La Radicale Démocraticité Du Signe Linguistique Dans L'œuvre De Tullio

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La Radicale Démocraticité Du Signe Linguistique Dans L'œuvre De Tullio La radicale démocraticité du signe linguistique dans l’œuvre de Tullio de Mauro Paola Pietrandrea, Gabriel Bergounioux To cite this version: Paola Pietrandrea, Gabriel Bergounioux. La radicale démocraticité du signe linguistique dans l’œuvre de Tullio de Mauro. Marc Arabyan, Jean-Paul Bronckart, Pierre Escudié. Les langues dans la vie. Hommage à Tullio de Mauro, Lambert-Lucas, 2020. halshs-03070622 HAL Id: halshs-03070622 https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-03070622 Submitted on 15 Dec 2020 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. La radicale démocraticité du signe linguistique dans l’œuvre de Tullio De Mauro Paola Pietrandrea & Gabriel Bergounioux 1. La nature sociale de la langue « La tâche du linguiste est de définir ce qui fait de la langue un système spécial dans l’ensemble des faits sémiologiques » (Saussure 1972 : 34). Comme le relève De Mauro (2018 : 113), Saussure avait proposé un début de réponse à cette interrogation en soulignant : une langue n’est pas seulement un système sémiologique. Ou pour mieux dire, une langue est un système sémiologique tel qu’elle inclut en soi, en tant qu’éléments fonctionnels, formellement pertinents, la masse parlante et le temps, ainsi que le réseau des rapports socio-pragmatiques, historique-culturels dans lesquels [ …] elle se situe et vit.1 (De Mauro 2018 : 113). L’exploration des conséquences de cette conception sociale et sémiologique de la langue se dévide comme un fil rouge dans la longue activité de Tullio De Mauro commentateur de Saussure, théoricien de la langue, sémanticien, sociolinguiste, lexicographe, enseignant, intellectuel et homme politique. 2. Système, temps et masse parlante : De Mauro commentateur de Saussure Dans sa monographie publiée en 1965 en italien (et traduite en français en 1969), Introduzione alla Semantica De Mauro retrace pour la première fois le parcours qui conduit Saussure à formuler une théorie sociale des systèmes linguistiques. Déjà dans sa lettre à Meillet de 1894, Saussure s’interrogeait sur ce qui est constitutif d’une réalité linguistique dans le flux changeant des dimensions diachronique et synchronique. Saussure a répondu dans le premier et deuxième cours en proposant le concept de valeur : ce qui nous permet de définir et reconnaître une entité linguistique en tant que telle, indépendamment des spécificités de ses réalisations, est sa valeur, autrement dit la place qu’elle occupe dans le système linguistique. Les valeurs, ajoute Saussure, se déterminent réciproquement par opposition. Or, De Mauro (1965 [1969]) relève deux apories dans cette conception du système linguistique, l’une concerne la diachronie, l’autre la synchronie. Si la valeur est déterminée fonctionnellement par le système et que le système est, par définition, un ensemble d’unités organisé de telle sorte qu’en modifiant ou en soustrayant une unité la configuration globale du système et la valeur de chaque unité changent, il devient impossible d’établir une identité, tant en diachronie qu’en synchronie. Le système diffèrera d’un locuteur à l’autre, ou d’un moment dans le temps à l’autre. Les éléments qui le composent ne seront par conséquent pas comparables. Ces apories semblent ouvrir la porte au scepticisme sémantique ainsi qu’aux théories de l’incommunicabilité qui ont sous-tendu une grande partie de la linguistique et de la philosophie du langage du vingtième siècle. 1 « una lingua non è solo un sistema semiotico. O, meglio, è un sistema semiotico siffatto da includere in sé, come elementi funzionali, formalemente rilevanti, la masse parlante e il temps, la rete dei rapporti socio-pragmatici storico-culturali dentro cui [ …] essa si colloca e vive. » (De Mauro 2018 : 113) COURS DE LINGUISTIQUE GÉNÉRALE convention, bmodifiale au gré des intéressés, ce n’est pas cela ; c’est l’ac- tion du temps qui se combine avec celle de la force sociale ; en dehors de la durée, la réalité linguistique n’estPour pas cDeom Mauroplète e t(1965 aucu n[1969])e concl,u unesion première n’est solution à ces apories est proposée dans le possible. deuxième cours, quand il est écrit : « C’est uniquement le fait social qui créera ce qui Si l’on prenait la langue dans lexistee temp sdans, san sun la msystèmeasse pa rlsémiologiqueante — supp o»- (Saussure 1908-9 p. 27). De manière plus sons un individu isolé vivant penaboutie,dant plu Saussuresieurs siè cremédieles, — o àn cnese caporiesonstate -dans le troisième cours en introduisant dans le rait peut-être aucune altération ; système,le temps ncomme’agirait partiepas su rintégrante elle. Inve rdese mceluient ci, le temps et la masse parlante : si l’on considérait la masse parlante sans le temps, o n ne verrait pas l’effet des forces sociales agissant leur la langue. Pour être dans la réalité il faut donc ajouter à notre premier schéma un signe qui indique la marche du temps : Des lors la langue n’est pas libre, parce que le temps permettra aux forces sociales s’exerçant sur elle de développer leurs effets, et on arrive au prin- cipe de continuité, qui annule la liberté. Mais la continuité implique nécessairement l’altération, le déplacement plus on moins considérable des rapports. 3. La technicisation de la définition socio-sémiotique de la langue, De Mauro sémanticien Dans son travail de 1965, qu’il introduit par ces mots : L’erreur consiste à affirmer que les mots ou les phrases signifient quelque chose : ce sont seulement les hommes, en réalité, qui grâce aux phrases et aux mots signifient. (De Mauro, 1965 : 31-32) De Mauro pose les bases d’une théorie de la sémantique qui, parant les critiques du scepticisme sémantique et la théorie de l’incommunicabilité, a des conséquences importantes à la fois sur les plans philosophique et culturel et sur le plan académique. En analysant la langue comme un système sémiotique incluant le temps et la masse parlante, De Mauro (1965 [1969], 1982) est à même de proposer une définition socio- sémiotique des langues en tant que codes omniperformatifs : elles peuvent (potentiellement) tout dire. Cette propriété sémiotique fondamentale repose sur une autre propriété : les langues sont des codes à signes sous-déterminés. Les signes de la langue ne sont pas déterminés une fois pour toutes. Leurs frontières sémantiques et phoniques sont malléables et susceptibles de redétermination à tout moment. Les signes des langues naturelles s’opposent les uns aux autres dans des systèmes d’oppositions phoniques et sémantiques évolutifs. C’est la plasticité des frontières qui permet d’expliquer l’expansion, le changement, mais aussi le rétrécissement sémantique (par exemple86 dans la création des lexiques spécialisés) qui caractérisent les langues naturelles. Les frontières des oppositions linguistiques sont flexibles parce qu’elles sont arbitraires : si la forme des signes était motivée par quelque nécessité externe, elle ne pourrait se transformer. La (re)détermination de la signification des signes de la langue s’opère dans la négociation sociale. 4. Les histoires sociales de la langue italienne : De Mauro historien de la langue et sociolinguiste En partant de cette conception socio-sémiotique de la langue et en s’inscrivant dans la perspective saussurienne le linguiste doit aussi examiner les rapports réciproques de la langue du livre et de la langue courante ; car toute langue littéraire, produit de la culture, arrive à détacher sa sphère d’existence de la sphère naturelle, celle de la langue parlée. (Saussure 1972 : 42) De Mauro publie en 1963 et en 2014 deux histoires de la langue italienne, L’histoire linguistique de l’Italie unie et L’histoire linguistique de l’Italie républicaine, qui introduisent une rupture importante du genre. Si les histoires de la langue italienne avaient été jusqu’à ce moment-là des histoires de la langue littéraire italienne, De Mauro expose pour la première fois l’histoire de la « masse parlante » (Cardinale 2018 : 15) où « les phénomènes linguistiques étaient vus et compris dans une relation étroite avec des faits et des moments de l’histoire sociale et culturelle » (Berruto, 2018 : 107). La langue est présentée comme un ensemble complexe de variétés (Sobrero, 2018 : 71). En particulier, les pratiques linguistiques, l’accès à la variété officielle de la langue italienne et la permanence de compétences de dialectophones sont méticuleusement explorés à travers des analyses statistiques précises qui surmontent pour la première fois dans les représentations culturelles italiennes la séparation entre les disciplines scientifiques et les études humanistes. L’exploitation de données statistiques qui caractérise le travail réalisé sur l’histoire de la langue dans l’ouvrage de 1963 souligne les inégalités dans la maîtrise du standard. L’italien est encore en 1951 (année du recensement) « la langue d’une minorité », maitrisée à l’écrit comme à l’oral par 30% de la population, tandis que la majorité des locuteurs vivent une situation de « carence linguistique, de déracinement du milieu dialectal d’origine, sans que cela signifie l’acquisition d’autres instruments linguistiques » (De Mauro, 2018 : 21). Ce constat détermine De Mauro à s’engager sur plusieurs fronts dans la lutte contre un tel état de fait. 5. L’éducation linguistique démocratique : De Mauro spécialiste de l’éducation linguistique Dans un contexte marqué par l’action de Benedetto Croce et Antonio Gramsci, de Lombardo Radice et don Lorenzo Milani, qui avaient pris la mesure du drame de millions d’Italiens exclus des usages communs de la langue, De Mauro élabore une théorie et une pratique de la linguistique éducative et de l’éducation linguistique qui aboutit en 1973 à la constitution du Groupe d’intervention et d’étude en éducation linguistique (GISCEL).
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