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A Development and Environment Magazine Vol. 12, IssueVol. 12, 75, November-December 2012 www.geographyandyou.com

Livelihood and Changing Social Values Bleaching Meadows of Ocean Technology for Islands THE WHITE SANDS OF The Lakshadweep Islands 120- 200 nautical miles off the south west of India, comprises of 11 inhabited islands (0.58 - 4.8 sq km in size ) and 16 uninhabited islands/; 6 newly formed/submerged banks and 3 coral reefs. The largest island is with a length of about 9 km and area of 4.37 sq km. The total land availability including the inhabited and the uninhabited islands together is 32 sq km. Except , all other islands are protected by a nearly crescent shaped ‘ wall’ with more than two boat channels. Known as the Laccadive, and Minicoy group of islands when it was formed into a (UT) in 1956, it was renamed as Lakshadweep in 1973. These Islands are considered the smallest UT of India - however bestowed with 20,000 sq km of and 40,000 sq km of - Lakshadweep is anything but small.

Livelihood opportunities are very limited in the Lakshadweep Islands with Chetlat

Kiltan

Kadmat Bangaram

Amini Agatti

Andrott

Kavaratti

Kalpeni

The inhabited islands of Minicoy Lakshadweep Map not to scale

ISLANDSTHE LAKSHADWEEP deep sea and reef fishing as the main occupation followed by cultivation. GEOGRAPHY AND YOU contents   VOL. 12 ISSUE 75 NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2012

KAVARATTI, LAKSHADWEEP According to provisional figures of 2011 Census, Lakshadweep stands in second place, ranking just below (93.91 per cent ) with an overall literacy rate of 92.28 per cent which is 5.58 per cent higher than that recorded during 2001. Female literacy stands at nearly 88 per cent in the islands reflective of the higher status of women in the matrilineal society of the Muslim dominated union territory.

2  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU INDIA’S EDITOR 10 Overview SULAGNA CHATTOPADHYAY Lakshadweep: State of Environment V SAMPATH LEGAL ADVISOR KRISHNENDU DATTA 12 Island People Livelihood and Changing Social RESEARCH Values in Lakshadweep MADHUSMITA GIRI, ANKITA SAH VINEETA HOON

COVER PHOTOGRAPH 20 Biodiversity MEN CARRYING TO THE JETTY Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep IN AN INDIGENOUSLY FABRICATED T T AJITH KUMAR, S PRAKASH AND T BALASUBRAMANIAN CONTRAPTION 24 Conservation SPONSORSHIP Seagrass Meadows and Conservation P KALADHARAN, K P SAID KOYA THE SPECIAL ISSUE ON LAKSHADWEEP AND BINDU SULOCHANAN HAS BEEN SPONSORED BY

LAKSHADWEEP ADMINISTRATION. 28 Island Development Ocean Technology for Islands PHOTOGRAPHY KIRUBAGARAN AND RAMANA MURTHY PRASAD 36 Resource Management IRIS PUBLICATION PVT. LTD. Tuna Fishing in the REGISTERED OFFICE B MEENAKUMARI 111/9, ARUNA ASAF ALI MARG, KISHANGARH, VASANT KUNJ, INDIA’S WEATHER NEW -110070. 48 Concept Counter CORRESPONDENCE/EDITORIAL OFFICE Cold Waves 1584, B-1, VASANT KUNJ, NEW DELHI-110070 52 Forecast PHONE: 011-26122789 FOR NEW Global Warming and Indian SUBSCRIPTIONS, RENEWALS, NITYANAND SINGH AND H N SINGH ENQUIRIES PLEASE CONTACT CIRCULATION MANAGER E-MAIL: GEOGRAPHYANDYOU2001@ YAHOO.CO.UK OR FACT FILE [email protected] 6 TYPES: Islands of the World PLEASE VISIT OUR SITE AT WWW.GEOGRAPHYANDYOU.COM FOR 8 SOCIETY: The Island People FURTHER INFORMATION. 40 RESOURCE: Freshwater in Lakshadweep 46 LIVELIHOOD: Ecotourism for the Coral ©IRIS PUBLICATION PVT. LTD. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THROUGHOUT Islands of India THE WORLD. REPRODUCTION IN ANY MANNER, PART OR WHOLE, IS PROHIBITED. PRINTED, PUBLISHED AND OWNED BY SULAGNA CHATTOPADHYAY.

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PUBLISHED AT 4 Editor’s Note IRIS PUBLICATION PVT. LTD. GEOGRAPHY AND YOU DOES NOT TAKE In Brief ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR RETURNING UNSOLICITED PUBLICATION MATERIAL. 19 TERM POWER Coral Islands NEWS UPDATE ALL DISPUTES ARE SUBJECT TO THE EXCLUSIVE 34 Island Watch JURISDICTION OF COMPETENT COURTS AND 42 ISLAND AGRICULTURE Coconut Plantation FORUMS IN DELHI/NEW DELHI ONLY. 43 TERM POWER RATING Coral Islands 45 ENERGY Island Development

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  3 Edit Note

AGATTI, LAKSHADWEEP Dear readers The beauty of Lakshadweep is unparalleled - tiny emerald drops set in azure and deep blue - with a water-world, teeming with colours that should make our hearts with national pride. Just about an hour by air from the ‘God’s own country’ - the well packaged Kerala where tourists from world over make a beeline to - for a taste of India, yet Lakshadweep is far from accessible as permits control the tourist population. Here we have a group of islands - 11 to be precise, with a population of 65,000 persons and about 50,000 livestock, primarily cattle and goat inhabiting an area of 32 sq km. Only coconut and fish being locally available, the island’s heavy dependency on the is well understood. It is true that ecotourism based sustainable business models will provide a fillip to the islanders’ livelihoods apart from showcasing the beauty of our country. Also that an enhanced possibility of earnings will usher in a new learning amongst the islanders about sanitation, ecofriendly housing, land upgradation, water management and species diversity. The government thus needs to pro actively work out a sustainability plan, with larger funds being diverted into the to develop adequate infrastructure with the protection of the islands and its people in mind. This issue of G’nY outlines the concerns of Lakshadweep - a near forgotten biodiversity rich region of our nation, waiting to be explored by its responsible and conscientious citizens.

Sulagna Chattopadhyay

4  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Letters to the Editor 60 ` have been in the similar vein to that historical facts about census in A Development and Environment Magazine of the UID initiative: the issue of India is quite interesting. But I Vol. 12, Issue SeptemberVol. 12, 74, - October 2012 www.geographyandyou.com citizens’ privacy; lack of a cost- do not agree that a caste census benefi t analysis; and ultimately its should be undertaken, particularly ENUMERATING uncertain utility. when the nation is becoming more INDIA In other fi rsts, citizens’ access cosmopolitanism as we are all

■ Census of India - A critique ■ Our Census, Our Future? ■ to new technologies like mobiles, turning into world citizens. Why Gender sensitisation in the Census ■ India’s Elders: Challenges to Inclusive Growth ■ Declining Child Sex Ratio in India computers and internet will also be are we than moving in a backward ■ Rural-Urban Divide in Health Status recorded as part of the Census. The direction? Why should our youth 2011 Census has detailed questions know about which caste he belongs on disability, an attempt to recognise to and why should one look for multiple types of disorders, apart reservation benefi ts in the selection from simply recording overall of one’s career. The politicians For more details log on to our website www.geographyandyou.com numbers. The ‘other’ category will should understand that reservation help register illnesses like cerebral will help someone get a government palsy and autism, which don’t job, but not in creative fi elds. And fall into any of the other sections. a country develops because of its Census Issue However, concerns remain about the creative talents and not because I was delighted to see the Census accuracy of the information, given of its government offi cials. I wish issue of G’nY. It is my favourite the social stigma that continues to we as a nation could think of our subject and I keep reading about impact the differently-abled in our development in a positive manner it. Did you know that the Census society. Respondents or their families and not with negative discrimination. this year has many fi rsts to its may conceal disability, especially of Rameshwar Singh, credit? Foremost among them is the a mental nature, because of a fear of Patna, creation of a National Population being ostracised. Register (NPR), a database of all The caste based census, Bringing on Societal ‘residents’ (as opposed to citizens) another fi rst, will have a caste Change above the age of 15 years - which wise composition of the Indian The Delhi rape case has been an of course you have talked about population. Last but not the least the eye opener in many ways. Demands in your articles. The NPR will be ‘other category’ has been introduced for capital punishment, stringent a biometric database that will in the sex and work related sections, rape laws, speedy handling etc., are include photographs, fi ngerprints for the fi rst time. The other category ‘cures’ after ‘the act’. What about and iris prints apart from relevant will pertain to transgenders and prevention? It is not the question demographic information. But prostitutes, respectively. Many see of either-or, several simultaneous this initiative yet to be undertaken this as a positive move; offering steps are needed. More importantly, anywhere else in the world, will incur some recognition to two of the most as long as women or girls are not an expenditure of Rs 3,539.24 crore. marginalised groups in the Indian treated as persons in their own Abhijit Dasgupta’s article titled ‘Our society instead of rendering them right and not as a commodity to Census: Our Future’ is unaware invisible as before. be consumed - under the garb of about this huge cost. S Ranganathan, institutionalised endorsement or The biometrics information will be , . otherwise, they and their bodies fed into the UID which will generate would be violated one way or the unique IDs for all ‘usual’ residents Creative talents other. Home is the place where (temporary/permanent and legal/ I got hold of the September-October initial socialisation takes place illegal living in the country for at least 2012 issue of G’nY magazine at - discrimination in any one way 6 months). At the fi nal step, all this a friend’s place who has been between girls and boys will start the information will be compiled into a subscribing for many years. I found process! Our youth is our hope. smart card that will become a basic the magazine, both in terms of Prof Saraswati Raju, identity document for all government presentation as well as content, Jawaharlal Nehru University, residents. Critiques of the exercise to be really good. Particularly the New Delhi. write, email, fax Talk to us on:

Write Editorial Office Geography and You, 1584, B-1, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070, Tele-Fax 011-26122789, Email [email protected], Website www.geographyandyou.com. Include name, address and telephone. Letters may be edited for clarity and length. To contribute an article. Kindly send the abstract of your article in not more than 200 words to geographyandyou2001@yahoo. co.uk. The abstract will be reviewed by our guest panelists. Once the abstract is selected we shall respond immediately for the full article. The length of the final article may range from 1200 to 1500 words. Please also mention if you can contribute relevant high resolution photographs. The Editorial Advisor

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  5 Fact File

Islands of the World Islands differ in their geological and geomorphologic settings; and in their physical, biological, climatic, social, political, cultural, and ethnic characteristics. Yet they share a distinct underlying concern that marks their overall vulnerability in the context of sustainable development.

Continental Islands Bodies of land connected by the continental shelf to a . Greenland is part of North American continental shelf, while Tasmania is an extension of the Australian continent. Also, Trinidad is a section of the South American continental shelf while Sumatra is a portion of the South East Asian shelf. GREENLAND

Oceanic Islands Bodies formed by volcanic eruptions on the ocean floor. As volcanoes erupt, they build up layers of lava that may eventually break the water surface. When the tops of the volcanoes appear above the water, they form islands such as Hawaii made primarily of basaltic lava. Oceanic islands are also known as ‘high islands’ and are usually formed near subduction zones, hot spots, tectonic plates etc. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

LINDISFARNE Tidal Islands Bodies that are connected to the mainland at low at which time they can be reached on foot. At high tide however they are completely cut off from the mainland making it a true island. Tidal islands are sometimes connected to the mainland by a man-made causeway. Some such islands are Mont Saint- Michel in Normandy, , Enoshima in Japan, Lindisfarne in the northeast coast of England, etc. Climate scientists warn that vulnerable island states may need to consider evacuating Coral Islands AN OF TAHITI Bodies of low flat land formed in warm waters by tiny sea animals called . As corals build up, their hard skeletons make reefs of limestone. Some coral reefs may grow up from a plateau on the seafloor until they break the water’s surface, forming islands. The islands of the Bahamas are the highest parts of underwater banks. Another kind of is the atoll, which is a that begins by growing in a ring around the sides of an oceanic island. As the island slowly sinks into the sea, the reef continues to grow. Lakshadweep Islands comprise of 12 such atolls.

PALM ISLAND

Artificial Islands Bodies of land that is essentially man-made, with material brought-in from elsewhere or as an expanded part of an already-existing island by draining the water around it. Some of the example of artificial islands are Harbor Island in San Diego Bay, California; Treasure Island in Eastern , etc. Singapore is actively involved in creating artificial islands apart from other nations such as and Japan.

PADRE ISLAND Barrier Islands Bodies of narrow land that lie parallel to coastlines largely made up of sediments, separated from the shore by a or a sound. They usually have sand dunes that act as barriers between the ocean and the mainland, which protects the coast from being directly battered by storm waves and winds. The islands off the Atlantic coast of southern Florida were formed in this way. Some barrier islands were formed by glacial deposits from the ice age. Long Island, in New York, and Nantucket, off the coast of Massachusetts, are both formed of glacial moraines. Some of the barrier islands are Galveston and Padre Island, Texas; East Frisian Islands, West Germany. their populations due to a much faster than anticipated melting of the world’s ice sheets. Fact File

THE ISLAND PEOPLE Even though there is dominance of , the social structure of the islanders is based on the matrilineal kinship and caste system that refl ects customs of Kerala.

Traditional clothing disappearing in favour of the purdah AMINI, LAKSHADWEEP. PHOTO COURTESY: VINEETA HOON VINEETA PHOTO COURTESY: AMINI, LAKSHADWEEP.

8  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU ut of a total of 36, only 10 islands of fairly common. Today, however, the practice Lakshadweep are inhabited by the local of purdah and the advent of salwar kameez is Opopulace - Andrott, Amini, Agatti, Bitra, changing the traditional clothing of the women Chetlat, Kadmath, , , Minicoy and in the communities here. Men too have changed Kavaratti; the latter being the headquarters of the their attire from being generally bare chested to Union Territory. Th e 11th island, Bangaram, holds modern day shirts. a resort. Human communities of Lakshadweep are MELACHERI: Originally they were the community primarily Koya, Malmi and Melacheri, belonging of landless tree climbers, plucking from in most cases to the Shafi School Muslims of the trees owned by Koyas and tapping sweet-toddy. Sunni sect. Th e earlier inhabitants of Lakshad- Belonging to the class that provides labour, weep were Hindus who had migrated from the Melacheri faced a level of social obstracisation in of Kerala and were converted to terms of marriage into koya families and certain Islam in the 7th century AD by Hazrat Ubaidulla, rituals in the past. Th e divide has slowly levelled an Arab Saint. As per the Census 2011, the total out in the present context. population of Lakshadweep is 64,429 of which One island however stands apart – Minicoy, male and female are 33,106 and 31,323 respec- which has older communities and a slightly tively, spread over a 32 sq km of land area with a varied class structure, having named land owners population density of 2013 per sq km. Manikfan, holding the same status as the Koyas Even though there is dominance of Islam, ruling over the other class groups. Th akrufan the social structure is based on the matrilineal are like Malmi, Th akru the sailors and Raveris kinship and caste system that refl ects the Hindu - the landless nut plucking community like the customs of Kerala - a custom that in recent Melacheris. As a deviation from the other islands decades has signifi cantly lost its grip, with a rise the women of Minicoy enjoy special identifi cation in nuclear families and male heads of households. with specifi c names accorded to them. KOYA: Th e community has been named from a Manikfan women are known as Manika, term derived from khoia meaning ‘respect’ in the those belonging to the Th akrufan and Thakru local . Th e community was formerly known are called beefanun and bibees, respectively and as the Tarawad referring to the principle families women of Raveris are known as Kambilo. Th is is or the Karnavan who were heads of Tarawads. also refl ective of the social status awarded to the Th e Koyas are generally land owners and a class women, which despite the signifi cant weakening enjoying great respect in the society. Th is and the elsewhere has held its position here. In fact, men other classes speak but a local dialect from this island still settle with the women’s does exist – Vattezhuthu, which has Tamil and family after marriage. Th e people speak a Canarese infl uences. diff erent tongue here – Mahl, although most can MALMI: Th e sailor community, named after communicate in Hindi and Malayalam as well. ‘muaellim,’ a word of origin, meaning, Th e islanders of Minicoy dress diff erently too – ‘one who shows the way’. Th us, Malmis are the men, apart from the high ranking Manikfans who sailor community that plied the indigenous boats prefer spotless white lungi, wear loosely tailored ‘odam’ to serve the Koyas by transporting rice straight fi t pants. Th e women wear a colourful and other essential goods from the mainland. long robe – libas, over a fi tted bodice and cover Th e traditional dress of Lakshadweep is fairly their heads with a black scarf. Here, as opposed simple, with men wearing white or coloured to the other islands, high ranking women are lungis with its ends stitched together and women seen to wear gold, while the others prefer silver wearing kachi, the unstitched version, around and black thread. With better earning among their waists tied in place with silver belts. Women other classes, these diff erences are however on also cover their head with thattam - a kind of a its way out. Also, traditional clothing is presently long scarf, and wear a fi tted long sleeved bodice being replaced by modern garments – readily with embroidered fronts. Ornaments are worn available to these seafaring people. in profusion, with multiple ear and nose piercing Inputs from K G Mohammed, Senior Publicity Offi cer (former), Minicoy

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  9 India’s Archipelago

V SAMPATH

Lakshadweep: State of Environment Precious and rare, the Lakshadweep group of islands is in urgent need of sustainable developmental activities. Stringent laws and policies will help the state of environment of this fragile lands.

THE LAKSHADWEEP group of islands covering cesspools, which ultimately fi nds its way to the an area of 32 sq km has a total population of coastal waters. A commonly followed practice - 64,429 as per 2011 Census, with a population most households construct soak pits for disposal density of 2,013 per sq km which is much higher of latrine waste. Owing to acute on the than the national average of 382 per sq km. Th e land, the soak pits are considerably close to open main occupation of the people here is fi shing, wells. Th e soil being sandy and porous and the coconut cultivation and coir twisting. Tourism soak pits having been constructed rather unsci- is an emerging industry and there is a need to entifi cally, amounts to faecal matter fi nding its promote tourism such that it is consistent with way into the freshwater aquifers. the rising ecological concerns. Solid wastes from households are dumped on Changing lifestyle coupled with population the narrow shore line, behind each household. It pressure is leading to an increased generation is estimated that about 1.2 million litres of solid of sewage and solid wastes. It is also placing an waste per day is generated at Kavaratti alone. enormous strain on the availability of freshwater, Th e non-degradable solid wastes are dumped resulting in saline water ingress and contamina- at one end of each island by the local bodies. In tion of the fresh water aquifer. Coastal erosion the absence of systematic sewerage system the results in loss of land of these fragile realms. disposal of solid waste is a major concern. Maximum erosion observed over a period Coral mining is a major threat to the marine of 35-40 years was in the range 28 to 44 m in ecosystem, along with destructive fi shing Lakshadweep. activities, coastal development and pollution. Th e coral islands are considered an important Lakshadweep falls along the maritime route ecological asset in terms of marine biodiversity. of and south/south-east for As many as 103 corals, over 695 species of fi sh the passage of oil tankers, cargo vessels and including 300 varieties of marine ornamental fi sh passenger ships. Untreated waste dumped and are reported from these waters. Today, however, waste oil discharged into the sea around the resource harvest from the have brought Lakshadweep group of islands by the vessels/ many reefs in the Lakshadweep under various tankers cause pollution. In the event of an oil degrees of stress. Developmental activities and spill it can cause havoc for the marine biodiver- land based pollutants have resulted in eutrophi- sity. Few oil spill incidences occurring in the past cation, degradation of the lagoon and coral have extensively damaged corals and associated ecosystems. fauna and the seagrass. Between 50,000 and 1,00,000 litres of untreated A study conducted by the Cochin University of sewage waste is reportedly let into septic tanks or Science and Technology (CUSAT) in the islands

10  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU AGATTI, LAKSHADWEEP The main occupation of the people here is fishing, coconut cultivation and coir twisting. Tourism is an emerging industry and there is a need to promote tourism such that it is consistent with the rising ecological concerns. of Kavaratti, Kadmat, Kiltan, Andrott, Agatti and sand dunes of Lakshadweep. Minicoy in the year 2004 has revealed that the Fishing activities are reportedly generating coral reef system in the Lakshadweep Islands is nearly 2000 tonnes of waste, posing a health facing a severe threat from oil-spillage and fuel for the islanders as well. Th e use of discharge caused by an increase in the passage of chemical detergents (cleaning and washing) vessels; and the number of generators being used and the application of artifi cial fertilisers and by the islanders for power generation. A high chemicals cause leaching of excessive nutrients of heavy metals such as cadmium, into the lagoon resulting in eutrophication and lead, mercury, aluminium, zinc and vanadium has smothering of corals. Plastic dumping is another been recorded in the reefs here. Th e anti-fouling hazard of increasing magnitude which kill sea bottom paints used by boats contributed to the , , shrimps and other crustaceans. formation of toxic of tributyl tin Strict laws need to be put in place to ban and other harmful chemical compounds. Another plastics, metals and batteries on the island. A study conducted by the Kerala State Council for foolproof liquid and solid waste management Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE), plan needs to be evolved and put in place for on the state of the environment of the union terri- protecting and conserving the fragile lagoon and tory, has found that rising sea level and climate coastal marine ecosystems of the islands and change are as much of a threat as human activi- their biodiversity. ties to the marine biodiversity and the associated The author is Advisor (Former), Ministry of Earth Sciences, New ecosystems such as coastal lagoons, beaches, and Delhi. [email protected]

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  11 India’s Archipelago

12  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Field based studies carried out in Lakshadweep for over two decades examine the islanders’ dependence on coral reefs. Data reveal that mainstream influences are leading to significant changes in cultural norms with evidences of a break down of the traditional matrilineal society.

VINEETA HOON

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  13 Island People

he Lakshadweep Islands lying off the west tonic larvae of reef organisms from both western Tcoast of India are comprised of coral atolls, and eastern . Lakshadweep reefs reefs and submerged banks, which surround are thus believed to play a signifi cant role in the 36 low lying coralline islands. It is considered the distribution and maintenance of coral reef biodi- smallest Union Territory of India with a popula- versity in India. tion of 64,429 in 2011. However, the land area of Th e reefs are also a potential tourist attrac- 32 sq km accounts for less than 1 per cent of the tion, that can signifi cantly contribute to local total area of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. income generation and foreign exchange. When Taken in totality, with the lagoons and the exclu- managed with care, they can provide a steady sive economic zone - the coral atolls occupy a fl ow of income to the islanders through respon- large territory. sible fi sheries and tourism. In one estimate, the Lakshadweep constitutes the only atoll total net benefi t per year of the world’s coral formation in India and forms the northern most reefs was pegged at 29.8 billion USD with tourism segment of the Chagos – Maldive – Laccadive and recreation accounting for 9.6 billion, coastal oceanic ridge. Th e islands are fl at and scarcely protection for 9.0 billion, fi sheries for 5.7 billion rise more than 2 m (Fig 1). Th e soils of these and biodiversity for 5.5 billion (H J S Cesar, et.al. islands are structureless, formed by coral 2003, Th e economics of worldwide coral reef detritus and as such the soil fertility and water degradation, WWF-Netherlands) holding capacity are extremely poor. Apart from MATERIAL AND METHODS: Observations and data coconut, little else can be grown here. Freshwater was collected using a combination of participa- resources contained in a lens shaped aquifer 1.5 tory appraisal methods, interviews, focus group m below the surface, are limited and the hydro- discussions, visualisation, and household surveys logical system extremely fragile - the water being based on random sampling. Additional interview periodically renewed by rainfall. Eleven out of the based surveys were also conducted to analyse thirty-six islands are inhabited - Agatti, Andrott, issues related to tourism. Th e data was Amini, Bangaram, Bitra, Chetlat, Kadmat, Kavar- atti, Kalpeni, Kiltan and Minicoy; Th e fi rst islands to be settled were Amini, Kavaratti, Andrott, and Fig 1: Atoll formation Kalpeni. People then moved to the other islands Single sand bar island of Agatti, Kiltan, Chetlat and Kadmat. An old Reef dialect of Malayalam is spoken on all the islands except Minicoy, where they speak Mahl and Shallowlagoon are culturally similar to the people of . 30 m Lakshadweep is classifi ed as a scheduled tribe Reef (ST) area, which the Government is committed to protect. Old Coral/ Lime Stone MARINE RESOURCES AND LIVELIHOOD: Th e reef Platform bio-composition of Lakshadweep is signifi cant and includes 114 species of corals, 42 species of , 7 species of , 108 species of sponges, 4 species of , 76 species of echi- noderms, 600 species of fi n fi shes, etc. Among groups which are known to be internationally threatened, Lakshadweep Islands are home to Subsided volcanic island globally signifi cant populations of green and part of Chagos Ridge hawksbill turtles; whale , reef sharks and manta rays; and whales and dolphins. Th e atolls act as a stepping stone for the transport of plank-

14  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU compared with that which was gathered in 2001 are domestic and offi ce jobs in the government. and 1990, to describe the changes taking place in Most women now observe purdha - a trend Lakshadweep over the past two decades. that started in late 1990s. Juxtaposed against a CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN: Lakshadweep women’s literacy rate of 88 per cent and a total followed a marumukkathayam (matrilineal) literacy rate of 92 per cent (2011 Census) there system where land and property was passed defi nitely seems to be a disconnect that demands down the female line. Extended families lived further research. together in joint families called tharawads where INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT: Th e traditional men came to live in their wives’ house after sources of income for the people of Lakshadweep marriage. Th ere is, however, weakening of the continue to be fi shing, coconut cultivation and system at present with Muslim men using the allied industries. Recreation fi shing is also taken shariat law to inherit property from their parents. into account while calculating annual household As recently as 1990, matriarchal joint families with income. In 2001 and 2011 the sources of income women serving as the head of the household was have been classifi ed as - deep sea, lagoon and reef a norm. By the 2001 socioeconomic assessment conducted at - the tharawad was on the decline. About 74 per cent of the households reported that they lived in houses belonging to Coral Reef Ecosystem their mothers – which further dropped to 68 per Functions cent in 2011. A rising number of nuclear families Coastal protection: Reefs serve as natural barriers are seen today accompanied by a boom in house to storm surges preventing the destruction of coastline and protecting communities. construction. As the joint families break into Safety net for food: The lagoon between the reef nuclear families, the number of households (and and island is a safe fi shing area. therefore houses) has been growing much more Fishery development: Coral reefs and their quickly than the population. At Agatti interest- associated habitat includes mangrove and seagrass beds, which provide an important fi sh ingly, 81 per cent of the respondents cited a male habitat. head in 2011 – a trend that is also refl ected in Tourism: People the world over visit coral reefs to all other islands. It is likely that the mainland experience its beauty. Biodiversity: India’s patriarchal culture perpetuated through The United Nation Atlas of Oceans describes coral reefs as among the most the increasing interaction for higher education, biologically rich ecosystems on earth, with about religious teaching and visitors, staff and tourists 4,000 species of fi sh and 800 species of reef apart from an easy access to entertainment and building corals. Carbon sequestration: media. Th e surveys revealed that males are now Coral reefs remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and are thus considered decision makers and breadwinners responsible for the mitigation of global warming. of the household. It was also perceived that as opposed to 1990, when women played an important role in post harvest activities in fi sh processing, in 2002 women work participation fell signifi cantly. In Agatti fi shermen teams have extended their work to include post harvest processing – and these teams do not include any women. Apart from Minicoy, which diff ers in these parameters, the downward trend continues in all the islands. Also, in 2011 the survey team noted that women are rarely self employed and play a less signifi cant role in the economic sphere of Island life than in the past. Th e two primary jobs available to women now

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  15 Island People

fi shing; coconut cultivation; government jobs; (Fig 4). Th is translates to around 1.50 USD/day, entrepreneurship and private employment in slightly higher than the World Bank’s grocery, motor cycle repair, tea and other shops, threshold of 1.25 (World Bank, 2008). Despite tourist resorts, Madrassa; and labour (Fig. 2 and 3). the observation that income has doubled since Government jobs continue to be the most the assessment conducted in 2002, however, it is lucrative income provider with 23 per cent of the not evenly distributed. Two percent of the house- economically active population depending on it holds reported an annual household income over - generating 57 per cent of the annual income of 20,000 USD, while at the other end of the spec- the islanders in 2011. Th e corresponding fi gures trum, 14 per cent of the total households had were 30 per cent and 71 per cent in 2001. Th is is an annual income of less than 500 USD. Th ese followed by tuna and deep sea fi shing. 16 per cent households are the poorest of the poor. Th ey do as opposed to 27 per cent in 2001 of the house- not have an economically active adult male to holds have at least one person employed in tuna support them and survive on welfare from the and deep sea fi shing, which generates 17 per cent government which provides 10 USD a month of the total island income in 2011 as against 14 to households below the poverty line. Given the per cent in 2001. breakdown of the matrilineal system, which has Apart from artisanal fi shery and bait fi shing traditionally provided a safety net for family for the tuna, 97 per cent of the households tend members, these poorest households may be to supplement the main source of income with even more vulnerable in the future if the current subsistence reef related activities such as netting, trends continue. line fi shing, cowry and shingle collection, while MARINE SERVICES AND TOURISM: Healthy coral 80 per cent of the households rear 2 to 3 goats reefs have a high non extractive market value. and chicken as a dietary supplement. Also 87 When managed with care, they can provide a per cent of the households are able to fulfi l their steady fl ow of jobs and income to the islanders household needs for coconut oil and also use through responsible beach tourism. Tourism coconut for food. operations are controlled by the Lakshadweep Historically, Lakshadweep’s income accrued Administration through Society for Promotion from coconut plantations and the products of Nature Tourism and Sports (SPORTS) that derived from it − copra and coir. Although, the directly runs the operation or leases out each income derived from coconut is now marginal, resort to private entrepreneurs. As outsiders every islander strives to own a few trees as it is are not allowed to buy land in Lakshadweep still considered prestigious. the islanders lease out land to the Department POVERTY: A study of income in the Agatti island of Tourism, which is responsible for developing reveals an annual per capita income of 560 USD infrastructure and can also re-lease land to inter-

Fig 2: Primary Source of Income for Agatti Fig 3: Primary Employment for Agatti 80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20 PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE TO TOTAL INCOME TOTAL TO PERCENTAGE 0 0 SALARY SALARY OWN DEEP SEA LAGOON/ CORPRA SALARY SALARY OWN DEEP SEA LAGOON/ CORPRA GOVERNMENT PRIVATE REEF GOVERNMENT PRIVATE REEF TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT 2001 2011 TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT 2001 2011

16  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU The 2011 survey noted that women are rarely self- employed and play a less significant role in the economic sphere of island life.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  17 Island People

ested parties through a global tender. Till 1988, education and health services are imparted free the administration encouraged low volume, high of cost. Th e rights of the islanders are protected value eco-tourism in uninhabited islands, so as through the island entry rules and a visitor has to not to hurt the sensibilities of the conservative procure an entry permit from the Lakshadweep Muslim population and not to overburden the administration. limited fresh water and electricity resources on PERCEPTIONS OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: the inhabited islands. Th e Lakshadweep Administration has not Th e fi rst international resort was set up at designated any marine protected areas (MPAs) Bangaram in 1988 that included in Lakshadweep as yet; however, all the people facilities, with an airstrip being built at Agatti for interviewed at Agatti and Minicoy understood easier access. Resorts, such as the one established the concept of an MPA as an area that would be in Agatti from 1990 onwards have been in a state set aside to allow coral reefs and their associated of limbo since early 2012, as also the Bangaram species to regenerate. However, only 30 per cent Island operations - a model of success in Lakshad- of the respondents in Agatti as against 60 per weep tourism, being presently engaged in a legal cent in Minicoy believed that MPAs would help battle with the Lakshadweep Administration. In improve livelihoods of fi shers. Most respondents 2010 the administration encouraged local entre- felt that management eff ectiveness for all conser- preneurs to set up home-stay tourism and dive vation measures could be increased through joint centres. All such initiatives are today waiting to participation of the islanders with the authority obtain various clearances to make a start. Th e and they felt that enforcement offi cers, being islanders feel frustrated since they have now real- islanders, were unable to meet out fair justice. ised the potential income benefi ts from tourism END NOTE and found their own partners to start resorts Th e Lakshadweep economy has seen little or and dive centres directly. Th e land owners on no management action towards its resources. the island however want to work independently Despite the high diversity of species on the reef, with the resort leasers and not have SPORTS as there are no large populations of any one kind. the middleman. Th ey are, however, hampered Hence species of fi sh, mollusks and crustaceans, by the entry permit rules. All private tourism favoured by islanders, are vulnerable to over activities are at a standstill until the Administra- fi shing and many species are now classifi ed as tion can fi gure out a way to ensure equity to all endangered in government notifi cations, prohib- stakeholders. iting their exploitation by local islanders. Lakshadweep is administered like a welfare Longlines and refrigeration has aided the state. Services such as transport, electricity, and expansion of the fi shing sector, but at the same diesel for boats are heavily subsidised, while time income divides are intensifying. Th ese trends create challenges and reiterate the need for socioeconomic monitoring for adaptive management. Th ere is also a strong need to Fig 4: Annual household income, 2011 45 develop policies for enhancing employment 40 opportunities, management of fi sheries, sanita- 36 39 35 tion, waste disposal and drinking water. Revenue 30 from tourism has declined with the closure of the 25 resorts and a clear policy that includes conser- 20 PER CENT 15 vation and natural resource management with 14 10 local participation is needed to ensure a sustain- 7 5 able future for Lakshadweep. 4 3 2 0 <500 501- 2001- 6001- 10001- 15001- >20000 The author 2001 6000 10000 15000 20000 is Managing Trustee, Centre for Action Research on IN USD Environment Science and Society, Chennai. [email protected]

18  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Term Power Coral Islands Dive into a water world of new terminologies, exploring the exotic land of Lakshadweep, to learn more about the biodiversity rich tropical islands. Take a cruise and see how you fare. Answers on page 43.

PHOTO COURTESY: B MEENAKUMARI Despite the coral islands occupying less than 0.1 per cent of the world’s marine environment, they support almost one third of the world’s marine fish species. Source: IUCN Resilience Science Group, Working Papers, Series No. 7.

1. Aminidivi 4. Melacheri 7. Kadmat a. Aminidivi is the oldest socio- a. The Melacheri were the original a. The largest island of ethnic group of Lakshadweep labour class of Lakshadweep. Lakshadweep. population. b. Common word used for fishermen b. An inhabited island of the b. A group of people that are profes- of Lakshadweep. Lakshadweep group of islands sional divers. c. A fish species found commonly in c. The most populated island of c. The section of middle age people these atolls. Lakshadweep. living in Lakshadweep. 5. Scuba diving 8. Kavaratti 2. Koya a. A popular water sport in coral a. The most backward and a. The community named after the islands. biodiversity poor island in the bird koyal. b. A water sport that involves Lakshadweep group of islands. b. Koya symbolises the land owner jumping from cliffs into the sea. b. An abandoned island in the community. c. A sport that includes hunting of Lakshadweep group of islands. c. A type of fruit common in islands. wild snakes diving into sand. c. The most developed island of the union territory. 3. Malmi 6. Minicoy a. A type of disease caused due to a. An island which comprises 9. Atoll malnutrition in islands. of communities that have closer ties a. An island of coral that encircles a b. Malmi are a distinct caste/ with the Maldives. lagoon either completely or partially community of Lakshadweep. b. A tiny island in the Bay of Bengal. b. Any island that has volcanic c. Species of bird found in c. An island in Lakshadweep that is peaks, which is sinking. Lakshadweep fully submerged in water. c. An island that is without a lagoon.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  19 India’s Archipelago

Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep PHOTO COURTESY: T AJITH KUMAR PHOTO COURTESY:

20  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU T T AJITH KUMAR, S PRAKASH and T BALASUBRAMANIAN

leaching of corals involves the expulsion of a single-celled (Zooxanthelle) by corals, which symbiotically live within coral Btissues. In just a few decades, several reef ecosystems, which have taken millions of years to evolve, have been degraded, and some even destroyed, together with their innumerable species and intricate genetic codes. , unsustainable exploitation, and chronic pollution from terrestrial sources are emerging as the major culprits.

A worldwide bleaching event in 1998, associated oscillation event, Current Science.) Scientists with El Nino, harmed 16 per cent of the world’s pointed out that large-scale reef erosion could coral reefs, with possibly half of them damaged be disastrous for these tiny atolls signifi cantly irreversibly. Another 32 per cent are thought to changing beach dynamics - leaving them unpro- be threatened over the next two-three decades tected from storms and cyclones. while over 10 per cent have already been lost. MASS CORAL BLEACHING: A mass coral bleaching Over the past century, the mean global surface event at the Lakshadweep during May-June 2010 has increased by 0.4 to 0.8oC was recorded by the Centre of Advanced Study resulting in the coral reefs being damaged by in , Annamalai University. Under- bleaching associated with high sea tempera- water documentations were undertaken in Agatti tures. Empirical evidence suggests that corals where the bleaching phenomenon was conspic- possess a wide range of adaptive and accumula- uous and perceived throughout the lagoon at the tive mechanisms, and that most of these mecha- rate of around 70 to 80 per cent - similar to that nisms appear relatively robust and/or resilient. which occurred in 1998. It was also observed that However, the huge variety and magnitudes of the reef associated organisms like giant clams anthropogenic threats to reef environments are and sea anemones were aff ected by nearly 83 likely to undermine this resilience, particularly to 92 per cent with the daily mean sea surface when coupled with the eff ects of climate change. temperature (SST) reaching a maximum of 34oC Th e Lakshadweep islands, 120- 200 nautical and remaining well above the crucial optimal miles off the south west coast of India consist of limit of 31oC throughout the study period. 12 atolls and several submerged coralline banks. Annual mean SST trend shows that the Most of the atolls have low-lying islands on the reef areas of Lakshadweep have warmed from east, a reef on the west and a lagoon in between. 28.5oC in 1985 to 28.9oC in 2005, at a rate of Th e largest island is Minicoy with a length of 0.2oC per decade as pointed out in a study by about 9 km, and an area of 4.37 sq km. E Vivekanandan et. al in 2008, titled ‘Th ermal Th e bleaching episode in the summer of 1998, thresholds for coral bleaching in the Indian when the sea surface temperature in the tropics seas’ and published in the Journal of the Marine rose by 1 to 2ºC above the seasonal maximum, Biological Association of India. Th e annual reportedly resulted in the severest coral mortality average maximum SST did not increase, but the in the Lakshadweep group of islands - nearly 80 annual average minimum SST increased from per cent of the coral area was aff ected (R Arthur, 27.2oC to 27.8oC, at a rate of 0.3oC per decade 2000, Coral bleaching and mortality in three in the . Th e eff ect of El Niño on SST Indian reef during an El Niño southern was evident in 1997-1998 when the SST reached

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  21 Biodiversity

31oC (ibid), as compared to the maximum SST of irreparable loss of biodiversity and loss of liveli- 34oC recorded during May-June 2010 with daily hood. Arguments that corals will acclimate to mean values of above 31oC, resulting in bleaching temperature changes are unsubstantiated and of corals and depletion of other reef associ- evidence suggests that the genetic ability of corals ated organisms. As outlined in another project is already being exceeded. Th e destruction of ‘Studies on the coral reef and fi sh resources of coral reefs can result in changes in the fi sh popu- the selected islands at Lakshadweep’ by R Vinoth lations - corals die, become overgrown by algae, in 2012 (Annamalai University) during the same corallivorous fi sh replaced by algal grazers, etc. If period, a decrease in population of reef-associ- the reef degenerates further, reef dwelling species ated fi shes such as coral groupers butterfl y and of fi sh may disappear entirely, being replaced by parrot fi shes, etc. was also observed here. Simi- pelagic species. Ultimately, biodiversity in terms larly, during March-May 2010, an increase in daily of corals, fi sh, shellfi sh and other reef inhabitants average SST of 1oC was observed in the Andaman plummets leading to loss of food security and an and Nicobar Islands where a maximum of 32.5oC increase in poverty. was recorded compared to 31.8oC of the previous END NOTE : According to a report ‘Coral year (P M Mohan et. al., 2010, Coral Bleaching in bleaching, coral mortality, and global climate and around Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar change’ presented by R Pomerance to the US Islands, Seshaiyana). However, the infl uence Coral Reef Task in 1999 - around 8 percent of this rise on the coral reefs of Andaman and (0.5 billion people) of the world’s population Nicobar islands are comparatively less than that live within 100 km of coral reef ecosystems of the Lakshadweep. thus proving that coral reefs and livelihoods Th e recent coral reef declines seem to be are closely linked. For example, as pointed out related mostly to anthropogenic impacts like in the paper ‘Reefs at risk: a map-based indi- over exploitation, overfi shing, increased sedi- cator of threats to the world’s coral reefs’ by D mentation and nutrient overloading. Natural Bryant et.al. in 1998, (World Resources Institute: disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs Washington) 25 per cent of the fi sh catch in include violent storms, fl ooding, high and low developing countries is provided by coral reef temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscilla- associated fi sheries. Further, coral reefs provide tion (ENSO) events, sub-aerial exposures, preda- sustainable livelihood options through tourism tory outbreaks and epizootics. Reef bleaching development and help in providing new drugs is a generalised stress response and evidence and biochemical substances. indicates that elevated temperature causes Scientifi c evidence strongly suggests that mass bleaching of corals leading to a rapid loss global climate change is already aff ecting a of pigmentation of coral and whitening of the broad range of marine species and ecosys- colony. Th e process entails stony corals (hard tems. Although it is not known with certainty skeleton) expelling the unicellular algae (zoox- as to which of these mechanisms is causing anthellae) that share a symbiotic relationship the observed changes, it is evident that these with the coral polyp translocating products of changes are occurring across the oceans and photosynthesis to its host in return of inorganic across a range of types of marine life. Th e nutrients. Th us, the photosynthetic activity of the observed changes are consistent with those coral polyps are severely reduced. predicted for climate change, occurring during A proliferation of correlative studies for the warmest years and giving strong indications diff erent parts of the world have shown a close that long-term global warming is beginning to association between bleaching and higher sea alter marine ecosystems. In addition to increased . Th e mass coral bleaching events of sea temperatures, there are two other mecha- Indian seas in 1998 has added further credence nisms by which climate change can impact coral to the argument that elevated temperature is the reefs: through higher levels of dissolved carbon primary variable triggering the coral bleaching. dioxide (CO2), and by increased frequency and An increase in the frequency of bleaching intensity of extreme weather events. Th e oceans events could have drastic consequences with constantly absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. As

22  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU PHOTO COURTESY: T T AJITH KUMAR A view of spp. during low tide at Lakshadweep. Also known as the Finger Staghorn Coral, this is a cluster shaped organism with thick branches that sports attractive cherry-red to purple tips.

o o humans continue to emit high levels of CO2, it is at the rate of 1 to 2 C per century. If this current likely that oceans will absorb a higher amount trend continues, and if climate change predic- too. Reef structures are formed by coral secre- tions become a reality the reefs might disappear tions of calcium carbonate. High levels of atmos- entirely within the next 20-50 years as projected pheric CO2 alter water chemistry, and reduce by O Hoegh-Guldberg in 1999 in the paper titled the rate of calcifi cation, ultimately reducing the ‘Climate change, coral bleaching and the future density of coral skeletons, and weakening them. of the world’s coral reefs’ published in Marine Th is, combined with increased storm activity and Freshwater Research. Also, continued and mass mortality from bleaching, can greatly anthropogenic threats are further exacerbating accelerate reef erosion. the strain on the corals turning the vibrant reefs Recent years have seen a series of particu- barren. In this context, it is imperative that larly intense coral bleaching events, resulting in continuous monitoring programmes should a massive die-off of reefs in the Indian Ocean. Th e be undertaken in the Lakshadweep coral areas fact that corals, estimated to be several hundred to quantify changes, raise the public aware- years old, were killed in this event, indicated that ness and put in place an eff ective management such large scale mortalities are unique and that system for conservation and protection of the the forcing mechanism in this case - elevated coral reef ecosystem. SST due to global warming is moving outside the range of natural expectation. SSTs in trop- The authors are Asst Professor, Senior Research Fellow and o Director, respectively at Faculty of Marine Sciences, Centre ical regions have increased by almost 1 C over of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University. the past 100 years and are currently increasing [email protected]

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  23 India’s Archipelago

Seagrasses are submerged monocotyledonous flowering plants adapted to complete their life cycle below the sea surface. They harbour rich diversity of marine flora and fauna of commercial importance; and help prevent beach erosion and siltation. Seagrass meadows are facing numerous challenges and threats in the present context and need urgent conservation strategies for increasing fish wealth and sea health.

24  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Photo: Dreamstime P KALADHARAN, K P SAID KOYA SEAGRASSand BINDU SULOCHANAN MEADOWS ConservationAND

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  25 Conservation

he Union Territory of Lakshadweep, located which nine can be found in the Andaman and Ton the Laccadive – Nicobar Islands. During the 1950s locals trans- is a unique, magnifi cent, but very fragile planted the seagrass (Th alassia hemprichii) beds coral ecosystem. Th ese Islands are believed to onto several northern islands of Lakshadweep to be formed on the submerged portions of Aravali promote beach stability and to check the erosion. mountain cliff s rising from 1500- 4000 m deep Th e seagrasses here are locally known as kavarat- ridges as a result of millions of years of reef tippullu as it was introduced from the Kavaratti building process of a wide variety of corals and lagoon. A healthy seagrass ecosystem has resulted due to the prolonged geological changes during in a short time extending 40 - 60 m wide from the the period. Th e lagoons and the reef fl ats of tidal line to the deeper zone. Lakshadweep are ideal habitat for seagrasses - In all seven species of seagrasses - Cymo- submerged monocotyledonous fl owering plants, docea rotundata, C serrulata, Halodule uninervis, adapted to complete their life cycle below the sea Halophila ovata, Syringodium isoetifolium and surface. In contrast to other submerged marine Th alassia hemprichii and Halophila decipiens plants (e.g. seaweeds), seagrasses do fl ower, bear were reported from nine atolls of Lakshadweep. fruit and produce seeds. Th ey also have true roots, C serrulata was found to be dominant whereas stem and leaves and generally grow in shallow Halophila decipiens was limited to Kalpeni Island. coastal water from the inter-tidal zone to depths Higher seagrass diversity was found around up to 10 m. In less turbid areas, such as the Carib- Agatti. According to Z A Anzari et. al., 1991, in bean Sea and the Australian coast, seagrasses can a study titled ‘Seagrass habitat complexity and be found at depths even beyond 50 m. macroinvertebrate abundance in Lakshadweep coral reef lagoons, Arabian Sea’ published in Coral SEAGRASS DIVERSITY Reefs, seagrass meadows of Lakshadweep coral Seagrasses exhibit low taxonomic diversity (about lagoons are known to harbour a dense and rich 54 species worldwide, compared to 250,000 invertebrate assemblage. terrestrial Angiosperms). Th e three independent lineages of seagrass - Hydrocharitaceae, Pota- SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEM mogetonaceae, and Zosteraceae have evolved from Undersea meadows play a signifi cant role in a single lineage of monocotyledonous fl owering deciding the processes and resources of near- plants between 70 million and 100 million years shore coastal ecosystems as they have physical, ago. Th is is in stark contrast to other plant groups chemical and biological eff ects on habitats. that have colonised the marine environment, Seagrass meadows are also involved in cycling of such as salt marsh plants, mangroves, and marine nutrients from water and sediments. Th e capacity algae, which have descended from multiple and of seagrasses to absorb dissolved CO2 is quite high diverse evolutionary lineages. Seagrasses have - one sq km of seagrass can absorb CO2 equivalent evolved into 12 genera spreading to the Pacifi c to 50 sq km by tropical forests. In a paper by C and Atlantic as drifted apart during Hartog, 1970, titled ‘Th e Sea Grasses of the World’, the Eocene period. North-Holland Publication, it is highlighted that In India, seagrass meadows can be found seagrass ecosystems are the one of the most on the eastern and western coast, in Lakshad- productive ecosystems in the world and have weep as well as in the Andaman and Nicobar a very high rates of growth, producing organic Islands. Th ey range from the strap-leafed Enhalus matter of about 300-600 g dry /sq m/yr. acoroides which grows to a length of 30-150 cm Seagrasses have also shown a decisive role in the to the Halophilla ovalis, that is 2-3 cm long. Large productivity and budget of coral atolls as seagrass beds are present along the Palk Bay and outlined by various scientifi c studies. Gulf of Mannar, with the latter harbouring the Th us, the disappearance of seagrass may lead highest concentration (11) of seagrass species to a more signifi cant contribution to climate in India and six of the world’s 12 genera. Nearly change than coral reef destruction, as seagrasses 14 species are found around the Indian coast, of are widely distributed across the oceans. Th e

26  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU ANDROTT, LAKSHADWEEP ANDROTT, Th e capacity of sea grasses to absorb dissolved carbon dioxide is very high - one sq km of seagrass can absorb carbon dioxide equivalent to 50 sq km by tropical forests. health of seagrass meadows is closely tied to that of 0.05 sq km in Agatti and 0.34 sq km in Kavaratti. mangrove and coral reef ecosystems, as many fi sh Subsequently in 1998, T G Jagtap in his study titled migrate between these habitats for food, shelter ‘Structure of major seagrass beds from three coral and breeding. Th e recent large scale coral mortali- reef atolls of Lakshadweep’ published in Aquatic ties reported from Lakshadweep could in eff ect Botany, reported a seagrass vegetation cover of be due to the seagrass destruction and resultant 0.005 sq km in Agatti - a drastic decline. Th e case sedimentation. Th e excessive removal of seagrass is almost similar in Kavaratti, Minicoy, Kiltan etc. shoots lead to stirring up of sands and sediments. Herbivory (grazing), boat services and other Such sediment particles transported by the waves construction activities pose a threat to seagrass and current settle on live polyps, which instanta- meadows. Turtles, a protected species since the neously kill them. Th e dead corals, particularly 1980s, has increased their population exponen- the branching corals, broken in to small pieces tially. Lack of predators and low fi shing mortality (shingles) get deposited in the relatively deeper has encouraged herbivory by the turtles – leading parts of the lagoons. Th is accretion and fi lling to large wipeouts of seagrass meadows. Opposed up of the lagoons reduces the depths, warming to this, octopus - one of the benthic predators up the lagoon, and worsening the conditions for and a sought after resource in Lakshadweep, is vulnerable communities, perpetuating the cycle rampantly harvested. Th is has resulted in the of imbalance in the ecosystem. Till about two infestation of crabs due to the reduction of their decades ago almost the entire fresh fi sh require- predators. Crabs feed on modiolus, threatening ments of the islanders were met from the respec- their population in many of the Lakshadweep tive lagoons. Presently, many lagoons have turned atolls resulting in an imbalance in the reef barren. It is believed that seagrass destruction is ecosystem. Once seagrass beds have been lost responsible for the reduction in fi sh availability. through environmental degradation, they are notoriously diffi cult to restore. Seagrasses are THREAT TO SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEM important in stabilising bottom sediments as they Although corals and sea turtles receive more slow water movement. Th ey prevent erosion, trap attention, it is the seagrass meadows that are and bind sediment and organic detritus, provide amongst the most threatened ecosystems on a stable habitat for epiphytes and associated fl ora earth. A recent study by a group of seagrass and fauna. And due to its carbon sequestration experts supported by the National Centre for benefi ts the preservation of these ecosystems Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, Chennai, found may prove essential in the global fi ght against that seagrass meadows have been disappearing climate change. by about 7 per cent per year since 1990. Anzari’s The authors are Scientists at Central Marine Fisheries Research

1991 study reported a seagrass vegetation cover of Institute (CMFRI), Cochin. [email protected] MOEF (2012-13/4)

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  27 India’s Archipelago

DESALINATION PLANT, KAVARATTI, LAKSHADWEEP

28  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU R KIRUBAGARAN, M V RAMANA MURTHY and M A ATMANAND

Ocean Technology for Islands FOCUS LAKSHADWEEP

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS ARE YET TO REACH MOST OF LAKSHADWEEP’S ISLANDS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ARE HAMPERED BY THE REMOTENESS AND LACK OF LOGISTIC SUPPORT. ADVANCED SOLUTIONS ARE THUS, IMPERATIVE TO ACHIEVE A DEGREE OF SELF SUFFICIENCY.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  29 Island Development

akshadweep depends on the mainland associated marine structures. Lfor their daily requirements as, apart from A plant at Kavaratti with a engaging in fi shing and coconut cultivation, capacity of 1 litres per day was set up in 2005 livelihood opportunities are very limited for the on experimental basis using the LTTD technology islanders. Th is forms the essence of the struggle to alleviate the scarcity of drinking water. Th e for survival for the local populace. Technological plant is being operated by local islanders since developments are yet to reach most of these 2006, meeting the drinking water requirements islands and implementation of solutions for of the 10,000 strong local community for over six water and energy are hampered by the remote- years. Studies conducted by a team of doctors ness and lack of logistic support. Advanced solu- have shown an improvement in the public health tions, therefore, are imperative for these islands with a sharp drop in the water borne diseases. to achieve a degree of self suffi ciency. National Following the successful operations the Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has been Minicoy Desalination Plant was commissioned developing a wide spectrum ocean applications in April 2011 while a third at Agatti started its that are now popular among the local popula- operations from July, 2011. tion. Some of these have been highlighted here. FATTENING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT LOW TEMPERATURE THERMAL DESALINATION Research on lobsters was initiated under Population explosion and over exploitation the Living Marine Resources Enhancement of ground water resources with little time for programme of NIOT in 1999, with particular recharging poses a severe challenge for the reference to the development of technologies for islands of Lakshadweep. Th e mismatch between lobster breeding, larval rearing, fattening, farming increasing water demand and decline in water and sea ranching for lobster resource enhance- availability due to overexploitation and climate ment. Surveys were conducted to evaluate the change is a critical issue for the islanders. - lobster resources both in the Gulf of Mannar nation, which is the conversion of seawater to Islands and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands potable water through physical and chemical to obtain baseline data and also to correlate the methods, has emerged as a potential eff ect of sea ranching. worldwide, with cost eff ectiveness of the meth- NIOT has succeeded in developing captive odology and ease of operation being critical for broodstock of four species of spiny, sand and the choice of the technology. squat lobsters to produce healthy phyllosoma Th e Lakshadweep Islands in general have a larvae. By manipulating the environmental steep bathymetry in its eastern side and achieves condition in the tank and by providing better a depth of about 400 m within 100-600 m from nutrition the average spawning in the captive the shore. Th e low temperature thermal desali- broodstock was increased from 1 to 4. As many nation (LTTD) process uses naturally available as 7 spawning in a year was recorded in one of temperature diff erence in the ocean layers to the breeders, the fi rst in a spiny lobster. With produce potable water and is an extremely captive broodstock there is now considerable environment friendly technology. Th e process scope of completing the life cycle of this highly deals with evaporating the warmer surface priced lobster. sea water at low and condensing the resultant pure vapour using deep sea cold water OPEN SEA CAGE CULTURE available at about 400 m below sea level. Th e Th e world’s total capture fi sheries are estimated process is found to be simple and easy to main- to be around 100 million metric tonnes per year. tain since it requires just a few components - a Th e expected global population of 8.5 billion in fl ash chamber for evaporation, a condenser for 2025 requires 55 million tonnes of additional liquefying the vapour, sea water pumps, vacuum seafood to meet the WHO recommendation of system, a long pipe to draw cold deep water and 13 kg per capita consumption rate. Aquaculture

30  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU is the only promising method to cope with the were found associated with such fl oating struc- increasing demand. At present the global aqua- tures. FADs help in increasing the fi sh catch and culture production is about 59 million metric at the same time reducing the operational time tonnes with India contributing only 0.25 (Food and fuel cost. Rational use of oceanic FADs can and Agriculture Organisation, 2010). greatly improve the socioeconomic status of the Production of marine fi sh caged in enclosures fi shers, especially the islanders of Lakshadweep. has been a relatively recent aquaculture innova- NIOT has deployed moored data buoys near tion. NIOT with prior experience in deployment to Lakshadweep Islands for the collection of of cages, tested open sea cages suitable for the oceanographic and meteorological data which Indian seas. Based on sea conditions NIOT also acted as FADs bringing in fi sh. NIOT also selected a 9 m diameter high density polyeth- developed an oceanic FAD indigenously, to be ylene (HDPE) cage with multipoint mooring used exclusively to aggregate fi sh in waters off system for the fi rst time in India and deployed the islands. Vertical column type FAD, (0.7 m it in three locations in diff erent parts of the diameter, 3.6 m length) were fabricated with an country. In the absence of a large scale nursery HDPE extruded pipe with wall thickness of 35 rearing facility, NIOT designed and developed mm, galvanised steel and fi lled with high density 2 m diameter HDPE cages with nylon knotless polyurethane foam to increase the . mesh (Fig. 1). Hatchery reared seabass fi ngerlings Th e success of the 28 FADs deployed in Lakshad- obtained from Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquacul- weep prompted the Andaman Administration to ture (RGCA) were reared from 9 g to 30 g in 40 request for a similar deployment. days with 90 per cent survival, in the nursery cages, fl oated within the cages in the sea. Experi- MARINE MICRO ALGAE CULTURE ment culture carried out simultaneously in all Micro algae are a heterogeneous group of organ- the three locations revealed that the cages devel- isms in the aquatic ecosystem and are effi cient oped can withstand all type of sea conditions of fi xers of solar energy as compared to terrestrial the country. plants. Tens of thousands of micro algal species makes this a potentially rich source of an array FISH AGGREGATING DEVICES of chemical products with applications in food, Th e structures that fl oat on the surface of the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and fuel industries. ocean attracting both juvenile and adult fi sh in India being a tropical country, with numerous great numbers and diversity are fi sh aggregating marine micro algal species and optimal condi- devices (FADs). Aggregations of fi shes have tions for commercial-scale algal production, can been recorded extensively around both natural eff ectively utilise these resources for nutraceuti- drifting objects and man made ones. FADs have cals and biofuel production. traditionally been defi ned as objects placed in the Th e LTTD plants discharge several hundred ocean specifi cally to attract fi sh for capture and meter cube of deep sea cold water every day as about 333 fi sh species belonging to 96 families a byproduct after the generation of fresh water. Th e deep sea cold water pumped from 300 m

Fig 1: Open sea cage mooring confi guration depth is 3-5 fold rich in nutrient when compared to the surface seawater, which NIOT has taken 330 lt buoys solar light up a research and development programme towards its utilisation for mass culture of 22 mm rope economically important marine micro algae 20mm 4m chain 32 mm rope with the following objectives: ■ Isolation and screening of marine micro algae 50m 110m 9m for photoautotrophic production of nutraceuti- 250 kg anchor cals and biofuel; 20m 38-40 mm sinker ■ Design and development of photobioreactor,

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  31 Island Development

Open Sea Cage, North Bay, Port Blair PHOTO COURTESY: R KIRUBAGARAN PHOTO COURTESY: Production of marine fish caged in enclosures has been a relatively recent aquaculture innovation. NIOT with experience in deployment of cages in the Andaman seas will in the near future introduce the technology in the waters around Lakshadweep. solar powered raceways and optimisation of for mechanical strength, handing stress and mass culture methods; and, stability, proved to be successful in increasing the ■ Development and standardisation of harvesting, fi sh catch. Such reefs are also being conceived dewatering, extraction techniques for nutraceuti- to be deployed in the Lakshadweep waters to cals and other biochemicals. enhance its fi sh stock. Mono species cultures of about a hundred strains of marine micro algae were isolated from END NOTE the Lakshadweep and were screened for growth, LTTD has signifi cant scope for cost reduction as biomass and production. the technology matures. Th e process does not face brine disposal problems and the discharged ARTIFICIAL REEFS cold water, rich in nutrients, attracts a variety of Artifi cial reefs are man made underwater struc- fi sh. Also spin off s like air conditioning for land tures deployed essentially to promote marine based plants and mariculture are viable options life in the featureless bottom of coastal waters, for the future. Moreover, the subsequent demand which increases the bottom surface area and for sea cage and lobster, FADs, etc. have demon- provides surfaces for algae and invertebrate strated the utilisation of technology develop- settlement. Th e accumulation of settled marine ment to increase the livelihood opportunities for life on the artifi cial reefs also provides food for the islanders. fi sh assemblage. NIOT has developed three types The authors are Head, Ocean Science and Technology for Islands, Head, Offshore Structures and Island Desalination, and of artifi cial reefs in a pilot project undertaken Director, National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai, in . Th e artifi cial reef structures tested respectively. [email protected]

32  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU

News Update

Island Watch The sleepy atolls of Laskhadweep are indeed very peaceful, rarely occupying top headlines - with concerns about the security and the environment of the islands reigning paramount.

Climate change leaves coral Naval release said. The Navy had reefs bleached been operating a detachment at The Gulf of Mannar and the Kavaratti since the early 1980s. Lakshadweep Islands are witnessing With the commissioning of INS ocean acidifi cation and bleaching Dweeprakshak, the island territories of coral reefs. Marine scientists in the Arabian Sea would see and biologists who undertook sea calibrated strengthening of assets in surface temperature study in the bio step with their growing relevance to diversity-rich Lakshadweep islands the security calculus of the nation. were shocked over the frequent A fi rmer footing in the islands, bleaching of coral reefs. The delayed which are spread out astride some onset of monsoon has also caused of the busiest shipping lanes of the the sea surface temperatures to world, would provide the necessary rise above the seasonal average, wherewithal to the which has triggered widespread to discharge its responsibilities bleaching of corals. Coral reefs of suitably, the release said. Indian 17.5 km were studied and marine warships on patrol would now photographs taken by scuba divers extend their reach farther with base showed the alarming trend that support from INS Dweeprakshak. Sanctioned by the Ministry bleaching was occurring every fi ve APRIL 30, 2012 | THE ECONOMICS TIMES of Environment and Forests, the to seven years. According to Mr C. project involved scientists from Venkatraman, scientist, Zoological Lakshadweep islands in different research institutes under Survey of India, both Gulf of Mannar troubled waters, says KSCSTE and the University of and Lakshadweep, which is an environmental study Kerala. The study notes that the archipelago (group of Islands) of The Lakshadweep group of islands, population density in the inhabited coral islands in the Arabian Sea, one of the most biologically diverse islands is over 2,000 persons a have recorded bleaching last year and fragile environments in India, sq km, much above the national and the trend is disturbing. is under pressure from population, average of 324. Amini has the AUGUST 9, 2012 | DECCAN CHRONICLE urbanisation, development of highest density of 2,839 persons tourism, unregulated construction, a sq km. Most of the 10 inhabited New base in Lakshadweep pollution and land use changes. islands are urbanised or showing Strengthening its presence A study on the state of the signs of urbanisation. The study has in the strategically important environment of the union territory, identifi ed coral mining as a major Lakshadweep Islands, Indian Navy conducted by the Kerala State threat to the marine ecosystem, commissioned its latest base ‘INS Council for Science, Technology and along with destructive fi shing Dweeprakshak’ at Kavaratti in the Environment (KSCSTE), has found activities, coastal development and Union Territory which would also that rising sea level and climate potential pollution from oil tankers help in effective coastal surveillance change are as much of a threat as plying the key route between the in the region. Lakshadweep Islands human activities to the archipelago Middle East and . form the maritime frontiers of comprising corals, lagoons, sea As many as 103 corals have India on the western side and the grass, beaches, and sand dunes. been identifi ed in the area, a commissioning of a full- fl edged The project team coordinated diversity second only to that of the Naval base was another milestone by Kamalakshan Kokkal, Joint Andaman and Nicobar islands. Over in the commitment of the Indian Director, KSCSTE, stresses the 695 species of fi sh were recorded Navy to maintain effective need to monitor the impact of in Lakshadweep waters, including coastal surveillance and defence climate change on the coral reefs 300 varieties of marine ornamental capability. Radar stations and and associated biodiversity. It has fi shes. The study observes that bait other surveillance measures were recommended community reserves fi shes, sea horses, molluscs, turtles, in place for ship traffi c monitoring for sustainable management of and marine mammals are under and intelligence gathering, a biodiversity. pressure from human activities.

34  SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Seashells Beach Resort, Agatti

As many as 138 fl owering regulation zone by resorts in same relate to the alleged violations plants, 29 medicinal plants and a Lakshadweep should be looked committed by the respondent- total of 80 bird species have also into by a fi ve-member committee, entrepreneur (Seashells Beach been recorded. The project team the Supreme Court has ordered. Resort) in setting up a resort or the highlights the need for a strong Reversing a judgment by the Administration permitting similar database on the biodiversity of , division bench resorts to operate in the garb of the islands. It also calls for an consisting of justice T S Thakur home stay arrangement while assessment of the impact of exotic and justice Gyan Sudha Misra preventing the respondent from species in the Lakshadweep waters. appointed a committee that includes doing so. The study report stresses the need former SC judge R V Raveendran Expressing dissatisfaction for a master plan to assess the and four technical members to at the high court, the SC order status of the coral reef ecosystem, study the functioning of resorts in said the high court order proceeds its biodiversity, and conservation Lakshadweep and alleged violation entirely on humanitarian and management. of coastal zone regulations. The equitable considerations, in the The survey revealed that the court asked the committee to process neglecting equally, if not scarce fresh water resources in the look into allegations and counter- more, important questions that islands are threatened by salinity allegations regarding violation of have an impact on the future intrusion and sewage contamination. coastal regulation zones by resorts development and management Around 50 per cent of the island’s and home stays as well as norms for of Lakshadweep Islands. Along population was found to suffer from granting permits to tourists visiting with ruling that the high court’s stomach disorders and dental and the islands and submit a report. order is ‘legally unsustainable’, skin diseases due to biological Further, the court observed the apex court held that the contamination of water. In the in the order that developments in high court obviously failed absence of a treatment plant, about Lakshadweep over the past few to appreciate that equitable 50,000 to 1,00,000 litres of sewage decades may be haphazard, given considerations were wholly waste is let into poorly constructed the fact that no vision or master plan misplaced in a situation where septic tanks or cess pools. for the development of the islands the very erection of the building to JUNE 5, 2012 | THE HINDU has been prepared so far. be used as a resort violated The apex court observed in the the coastal regulation zone Lakshadweep resorts come order that the high court has not requirements or the conditions of under SC scrutiny indeed done justice to the issues land use diversion. Allegations of violation of coastal raised by the parties, whether the MAY 15, 2012 | TIMES OF INDIA

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER 2012  35 India’s Archipelago TUNAB MEENAKUMARI FISHING IN THE ATOLLS The islanders of Lakshadweep are learning to take up the innovative fishing operations being taught to them, to catapult reef and deep sea fishing into a major economic activity, planned and scientific.

he Lakshadweep waters are rich in many (ibid.) as the current production is only about Tpelagic fi sh species such as , sail- 8300 tonnes. (8264 tonnes as per the CMFRI fi shes and sharks. In a study titled ‘Status Annual Report 2009-10 data). of fi sheries of Lakshadweep’ by N G K Pillai, et.al. 2006, Central Marine Fisheries Research Insti- FISHING CRAFT tute (CMFRI), the marine fi sheries potential of According to the 2005 National Marine Fisheries Lakshadweep waters was estimated as 63,000 Census on craft and gears of the Lakshadweep to 1,40,000 tonnes. Yellowfi n tuna (T. albacares), Islands, it is estimated that the total number skipjack tuna (K. pelamis), little tunny (E. affi nis) of fi shing crafts operated in the Lakshadweep are the commonly found tuna species with the waters are 2,275. Wood was cited to be the most skipjack tuna being the largest contributor to popular building material as 80 per cent of the the islands fi sh catch. Th e potential resource of boats are built of wood. Out of these 58 per cent tuna in Lakshadweep was estimated to be 50,000 are non-mechanised crafts while mechanised tonnes which indicated that there is a signifi cant and motorised crafts comprised of 26 and 16 per scope for the expansion of the fi shery sector cent respectively.

36  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Yellowfi n tuna caught off the island of Minicoy PHOTO COURTESY: B MEENAKUMARI PHOTO COURTESY:

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  37 Resource Management

TUNA FISHING METHODS lower end of the line to prevent bite off s. POLE AND LINE: Th e pole and line fi shing method LONG LINE: Th e fi shing method is not popular for catching skipjack tuna is the backbone of the in the Lakshadweep Islands and is seldom used, island’s economy which started during early 60s apart from some experimental fi shing opera- following the mechanisation of boats and as the tions carried out by Department of Fisheries, chumming using live baits gained wide popularity Lakshadweep Administration. Central Institute in the Lakshadweep islands. Bamboo poles of 2.4 of Fisheries Technology (CIFT) has introduced to 2.7 m are commonly used and the line, made horizontal long line fi shing for catching the of synthetic polymers such as polyamide or poly- unexploited large pelagic fi shes like tuna and ester monofi laments which provide high tensile bill fi shes under the National Agricultural Inno- strength and breaking load, is fastened to the pole. vation Project (NAIP) entitled ‘A value chain on Th e catch is used for making ‘masmin’ - a deli- oceanic tuna fi sheries in Lakshadweep Sea’. Th e cacy of these islands, a major portion of which is experimental fi shing operations carried out indi- also exported to the mainland. Th e contribution cated the adoption of long line fi shing operation of tuna from pole and line fi shing is reported as as an alternative fi shing method for catching the 94.8 per cent followed by troll lines, drift gill net unexploited large pelagic fi shes (Fig 1). Th e CIFT and hand lines. Pole and line fi shing method is has modifi ed 5 Pablo boats from Agatti, 2 from practiced by all islanders except those of Andrott Andrott and 5 from Minicoy for tuna long line (Pillai 2006). As per the paper ‘Marine living operations. Th e Pablo boats which are using for resources of the union territory of Lakshadweep pole and line fi shing operations can be eff ectively - An indicative survey with suggestions for devel- modifi ed for tuna long lining by making minor opment’ by P S B R James, 1989, CMFRI Bulletin, alterations and modifi cations in the deck. the main bottleneck in pole and line fi shing GILL NET: Set and drift gill nets is yet another operations is the unavailability of suitable baits. form of fi shing operation popular in the Lakshad- TROLL LINE: Trolling is a popular fi shing method weep, mainly used to catch tunas, sharks, perches used to especially catch yellowfi n tuna during and carangids. Th e size of the nets varied greatly the monsoon when the pole and line fi shing from 10 to 90 m in length and 2 to 4 m in height operations are totally suspended. Th e shape and as pointed out in the study ‘Fishing methods of jerking of the jigs in the water attracts the fi sh Kalpeni Islands, Lakshadweep,’ by V E P Anand, such as tunas, barracudas and seerfi shes. Also, in 1990, published in Fishing Chimes. CIFT has limited crew is required for the fi shing operations carried out experimental drift gill net opera- with an assortment of cotton rags, coir fi bres and tions in the Lakshadweep waters for catching synthetic fi bres, which are used to make lures. large pelagic fi shes like tunas and bill fi shes HAND LINE: Hand lines, with single hook are used and indicated promising results. As against the for fi shing in lagoon waters to catch snappers, small meshed drift gill nets and set gill nets used perches, carangids, reefcods etc. Th e ease of oper- in lagoon areas, CIFT introduced large mesh ation is the main highlight of this fi shing method. gill nets by carrying out experimental and pre- Sinkers with suffi cient weight is used to reach commercial fi shing operations at Agatti. Gill net desired depths and snood wires are rigged on the was understood to be eff ective as a diversifi ed

Float Plastic ø 300 mm FIG 1. STRUCTURE OF POLYAMIDE (PA) MONOFILAMENT LONG LINE

Float line polypropylene ø 4 mm, 25 m

Main line PA mono ø 3 mm, 50 m Hook with bait Branch lines (12-15 numbers) PA mono ø 1.8 mm, 27 m

38  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU The Central Institute of Fisheries Technology working with the fishermen have evinced a keen interest among the islanders in innovative fishing methods. Left - gill netting; Right - a Pablo boat. fi shing method to harvest the vast untapped Island. Harpooning for octopus is also practised pelagic resources. Th is can be commercially and is popularly known as appal kuthal. scaled up for successful operation in the Lakshad- weep islands. END NOTE Despite pole and line fi shing being the most OTHER FISHING METHODS popular fi shing method, other fi shing methods Gill net fi shing is usually carried out at night like large mesh drift gill netting, horizontal long so that visibility is low and fi sh are not able to lining , vertical long lining, trolling and hand lining perceive the gill nets easily. Th e net is stored on have been seen to be potentially more viable for the platform at the aft portion of the boat and harvesting larger tunas like the yellowfi n. Th e CIFT shot from the moving vessel from the rear. While working with the fi shermen with mesh gill netting shooting the net, the fl oat line and the foot rope have evinced a keen interest among the islanders are separated so that the net opens up without in such innovative fi shing methods. Modifi cation entanglement. After the shooting of the net set at work on Pablo can also be carried out easily by the a depth of 100-200 m off the islands, the engine fi shermen. Moreover, they can switch from pole of the vessel is stopped and the net is allowed to and line fi shing to long line fi shing depending on drift for about 4-5 hrs with the fi shermen keeping the fi shing season. However, the success of tuna a constant vigil so that the net does not drift away long lining depends on the skill of the fi shermen, from the vessel towards the shore. Th e net is then use of suitable baits, appropriate hooks, depth of hauled up manually. Four to fi ve fi shermen are operation and temperature of water as tunas are required for the fi shing operation. generally associated with the layer. It Wounding gears like koodulli and chaatulli is pertinent to understand that the tuna catch will are also popular form of fi shing methods in the need to be handled carefully and stored hygieni- islands as cited in V E P Anand’s 1990 study. Two cally to fetch a premium price. indigenous drive-in fi shing techniques based on The author is Deputy Director General, Fisheries Division, Indian the tide and habitat of fi sh exists in the Minicoy Council of Agricultural Research. [email protected]

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  39 Fact File

Eff ective management options are neces- sary to sustainably use the island aquifer especially in the wake of local inhabitants installing motorised pumps and associ- ated sanitary fi ttings to withdraw and distribute water from shallow wells.

FRESHWATERin Lakshadweep

40  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU he Central to cater to the water require- TBoard defi nes the ments of the present popula- Lakshadweep aquifer tion (2011 Census) more than Imposition as that which occurs under 27 litre per day is needed. of ground phreatic conditions in the coral However, the present avail- water sandy aquifer with the fresh ability of water per day is 5.45 manage- water, fl oating as a lens over lakh litre only, creating a defi cit ment plans the brackish water underlain of 21.55 lakh litre per day is essential by saline water. Th e calcareous for this intensely populated for protecting sands overlying these islands region. Also, as per the Depart- the vulner- are highly porous and bulk ment, there is 2884 rain water able and rare of the rainfall infi ltrates the harvesting structures installed ecosystems aquifer displacing the saline in the Islands apart from from further water and creates a fresh- three desalination plants at exacerbated water lens due to the density Kavaratti, Minicoy and Agatti. anthropo- diff erence and the hydraulic Th e Department has also set genic continuity of groundwater up nine water quality testing pressure. with seawater. Beneath a thin plants. layer of vegetal humus there is Eff ective management fi ne coral sand extending over options are necessary to the surface of all the islands sustainably use the island increasing freshwater demand in Lakshadweep which is aquifer especially in the wake is by rain water harvesting, underlain by oolitic limestone of local inhabitants installing desalination plants and even with embedded bits of shell and motorised pumps and by transporting potable water then by another layer of fi ne associated sanitary fi ttings from mainland. Although the sand. Groundwater is found at to withdraw and distribute requirements of the population a depth of about 2 m from the water from shallow wells. Also, could be met through these surface and it is the traditional Lakshadweep governmental means, long term sustenance source of water for many of the records show that there is no of biodiversity dependant islands. Since the elevation and centralised sewage disposal on such regimes would be topography of islands are very system and most households diffi cult. Th erefore, imposition important in determining the construct soak pits for disposal of groundwater manage- thickness and geometry of the of latrine waste close to the ment plans is essential for freshwater lens - islands show open wells, making water protecting the vulnerable and a high magnitude of temporal unsafe for use. Moreover, many rare ecosystems from further and spatial variations in islands are experiencing large exacerbated anthropogenic thickness, shape as well as the scale construction of build- pressure. Environment-friendly groundwater quality of their ings, roads, pavements, sports technological interventions lenses. Th e exact geometry of and other infrastructure. Th e along with best management these lenses, chemical quality, Public Works Department practices of watershed conser- behaviour under various claims to have constructed vation and also intensive stresses and their potential are all weather roads over nearly awareness programmes for the of great signifi cance for plan- 0.2 per cent of the island area local people are necessary for ning and eff ective management with Kavaratti, being the head- ensuring sustained long term of the freshwater resources in quarters, topping the charts. protection of the islands. Lakshadweep. All of these hinder the natural As per the records of the groundwater recharge mecha- Inputs from D S Suresh Babu,Scientist, Public Works Department of nism. Th e prevailing strategy Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram and Lakshadweep Lakshadweep Administration, of the people to meet the Administration.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  41 India's Best Development & Environment Magazine

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1. Aminidivi (a) Aminidivi, of Amini Island, is the oldest socio-ethnic group of Lakshadweep with a population of around 7656 and a highest population density of 2956 per sq km (Census 2011). Proficient in handicrafts the communities here use coral sandstone, found in abundance in the island, to make floral designs on hard coral stones and walking sticks from coconut and tortoise shells.

2. Koya (b) Koya are the land owning community of the island. Although the majority of ethnic groups in Lakshadweep island are Muslim, yet the social division is based upon three main categories – land- owners, sailors and labourers are still palpable. Around 16,000 fish species inhabit the oceans and 150-200 new fish species are identified annually in the coral reefs. As many as 6,000-8,000 identified species 3. Malmi can be found dwelling within coral reef ecosystems of the world's oceans. (b) Malmi are a distinct human Source: Census of Marine Life, 2010. community of Lakshadweep. Connoting the term sign of ways, the people of Malmi group are predomi- varieties and reef species. The isles 7. Kadmat nantly sailors who work for the Koya of Lakshadweep has limited scuba (b) One of the inhabited islands of in transporting merchandise. diving options - mainly at Bangaram, Lakshadweep, the , where a resort has been established has a population of 5389 persons 4. Melacheri for the purpose. (Census 2011). Their language of (a) The Melacheri were the original communication is Malayalam. labour class of the islands and 6. Minicoy formed the major part of the (a) An island which comprises 8. Kavaratti population of the Lakshadweep of ten exotic villages and a rich (c) The most popular and well group of islands. Their traditional biodiversity, with a special affinity developed island in Lakshadweep, occupation is to collect coconut to Maldives - with the early settlers Kavaratti is located between the tree nuts and tap neerah - the sweet hailing from there. Even today islands of Agatti and Andrott. It has a coconut toddy. It appears that the the language spoken in Minicoy desalination plant as well as a naval name has its origin in their traditional - Mahl, bears special resemble to base to its credit. place of residence on the western the Maldivian tongue of Dhivehi. side of the island - mala meaning Endowed with natural scenic 9. Atoll west, Cheri denoting the name the beauty, the villages are governed (a) An island of coral that encircles a village. by a strict administrative structure lagoon either completely or partially. which are led by a Bodukaka (big Most of the world's atolls are in the 5. Scuba Diving brother) who represents the menfolk and Indian Ocean. (a) A very popular water sport in and a Bodudatha (big sister) The Atlantic Ocean has only 8 many parts of the world - used who represent the women folk of atolls, which are located just east of widely to view and observe the coral the region. Nicaragua.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  43 In Brief

KAVARATTI, LAKSHADWEEP

ISLAND AGRICULTURE: Coconut Plantation Once pegged as the most important produce of the Lakshadweep islands, trade in copra, coir and other produce has stagnated in the recent decades. As per the data furnished by the Department of Cooperation, Lakshadweep Administration, copra trade has remained between 3500 to 4000 metric tonnes for over two decades. The Coconut Development Board (CDB) has been implementing several schemes for the welfare of farmers’ community in Lakshadweep. An integrated farming method for productivity improvement and adoption of scientifi c coconut cultivation by giving assistance for demonstration plots and establishment of organic manure units is underway. Also a coconut palm insurance scheme for protecting all healthy nut bearing palm in the age group of 4-60 years from natural calamities is in place. Premium is borne by the CDB, Lakshadweep Administration and farmers in 50, 25 and 25 per cent partnership, respectively. The CDB also undertakes special skill and confi dence building training in coconut palm climbing and plant protection activities. 110 trainees from Lakshadweep have been successfully trained by CDM, which has also put in place a technology mission to extend support to entrepreneurs for setting up of coconut based industry. Back ended credit capital subsidy upto 25 per cent of the total cost not exceeding Rs 50 lakhs for individual entrepreneurs is also being provided. However, no organic certifi cation is yet available for the islanders which would most certainly help boost export of coconut and coconut products to nations worldwide.

44  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU In Brief

There is an urgent need to renovate existing solar power plants in the islands. 1 MW SOLAR POWER PLANT, KAVARATTI, LAKSHADWEEP KAVARATTI, 1 MW SOLAR POWER PLANT,

ENERGY: Island Development Lakshadweep has experienced a 40 per cent hike in its power tariff from October 2012 onwards, as declared by the Joint Electricity Regulatory Commission (JERC) (for the State of and Union Territories). As per the Regulatory Commission there had been no tariff increase since 2001. The Commission approved only 14.53 per cent annual increase (with effect from 1st October 2012), as input prices such as diesel and manpower cost had more than doubled in the interim period. Domestic consumers will be paying only 8.44 per cent of the average cost of supply which is Rs 24.20/kWh whereas the remaining cost will be borne by the Government. Compared with Delhi’s Rs 6 per unit, islanders will pay around Rs 2 per unit presently. Regarding the alternatives considered by the Government, the Commission has directed the Electricity Department, Lakshadweep to promote renewable sources of energy and augment and renovate existing solar power plants entrusted with BHEL. The utility has a total of 11 solar power plants in Lakshadweep of about 1 MW capacity each to cater to about 15 per cent of the coral islands' energy demand. Replacing the electro mechanical metres with electronic ones is also proposed while efforts are also to be made to bring down the transmission and distribution losses.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  45 Fact File

Ecotourism for the coral islands of India Lakshadweep needs to practise ecotourism to promote tourism and environmental conservation at the same time to safeguard the fragile ecosystem of the region as well as provide a sustainable livelihood option for the islanders.

cotourism emerged as a popular concept Ein the late 1980s with the world acknowl- edging sustainable practices in tourism - sparked off by the idea of harmonious co-exist- ence with nature. A Mexican environmentalist, Hector Ceballos-Lascurian initially described this nature based travel to relatively undistrib- uted areas, as a learning endeavour. Th e concept today has however moved from its ‘educational escapade’ bracket into a scientifi c model with intensive planning, management and develop- ment of sustainable tourism products and activi- ties. Presently, ecotourism is one of the fastest- growing segments of the tourism industry. Ecuador’s Galapagos Islands, with about 1000 sq Learning from examples world over, Jamaica km of land area, are designated as national parks, may be of keen interest as it has earned a repu- which are its eco tourism sites. Also the famous tation of being most successful in terms of ecot- Chumbe Island Coral Park in Zanzibar, , ourism, with 24 certifi ed ‘Green Globe’ sites in the is a leading example of small-scale eco-tourism country. In 2009, Jamaica, with an area of about that manages and conserves its unique marine 11,000 sq km, earned more than 8 per cent of its and terrestrial ecosystems successfully. GDP from tourism, which is 47 per cent of its total Lakshadweep with over 36 islands including foreign exchange earnings. Th e ecotourism sites atolls, covering an area of 32 sq km is surrounded of Costa Rica, hosts over 1.7 million tourist visits by 4200 sq km of lagoon rich in marine wealth. per year, with earnings from tourism amounting A successful ecotourism model can provide a to more than 1.7 billion USD per year. It is esti- signifi cant fi llip to the livelihood options avail- mated that up to 80 per cent of all visitors to the able to the islanders. With a high population country come for eco-tourism related activities. pressure and very limited resources the people

46  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU The International Ecotourism Society of Washington, USA defi ned eco tourism as ‘responsible travel to natural areas, which conserves the environment and sustains the well being of local people.’

AGATTI, LAKSHADWEEP of Lakshadweep need to promote tourism - a near unchanged status over two decades. In synchronised with the carrying capacity of the recent years tourism has in fact experienced a islands. Th e islanders need to understand that drop with resorts closing down due to various ecotourism models are based on education and litigations. Needless to say, the coral based interpretation of their ecosystem and its sustain- ecology of the island is highly sensitive and any ability would be the key to the island’s develop- development should focus on the sustainability ment. Ecotourism carries with it the double of these resources for perpetual use and conser- benefi t of compatibility with nature to enhance vation. However, a viable livelihood option, ecot- wilderness protection and wildlife conservation ourism needs to be asserted aggressively among along with making the local community owners the local populace to discourage indiscriminate in the process. construction and unnecessary luxury fi ttings Lakshadweep hosts around 4000 tourists and wasteful practices. Th is will also reduce the annually (11 tourists per day) as per the records regions heavy dependency on central govern- available with the Lakshadweep Administration ment grants.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  47 India’s Weather

As India braces for cold waves during this winter, its dynamics are explored in a brief treatise. The cloudiness, fog, precipitation and more are decoded for quick understanding and greater preparedness. 48  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU eather scientists claim that extreme weather events will be increasingly Wpalpable, throwing life out of gear, more often now than before. Cold waves too fall under such extreme events, which can severely and fatally aff ect the very young, the elderly and the infi rm. Occurrences of extreme low temperature in association with incursion of dry cold winds from north into the sub-continent are defi ned as cold waves. A region is said to be experiencing a cold wave when, according to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), temperatures dip by more than four degrees below normal. Th e northern parts of India especially the hilly regions and the adjoining plains are infl uenced by transient disturbances in the mid latitude westerlies, known as western disturbances (WD). Th e cold wave mainly aff ects the areas to the north of 20 degrees - but in association with large amplitude troughs, cold wave conditions are sometimes reported from states like and

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  49 Concept Counter

Fig 1. Typical western disturbance onset (end December) Fig 2. Western disturbance intensifying in 4-6 days

WESTERN DISTURBANCE OROGRAPHY ORIGINATES OVER THE RESULTING IN MEDITERRANEAN OR ASCENDING BLACK SEA WEATHER SYSTEMS CAUSING PRECIPITATION

LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM MOVING INTO INDIA

As the western disturbance dissipates, day temperatures rise, while night temperatures fall appreciably, bringing on the cold wave.

Karnataka as well. Th e maximum number of cold spread heavy snowfall over the Western Hima- waves occur in Jammu and Kashmir followed by layan region and rains over northern plains for a , Punjab, Bihar, and day or two and may lead to snow avalanches. A . generalised pattern of day to day changes during In India the Western and adjoining a WD is as follows - it starts with the build-up of northern parts experience cloudiness and precipi- low and medium clouds making for partly cloudy tation in association with WD during winter. skies; a slight warming of the air is accompanied Mostly WD is a double edged sword that on one during nights and early mornings; day tempera- end plays an important role in bringing relief in tures experiences a fall and the prevailing winds extreme weather conditions, while on the other remain southwesterlies (Fig 1 and 2). Th e following can also be responsible for that very same extreme two or three days are characteristically marked by climate. Th ese are aptly named western distur- the arrival of multi-layer clouds and a nearly over- bances as they enter India through the western cast sky, with or without rains. Th e day tempera- region in the form of a trough in the upper and tures fall further while night temperatures remain middle tropospheric westerlies and join the steady and the prevailing winds shifts to south- , cyclones and severe thunderstorms easterlies and easterlies. Day four onwards the in modulating weather over the Indian main- cloud cover moves away (northwest wind) leaving land. Th ey occasionally deepen after entering the skies clear, with rising day temperatures but plum- Indo-Pak area, particularly over and meting night temperatures. Immediately after the Punjab. Th e intensifi cation is the combined eff ect passage of a WD, lot of moisture is available in the of incursion of moist air from the Arabian Sea (or atmosphere and the prevailing local conditions sometimes from the Bay of Bengal) and the orog- provide the trigger for the formation of fog. raphy of the region. A WD originates usually over India has experienced two cold waves in 2012 – the Mediterranean/Black Sea as an extra-tropical one in the mid-week of November and the second frontal system, but its frontal characteristics are in the last week of December when temperatures lost while moving eastward towards India across fell appreciably. Th e November wave aff ected Afghanistan/. As they re-organise and parts of , Maharashtra and with intensify upon approaching India, their moist temperatures plummeting 6 to 7 degrees below air streams slow down and start ascending over normal in many areas, breaking a 60 year record. the southern slopes of the Himalayas. About two Th e IMD termed it as a severe cold wave condition. to three systems are known to annually traverse Th e December wave gripped whole of north and northwest India. All weather patterns, however, east India with maximum temperatures recorded have a self-controlling mechanism, which ensures 6 to 10 degrees below normal and would by the that they normalise after some time. beginning of the new year spread over peninsula An intense WD is capable of producing wide- India, according to the IMD predictions.

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MYSORE, KARNATAKA

52  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU NITYANAND SINGH AND H N SINGH Global Warming and Indian Monsoon The increasing trend of rising tropospheric temperatures due to the global climate change is reflected in the efficacy of Indian monsoons too. It is imperative to have a high level, skilled mechanism to monitor and predict this trend to help manage preparedness.

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  53 Forecast

t has been observed since 1979 that there is changes are widely recognised as manifesta- a heterogeneous increase in the tropospheric tions of global warming. Itemperature across the globe. Th e rise in tropospheric temperature over selected climatic Monsoon zones during the period 1949-1978 is as follows In a generalised sense monsoon is like the sea - the equator +0.45°C, the north polar +0.60°C, breeze, except the latter is a diurnal phenom- the north subtropic +0.32°C, the south subtropic enon confi ned to coastal areas, while monsoon +0.77°C and the south polar region +0.66°C, occurs for a longer duration (limited to part of recording a higher increase in the polar regions the year) over larger areas. Numerous quantita- as compared to the equator. Consequently, tive approaches have been attempted to under- a decrease in the tropospheric temperature stand the monsoon. During summer, weather gradient from equator to poles is also observed systems over the northern tropical region associ- causing a weakening of the general atmos- ated with warmer atmosphere intensify and that pheric circulation. Further, there is a decrease over northern extratropical regions associated in the boreal summer tropospheric tempera- with colder atmosphere, weaken. Th e monsoon ture gradient in Tibet causing weakening of the is a thermally driven tropical tropospheric circu- Asia-India monsoon circulation and all-India lation which occurs due to seasonal poleward monsoon rainfall, which during the 1999-2012 spreading of hydrometeorological conditions has reduced by 6.1 per cent (857mm) compared (high temperature, low mean sea level pressure, to the period 1949-1998 (913mm). lower tropospheric convergence and upper trop- ospheric divergence, moist winds, clouds and Monitoring Global Warming rains) on either sides following north-south oscil- Th e diff erence in the 12 month mean of the trop- lation of the sun between Tropic of Cancer and ospheric temperature between equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. For poleward spreading of diff erent climatic zones has indicated a general the equatorial condition increase in tropospheric decline in the thermal contrast from mid-1970s temperature at the rate of 1°C per 5° latitude and more sharply in recent decades (Fig 1) – the seems essential. During June through September, highest being between the equator and south largest and most intense monsoon occurs over polar region in the past decade. In fact the whole the Asia-Pacifi c region (Fig 2). During the peak depth of the troposphere is warming across the period (July) of the monsoon, the global distribu- globe though at diff erent rates. In general, the tion of the tropospheric temperature and mean is warming at a faster rate sea level pressure is as follows: than the equator and the , TROPOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE: Along northern 0.87°C and 0.32°C, respectively since 1979. boundary of the spreading, from northern Global, regional, subregional and local climatic to China-Mongolia and western-northwestern North Pacifi c Ocean, the tropospheric tempera- Fig 1: Tropospheric temperature variation (in°C) over the ture is more than 1°C higher compared to that equator during 1949-2012. Black dotted line is the mean value and thick blue linear trend. over the equator. Th e tropospheric temperature -5.2 is lower than 12°C over north polar and 30°C over south polar region. In fact, it is the upper -5.6 tropospheric temperature structure across -6.0 Tibet-Turkey region that controls the monsoon C) o -6.4 intensity and rainfall activity; the role of other

-6.8 parameters i.e. mean sea level pressure, land

-7.2 surface processes, sea surface temperature (SST) TEMPERATURE ( TEMPERATURE and north-south thermal contrast follows the -7.6 temperature structure. -8.0 MEAN SEA LEVEL PRESSURE: With respect to the -8.4 equator, the mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 NUMBER OF MONTHS 1949-2012 higher than 10mb over the North Pacifi c and

54  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU A combination of return fl ows from lower layers of six great oceanic subtropical highs, converging into the low-pressure area produce frequent rains across the Asia-Pacifi c region.

the North Atlantic Oceans, 5 to 10 mb over the highs (North Pacifi c, South Pacifi c, Australian, south subtropic and more than 30 mb over the Mascarenes, St. Helena and Azores-Bermuda), south polar and lower than 5 to 10 mb over the north polar high and south polar high - located AfroAsia landmass. Demarcation of the Asia- just outside the monsoon regime. A combina- Pacifi c monsoon regime reveals that the dry and tion of return fl ows from the lower layers of these high lands of southern Asia experience intense highs through a variety of courses converging into heating, low , conver- the low-pressure area produce frequent rains and gence and in the lower troposphere, rainspells across the Asia-Pacifi c region. As the and anticyclonic circulation and divergence return fl ows travel long distances over oceans, in the upper troposphere. Th e troposphere in therefore, they are moist. Hence, the monsoon the Asian cordillera region is warmer by 5°C as is a type of secondary atmospheric circulation compared to the equator. In the backdrop of this that develops seasonally within the ambit of the global tropospheric thermal setting and large general atmospheric circulation. contiguous landmass in north and west and vast Th e convergences between dry airfl ows from water bodies in east and south, the cordillera acts north and northwest and moist airfl ows from east, like an elevated heat source and the area experi- southeast, south and southwest, and secondary ences a strongest troposphere upwelling. Th e convergences in the moist airfl ows create 18 rain- outfl ows from the anticyclone are scattered in producing weather systems, e.g. cyclone, trough, all directions and subsides over eight deep highs meander, eddies, squall-line, channelisation, across the globe – six great oceanic subtropical waves etc. Th e rain producing weather systems

Fig 2: Tropospheric temperature under monsoon condition (enclosed by 0-degree isopleths) during July across the globe.

90N

-12 -12 -10 -12 -10 60N -5 -10 -2 -5 0 -2 -5 1 10 -2 - 5 -5 30N 5 2 4 -2 3 4 3 2 1 2 0 1 0 0 EQ 0

0 0 -2 -2 -2 -2 -5 -5 -5 -5 30S -10 -10 -10 -10 -12 -12 -12 -12 -20 -20 -20 60S -30 -30 -30

90S 0 30E 60E 90E 120E 150E 180 150W 120W 90W 60W 30W 0

-30 -20 -12 -10 -5 -2 0 1 2 3 4 5

GEOGRAPHY AND YOU  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  55 Forecast

Fig 3: 200 years of instrumental all-India monsoon rainfall: 1813-2012

MEAN = 905 MM 9-pt SMOOTH 1000

800

600

400 RAINFALL IN MM RAINFALL

200

0 1810 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010

VERY DRY DRY NORMAL WET VERY WET

intensify during orographic ascent along the End note west coast and the Himalayas. Th e rainfall data Man-machine synergy is a necessary require- spanning 200 years in presented in Fig 3. Coriolis ment for reliable weather-rainfall forecast. Th e force, diabetic heating and orographic barriers important necessities are: aff ect large-scale monsoon fl ows. Th e 18 conver- 1. Examination of global distribution of atmos- gences can be grouped into fi ve types - equatorial, pheric and oceanic anomalies in relation to tropical, subtropical, temperate and polar. Th ese occurrence of tertiary rain-producing weather are secondary circulations in respect of monsoon systems (trough, line-convergence, squall-line, circulation but tertiary circulation in respect of meander and cyclonic circulation) and local the general atmospheric circulation. Th ere could thunderstorms in the monsoon regime (particu- be quaternary circulations (meso- and mico-scale larly Australasia-Indopacifi c region). systems, eddies and thunderstorms) embedded in 2. Assimilation and analysis from the each of the tertiary circulations. numerical computer models must be checked Reasonable long range prediction of large for consistency with the realised weather scale circulation and atmospheric and boundary e.g. monsoon circulation and synoptic scale conditions seems possible but not the rain- systems of the Asia-Pacifi c region and meso- fall which would require medium and short and micro-scale systems and rainfall across range observation (involving satellite and radar Indian region. inputs), analysis and monitoring of synoptic and 3. To achieve desired meteorological services meso scales rain-producing weather systems. proper education, training, exposure to real- For medium and short range forecasting as well time weather analysis and tendency to carry out as nowcasting, intensity of ridges and troughs in problem-solving researches through transcen- the middle and upper troposphere, extra-tropical dental lateral thinking together with upgraded westerlies, location, type and intensity of rain infrastructural facilities, network of observations producing synoptic scale weather systems and and instrumentation are essential. satellite and radar images of deep moist convec- 4. Critical analysis of the failures and amicable tion will be essentially required. Ambient temper- solution through meticulous researches is essen- ature over southern subtropical Indian-Pacifi c- tial for improving forecasting skill. Atlantic Oceans sector must be more than 6ºC The authors are Scientist F , Climatology and Hydrometeorology lower than that over the Asian cordillera region Division and Scientist C, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, for good-intense rainfall activities across India. Pune, respectively. [email protected]

56  NOVEMBER - DECEMBER 2012  GEOGRAPHY AND YOU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEAN TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI (An Autonomous Institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India) (Velachery-Tambaram Main Road, Pallikaranai, Chennai – 600 100) Ph: 91-44-66783300, Fax: 91-44-22460275, E-mail:

National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) is the technical arm of the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, carrying out technological development activities for harnessing the ocean resources. The main areas of focus are: Energy and Fresh Water from the Sea, Deep Sea Technology, Gas Hydrates, Coastal and Environmental Engineering, Ocean Acoustics, Marine Biotechnology and Ocean Observation Systems. Apart from these the Vessel Management Cell of NIOT maintains two coastal research vessels, a buoy tender cum research vessel and a state of the art technology demonstration vessel Sagar Nidhi.

ENERGY AND FRESH WATER OCEAN ACOUSTICS VESSEL MANAGEMENT CELL FROM THE SEA

Energy and Fresh Water group is focused The focus of this group is on the research Vessel Management Cell maintains NIOT on the development of technology, and development of acoustic based research vessels and provides services to for a reliable and commercially marine systems, underwater noise data the universities and research institutions viable multifunctional system, for the acquisition, processing, analysis and for survey and data collection, besides extraction of energy and drinking water modeling for ocean applications supporting the implementation of from the Sea. programmes of MoES

DEEP SEA TECHNOLOGY MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY MARINE SENSORS AND AND OCEAN MINING ELECTRONICS

Deep Sea Technology group is involved Marine Biotechnology group carries out This group provides electronics support in the development of under- water programmes related to socio economic facilities to various activities and projects mining systems for Polymetalic nodule benefit of island and coastal communities, of the NIOT and develops marine sensors mining from the Central Indian Ocean through the development of viable and underwater electronic components Basin. technologies for harvesting marine bio- based on user needs resources in a sustainable manner.

COASTAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL OCEAN OBSERVATION SYSTEMS SUBMERSIBLES & GAS ENGINEERING HYDRATES

The goal of the Coastal and Environmental This group is engaged in establishment, This group has a mandate to develop Engineering group is to promote programs development and maintenance of moored technology for under water resources consistent with the overall development buoy network, Tsunami early warning such as Gas Hydrates exploration perspective of the country in the coastal systems for measurement of met-ocean through the development and operation infrastructure sector, through plan parameters in Indian Seas. The system of deep ocean underwater vehicle and projects called technical criteria atlas and monitors the marine environment to coring systems. sustainable shoreline management. improve weather and ocean state forecast.