from the PSU units to generate healthy vaccines used in the Universal Immunization 2018 competition. HBL requests more Programme and routine immunisation in funds for setting up IVC Centre misses the three-year deadline set by the Chowdhury children could be derailed. While the private committee to revive all PSUs. is busy fighting the pandemic, the psu s One of the reasons is that the could at least avert this shortage. 2019 government now prefers private The covid-19 situation clearly shows IVC nearly defunct with salary and manufacturers over PSUs that countries, not the pharmaceutical payment delays. PII allocated land companies, need to play a pivotal role. in Conoor to set up a viral vaccine 2020 This must be addressed now. The manufacturing unit Bharat Biotech offers to revive IVC. world cannot wait for another pandemic to No decision taken do the same. DTE *CRI-Central Research Institute, Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh; BCGVL-BCG Vaccine Laboratory, Guindy, Tamil Nadu; PII-Pasteur Institute of India, Coonoor Tamil Nadu @vibhavarshney Source: CSE-DTE Data Centre

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VACCINE APARTHEID

30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 30 12/04/21 12:25 PM AFRICA IS WITNESSING A SECOND WAVE OF COVID-19, BUT LESS THAN 2 PER CENT OF THE 690 MILLION VACCINE DOSES ADMINISTERED TO DATE GLOBALLY HAVE BEEN IN AFRICA. THE WORLD WILL DO WELL TO REMEMBER THAT NO COUNTRY IS SAFE TILL EVERYONE GETS INOCULATED

A report by Kiran Pandey and Vibha Varshney from New Delhi, with Maina Waruru from Kenya; Christophe Hitayezu from Rwanda; Bennett Oghifo from Nigeria; Elsabé Brits from South Africa; and Mekonnen Teshome from Ethiopia

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NE OF South Africa’s leading released on March 31, 2021, “The number of virologists and member of the confirmed cases in South Africa increased O country’s Network for Genomic Surv- from 14,109 per million people on December eillance in South Africa (ngs-sa), Carolyn 10, 2020 to a peak of 24,435 per million Williamson, still remembers the telephone people on January 30, 2021. Meanwhile, call in November 2020. “A worried Tulio de fatalities grew from 384 per million people Olivera, head of ngs-sa, called me to inform to 741 per million people over the same time on his discovery of a new variant of the novel period.” This was the highest among the 54 coronavirus causing covid-19. He told me African countries. about this variant’s unexpected number of The new variant is now the predominant mutations in the spike protein that the virus one, being responsible for 90 per cent of all uses to infect human cells,” he recalls. ngs- positive cases in South Africa, says a study sa had identified the variant, later named released by KwaZulu-Natal Research and 501y.V2, through analysis of 2,882 whole Innovation Sequencing Platform, South genomes from South Africa. Within a month Africa, on January 17. Though the second of the variant's discovery in the Eastern wave has waned since the last week of Cape Province of the country, covid-19 cases March, there are fears of a third wave in the spiked. The new variant is up to 50 per cent weeks after Easter, which is a popular more transmissible, say experts. “By vacationing time in the country. December, this virus variant had essentially Africa is second only to Europe, as far as replaced the previously circulating ones,” number of countries witnessing a second Williamson told Down To Earth (dte). The wave of covid-19 is concerned. By end of country formally declared this as the second December 2020, some 40 countries had wave of the pandemic in December 2020. experienced the second wave (see ‘Unwanted After further investigations, experts peaks’ on p42), while four countries—Kenya, estimated that the new wave caused by the Nigeria, South Africa and Egypt—had variant actually started around October entered into the third wave. The second 2020. It was notably rapid in parts of the wave, which started in South Africa with Eastern Cape, Western Cape and KwaZulu- the new variant, and spread across the Natal Provinces. continent was a turning point in the By January 2021, the second wave pandemic’s trajectory. It resulted in a higher turned widespread and deadly. According to number of weekly cases in at least half of the World Bank’s Africa Pulse report, the African countries since October 2020.

“As long as the pandemic continues to rage among unvaccinated populations, spawning new, more virulent, vaccine- resistant strains, no one is safe... the longer we keep the virus around the more mutations we’ll see... If Africa is not vaccinated and we are a source of mutations, we put the whole world at risk” PHIONAH ATUHEBWE NEW VACCINES INTRODUCTION MEDICAL OFFICER ON THE CONTINENT FOR THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 32 12/04/21 12:25 PM With 50 of the continent’s 54 countries reporting community transmission, the spread has become unbridled. There has been an increase in the number of countries with spread of the virus at community level by over 20 percentage points between mid-July 2020 and end of March 2021, an analysis of World Health Organization (who) data shows. When who declared covid-19 a pandemic on March 11, 2020, Africa had just 47 confirmed cases and no deaths. As of April 7, 2021, the African Centre for Disease Control has reported over 4.3 million infections and more than 0.1 million deaths linked to covid-19. trend analysis of covid-19 pandemic onset in The second wave has made the continent Africa”, published online in Social Sciences the weakest link in the global fight against & Humanities Open, published on March 4, the scourge. The resurgence of the infection 2021. Even in the second wave, as of April 6, might just prolong the pandemic. On May 7, 2021, Africa has 3,199 cases per million. 2020, a who research based on prediction This is less than one-fifth of the global modelling warned that the continent may figure. Similarly, Africa has 85 deaths per have a prolonged outbreak over a few years million compared to 368 deaths per million and the pandemic will continue to smoulder globally. This low infection and low fatality with occasional flare-ups. This is worrying in the second most populated continent, because the pandemic’s first wave in the with over 1.3 billion people and a poor health continent, witnessed in mid-July 2020, did infrastructure, is an epidemiological puzzle. not have much impact. Among the most often cited reasons for the low incidence of covid-19 in Africa is the FIRST WAVE, NO RIPPLES continent's young population. As much as Egypt reported the first case of covid-19 in 40 per cent of Africa is younger than Africa on February 14, 2020, nearly a month 14 years. In the US, eight of 10 covid-19 before who declared it as a pandemic. Four patients deaths have been in people above days later Nigeria reported its first case, the age of 65 years. A modelling study becoming the first country in Sub-Saharan published in the bmj Global Health journal Africa to have come under the grip of on May 25, 2020 suggests that the large covid-19. “The spread of covid-19 in Africa youth population might lead to more seemingly started predominantly from the infections but most of these infections would northern region, particularly Egypt, be asymptomatic or mild, and would Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, with only probably go undetected. Nigeria and Senegal reporting their first The old and vulnerable population in cases within the first 20 days of the outbreak Africa escaped the virus due to a common in Africa. It is also noteworthy to observe cultural practice. “The elderly tend to move the trickle nature of onset as it was observed to the rural areas once they retire. These across the globe, essentially, all the countries areas are less densely populated hence there where the first cases were reported had only is lower risk of contracting the disease than 1 case for the day for the first 26 days of the in more developed countries where the

ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE outbreak in Africa,” says “Geographical elderly are in specialised centres such as

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“We are dealing with a new virus and while we have learned a lot in the last one year, there is still so much to understand about the disease pattern. We are detecting cases with the variant of concern B.1.1.7 that is associated with increased transmissibility” CHIKWE IHEKWEAZU DIRECTOR GENERAL, NIGERIA CENTRE FOR DISEASE CONTROL

retirement homes,” Borna Nyaoke-Anoke, Apart from the demography and senior clinical project manager at Drugs for geography, people in Africa also seem to Neglected Diseases initiative, Nairobi, have hit the genetic jackpot. Studies show Kenya, told dte. that those who have remnants of the Also, the rural areas are safer because Neanderthal genome in their genes can be the disease has not spread there. Since road more susceptible to rna viruses like sars- networks across the continent are cov-2. Since Neanderthals were never in underdeveloped and travel costs are high, Africa, Africans do not have those genes. people's movement is restricted. “We know Africa also has a behavioural advantage, the virus transmits better indoors and that having battled epidemics such as Ebola for crowding and close contact (which is more years. Countries, therefore, could swiftly common in urban areas) is risk factor for introduce measures such as social infection,” says Francisca Mutapi, professor distancing, wearing face masks, frequent in Global Health Infection and Immunity at hand-washing, avoiding handshakes and the University of Edinburgh and deputy restrictions on movements. “This is indeed a director of Tackling Infections to Benefit very plausible and often downplayed Africa Partnership. possibility,” says Samuel Oji Oti, senior The hot and dry climate is thought to program specialist with the Global Health reduce transmission too. A study published Program Division of Canada's International on June 1, 2020, in the American Journal of Development Research Centre. Tropical Medicine and Hygiene analysed the Oti cites the case of Liberia. This small data available on five reasons—low seeding country on the western coast of Africa was rate (low number of coronavirus introduced severely hit by an Ebola outbreak in 2014, into the continent because of low volume of but has managed to remain largely air travel), effective mitigation measures, unaffected by covid-19 (see 'Two extremes' young population, favourable weather, and on p36). “Thousands of community possible prior exposure to a cross-reactive volunteers that had been trained and virus (one theory says people infected by mobilised during the Ebola outbreak were other coronaviruses could have developed almost immediately activated and deployed immunity to covid-19, too)—that could be towards grassroots sensitisation for responsible for low incidence and concluded covid-19,” says Oti. Additionally, Africa still that a combination of these factors is likely has a low burden of non-communicable behind the low transmission and reduced diseases which are associated with higher disease severity in Africa. covid-19 mortality. This might account for

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 34 12/04/21 12:25 PM A Down To Earth ANNUAL STATE OF INDIA'S ENVIRONMENT 2021

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35SOE ad 2021_1.indd 35 09/04/21 12:33 PM COVER STORY/COVID IN AFRICA

fewer cases or deaths. For instance, who data says while the global prevalence of Two extremes diabetes among adults over 18 years was 8.5 Some of the smallest countries of Africa, such as Seychelles and per cent in 2014, the figure for Africa was at Mayotte, are also its most affected from the pandemic 3.9 per cent, as per the International Most affected Least affected 00 Cases/ million population Diabetes Federation, a group of national diabetes associations in 170 countries. Niger Chad Tunisia Libya NEW STRAINS LED 2ND WAVE? 203 274 21,925 23,670 Western Sahara The increase in covid-19 cases in recent 16 months casts doubts on Africa's immunity Mali to the virus. One reason could be the 513 presence of new variants. “We are dealing with a new virus and while we have learned Cabo Verde a lot in the last one year, there is still so 32,001 much to understand about the disease pattern. We are detecting cases with the Sierra Leone Seychelles variant of concern B.1.1.7 [the UK variant] 492 43,720 that is associated with increased trans- Liberia missibility,” Chikwe Ihekweazu, Director 397 Mayotte General, Nigeria Centre for Disease Control, Benin 69,867 told dte. 592 Réunion 18,425 The continent is currently being swept Democratic Republic over by the South Africa variant and the of Congo UK variant. The South Africa variant has 310 spread to 18 countries, mostly in the Burundi southern part of the continent, while the 244 Botswana UK variant has been detected in 16. Eight Eswatini 17,470 Tanzania countries, including South Africa, have 14,842 8 reported both the variants. A Lancet study Namibia 17,427 South Africa published on March 30, 2021, says the 25,927 pandemic situation in all 55 African Union member states have not been comprehen- Source: Worldometers sively reviewed till date. “Although the first wave of the covid-19 pandemic progressed covid-19 transmissions, averting deaths, more slowly in Africa than the rest of the and avoiding social and economic harm. world, by December 2020, the second wave By April 15, 2020, a total of 48 countries appeared to be much more aggressive with of the who African Region had imposed five many more cases,” states the study, titled or more stringent public health and social “The first and second waves of thecovid -19 measures (phsm). An 18-country survey by pandemic in Africa: a cross-sectional study.” Partnership for Evidence-based Response Relaxation of preventive measures, such (perc), a public-private partnership that as social distancing, to overcome the supports evidence-based measures to reduce economic crisis spurred by lockdowns could the impact of covid-19 on African Union be another reason behind the surge. After Member States, conducted between August the first wave, the continent saw proactive 4 and 17, found high support for phsm. But government actions to curb the spread. by December 31, 2020, just 36 countries had Health ministers from across Africa came five or more stringentphsm in place, says an together to develop a unified strategy. The Africa-wide analysis based on the Oxford plan focused on three pillars: preventing covid-19 Government Response Tracker. As

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 36 12/04/21 12:25 PM on March 22, 2021, the countries easing was also accompanied by relaxation Travellers wait have lenient covid-19 restrictions, says to get tested at on closure of places of worship, allowing the Grasmere the tracker. Toll Plaza, in small number of worshippers to congregate In fact, countries had started easing Lenasia, South at a time. Africa, on restrictions by mid-2020 itself, mostly to January 14, Despite the let-up in the control rules on get the economy on track. Take the case of 2021 gatherings and movement, infections Kenya, one of Africa's worst affected continued to fall, dipping to a positivity rate countries. In Kenya, the positivity rate of 4 per cent in September, due to, experts (percentage of positive cases among those speculate, the end of the cold season that tested for the infection), on average, lasted until August. The encouraging trend remained high, hovering at around 13 per continued throughout the month, prompting cent during the cold months of May and the president to review containment June. This was before the president Uhuru measures further on September 28, 2020. Kenyatta lifted the movement blockade Three weeks later infections began to

PHOTOGRAPH: REUTERS in and out of Nairobi on July 6. The climb, reaching a positivity rate of 16 per

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 37 12/04/21 12:25 PM 30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 38 *In Sub-Saharan Africa *In pandemic ill-prepared for a infrastructure was the region’s health Even by 2020,April COVER STORY COVER 38 World average 28 2010-18 people), 10,000 (per beds Hospital 8 14.9 World average 2010-17 10,000 people), Physicians (per 2.1

DOWN TO EARTH 16-30 EARTH TO DOWN Poor health infrastructure* health Poor

APRIL 2021 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN APRIL / COVID AFRICA IN on Africa has been more severe more been compared has Africa on The socio-economic impact of COVID-19The socio-economic COST COVID’S World average 2010-18 10,000 people), midwifes (per and Nurses 10 9.8% World average 2016 GDP),(% of expenditure Current health 5.3

% to the rest of the world the of to rest the

34

region (pre-primary to upper secondary) upper to (pre-primary region by policies, learning remote broadcast and digital by reached† and potentially not and number reached ofPercentage students This was was This 90% programme* and labour protection social any without Population 100% 20% 40% 60% 80% Potentially reached 0% to Q4/2019to in 2020 relative lost hours % working Africa Africa 7.7 Southern Africa 79.4% in 2007-16 2007-16 in 79.4% Eastern and Learning interrupted Learning World 8.8 Employment loss Central Africa West and

Northern Northern Africa Global 12/04/21 12:25 PM

GRAPHICS: SANJIT / CSE Downward indicators

Compared to 2019, Africa’s economic indicators saw a major dip in the pandemic year and are likely to make a partial recovery in 2021

GOVERNMENT DEBT* REAL GDP INFLATION 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020

11.40% 9.50% 57.6 65.7 3.3 -2.6 2021 2021 2021

67.3 8.50% 3.7

* As a percentage of GDP

Wayward trajectory

COVID-19 has diverted Africa from nearly all of its Sustainable Development Goals

GOAL 1: No Poverty GOAL 2: Zero Hunger GOAL 3: Good Health and — 23 million people or more — 73 million Africans Well-being could be pushed into extreme are forecast to be food — Shortages exacerbating poverty more could be insecure already weak health systems

GOAL 4: Quality Education GOAL 5: Gender Equality GOAL 6: Water, Sanitation — 288 million learners are — Increased violence against — Inadequate services hinder out of school due to closures women and girls people’s from basic prevention — Decline in women measures against the virus GOAL 7: Affordable, incomes clean energy GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation + Reduced demand led to and Infrastructure fall in energy cost, which GOAL 8: Decent Work and + Collaboration in scientific increases access Economic Growth innovation — Reduces incentives for — Economic recession, risk of — Decline in industrial output renewables massive unemploymen

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities GOAL 12: Responsible — Disproportionate negative and Communities Consumption and Production effects on the most poor will + Reduced air pollution + Responsible consumption exacerbate inequality — Increase in urban poverty — Increase in single-use plastics

GOAL 13: Climate Action GOAL 14: Life Below Water GOAL 15: Life on Land + Decrease in GHG emissions + Reduced fishing + Reduced pressure on the — Climate commitments — Increase in single-use environment due to decline in threatened by recession plastic waste consumption

GOAL 16: Peace, Justice and GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goals Strong Institutions +/— Increased global partnership commitments but still short of requisite levels — Disruption to free press, — Long-term risk of reduced official development assistance and other heightened risk of conflict resources

Sources: COVID-19 and Human Development: Exploring global preparedness and vulnerability, by UNDP; COVID-19 and Children, UNICEF data hub,

March 2020; Africa SDG Index and Dashboard Reports, 2020; World Economic Outlook, October DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN 2020 1-15 JULY 2020 DOWN TO EARTH 39

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cent in October and a high of 20 per cent in A consignment country's health ministry. In September November, as captured by coronatracker. of AstraZeneca/ covid-19 bed occupancy had gone down by Oxford com, a community-based project powered by vaccines for 60 per cent, but 38 days later, it was up by over 460 volunteers from across the globe. distribution at 140 per cent. the Kitengela Kenya had recorded a low of 53 new cold rooms The infections, according to Ngoy stores outside who covid infections on September 28, for example, Nairobi, Kenya, Nsenga, -Africa -19 Incident before witnessing an upsurge that peaked on March 4, Manager, were not comparable to the second 2021 with 1,494 new cases at the end of October, and the deadly wave sweeping through according to figures posted by the tracker. Europe at the time. “The fundamentals October turned out to be one of the worst surrounding the virus in Africa remain months for Kenya, when more than 15,000 the same as before negating the likelihood new infections were recorded, straining of a fresh wave. In addition, dynamics of the hospitals across the country. Nearly 300 pandemics are also different when Africa is

deaths were also witnessed according to the compared to Europe,” Nsenga adds. The PHOTOGRAPH: REUTERS

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 40 12/04/21 12:25 PM virus, according to the official, had remained The pandemic has already pushed Africa unchanged with no mutations at the time, into its first recession in 25 years. In 2020, Nsenga told dte in an interview. The change gdp per capita is expected to contract by in numbers had been caused by eased 2.6 per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa (see interventions in September, leading to `Covid’s cost’ on p38), and by the end of 2021, people ditching disregarding containment it is likely to have regressed to its 2008 level. precautions, Nsenga said. As a consequence, covid-19 could push as Following the scare, Kenya tightened many as 34 million people into extreme some of the restrictions it had relaxed in poverty in Africa, erasing at least five years September, reducing operating hours for of progress in fighting poverty.Dignity Not bars and eateries, and adding an extra hour Destitution, a report released by inter- to curfew duration. An huge fine of up to national non-profit Oxfam on April 9, 2020, US $200 was also imposed for those failing predicts that the pandemic’s economic to wear a mask in public places. As a result impact could set back Africa’s fight against infections began to slow, dropping from a poverty in some areas by 30 years. high of 18 per cent in early November to around 10 per cent at the beginning of ALL DEPENDS ON VACCINES December 2020. Countries are now putting all hopes on fast The figure dropped further to 6-8 per vaccination drives—faster than any other cent through December before stabilising at vaccine drive in the continent—to cover its below 5 per cent in January 2021, as schools 1 billion population and achieve herd reopened after nearly ten months. By immunity. This is easier said than done. February, the positivity rate stabilised at “We may yet have another surge, especially below 3 per cent, according to the country's if the vaccines do not arrive on time or the health minister Mutahi Kagwe. uptake is low,” virologist Tomori Oyewole of On March 25, who declared a downward Nigeria told dte. trend of the pandemic in Africa. It reported With vaccination on overdrive in Europe, that 43 countries had flattened their America and Asia, Africa will soon have the epidemiological curve; but 11 countries had highest unvaccinated population. “Anyone recorded rising cases in the weeks preceding in the developed world who thinks they are March 25. who also had a disclaimer. unaffected by large swaths of unvaccinated “During the past four weeks (before March 25) deaths in Africa have dropped by 45 per cent compared with the previous four weeks, but the case fatality rate for cumulative deaths for the continent is 2.7 per cent which is still higher than the global cumulative case fatality rate of 2.2 per cent.” The resurgence of cases is ominous for the continent, both medically and economically. Pre- liminary reports from 21 countries, released by who’s Regional Office for Africa on February 11, show that 66 per cent have inadequate critical care capacity; 24 per cent face burnout among health workers and 15 countries reported that oxygen production, crucial for severely ill

ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE covid-19 patients, remains insufficient.

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Unwanted peaks COVID-19 cases in Africa rose gradually during the first peak in July 2020, but the second wave around January 2021, after new variants were found, was quite sudden World Africa

AUGUST - SEPTEMBER 100 The continent’s JUNE - JULY positivity rate drops to 4 per cent in September 80 APRIL - MAY Africa starts easing FEB - MARCH 2020 48 African nations restrictions in June. due to the cold Africa records first impose movement Soon after, community weather conditions in 60 COVID-19 case in Egypt on restrictions but case transmission reported in July-August. Countries February 14. By the end of count remains low in 34 African countries further ease March, cases reported from restrictions World most countries during 40 30 of 54 African countries. the period On March 11, WHO declares it a pandemic 20

0 Februray March April May June July August September 2020

people in Africa, needs to think again,” whole world at risk." Phionah Atuhebwe, the New Vaccines For Africa to vaccinate quickly, there Introduction Medical Officer on the should be enough dosages; the supply chain continent for who, told Bloomberg on March must be smooth enough to cater to the vast 8, 2021. “As long as the pandemic continues population; and the resources needed to to rage among unvaccinated populations, implement this must be made available. All spawning new, more virulent, vaccine- these three critical requirements are also resistant strains, no one is safe,” she said. the continent’s toughest challenge. “The virus will definitely mutate and will By March 25, 2021, who said that some keep mutating; the longer we keep the virus 44 countries had received vaccines mostly around the more mutations we’ll see." as donation, through bilateral agreements Atuhebwe added, “If Africa is not vaccinated and via the covax Facility, a global initiative and we are a source of mutations, we put the aimed at equitable access to covid-19

“Rich nations accounting for 16 per cent of the world’s population have bought 60 per cent of the global vaccine supply. Many of these countries aim to vaccinate 70 per cent of their adult population by midyear in pursuit of herd immunity” TEDROS ADHANOM GHEBREYESUS DIRECTOR GENERAL, WHO

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 42 12/04/21 12:25 PM JAN - FEB 2021 Ghana is the first African country to report the UK DECEMBER 2020 variant. The South Africa South Africa declares variant is also transmitted a second wave on to 31 countries. Cases per December 9. At least million rise from 14,109 to MARCH-APRIL, 2021 40 African countries 24,435 between December WHO declares a downward OCTOBER - NOVEMBER enter second wave by 10, 2020 and January 30, trajectory of pandemic in About 25 countries the end of the year 2021 Africa, with 43 countries report a rise in weekly having flattened the cases in October. South epidemiological curve on Africa reports a second March 25. Cases start to fall variant of the virus on in South Africa in April November 16

September October November December January Februray March April 2021

Source: Our World in Data, news reports

vaccines. Currently, 32 countries have data. And even this number is likely to be targeted vaccination programmes for high- an underestimation. South Africa’s “excess risk population groups. Soon, this has to be deaths” recorded since May 2020 stand at expanded to a universal scale. Besides 10 nearly 147,000. The South African Medical countries are yet to get supply even for Research Council (samrc) regularly targeted population groups. publishes a report, providing information on The covax Facility has a target to both natural (diseases and other medical immunise 20 per cent of the continent’s conditions), and unnatural deaths (injuries) population by the end of 2021 (see ‘The pain registered on the national population of getting the jab’ on p46). It means some 80 register. These are used to estimate the per cent of the population will remain un- actual number of deaths that have occurred vaccinated, and many of them will be from in the country and calculate the number of the high-risk population groups. So the herd excess deaths over and above the numbers immunity objective is simply not attainable that would be expected had the historical in near future. As Matshidiso Moeti, who mortality trends prior to the covid-19 Regional Director for Africa, said on March pandemic continued. Excess death, 21, 2021, “A slowdown in vaccine supply therefore, could indicate deaths associated could prolong the painful journey to end this with covid-19. The timing and geographic pandemic for millions of people in Africa." pattern leave no room to question whether One can feel the desperation in the these are associated with the covid-19 continent’s worst affected country, South pandemic, Debbie Bradshaw, Chief Africa. It continues to record the highest Specialist Scientist at samrc, told dte. number of deaths, according to the most “Unfortunately, it will be years before we recent who updates. Since its first case in have the information about the medical March 2020, the country has had nearly cause of death and so we cannot distinguish 52,000 covid-19 deaths, as per government between deaths directly associated with

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“We do not yet know the quality or length of protection the vaccines will provide and how effectively they will stop viral transmission. Numerous new variants threaten vaccine efficacy” SALIM ABDOOL KARIM CO-CHAIR OF THE MINISTERIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON COVID-19 IN SOUTH AFRICA

covid-19 and those that may have resulted population but has vaccinated more than due to the health system being over- 60 million. Salim Abdool Karim, co-chair of burdened,” Bradshaw adds. the Ministerial Advisory Committee on On March 24, 2021, the South African covid-19 in South Africa, told dte that all Medical Research Council warned about countries should vaccinate equally and the third wave of covid-19 in the next few suppress the pandemic together on a global weeks. Hence, South Africa plans to level. Supply chain constraints, pricing and vaccinate at least 40 million people (around unequal vaccine procurement across 67 per cent of its population). Vaccination of countries mean that coverage across most, if healthcare workers has started. The country not all, countries will remain below the level is part of the Covax Facility and would required for herd immunity. “Fundamen- receive 20 million doses, possibly including tally, there's a mistaken belief by some the Pfizer vaccine, say media reports. It is countries that they can vaccinate their also negotiating to buy the Sputnik and populations and they'll be safe. It simply is Sinopharm vaccines, said country’s health not true. In this world that we live in, with minister, Zweli Mkhize, on April 3, 2021. this coronavirus, no-one is safe until everyone is safe,” Karim said. INOCULATION TROUBLES Ngozi Erondu, Infectious Disease Africa’s vaccination drive has two major Epidemiologist and Senior Scholar, O'Neill roadblocks: first is its own lack of capacity to Institute, Georgetown University, US, says manufacture vaccine and the second is the issue for the Africa is timely access to getting enough from the rest of the world at vaccines. “Due to the hoarding of vaccines a time when vaccine predation is the norm. by rich countries and the unfair distribution The continent has just 10 vaccine manufa- models from Western pharmaceutical cturers in five countries: Egypt, Morocco, companies, people in most countries in Senegal, South Africa and Tunisia. “Rich Africa (and other low- and middle-income nations accounting for 16 per cent of the countries) may not receive vaccines until world’s population have bought 60 per cent 2022 or even 2023. This is even with the of the global vaccine supply. Many of these Covax initiative in place.” She adds: “Indeed countries aim to vaccinate 70 per cent of vaccine nationalism is a major obstacle to their adult population by midyear in pursuit equitable distribution of vaccines. However, of herd immunity,” wrote who Director while some countries have bought up most General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus in of the available vaccines, others left Foreign Policy on February 2, 2021. scrambling have themselves to blame. The Of its 1.3 billion people, Africa could proactive countries took a gamble and paid vaccinate just half a million in March. for vaccines that were still at the Compare it with India, which has a similar developmental level,” Tomori says.

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 44 12/04/21 12:25 PM Advertisement

45CECB ad.indd 45 09/04/21 12:48 PM The pain of getting the jab

The COVAX Facility and the African Union are struggling to bring some relief to Africa which has been suffering from vaccine apartheid LATHA JISHNU

OT HEADS of state or even popular supplies of therapies, equipment and celebrities have received the kind of vaccines for their own citizens while N reception that vaccine shipments are depriving needy populations elsewhere. getting in Africa as it struggles against a On February 1, 2021, as an Emirates resurgence of the covid-19 pandemic. As the flight landed at Johannesburg’s OR Tambo first tranche of the vaccines against the airport carrying AstraZeneca’s vaccine, the sars-cov-2 virus arrives in select nations, South Africa Broadcasting Corp was on heads of government and senior cabinet hand to film the momentous event from the ministers have turned up to receive the time the plane touched down in pouring precious vials, acknowledging their critical rain at 3 pm. It was the first lot of vaccines importance to a region that has suffered to arrive in the continent and President from covid-19 nationalism—the tendency of Cyril Ramaphosa and top officials were

developed countries to retain and corner present to receive the one million doses that ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 46 12/04/21 12:25 PM the South African government had bought to administer even a single dose of the from the Serum Institute of India (sii), the vaccine against the deadly disease. “In major licensed manufacturer of the contrast rich nations have vaccinated their AstraZeneca vaccine. citizens at a rate of one person per second For South Africa (SA), burdened with over the last month,” says Oxfam, which is heaviest caseload and fatalities in Africa, the lead voice for the campaign. the sii consignment was critical to jump- In December, it had warned that nine of start the vaccination of its most vulnerable 10 people in poor countries would miss out people, starting with frontline healthcare on covid-19 vaccine in 2021 because wealthy workers. It had paid a much higher price for nations had bought up enough supplies to the vaccines than the rate sii had charged vaccinate their populations three times rich nations because supplies were tight. With more over. The alliance calculated that 67 low- However, Ramaphosa’s relief in wangling than 39 and lower middle-income countries, 42 of the deal was short-lived. The vaccine was million them in Africa, risk being left behind since found to be ineffective against B.1.351, the vaccine rich nations representing just 14 per cent of dominant variant of the sars-cov-2 virus the world’s population had bought up 53 per that is ravaging the country and the doses cent of all the most promising vaccines. government decided not to deploy it. Instead, administered The pay and grab attitude of the it sold the consignment to the African Union in at least 49 developed world also provoked a passionate in a controversial move that some public higher- outburst from who chief Tedros Adhanom health experts slammed as ill-considered. Ghebreyesus, who warned that: “The world “SA has squandered the opportunity to income is on the brink of a catastrophic moral protect at least half a million of its most countries, failure—and the price of this failure will be vulnerable citizens before the next resurg- while around paid with lives and livelihoods in the world’s ence, with massive healthcare and economic 130 countries poorest countries.” With more than 39 cost,” they said in a recent article published had seen no million vaccine doses administered in at in the South African Medical Journal. least 49 higher-income countries, while The rollout has been extremely slow vaccines at around 130 countries had seen no vaccines since then. According to the data put out by all, the at all, the promise of equitable access to the Johns Hopkins University, less than promise of vaccines has been receding fast. 270,000 health workers had been vaccinated equitable Africa has long suffered health aparth- in SA till April 4, accounting for 0.5 per cent access to eid. Recall the hiv/aids pandemic of 25 years of the population. These vaccinations were ago which underscored the stark inequalities made possible through the one million doses vaccines has in access to critical medicines—there is still which SA, an upper middle income country, been no vaccine for the disease—that allowed was able to secure from Johnson & Johnson receding millions to die in Africa. The medicines that (j&j). The single-jab j&j vaccine is the latest fast were developed went only to the rich and it to hit the market and has been quickly was only after a decade, thanks primarily to approved by the World Health Organization an Indian generics company’s determination (who) for emergency use, making it just the to break the monopoly of rapacious drug fourth to get emergency use authorisation. multinationals, that people in Africa and There is already a scramble for supplies. elsewhere could access the life-saving Overall, the situation is dire, says the medicines. There is the more recent history People’s Vaccine Alliance, a coalition of of the 2009 swine flu pandemic, albeit of a global campaigners for justice and equity. less serious nature. Then, too, rich countries One year on from the declaration of the had cornered the vaccines through advance covid-19 pandemic, developing countries are orders, while poor nations were forced to not only facing critical shortages of oxygen wait. By the time they got access to supplies, and medical supplies to cope with the fresh the pandemic was over. Some would argue surge in covid-19 cases but many are unable that vaccine equity can no longer brushed

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aside since a pandemic of this nature has It is likely that the African Union’s carefully made it clear that no one is safe until worked out strategy to vaccinate 30-35 per everyone is safe. Vaccine nationalism, as the cent of the continent’s population by the end crusading who director-general has been of 2021 will go for a toss even if it has emphasising at every opportunity, harms managed to secure 220 million doses of everyone and protects no one. the j&j vaccine beginning in the third There is also one significant innovation: quarter of this year. It is hopeful of tying the covax Facility set up last year. Steered up another 180 million doses from the by gavi, the vaccine alliance, and who along company, but already other countries are with Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness circling the company in search of additional Innovations, a charity based in Norway, and supplies. j&j’s vaccine is just one of four unicef, it promotes itself as “a global risk- African has approved by who for emergency use, the sharing mechanism for pooled procurement three options others being the AstraZeneca vaccine and equitable distribution of covid-19 to access manufactured by sii and South Korea’s SK vaccines”. covax buys vaccines through an Bioscience. The first to get the nod was the advance market commitment mechanism COVID-19 Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine which comes with and distributes them on two levels: one for vaccines: onerous storage requirements and is not fully self-financing countries and the second the COVAX suitable for Africa and other poor countries. for donor dependent countries. Facility, the Rich countries are likely to deepen the The covax Facility has its limitations African vaccine divide in coming days since some of and is struggling to secure supplies against them, like the UK, are planning to give the aggressive purchases made by countries Union’s booster shots to health workers and to like the UK, Canada, Australia and the US vaccine pool people over 70 to provide additional which have enough doses to cover as much or to secure immunity against variants of the sars-cov-2 as 453 to 182 per cent of their populations. them virus. Others, meanwhile, are proposing to As the first ever covax shipment arrived through vaccinate children, all of which will leave in Ghana towards the end of February and very few doses to be mopped up by covax. spread to 14 other African countries in bilateral African governments have three options subsequent weeks, the covax Facility was agreements to access covid-19 vaccines: the covax providing a lifeline to Africa and to the hope with either Facility, the African Union’s vaccine pool or that the continent would be able to turn the countries or to secure them through bilateral agreements tide against the new wave of the pandemic. companies. with either countries or companies. The last That is, until sii threw a whammy. It The last is is clearly a difficult exercise. The competition informed covax that its scheduled supplies for limited supplies is cut-throat since for March and April would be on hold till the clearly is a developed nations are aiming to vaccinate Indian government permitted it. The export difficult 70 per cent of their adult population by the hold-up—India itself is in throes of an exercise middle of this year to achieve herd immunity. alarming new outbreak of covid-19—will Such a prospect is unlikely African countries throw out of kilter the vaccination schedules for quite a while. As covax made it clear of dozens of countries. sii was to supply 40 when the 600,000 vaccine doses landed in million doses in March and up to 50 million Accra, its aim of vaccinating 20 per cent of doses in April and if the delay is its members by the end of 2021 would be extended, the consequences would be jeopardised unless governments refrain “catastrophic”, John Nkengasong, director from additional bilateral deals that take of the Africa Centres for Disease Control further supplies out of the market. and Prevention said bluntly at a press For Africa, there are unique problems to briefing in Addis Ababa. contend with. One is the underestimation of With sii accounting for as much as covid cases which has fed into the convenient 86 per cent of covax procurement, it narrative that African countries do not underlines the fragility of the mechanism. need vaccines as urgently as other nations.

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30-50Cover story-Africa.indd 48 12/04/21 12:25 PM 4-DAY RESIDENTIAL TRAINING PROGRAMME ON “REDUCING WATER FOOTPRINT IN INDUSTRIES THROUGH WATER AUDIT & WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT” COURSE DATE: 4th-7th May, 2021 COURSE TIME: 09:30 am to 05:30 pm LAST DATE TO APPLY: 25th April, 2021 COURSE VENUE – Anil Agarwal Environmental Training Institute (AAETI), Tijara, Rajasthan about 100 km from Delhi. Participants have to reach to New Delhi at their own expenses on 3rd May, 2021. CSE will arrange transportation of the participants between Delhi and AAETI on 3rd May and 8th May (return).

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In fact, the continent’s much lower cases and mortality rates have worked against it. As such, theories that Africa’s younger popula-tion is better placed to fight the disease have been picked up by Western nations and their media. For instance, in a recent piece lauding covax, The Economist used this argument to defend vaccine hoarding. “It is true that rich countries have vaccines in far greater supply than poor ones. But it is also true that rich and middle-income countries, with their older and fatter populations, have been much harder hit by covid-19,” it said. The task ahead is daunting. According to one estimate, to achieve herd immunity Africa will need about 1.5 billion vaccine doses which will add up to an eye-popping $8-16 billion apart from the costs of adminis- tering the vaccines. So where does it get this kind of funding? Is manufacturing of vaccines in the region an option? The ground reality is not encou-raging. Just five countries, Egypt, Morocco, Senegal, South Africa and Tunisia have vaccine manufacturing companies, most of them engaged primarily in pack-aging and labelling, while some do filling and finishing. Setting up pharmaceutical manufacturing the j&j for supplies of 400 million covid-19 is expensive and impractical for most of the vaccine doses, says SA’s Aspen Pharmacare, region’s poor countries. the largest producer of generic medicines in Even if some countries come together to the continent, will be producing 300 million set up manufacturing hubs they will have to doses. Of this, 10 per cent will be used deal with another challenge. Most African domestically and the rest will be distributed countries are supplied vaccines by unicef; across the continent. just a handful of countries are equipped to There is something even more promising. manage their own procurement. This has Nigerian researchers had reported in June shaped the vaccine markets in Africa in last year that they had come up with a such way that commercial enterprises vaccine for covid-19. The team had been would find it difficult to become sustainable working on the genome of the sars-cov-2 without government support through adva- virus prevalent in Africa. Nothing was nce purchases. heard of the breakthrough till the first week All the same, the Africa Centres for of April when the head of the presidential Disease Control and Prevention is pursuing task force on covid-19 announced that a strategy to step up r&d in developing clinical trials had begun on two vaccines. vaccines. It might appear to be a pipe dream Medical history may be in the making in to sceptical outsiders, but already there is Africa. Perhaps getting the jab to Africans some promising news. The African Vaccine may no longer be as painful as it is now. DTE Acquisition Trust, which is negotiating with @down2earthindia

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Can vaccines the small generics which took on the drug become as cheap multinationals by producing drugs at a fraction of the cost they charged to treat as generics? hiv-aids some 25 years ago, explains that vaccines are a different ball game SERIES OF articles in unexpected altogether from the synthetic drugs used publications has had a curious to treat the deadly hiv-aids disease, which Atheme. They call on India to “walk are basically small molecules and easy the talk” on its demand at the World Trade to synthesise. Organization (wto) to waive intellectual “You can pick up a patent of a vaccine property rights (iprs) on all covid-19 manufacturer and you still won’t be able to therapies, equipment and vaccines till the produce it. It’s like biotech. Humira, the pandemic is over. The writers, some of whom world’s top-selling biotech drug is are domain experts, want the government to surrounded by 247 patents. I free the buy out the iprs on the indigenously patents, but what are you going to do with produced Covaxin vaccine from its that?” Hamied says, using the example of developers, the privately owned Bharat Humira, which is a biologic or a medication Biotech and the public sector Indian Council made from living cells just as most of Medical Research that funded the project, traditional vaccines are. and open up production of the vaccine to Given the anyone wanting to manufacture it. Unlike with drugs, pressure that This, argue the proponents of the freeing up patents the covid-19 proposal, would prove India’s bona fides at will not make it pandemic has wto where the country, along with South any easier to put on vaccine Africa, has sought to keep the trips manufacture makers and agreement in abeyance for the duration of vaccines for governments, the pandemic. It has garnered the support COVID-19, says there is a of around 100 countries. While developed Cipla’s Hamied general belief countries have outright rejected the that when proposal, a number of high-profile rights generic medicines are produced so much organisations, public health campaigners more cheaply than the innovator drugs, and others fighting for justice are second-generation vaccines, too, can be championing the demand because they made much more cheaply than the original believe it will widen access to much-needed vaccine if patents did not act as a barrier. equipment, drugs and vaccines to fight the This is not the right comparison because in sars-cov-2 virus. the case of vaccines, there are no "generics" The moot point is whether the waiver per se. The regulatory process for second- will, indeed, do so. In particular, can generation or follow-on products is exactly vaccines, the desperate need of the times, the same as for the original vaccine. This be made as low-cost and as widely as means that unlike generic drug makers, generic medicines? It would be like second-generation vaccine manufacturers comparing apples with oranges. Yusuf have to develop their own production Hamied, the man who fought the definitive processes and show efficacy and safety battle on iprs and changed forever the through fresh clinical trials; showing bio- profile of the generic drug industry, sets equivalence is simply not enough. right some popular misconceptions on Has Hamied said the last word on the

what the lifting of iprs can achieve with issue, or will there be further debate? DTE vaccines. Hamied, the chairman of Cipla, @ljishnu

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52Column_Latha.indd 52 09/04/21 12:21 PM PaletteWHAT’S INSIDE

Excerpts from Oonga, a story about a Dongria Water-related MGNREGA interventions must Kondh boy caught in an ecological conflict P54 be suited to geographical requirements P56

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Plastic: An Autobiography starts as an obsession to learn the origin The Jewish community in India is small and fragmented, but has of a large plastic car part. Soon, it turns into a complex narrative on strived to stay true to its native and adopted roots through its cuisine. the relationships among plastic waste, climate change, nuclear Through Bene Appétit: The Cuisine of Indian Jews, Indian-born technology and the consume-and-dispose culture. In the book, Jewish writer and artist Esther David traces the dietary habits of the American writer Allison Cobb untangles this web through a series of Bene Israelis of western India, the Bene Menashes of the Northeast, interwoven stories originating from ancient Phoenicia in West Asia to the Bene Ephraims of Andhra Pradesh, the Baghdadi Jews of Kolkata Alabama and her own childhood home of Los Alamos, New Mexico and the Kochi Jews, that adhere to Jewish rules while adopting the in the US. regional cuisine.

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53Palette Opener.indd 53 09/04/21 12:21 PM Palette/BOOK EXCERPTS Arrival of blue king How do peaceful people get forced into battles they do not want to fight? InOonga , a book adaptation of a 2013 film of the same name, writer-director DEVASHISH MAKHIJA undertakes a journey with a little Dongria Kondh boy, who is desperate to see a performance of the Ramayan, to expose the clash between adivasis and mining companies that threaten to destroy their villages, forests and hills. Excerpts

OONGA ONGA RUNS through the eerie hum. This signboard knows By Devashish forest, the wind picking up something, something that the Makhija O from behind him as if to jungle wants to warn Oonga about. welcome him and speed him up. But Oonga is in a hurry. He hears Publisher: Every tree that he runs past nothing except for a small hypnotic Tulika starts to flap its leaves, until a voice inside him that keeps Publishers thousand jungle tongues go chanting “Rama” in time with the Pages: 300; ululululululululululululululu all at beat of his heart. And he sees Price: ` 295 once. But when Oonga reaches a nothing except for the horizon hot little clearing, the wind dies. towards which he scurries, his And the jungle voices fall silent. little legs pumping furiously.... There must have been some ...The Dongria Kondhs believe trees here until recently because that the earth knows things before their gnarled roots remain, they even happen. The jungle floor writhing in and out of the had trembled. It had spoken to the ground as if trying to leaves through the hum in the burst free to go look roots of the trees. The hum had for the trees they made the branches quiver. The once belonged to. quivering had made the leaves In the middle of flap. The leaves had shivered as if this clearing a caught in a restless breeze. But the two-legged air had been quiet. The air had metal gone still. The air had been trying signboard to tell the villagers all that they stands silently. needed to know. But the villagers’ It reads ‘india ears had been clogged with fear. A aluminium inc’. heart that carries dread cannot As Oonga beat in time with the pulsing of scurries past it, the earth. kicking up those The first sound Oonga hears familiar little clouds as he opens his aching eyes is of dust, the signboard the murmuring of a thousand vibrates with a low distant leaves. He knows the ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE

54-55Book Excerpts.indd 54 12/04/21 12:25 PM ‘The story tries to explore many themes’ Oonga was a product of experience, not research, DEVASHISH MAKHIJA tells ADITYA MISRA

What prompted you to turn Oonga into Did you undertake any new research a book seven years after you made a for the book or was it completely film on the subject? based on the work done for the film? The same reasons that prompt someone Stories like Oonga are not a product of to turn a book into a movie—it opens up “research” but “experience”. When I the story to a different audience and to travelled to the regions that the narrative different ways of experiencing the is set in, I did not have a story in mind. journey. This particular story has tried to All the things one sees, experiences, explore so many themes, questions, assimilates, understands, has ideas and characters that a 90-minute epiphanies about, or gets moved by, film could not comprehensively proceed to slowly amalgamate into accommodate, but a book finally could. something—an article, if one is a journalist; a paper, if one is an Why did you choose to highlight the academic; a documentary, if one is a struggles of the Dongria Kondh community in documentary filmmaker; poems, if one is a poet; or a story, if Niyamgiri, Odisha, for the film and now the book? one is a storyteller. I simply undertook a journey many years The Dongria Kondh tribal people and Odisha merely serve as ago, that continues as this book. I have also made a a means to root the story in some geo-cultural context. But I short film around the same situation and material called have tried to not relegate the story of Oonga to Niyamgiri Cycle that should start its film festival journey sometime alone. All such struggles/protests/fights for fairness and soon. I have written another feature film around this too. justice across the world have many commonalities. I’ve tried [Movie actor] Manoj Bajpayee and I have been trying to find to tell an allegorical tale that hopefully anyone across the producers for it for a couple of years now. In effect, my world would be able to connect a little with their own battles. research continues even beyond the publication of this book.

leaves celebrate his victory. emptied her reservoir of pain floats away from Kunja, the Rama’s victory. many times over since last night. bracelet gleams, sending a thrill His eyes are blurry. He is on Her stomach is in terrific pain. For rippling through Oonga’s battered his back, looking up. He sees a the first time ever the little one blue body. dawn sky. And the insides of trees. inside her kicks. Oongamma can’t He is a man. He is a king. He is And long trails of smoke rising up. tell if she kicks because she wants a god. He is victorious. He avenged And then he sees his Amma. She to be let out? Or because she’s his Hemla didi. He saved his looks down at him from above, and angry and wants no part of this village. He killed Ravana. He is smiles in relief. “Oonga,” she world they are to bequeath her. Rama. He is all the things no one whispers, and cradles his face in A wizened old hand appears on else can ever be. her bruised hands. In Oongamma’s Oonga’s shoulder. Oonga turns to That glorious realisation is too eyes is an abyss of sorrow. But see Kunja fix a bracelet on his much excitement for Oonga’s tired Oonga cannot see it. His head has little arm. Oonga’s eyes sparkle! little mind, and he passes out been bandaged with a torn piece of But he’s suspicious, “You said I get again, just as the boy carrying his her saree. this only when I become a man?” stretcher trips on a small body in “Amma?” Oonga grins. Kunja nods, unable to say much his path. He turns to go round the “Rama won.” else. Oonga beams as the bracelet little corpse, not noticing the brown Oongamma, unsure what she sits tight on his faded blue arm. muddy swathes on either cheek of should say, nods, then pats his Kunja stands up, steps aside, her slightly charred face. DTE head, and pushes herself up from as two boys in green uniform @down2earthindia his side, tired of the tears that appear and lift Oonga’s makeshift (Published with permission keep coming even though she’s stretcher off the ground. As Oonga from Tulika Publishers)

DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN 16-30 APRIL 2021 DOWN TO EARTH 55

54-55Book Excerpts.indd 55 12/04/21 12:25 PM 56-57Opinion_MGNREGA.indd 56 T related to the catchment drainage characteristics, characteristics, drainage catchment the to related level of at data local the unavailability The ponds. evaporation as end up functioning structures the then and formations, of underlying properties storage the without built due are consideration to structures arge planned. where are of such interventions localities topography, hydrology, climate the and geohydrology the to paid attention being inadequate the is coming short- major other The works. of the supervision of proper expert schemes and the of and design for planning specifications technical of sound due absence the to poorly constructed amajority of that are them is failure for this reason under unsatisfactory. outcome of scheme the remains implementation the since years of Yet 15 areas. after rural in improve water security to is panchayats, at level the executed of gram and planned for which are push such interventions, deliberate this rationale behind The afforestation. well as as of land levelling canals, irrigation and ponds tanks, village works,watershed desilting implementing sources, irrigation and structures water storage which includes creating management, onspent water on physical works focused is employment cent per of funds the 40 ayear. in Almost wage at 100 least days of guaranteed providing by areas rural in security livelihood enhance KUMAR M DINESH must suited be to local geography employment guarantee scheme Water structures rural under built ANYWHERE NOT JUST Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 ( 2005 Act, EmploymentRural Guarantee Palette 56

Consider this. Many often rech- often Many Consider this. built Today, structures water many management DOWN TO EARTH 16-30 EARTH TO DOWN mgnrega 2020) under the Mahatma Gandhi National Gandhi Mahatma under the 2020) R UNION HE 3,83,320 crore in the last seven years (2014- seven years last the in crore 3,83,320

across the country lie defunct. A prime Aprime defunct. lie country the across government has spent some has government APRIL 2021 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN APRIL / OPINION

mgnrega

mgnrega , the actual actual , the ) to ) to interventions to implement. to interventions water-based and which land determining while regions, of different geology and hydrology climate, afew about agro- basics the mind weif in keep waterbodies. traditional and streams up drying runoff, extremely limited with regions of hot, arid catchments the in created have been benefits. economic and ponds For example, several hydrological limited to leading structures, with catchments of overcrowding and schemes, silting oversized is result on The them. act and analyse to expertise technical have necessary the hardly agencies available,Even when implementing the are such data challenge. the to adds of aquifers, the characteristics or yield storage the and downstream, areas impacting without harnessed be can that volume of runoff These pitfalls can be avoided be can pitfalls These

09/04/21 4:38 PM

ILLUSTRATION: RITIKA BOHRA / CSE stop soil erosion and silting up of reservoirs. Forest cover improves the hydrological regime by reducing the peak runoff rates and increasing evaporation from the shallow groundwater, thereby increasing flood cushioning. Next are naturally water-abun- dant but physically water-scarce areas in the western and eastern Himalayan regions; the west coast plains; and the hills of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala. Works related to runoff water harvesting and provision of irrigation facilities for economically weaker classes are best suited for such regions. They are also perfect for surface water harvesting or creating impoundments. Soil and water management interventions like contour bunding, drainage control and gully plugging are effective in these regions. Small on-farm storage structures can also be constructed in these hilly areas to provide irrigation facilities. Finally, we have naturally and physically water-scarce areas in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan; the central, western and southern plateau region; the Gujarat plains and the western dry regions. The renovation of traditional water bodies and on-farm water management can help in such areas that experience physical water scarcity, owing to water demands that far exceed the renewable capacity in the region. They also have A BRUSH-UP COURSE highly variable monsoon rainfall and high evaporation To begin with, the country can be divided into three rates. The management of water demand for broad typologies based on agro-climatic, hydrological agriculture is extremely important for mitigating and geological factors. This can help determine water scarcity in these regions. Keeping this in mind, appropriate interventions. First come the naturally investments should be on land-levelling for on-farm and physically water-abundant areas in the Gangetic water management, de-silting and lining of canals plains of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; the and renovation of traditional waterbodies. eastern plateau; and the east coast plains of Odisha. This means mgnrega can create sustainable Flood control and protection works will be highly assets through careful regional planning and effective in such regions that see high to moderate efficient implementation of water management rainfall. Focus should also be given to afforestation to works. It is imperative that when public funds are spent on creating assets in a decentralised manner SEVERAL PONDS HAVE BEEN CREATED in villages, a small fraction is spent on providing IN THE CATCHMENTS OF HOT, ARID proper scientific and technical inputs for planning and execution. DTE REGIONS WITH EXTREMELY LIMITED @down2earthindia RUNOFF, LEADING TO DRYING UP OF (M Dinesh Kumar is executive director, Institute for STREAMS AND WATER BODIES Resource Analysis and Policy, Hyderabad)

DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN 16-30 APRIL 2021 DOWN TO EARTH 57

56-57Opinion_MGNREGA.indd 57 09/04/21 4:38 PM CIVIL LINES/RICHARD MAHAPATRA

Mass it can be called a “country of mass poverty”. poverty is With this, India’s uninterrupted progress in poverty reduction since the 1970s has stalled. Last time India reported an increase back in India in poverty was in the first quarter-century after Independence. From 1951 to 1974, the HE PANDEMIC struck India at a time share of the poor increased from 47 to 56 per when it recorded its lowest economic cent in the total population. In recent times, T growth in over a decade. The slowing it had emerged as the country with the economy had disproportionately impacted the highest poverty reduction rate. The global rural areas, where the majority of the Multidimensional Poverty Index reported in country’s consumers and poor people reside. 2019 that India lifted 271 million citizens out Even in the absence of any official data, one of poverty between 2006 and 2016. could perceive a rise in rural poverty. India has not counted its poor since 2011. Unemployment was high; there was a But in 2019, the United Nations estimated constant decline in consumption expenditure; that 364 million people in the country, or 28 and public spending on development was per cent of the population, were poor. All the stagnant. These three factors together dictate estimated new poor people due to the the well-being of an economy. pandemic are in Cut to 2021. Rural Indians—mostly an After reducing addition to this. Also, informal workforce and poor by any poverty rates as evaluations point accepted definition—have lived with for 45 years, out, millions of people irregular jobs for over a year. Anecdotal India has in urban areas have stories of precarious survival are available added the also slipped below the in abundance. People are cutting back on maximum poverty line. Moreover, food items; many have stopped buying the poor in 2020 the Pew Center’s basics like lentils as food inflation has analysis says even the spiked. The Mahatma Gandhi National middle class has shrunk by one-third. Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is no Overall, cutting across population and longer able to absorb demands for geographical segments, millions of Indians employment. Many are digging into their have either become poor, poorer, or are on the meagre savings. With the second wave brink of becoming poor. of the pandemic hitting hard, it is a Is this a temporary phase? The usual situation of extreme desperation. One can belief is that with economic recovery, many argue all economic activities of the poor and people would climb above the poverty line. the marginally well-off have ceased. What But the question is how? People have does this result in? reduced spending or are not able to spend. The Pew Research Center using the World They have already exhausted their savings, Bank data has estimated that the number of reducing their capacity to spend in the poor people in India with income an of US $2 future. Government spending is also not per day (or less in purchasing power parity) proportionate to the crisis. This means a has more than doubled—from 60 million to perpetuation of the current economic 134 million—in just a year due to the covid-19 situation. And a way out of it is not certain,

pandemic-induced recession. This means just like the pathway of the pandemic. DTE after 45 years, India is back in a state where @richiemaha

58 DOWN TO EARTH 16-30 APRIL 2021 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN

58Civil Lines.indd 58 09/04/21 12:58 PM CERTIFICATE COURSE ON IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF COAL-BASED THERMAL POWER STATIONS Course date: May 11th – May 14th, 2021 Course time: 10.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m. Last date for applying: April 20, 2021 THIS TRAINING IS FULLY FUNDED BY CSE HIGHLIGHTS Course duration: 4 days Offered by: School of Industrial Pollution and Governance, AAETI Fees: Fully funded by CSE Selection procedure: Shortlisting through CV/Nominated by Govt

The coal-fired thermal power industry is on the industry. The coal-based thermal based thermal power stations. The considered one of the most polluting sector. power sector is now under pressure to residential training workshop will be Apart from emitting particulate matter, reach the limits as soon as possible, sail organized at the Anil Agarwal Environment sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, they through the water-scarcity risk, and reduce Training Institute (AAETI), Alwar, about are also responsible for spewing over a climate threats. Trained manpower is 100 km from Delhi. The objective of the third of the country's GHG emissions into necessary to support this sector at the workshop is to update the participants the air. They use half of the country's moment. about the new norms and their applicability, drinking water, and produce one of the To aide which CSE is offering a train them on pollution control, reduce largest waste streams Ð fly ash. To control merit-based four day full-scholarship climate change impacts, and familiarize emissions from the sector in 2015, the advanced training program: Improving them with best practices and operation and government imposed strict pollution limits environmental performance of coal- maintenance issues.

THE COURSE HIGHLIGHTS TRAINING METHODOLOGY •Minimizing pollution - particulate matter control, sulphur dioxide Classroom lectures, case studies, class and oxides of nitrogen exercises, discussions and field visits Reducing GHG emissions and improving energy efficiency • COURSE VENUE •Better fly ash management Anil Agarwal Environmental Training Institute •Water management in thermal power stations - water audits, recycling techniques (AAETI), Tijara, Rajasthan about 100 km from •Continuous emission monitoring system; how to ensure quality data Delhi. Participants have to reach New Delhi at •Case studies, experience-sharing and discussion sessions their own expenses on May 10th, 2021 and May 15th, 2021 (return). •Site visit. For registrations and other details, please contact: Soundaram Ramanathan Deputy Programme Manager Industrial Pollution Unit Centre for Science and Environment, 41, Tughalakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi -110062 Ph: 91-11-2995 5124 (Ext. 301); Fax: 91-11-2995 5879, Mobile: +91 85271 56760 Email: [email protected]

59Ad Improving Environmental performance of Coal-based thermal power stations.indd 59 09/04/21 12:35 PM R.N.I. NO. 53588/92 POSTAL REGN. NO. DL(S)-17/3109/2021-2023 ISSN 0971-8079. Licensed to Post without Pre-payment U(SE)-44/2021-2023 at Lodhi Road HO, New Delhi-110003. Published on 14-15 every month. POSTED ON: 16-17 of the same fortnight, Total pages: 60

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