2016 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS SAMOA GENDER DYNAMICS

MONOGRAPH APRIL 2020

Samoa Bureau of Statistics United Nations Population Fund Apia, Samoa Pacific Sub Regional Office Samoa and Fiji

2016 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS SAMOA GENDER DYNAMICS MONOGRAPH APRIL 2020 CONTENTS

FOREWORD II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III ACRONYMS IV LIST OF FIGURES V LIST OF TABLES VI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VII

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background and context 1 1.2 Gender and development 3 1.2.1 Gender and development in Samoa 3 1.2.2 Why a gender monograph 6 1.3 Methodology 7 1.4 Concepts and definitions 7 1.5 Limitations 7 1.6 Outline of the monograph report 8

CHAPTER 2. POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS AND DYNAMICS 9 2.1 Introduction and overview 9 2.2 National population by gender 10 2.2.1 Population growth – male-to-female comparison 10 2.2.2 Population distribution – male-to-female ratio 10 2.2.3 Population pyramid 11 2.3 Region, district and village population 13 2.3.1 Population by region and gender 13 2.3.2 Population by district and gender 14 2.3.3 Population by village and sex 16 2.4 Citizenship status and migration 18 2.5 Marital status 21 2.5.1 Marital status by gender 21 2.5.2 Marital status by gender and age 22 2.6 Religious status 23 2.7 Summary 26

CHAPTER 3. EDUCATION 28 3.1 Introduction and overview 28 3.2 Educational attendance 28 3.2.1 Population ever-attended school by sex and region 28 3.2.2 Population aged 3 to 24 years currently attending school by sex 29 3.2.3 Population aged 6 to 24 years currently attending school 31 3.2.4 Population aged 3 years and over currently attending school by sex 33 3.3 Educational attainment 36 3.3.1 Highest education level attained by sex 36 3.3.2 Population’s qualifications by sex 38 3.3.3 Population’s qualifications by sex and age 39 3.4 Literacy 42 3.5 Summary 44

CHAPTER 4. HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 46 4.1 Introduction and overview 46 4.2 Life expectancy 46 4.3 Fertility 47 4.3.1 Total fertility 47 4.3.2 Women who had given birth by age and urban-rural residence 48 4.3.3 Age-specific fertility 49 4.3.4 Teenage fertility 50 4.3.5 Current fertility differentials 53 4.4 Mortality 55 4.4.1 Population mortality by sex 55 4.4.2 Child mortality by sex 56 4.5 Disability 57 4.5.1 Domain of disability by sex 57 4.5.2 Disability by sex and age 58 4.6 Summary 61

CHAPTER 5. EMPLOYMENT, INCOME, HOUSEHOLDS AND ASSETS 63 5.1 Introduction and overview 63 5.2 Employment 63 5.2.1 Economically and non-economically active 63 5.2.2 Main activity 64 5.2.3 Labour force participation rate 69 5.2.4 Occupation by gender 76 5.2.5 Occupation by sex and age 77 5.3 Income 79 5.3.1 Wage levels by sex 79 5.3.2 Wage levels by sex and occupation 80 5.4 Households and assets 82 5.4.1 Household heads and compositions 82 5.4.2 Land tenure 83 5.4.3 Access to a mobile phone 86 5.5 Summary 87

CHAPTER 6. DECISION-MAKING PARTICIPATION 91 6.1 Introduction and overview 91 6.2 Matai title population by gender 91 6.2.1 Matai title proportion by sex 91 6.2.2 Inter-census data on matai records by sex 92 6.2.3 Matai by sex and age 93 6.2.4 Matai title distribution across regions by sex distribution 94 6.2.5 Matai title distribution across districts by sex distribution 95 6.3 Summary 98

CHAPTER 7. IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION 99 7.1 Introduction 99 7.2 Implications and recommendations 99 7.2.1 Population demographics and dynamics 99 7.2.2 Education 102 7.2.3 Health and well-being 103 7.2.4 Employment, income, households and assets 105 7.2.5 Decision-making participation 107 7.2.6 There is a need for more research into areas of gender disparities as highlighted by the evidence presented in this monograph. 108 7.3 Conclusion 110

BIBLIOGRAPHY 111 ANNEXES 112 ANNEX 1. PACIFIC SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGS) INDICATOR FRAMEWORK 112 ANNEX 2. TOTAL POPULATION BY REGION, DISTRICT, VILLAGE AND SEX 117 ANNEX 3. TOTAL POPULATION BY SEX AND SINGLE AGE 124 ANNEX 4. POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY SEX RANKED BY MOST POPULATED VILLAGE 125 FOREWORD

With the strong sentiments of “leaving no one behind” and “reaching the furthest behind” the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have put gender inequality at the forefront and centre of sustainable and inclusive development. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5: “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” recognizes that women and girls worldwide face many challenges that limit their full participation in social-political and economic development opportunities.

Women, children, and people living with a disability, including those living in isolated and hard-to-reach communities, are often the most marginalized members of a society and are therefore most vulnerable and at risk of being left furthest behind in accessing services, basic needs, and many other opportunities.

The Government of Samoa has acknowledged the existence of gender inequality in Samoa. The Strategy for the Development of Samoa 2016-2020 stipulates under Outcome 8.1 that the: “Inclusion of vulnerable groups (women, youth, people with disabilities, children, elderly and disadvantaged people) in community planning and governance activities will be enhanced”.

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) further recognizes that the empowerment of all women and girls, and the realization of reproductive rights in both development and humanitarian settings, is essential to advance gender equality and achieve universal access to sexual and reproductive health by 2030, as well as to realize its strategic vision of zero maternal mortality; zero unmet need for family planning; and zero gender-based violence (GBV) by 2030.

One of the many ways in which UNFPA supports countries, including Samoa, in their efforts towards achieving the 2030 Agenda and gender equality is through strengthening national data capabilities. This includes the generation of effective and reliable population data, disaggregated by sex, and analysis to use demographic intelligence for evidence-based policy, advocacy and programming.

This gender monograph provides a detailed analysis of the social differences that exist between females and males in Samoa based on available national census data and information, administrative data and information, and other existing available research and studies. The evidence-based analyses of national census data and other available information presented in this monograph, confirms that gender inequalities and disparities exist in our society and need addressing.

This monograph further provides recommendations on key areas for policy and programme considerations to address gender inequality in Samoa.

We acknowledge the support of everyone who contributed to this monograph. The assistance of the Samoa Bureau of Statistics’ management and staff who contributed to making data available is noted with appreciation. We also acknowledge with sincere thanks the financial support and technical advice from UNFPA, under the leadership of Dr. Jennifer Butler, Director and Representative Pacific Sub-Regional Office, which enabled this monograph to be published. We also acknowledge the additional expert critiques and editorial contributions by Ms Kim Robertson of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community. Special thanks to Muliagatele Dr Potoae Roberts-Aiafi for the analysis and writing of this monography.

We hope that this monograph will add value in informing all-inclusive development efforts; policies, programmes and activities for the benefit of Samoan people.

Ali’imuamua Malaefono Taua T. Faasalaina Government Statistician/ Chief Executive Officer Samoa Bureau of Statistics

II 2016 Population and Housing Census ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report was produced as part of the ongoing partnership between the SBS and UNFPA. The report was initiated and completed under UNFPA’s Transformative Agenda Programme funded by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) Australia and the Pacific Regional Sexual and Reproductive Health Programme (PRSRHP) activities in Samoa, funded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) New Zealand. The report was written by Potoae Roberts-Aiafi (UNFPA National Consultant), with technical and project management oversight provided by Ms Taiaopo Faumuina (Assistant Chief Executive Officer – Census, Surveys and Demographic Statistics Division, SBS) and staff of UNFPA PSRO.

SBS appreciates comments and inputs received from Ms Kim Robertson (SPC Fiji), Ms. Alexandra Robinson, Ms. Sandra Paredez and Dr Ibironke Oyatoye (UNFPA PSRO). SBS would like to acknowledge Ms. Esther Bayliss for the report edits and Ms. Karlien Truyens for the design.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph III ACRONYMS

ASFR Age-Specific Fertility rate AUA Apia Urban Area CCCS Congregational Christian Church of Samoa CDR Crude Death Rate DHS Demographic and Health Survey ECE Early Childhood Education EFKS Ekalesia Faalapotopotoga Kerisiano o Samoa GBV Gender-Based Violence IMR Infant Mortality Rate LDS Latter Day Saints MDG Millennium Development Goals MPE Ministry of Public Enterprises MWCSD Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development NS Not Stated NUS National University of Samoa NWU North West Upolu NZ New Zealand OEC Office of the Electoral Commissioner PhD Doctor of Philosophy PSC Public Service Commission PSSC Pacific Secondary School Certificate ROU Rest of Upolu SBS Samoa Bureau of Statistics SC School Certificate SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SLRC Samoa Law Reform Commission SNE Special Needs Education SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community SSLC Secondary School Leaving Certificate TFR Total Fertility Rate U5MR Under-Five Mortality Rate UN United Nations UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UPY University Preparatory Year USA United States of America LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Samoa inter-census population and growth by sex and census years, 1961–2016 10 Figure 2.2: Samoa population sex ratio by census years, 1961–2016 11 Figure 2.3: Samoa population distribution between census years, 2006–2016 12 Figure 2.4: Samoa population distribution by region and sex, 2016 Census 13 Figure 2.5: Samoa population distribution by district and sex, 2016 Census 15 Figure 2.6: Samoa population distribution by village and sex, 2016 Census 16 Figure 2.7: Citizenship status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 Census 19 Figure 2.8: Population marital status, 2016 Census 21 Figure 2.9: Marital status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 23 Figure 2.10: Population religious status by sex, 2016 Census 25 Figure 3.1: Population aged three years and over who ever and never attended school by sex, 2016 Census 29 Figure 3.2: Population aged 3 to 24 years attending and not in school by sex and age, 2016 Census 31 Figure 3.3: Population aged 6 to 24 years currently attending and not attending school by sex, 2016 Census 33 Figure 3.4: Population aged three years and over currently attending and not attending school by sex, 2016 Census 35 Figure 3.5: Population aged three years and over by highest grade completed and sex, 2016 Census 38 Figure 3.6: Population aged 24 years and over by qualification and sex, 2016 Census 39 Figure 3.7: Population aged 15 years and over by academic achievements and sex, 2016 Census 41 Figure 3.8: Population aged 15 years and over by literacy rate, sex and region, 2016 Census 43 Figure 4.1: Life expectancy at birth by sex, 2001 to 2016 46 Figure 4.2: Total fertility rate by health demographic surveys 1999 to 2014 and 1966–2016 census 47 Figure 4.3: Total fertility rate by region and census years, 2011 to 2016 48 Figure 4.4: Females aged 15 to 49 years ever-given birth by age and region, 2016 Census 49 Figure 4.5: Age specific fertility rate, 2016 Census 50 Figure 4.6: Marital status of the 467 teenage mothers, 2016 Census 51 Figure 4.7: Teenage fertility rate, 2001 to 2016 52 Figure 4.8: Teenage fertility rate by region, 2016 Census 53 Figure 4.9: Current fertility differentials of females aged 15 to 49 and 45 to 49 years, 2016 Census 55 Figure 4.10: Morality rate by sex and census years, 2006 to 2016 56 Figure 4.11: Infant mortality rate and under-five mortality rate by sex and census years, 2001 to 2016 56 Figure 4.12: Population aged 5 to 79 years by domain of disability and sex, 2016 Census 58 Figure 4.13: Population aged 5 years and over by functional domain and degree of difficulty and sex, 2016 Census 60 Figure 5.1: Economically active and non-economically active population by sex, 2016 Census 64 Figure 5.2: Population aged 10 years and over by main activities and sex, 2016 Census 65 Figure 5.3: Population aged 10 years and over by labour force participation and sex, 2016 Census 68 Figure 5.4: Population aged 10 years and over by labour force participation, sex and region, 2016 Census 70 Figure 5.5: Population aged 10 years and over by industry and sex, 2016 Census 71 Figure 5.6: Male population aged 10 years and over by industry, 2016 Census 74 Figure 5.7: Female population aged 10 years and over by industry, 2016 Census 74 Figure 5.8: Unemployment rate by sex and census years, 2001–2016 75 Figure 5.9: Unemployed population aged 10 years and over by sex, 2016 Census 75 Figure 5.10: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census 76 Figure 5.11: Population aged 10 years and over employed as legislators and managers by sex, 2001 to 2016 77 Figure 5.12: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census 79 Figure 5.13: Population aged 10 years and over by wage levels and sex, 2016 Census 80 Figure 5.14: Male wage levels by occupation, 2016 Census 82 Figure 5.15: Female wage levels by occupation, 2016 82 Figure 5.16: Household compositions by sex, 2016 Census 83 Figure 5.17: Land tenure by household head and sex, 2016 Census 84 Figure 5.18: Land tenure by household head, by sex and region, 2016 Census 85 Figure 5.19: Private households with mobile phones by region, by household head and sex, 2016 Census 86 Figure 6.1: Population with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 Census 92 Figure 6.2: Population with matai titles by sex and census years, 2006–2016 93 Figure 6.3: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 94 Figure 6.4: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex and region, 2016 Census 95 Figure 6.5: Popuation aged 15 years and over by matai holders, districts and sex, 2016 Census 97

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph V LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Samoa national development performance 1 Table 2.1: Samoa population and growth by sex and census years, 1981–2016 9 Table 2.2: Samoa population by age and sex, 2016 Census 12 Table 2.3: Samoa population distribution by region and sex, 2016 Census 13 Table 2.4: Male and female population variations by district, 2016 14 Table 2.5: Ctitizenship status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 Census 18 Table 2.6: Non-Samoan ctitizenship by industry, 2016 Census 20 Table 2.7: Population marital status, 2016 Census 21 Table 2.8: Samoa population’s marital status by sex and age, 2016 Census 22 Table 2.9: Religious status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 Census 24 Table 2.10: Summary of key findings on Samoa’s gender population demographics and dynamics 26 Table 3.1: Persons aged three years and over who ever and never attended school by sex, 2016 Census 29 Table 3.2: Population aged 3 to 24 years attending, and not attending school, by sex, 2016 Census 30 Table 3.3: Population aged 6 to 24 years attending, and not attending school, by sex, 2016 Census 32 Table 3.4: Population aged three years and over who were attending school, and not at school by sex, 2016 Census 34 Table 3.5: Population aged three years and over by highest grade completed and sex, 2016 Census 36 Table 3.6: Population aged 24 years and over by qualification and sex, 2016 Census 39 Table 3.7: Population aged 15 years and over by academic achievements and sex, 2016 Census 40 Table 3.8: Population aged 15 and over by literacy rate, sex and region, 2016 Census 42 Table 3.9: Summary of key findings on the population of Samoa’s education by sex and age 44 Table 4.1: Total fertility rate by region, census years, 2001 to 2016 47 Table 4.2: Females aged 15 to 49 years ever-given birth by age and region, 2016 Census 48 Table 4.3: Age specific fertility rate, 2016 Census 49 Table 4.4: Teenage mothers with one to four children and marital status, 2016 Census 51 Table 4.5: Teenage fertility rate by region, 2016 Census 52 Table 4.6: Current fertility differentials of females aged 15 to 49 and 45 to 49 years, 2016 Census 54 Table 4.7: Population aged 5 to 79 years by domain of disability, 2016 Census 57 Table 4.8: Population aged 5 years and above by functional domain and degree of difficulty, 2016 Census 59 Table 4.9: Summary of key findings on population health and well-being 61 Table 5.1: Population’s main activities by sex, 2016 Census 65 Table 5.2: Population aged 10 years and over by main activities and sex, 2016 Census 67 Table 5.3: Population aged 10 to 14 years by main activities and region, 2016 Census 69 Table 5.4: Population aged 10 years and over by labour force participation, sex and region, 2016 Census 69 Table 5.5: Population aged 10 years and over by industry and sex, 2016 Census 71 Table 5.6: Population aged 10 years and over by industry and sex, 2016 Census 72 Table 5.7: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census 76 Table 5.8: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census 78 Table 5.9: Population aged 10 years and over by wage levels and sex, 2016 Census 80 Table 5.10: Population aged 10 years and over by wage levels, by occupation and sex, 2016 Census 81 Table 5.11: Household compositions by sex, 2016 Census 83 Table 5.12: Land tenure by households heads and sex, 2016 Census 84 Table 5.13: Land tenure by household heads, by sex and region, 2016 Census 85 Table 5.14: Private households with mobile phones by household head, by sex and region, 2016 Census 86 Table 5.15: Summary of key findings on population employment, income, households and assets 87 Table 6.1: Population with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 Census 91 Table 6.2: Population with matai titles by sex and census years, 2006–2016 92 Table 6.3: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 Census 93 Table 6.4: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex and region, 2016 Census 94 Table 6.5: Popuation aged 15 years and over by matai holders , districts and sex, 2016 Census 95 Table 6.6: Summary of key findings on females’ participation in decision-making 98

VI 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Males and females have different roles, needs, interests and power basis. These differences need acknowledgement and to be better understood to address social justice, human rights and poverty. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5: “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” recognizes that realizing gender equality is a necessary prerequisite for ending poverty, improving prosperity and achieving sustainable and inclusive development.

This gender monograph provides a detailed analysis of the social and structural differences that exist between females and males in Samoa drawing on data from the 2016 Population and Housing Census (2016 Census). It also incorporates other available administrative data and information, and existing surveys, research and studies. It will contribute to meeting demand for evidence-based gender analyses to inform development policies and programmes that take into consideration the specific conditions and needs of women, men, girls and boys. It acknowledges the challenges and issues Samoa faces as a result of gender inequality, including high levels of gender-based violence (GBV), a low number of women in political decision-making roles at all levels, high unemployment levels among female youth, high rates of teenage pregnancy, and increasing levels of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Addressing these challenges necessitates the need for reliable data and robust analyses to better understand the disparities, poverty gaps and critical needs that exist in Samoa society.

KEY FINDINGS

Population demographics and dynamics

National population by sex (a) Male-to-female comparisons • Samoa’s total population recorded at the 2016 Census was 195,979 persons, with 100,892 (51 per cent) males, and 95,087 (49 per cent) females. • The male-to-female ratio in 2016 was 106; for every 106 males, there are 100 females. • Males still dominate in Samoa’s population, with the male-to-female ratio fluctuating between a difference of 2 per cent, 4 per cent and 6 per cent for total males and females over the eight censuses between 1961 to 2016. • While males dominate Samoa’s population, the female population has grown at a faster pace than the male population and Samoa’s overall population over the census period of 1961 to 2016.

(b) Age comparison • Samoa’s population remains young with 50 per cent of the total population below the age of 21 years, with 38 per cent in the dependent population, aged 14 years and below. • Samoa’s retired population aged 55 years and above equates to 11 per cent of the total population, with 8 per cent aged 60 years and over. • Samoa’s working population (aged 15 to 64 years) constitutes 57 per cent of the total population while the dependent population (aged 0 to 14 years and 65+ years) stands at 43 per cent. The dependency ratio is 84 per cent; 84 dependents for every 100 workers. • Males exceed females in the population aged 0 to 64 years while females dominate males in the population aged 65+ years. • Females live longer than males at old and in the retired ages of 65 years and above.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph VII Population by region, district, village and gender (a) Population by region and gender • People living in the main island of Upolu constitute 78 per cent of Samoa’s total population, with North West Upolu being the most populated region where 35 per cent of Samoa’s total population reside. Ex ecutive summary

With only 22 per cent of the total population living on the bigger island of Savaii, and with •  54 per cent living in Apia Urban Area and North West Upolu, this indicates that there has been a sustained urbanization drift in Samoa over the census years (1961 to 2016). • In all four regions of Apia Urban Area, North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii, there are more males than females. • There is no significant difference by sex between regions. A minor variation is the difference between males and females living in Apia Urban Area, which is much smaller compared to North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii.

(b) Population by district and sex • Relative to the population size of districts, most females and males reside in urban districts, with Vaimauga West, Faleata West, Faleata East and Sagaga le Falefa being the most populated districts. • There are more males than females in all districts in Samoa, except Gagaemauga II, where females outnumber males, by a difference of only eight.

(c) Population by village and sex • Vaitele Fou, Faleasiu, Siusega, Vaitele Uta, Faleula, Vaiusu, Vaimoso, Malie, Laulii and Vailele Tai are the most populated villages and residential areas. • Vaitele Fou is where most females resided at the time of the 2016 Census compared to all other residential areas/villages. • Faleasiu, Vaiusu and Fasitoouta are the villages where most males resided compared to females.

Citizenship and migration (a) Citizenship • Ninety-six (96) per cent of Samoa’s population hold Samoan citizenship. • Most people living in Samoa with dual citizenships had Samoa and New Zealand dual citizenships at the time of the 2016 Census, equating to 2 per cent of Samoa’s total population. • Females outnumber males in Samoa with New Zealand dual citizenship by a very small margin – 50.2 per cent female versus 49.8 per cent male. • Females who hold dual Samoa and Australia or dual Samoa and other citizenship outnumber males by a ratio of 52 per cent female to 49 per cent male. • Males outnumber females in dual Samoa and USA/American Samoa citizenship by a male-to-female ratio of 52 per cent to 48 per cent. This is similar to the USA/America Samoa citizenship where a male-to-female ratio of 59 per cent to 41 per cent exists. • There are more males than females with New Zealand, China, Australia, Tonga, other Pacific island countries, and other Asian countries citizenship living in Samoa. • There are more females than males with European, Japanese or Canadian citizenship status living in Samoa.

(b) Migration • Internal migration at the time of the 2016 Census was low with the majority of the population remaining at their place of birth. • The 2016 Census recorded that 72 per cent of Samoa’s total population did not move and were still living at their place of birth at the time of census enumeration. • North West Upolu continues to gain more people than other regions, while Savaii and Rural Upolu areas have lost the highest numbers of their population in the last five years. • There is no significant difference between males and females in relation to internal migration patterns.

VIII 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

(c) Marital status • Fifty-nine (59) per cent of Samoa’s total population are single or not married. • The majority of the population that is single are male – in line with Samoa’s male- dominated population. • Notwithstanding Samoa’s male-dominated population, there are more females than males who are married, divorced/separated or widowed. • More females are likely to get married compared to males. • More females, compared to males, are likely to get married at a younger age (15 to 29 years) than in their middle ages (37 to 48 years). • As the population reaches the ages of 30 years and above, the proportion of males to females who are married is higher. • The proportion of males who are either divorced/separated or widowed is less than females, indicating that males are more likely to stay married compared to females, particularly in the older age groups.

(d) Religious status • The Congregational Christian Church of Samoa (CCCS) remains the dominant church attended by most males and females in Samoa. • The next most attended churches are the Roman Catholic, Latter Day Saints (Goldsmith) and Methodist. • Among the four oldest churches of CCCS, Roman Catholic, LDS and Methodist, there is no significant difference between males and females in terms of attendance. • In relation to the relatively recently-established churches such as the Amazing Love Christian Church, Peace Chapel, Protestant and Elim, more females than males follow these religions, compared to the four oldest mainstream church dominations; CCCS, Roman Catholic, LDS and Methodist, which more males follow. • The proportion of males following the Muslim faith is much higher than females, compared to all other churches. • There are more males with ‘no religion’, compared to females, which may signify that females generally associate more with a religious belief than males.

Education

Education attendance (a) Population ever-attended school by region and sex • A total of 167,245 persons or 93 per cent of the total 179,052 population aged three years and above have ever-attended school in Samoa. • A total of 11,807 persons or 7 per cent have never attended school in their lifetime. • Of the male population aged three years and above, 93 per cent have attended school. For the female population this figure is 94 per cent. The variation between sexes for the total population aged three years and above who have ever-attended school is 1 per cent higher for females than males. • Of the male population aged three years and above, 7 per cent have never attended school in their lifetime, while the corresponding figure for the female population is 6 per cent. The variation between sexes for the total population aged three years and above who have never attended school is 1 per cent higher for males. • More females tend to go to school than males despite Samoa’s male-dominated population. • The variation by sex of persons who have ever- and never-attended school between urban and rural areas is 1 per cent higher for urban areas. • The North West Upolu Region has a 1 per cent lower school attendance compared to the rest of the regions in Upolu and Savaii, and the highest number of persons aged three years and above who have never-attended school.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph IX (b) Population aged 3 to 24 years currently attending school by sex • A total of 62,252 persons (or 67 per cent of the 92,704 population aged 3 to 24 years) are attending school. This translates into 66 per cent of the male population and 69 per cent of the female population aged 3 to 24 years. • A total of 30,542 (or 33 per cent of the 92,704 population aged 3 to 24 years) are not Ex ecutive summary

attending school – 34 per cent of the male population versus 31 per cent of the female  population in this age group. • A higher rate of school attendance exists among females than males. • The peak net school attendance rates for both males and females is at the ages of 6 to 14 years, which is more than 90 per cent for both sexes. • School attendance rates start to decline slightly for both males and females between the ages of 15 to 24, with more females attending than males. More females than males receive increased opportunities to go on to higher education at the age of 15 years and above. • The school dropout rate increases with age for both males and females but is higher for males than females. • The majority of the 902 children aged 6 to 14 years who are not attending school are male (62 per cent), compared to 38 per cent of females. • The urban-rural gap for persons not attending school has widened over the census period, with more than 80 per cent in rural areas not attending school compared to only 18 per cent and less in urban areas.

(c) Population currently attending school by sex and all ages • Of Samoa’s 179,052 population aged three years and above, 62,562 persons (or 35 per cent) are currently full-time students, and 486 persons (or 0.3 per cent) are part-time students, while 15,964 (or 65 per cent) are not in school. • A total of 9,140 persons or 14 per cent of the population in the school ages of 6 to 20 years were currently not at school at the time of the 2016 Census – 16 per cent of the total male population and 12 per cent of the total female population in this age group. • Of the 9,140 persons aged 6 to 20 years currently not in school, a total of 902 (or 2 per cent) were within the primary and secondary school ages of 6 to 14-years-old. • For the age group 15 to 25 years, a total of 21,016 (or 58 per cent) were not at school – 61 per cent of males and 56 per cent of females in the 16 to 25-year age group. • A high proportion of students end their schooling between 16 to 20 years. A significant number of young males and females are not able to continue education beyond secondary school and college levels. The rate of school dropouts in the 16 to 20-year age group is higher for males than females. • Whilst the overall population of males is higher than females, the proportion of males not attending school is higher than females across all ages, except those aged 51 years and over. • More females tend to undertake part-time studies than males. • For those attending school full-time, more females than males continue to study at the ages of 16 to 25 years.

Educational attainment (a) Highest education attained by sex • The majority of Samoa’s population complete secondary school grades/levels, with Grade/Level 12 or Year 12 being the highest level completed by the population aged three years and over. • Of the total population aged three years and above, 11.2 per cent, 11.7 per cent and 14.1 per cent complete Grade/Level 11, Grade/Level 13, and higher education/tertiary level, respectively. • Males slightly outnumber females in the percentage of persons completing and attaining Grade/Level 1 up to Grade/Level 11 (primary school up to secondary school year 11). • Females outnumber males for the completion and attainment of Grade/Level 12 up to

X 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

higher educational levels. This reflects a higher school dropout for males compared to females at senior levels of secondary school and college. • Completion and attainment of other grades/levels lower than Grade/Level 3 are slightly higher in North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii than in Apia Urban Area. This can most likely be attributed to the higher population numbers (and hence schools and students) in North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii, than in Apia Urban Area.

(b) Population qualifications by sex and age • Of the total 120,082 population aged 15 years old and over, 51,233 (or 43 per cent) have no qualifications. • A total of 68,665 (or 57 per cent) have some qualification. • Of the 51,233 population with no qualifications, there are more males (56 per cent) than females (44 per cent). • A total of 31,229 (or 26 per cent) of the population over 15 years of age have completed the Year 12 School Certificate or lower level certificates at Year 8 or Year 11. • A total of 18,292 (or 15 per cent) have completed the Year 13 Pacific Secondary School Certificate or Secondary School Leaving Certificate. • Only 14,993 (or 12.5 per cent) have completed qualifications at the tertiary level; undergraduate certificate, diploma, and degree up to PhD levels. • Females exceed males in educational attainment at School Certificate, Pacific Secondary School Certificate/Secondary School Leaving Certificate, University Preparatory Year, diploma, and degree levels. • Males exceed females in educational attainment at certificate, postgraduate, master and PhD levels. • Given Samoa’s male dominant population, the ‘none’ qualification status is higher among males than females, and higher in the youth and middle-aged populations. • Given the higher proportion of females than males at the ages of 63 years and above, there are more females at old age with no qualifications than males. • Females outnumber males in educational achievements for School Certificate, PSCC/ SSLC, UPY, diploma, and degree levels across most age groups.

Literacy • Of the 121,129 people aged 15 years and over in Samoa, 117,156 reported as being literate, representing a literacy rate of 96.6 per cent for Samoa; 96.5 per cent male and 96.8 per cent female. • Literacy levels vary slightly by sex and age. • The literacy rate for females is only 0.3 per cent higher than males. • The literacy rate starts to decline slightly as the population ages. • The literacy rate is higher among younger generations compared to older generations. • The literacy rate is higher in urban areas than in rural areas by a difference of 2.3 per cent. • Of the four regions in Samoa, Apia Urban Area has the highest literacy rate at 98.5 per cent, while Savaii records the lowest at 94.6 per cent. The literacy rates for North West Upolu and Rest of Upolu are 97.1 per cent and 96.7 per cent respectively.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XI Health and well-being

Fertility (a) Females already given birth • The 2016 Census recorded a total of 43,904 females in the reproductive ages of 15 to 49 Ex ecutive summary

.years, equating to 46 per cent of the total female population in Samoa  • Of the 43,904 females in the reproductive ages of 15 to 49 years, a total of 26,053 (59 per cent) have given birth; have become mothers and are at the stage of motherhood. • The number of females who have given birth is lower in the teenage years 15 to 19 years (5 per cent) as females are just entering the reproductive phase of their life. • The lowest number of females who have already given birth is recorded in Apia Urban Area (AUA) but is relatively higher in the rural regions of Upolu and Savaii. • The mean childbearing age for Samoan females was estimated at the 2016 Census to be 23 years. This suggests that half of females of reproductive age (15 to 49 years) who have ever given birth are bearing children before the age of 23, while the other half give birth after this age.

(b) Age-specific fertility • Females aged 15 to 49 gave birth to 4,835 newborns in the 12 months prior to the 2016 Census, equating to 5 children per 1,000 females. • The highest number of births to females in the 12 months prior to the 2016 Census peaked at the ages of 25 to 29 and then declined as females aged. • The age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) is higher at the ages of 25 to 29 and lowest in the youngest (15 to 19 years) and oldest (45 to 49) age groups – periods when females are just entering and ending their reproductive life.

(c) Total fertility rate • The average number of children per females (total fertility rate (TFR)) declined between the 1960s and the 1920s from a TFR of seven in 1966 to four in 2016, giving an overall picture of a downward trend in the fertility levels of Samoan females. • Total fertility is lower in urban areas compared to rural areas – 3.31 children per woman in Apia Urban Area compared to 3.46 in North West Upolu, 3.73 in Rest of Upolu, 3.67 in Savaii, and 3.54 for Samoa overall.

(d) Teenage fertility rate • A total of 467 teenagers (or 5 per cent of the 8,984 female population aged 15 to 19 years) had given birth and were in the motherhood phase at the time of the 2016 Census. • The 467 teenage mothers had given birth to a total of 578 children by the time of the 2016 Census. • The majority of teenagers with one child are aged 18 and 19 years. • Four teenagers aged 17 had two children, while two teenagers had given birth to three children. • A total of nine teenagers had three children by the age of 19, while five teenagers had three children by the age of 18. • One teenager already had four children by the age of 18. • The majority of the 467 teenage mothers (a total of 296 or 63 per cent) were single at the time of the 2016 Census, with 32 per cent married. • Twenty one (or 4.5 per cent) of teenage mothers were divorced/separated. • Sixty-three (63) per cent of teenage mothers were single at the time of the 2016 Census. • The overall teenage fertility trend since 2001 has declined from 46 children (per 1,000 teenage mothers) in 2001, to 31 children (per 1,000 teenage mothers) in 2016. • Teenage fertility is lower in the Apia Urban Area (15 per 1,000 teenage mothers) and in Savaii (18 per 1,000 teenage mothers) compared to North West Upolu (44 per 1,000 teenage mothers) and Rest of Upolu (22 per 1,000 teenage mothers).

XII 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

(e) Current fertility differentials • Fertility rates are highest among females aged 15 to 49 who are: - Living in rural areas compared to urban areas. - Married. - Attending the Assembly of God, Seven Day Adventist and Latter Day Saints churches. - Have secondary and primary education levels. - Have no academic qualifications. - With educational completion at PSSC and lower levels. - Not in the labour force and engaged in domestic duties.

• Fertility rates among females aged 45 to 49 highlight that: - Females in rural areas end fertility with 4.9 children compared to 4.4 children for females in urban areas. - Females who are married end fertility with 4.9 children compared to 2.1 children for single females. - Females attending the LDS church end fertility with 5.2 children compared to 4.4 for females attending the CCCS. - Females with primary education end fertility with 5.1 children compared to 4.1 for females with tertiary education. - Females with no qualifications end fertility with 5.1 children compared to 3.6 children for females with a higher degree. - Females not in the labour force or engaged in domestic duties end fertility with 5.0 children compared to 4.3 children for employed females.

Mortality (a) Population mortality by sex • Since 2006 the annual death rate in Samoa has been four deaths per 1,000 people. • The death rate (per 1,000 people) increased slightly from 4.0 in 2006 to 4.4 in 2011, but remained the same at 4.4 in 2016. • The morality rate remains higher for males than females across all census years. However, the rate for males decreased slightly in 2016, from 4.6 in 2011 to 4.4 in 2016, while it increased for females from 4.2 to 4.3 over the same period.

(b) Child mortality by sex • The infant mortality rate (IMR) – the number of infants that die before their first birthday per 1,000 live births – in Samoa declined from 20.4 in 2006 to 14.3 in 2016. • The under-five mortality (U5MR) – the number of infants and children who die before reaching their fifth birthday per 1,000 live births – in Samoa declined from 22.8 in 2006 to 17.0 in 2016. • The IMR for females increased from 14.0 in 2011 to 16.2 in 2016, but decreased for males from 17.0 to 12.5 over the same period. Similarly, the U5MR for females increased slightly from 18 in 2011 to 18.6 in 2016, but declined significantly for males from 27.0 to 17.0 over the same period.

(c) Life expectancy • Life expectancy of Samoa’s population has improved over the 15-year census period (2001 to 2016), with an increase from 74.2 years in 2001 to 74.9 years in 2016. • The life expectancy of both males and females has increased over the census years from 71.8 years in 2001 to 73.7 years in 2016 for males, and 73.8 years in 2001 to 76.0 years in 2016 for females. • Females historically survive longer than males from birth.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XIII Disability (a) Types of disability by gender • A total of 7,134 persons (or 8 per cent of the 167,676 population aged five years and over) in Samoa had ‘some difficulties’, ‘cannot’ and ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication domains of disability. The distribution by Ex ecutive summary

.male and female was 4 per cent male and 2.3 per cent female, respectively  • ‘No’ or ‘lack of mobility’ is the highest form of disability. Self-care is the second highest and vision is the third. • A total of 1,726 (24 per cent of 7,134 persons with a disability) either ‘cannot do’ or had ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility. • A total of 761 (or 23 per cent of 7,134 persons with a disability) either ‘cannot do’ or had ‘a lot of difficulty’ with self-care. • A total of 1,125 (or 16 per cent of 7,134 persons with a disability) ‘cannot’ see or ‘had a lot of difficulty’ with vision. • ‘Cannot’ or had ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication are higher among females than males. • Nine hundred and sixty-five (965) females either ‘cannot’ or had ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, compared to 761 males. • Seven hundred and seventy-five (775) females either ‘cannot’, or had ‘a lot difficulty’ with self-care compared to 605 males. • The difference between males and females is much wider in the mobility and self-care domains of disability, compared to the other domains of disability of vision, hearing, memory and communication.

(b) Disability by sex and age • All types of disability (mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication) are highest among older persons aged 70 years and above, and are higher for females than males in this age group. • More females tend to experience these kinds of disability when they reach old age compared to males, given that females’ life expectancy is longer than males. • More males experience disability than females at younger ages including children and adolescents.

$ Employment, income, households and assets

Employment (a) Economically and non-economically active by sex • In the 2016 Census, the ‘economically active’ population was defined as the ‘population aged 10 years and over’ who were employed during the census reference period. • All persons attending school or training courses during the census period, doing housework and care, unable to work due to old age and disability, or any other reasons were classified as ‘non-economically active’. • In the 2016 Census, the population aged 10 years and over constituted 142,657, which equated to 73 per cent of Samoa’s overall population. • Of this working-age population (142,657 persons), 57,585 (or 40 per cent) were economically active and 85,037 (60 per cent) were non-economically active. • Seventy-one (71) per cent of males compared to 29 per cent of females were economically active and 38 per cent of males compared to 62 per cent of females were non-economically active.

(b) Main activities by sex • For non-economically active persons of the population aged 10 years and over: - The majority (42,415 or 30 per cent of the 142,657 population aged 10 years and over) were involved in domestic duties or not able to actively participate in economic activities.

XIV 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

- The second highest group of non-economically active persons were students totalling 37,140 (or 26 per cent of 142,657) persons. - There were 5,448 (4 per cent) persons who were not able to work due to disability or old age. - A total of 34 persons were beggars. • For economically active persons of the population aged 10 years and over - The majority (26,919 or 19 per cent) were employees. - The second highest number (20,907 or 15 per cent) were persons involved in subsistence activities. - The third highest number (3,794 or 3 per cent) were self-employed persons. - Persons who were employers constituted only 1 per cent (1,193) of this population. - A total of 2,117 persons were seeking employment at the time of the 2016 Census. - The majority of both males and females in Samoa were working as employees and as subsistence workers; 60 per cent male and 40 per cent female. • Gender comparison - Males dominate the workforce or economically active population, equating to 71 per cent of the economically active population, mostly as employees, subsistent workers and self-employed. - Only 29 per cent of the economically active population (total persons) are female. - Females dominate the non-economically active population, engaged mostly in domestic duties, equating to 75 per cent of the total number of persons engaged in domestic duties, compared to 25 per cent of males. - Most males and females who are engaged in domestic duties, are not able to participate in economic activities. However, the proportion of females undertaking domestic roles is much higher than for males. - While most males are engaged in formal and informal economic activities either as employees, subsistence workers, or self-employed, most females are engaged in domestic duties. - There were more males looking for work than females. - There is not much variation between females and males attending school. - There were more females (53 per cent) than males (47 per cent) who were non- economically active due to old age/disability. - While the number of people reporting begging as their main activity was small (34 in total), there were more males (21) than females (13). - The proportion of persons working as employees compared to those working as subsistence workers was relatively higher among females compared to males.

(c) Main activity by gender and age • The majority of the workforce in Samoa who are economically active are between the ages of 21 to 46-years-old. • The majority of females and males engaged in domestic duties are spread across all age groups, from youth to middle-age and older persons. • Most persons not able to work due to old age/disability are at the ages of 51 years and over. • A total of 77 persons aged 10 to 14 years who were children and adolescents were currently employed, mostly in subsistence economic activities, and with a few working as employees. This employment of young people could be considered as child labour under international labour standards.

(d) Labour force participation by gender and age • Males have a higher labour force participation rate than females; 28.8 per cent male versus 11.6 per cent female, noting that only 40 per cent of Samoa’s working-age population were economically active at the time of the 2016 Census. • The labour force participation rate for males is higher across all age groups compared to females.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XV • The most active working groups for both males and females are those aged 20 to 44-years-old. • The labour participation rates begin to decline for both males and females above the ages of 29 years as workers age, and as they are reaching retirement at the ages of 55 years. Ex ecutive summary

Unemployment rate by gender e))  • Despite the fluctuation in the unemployment rate as recorded in the last four censuses (2001 to 2016), the unemployment rate has remained higher among females than males over this period. • Fifty-five (55) per cent of the total unemployed population aged 10 years and over are male, while 45 per cent are female. • The proportion of unemployed males remains higher than females for persons aged 10 to 54 years, except those at the ages of 55 years and over who are retired. • A higher proportion of females are not in work.

Employment by occupation (a) Occupation by gender • Skilled agricultural, livestock, forestry and fishery, service and sale workers, and professionals are the highest ranked occupational groups, constituting 67 per cent of the employed population. • Skilled agricultural, livestock, forestry and fishery employed 42 per cent of the employed population, while service and sale workers constituted 15 per cent and professionals equated to 11 per cent of the total employed population in Samoa. • Males dominate most occupations except the professional and clerical occupations where females outnumber males. • Males tend to be employed or work in hard labour and trade-related occupations such as in machinery, skilled agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery, craft related trade and food, and the armed forces. • Females tend to work in office-related professions and clerical work. • Males still outnumber females in legislation and managerial occupations, although female legislators and managers increased from 29 per cent in 2001 to 40 per cent in 2016, while there was a decrease in males in these occupations, from 71 per cent to 60 per cent, over the same period.

(b) Occupation by gender and age • Similar patterns of employment exist across most age groups for both males and females. • The majority of employed males and females across all occupations are within the youth and middle-aged groups of 21 to 50-years-old. Samoa has a young workforce for both males and females, with no significant variation in employment by gender across most age groups. • The number of employed persons for both males and females declines as the population ages. • A total of 62 males and 12 females aged 10 to 14 were employed, with 62 persons employed as skilled workers in agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery. • A total of eight persons aged 10 to 14 years were employed in services and sales while seven persons aged 10 to 14 years were working in the craft and trade, machinery and elementary occupations.

Employment by industry (a) Employment by industry and gender • The majority of Samoa’s employed population work in agriculture, forestry and fishing, equating to 42 per cent of the current workforce, with a distribution of 89 per cent male and 11 per cent female. • The second largest employment industry in Samoa is wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and motorcycles amounting to 8.9 per cent of the total workforce; 56 per

XVI 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

cent male and 44 per cent female. • The third largest employment industry is public administration and defence compulsory social security accounting for 7.4 per cent of the total workforce; 59 per cent male and 41 per cent female. • Employment in professional scientific and technical activities only makes up 1.4 per cent of the total workforce. • Males dominate most industries, except activities including education, human health and social worker activities, financial and insurance activities, and activities within households as employers, in which females outnumber males. • Industries largely-dominated by males include the construction, transportation and storage; agriculture, forestry and fishing; electricity gas steam and air conditioning supply; water supply sewage waste management and remediation activities; professional scientific and technical activities; mining and quarrying; and real estate activities. Most of these industries involve hard labour, and more physical-oriented and trade-related work activities, that are traditionally male dominated. • Females slightly outnumber males in education and health and teaching and nursing professions which are traditionally female-dominated. • Females slightly outnumber males in financial and insurance activities.

(b) Population 10 years and over by industry, gender and age • There is a minimal age difference between male and female employment patterns across various industries. • Employment by industry shows a young workforce across all industries • The majority of persons employed in different industries are youth and middle-aged, with the number of employed persons declining as the population ages.

Income (a) Wage levels by gender • A high number of employed persons (19,457 in total or 35 per cent of employed persons in Samoa) did not state their wage levels at the time of the 2016 Census. • A total of 23,509 (or 42 per cent) employed persons in Samoa receive annual wage levels of $12,000 and below, with 22.4 per cent earning $5,001 to $12,000, while 20 per cent earn less than $5,000 per annum. • Only 1.7 per cent were earning a wage of above $79,000. • Given that males dominate Samoa’s workforce, they receive the highest wages at all levels, hence there is a disparity in wage levels between males and females. • Males dominate the low wage levels of up to $12,000 and higher wage ranges of $79,000 and over, showing a wider gap between males and females. • The gap between males and females becomes narrower in the middle wage ranges of $12,001-$79,000, reflecting the differences in occupations in which most males and females are employed. • Males are mostly employed in skilled agricultural, fishery and forestry, construction, transportation, and trades and craft-related occupations while females are mostly employed in professional and clerical occupations.

(b) Wage levels by gender and occupation • The majority of those earning annual wages below $5,000 are males, and are mostly employed in machinery-related occupations, followed by those in clerical roles. • The difference between the number of males and females earning wage ranges of between $12,001to $29,000, $29,001 to $49,000 and $49,001 to $79,000 is much less than those earning wages of less than $5,000 and $5,001 to $12,000. This is mainly because males dominate the skilled, trades, crafts and technicians/associated occupations that are usually remunerated at lower wage rates compared to remuneration levels for professional occupations. • While males receive more wages in most occupations compared to females, there are a few salary ranges where females outnumber males.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XVII - In the service and sales occupation, there are more females with wages of $12,001 to $29,000 and $29,001 to $49,000. - In the craft-related trade and food occupations, there are more females than males earning wages of $5,001 to $12,000, $12,001 to $29,000, and $29,001 to $49,000. - For professionals, there are more females earning wages of $12,001 to $29,000 than Ex ecutive summary

.males 

Household and assets (a) Household heads and compositions • The average household size for Samoa is seven persons per household. • The count of households in Samoa was 28,880 at the time of the 2016 Census. A total of 80,887 (or 41 per cent of 195,979) persons were part of households’ ‘own children’ (including foster children). • Heads of households account for 15 per cent of the total persons in households. • Spouses account for 10 per cent of the total persons in households. • Others contribute to 33 per cent of the total persons in households who may constitute extended family members. • Most heads of households (80 per cent) are males compared to only 20 per cent of females. • Given Samoa’s social structure, females who are heads of households are mostly widowed. • Most head/spouse parents are female (83 per cent), compared to only 17 per cent male, which may indicate that a mother/female parent is more likely to stay with the head/ spouse parent, rather than with the father/male parent.

(b) Land tenure • A total of 18,497 (or 64 per cent of 28,880) households are living on customary land, with 81 per cent of households headed by males and 19 per cent of households headed by females. There is a real gender difference here. • A total of 8,017 (or 28 per cent) households live on freehold land with 77 per cent male- headed households and 23 per cent female. • A total of 945 households (or 3 per cent) reside on church-owned land, with households headed by males (90 per cent) much higher than females (10 per cent) because the majority of church priests are males. • There are more males than females residing on business/employer-owned land and government-owned land, consistent with the higher labour force participation of males, and other types of land tenure arrangements. • Freehold land is where the gender disparity is least compared to all other types of land tenure. • The majority of households living on customary land are in Savaii (5,723 or 31 per cent) and then Rest of Upolu (5,450 or 29 per cent), which are the most rural areas of Samoa. • A total of only 1,933 households (or 10 per cent) are living on customary land in Apia Urban Area. • The majority of freehold land is in Apia Urban Area and North West of Upolu, hence most of those living on freehold land are in these urban areas, with 3,119 (39 per cent) in Apia Urban Area and 3,472 (43 per cent) in North West Upolu, while there are only 897 households (11 per cent) in Rest of Upolu and 529 (7 per cent) in Savaii. • Most households living on church-owned land are also found in urban areas, equating to 314 (33 per cent) for Apia Urban Area and 384 (41) for North West Upolu of the total households living on church-owned land. • There is a major variation or disparity between males and females in land tenure reflecting the patriarchal structure of society and associated land inheritance rights and traditions.

XVIII 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

(c) Access to mobile phone • The majority of private households using mobile phones are in the North West of Upolu, followed by those in Savaii and Apia Urban Area. • The Rest of Upolu has the lowest number of males and females with access to a mobile phone. • The proportion of private households with mobile phones is much higher for males than females across all regions. This may mean that males are more likely to have access to a phone compared to females.

Decision-making participation

Matai gender distribution (a) Matai by gender distribution • A total of only 15,929 (or 9.5 per cent) of the population in Samoa held matai titles at the time of the 2016 Census; 8.5 per cent were male, while 1.0 per cent were female. • A total of 151,747 (or 90.5 per cent) of the population in Samoa were without matai titles at the time of the 2016 Census, 42.9 per cent male and 47.6 per cent female. • The ratio of male matai to female matai is 9:1 – for every nine male matai in Samoa, there is only one female matai.

(b) Comparison of inter-census data on matai records • The total number of the population in Samoa with matai titles increased from 8.7 per cent in 2006 to 8.9 per cent in 2011 and further increased to 9.5 per cent by 2016. • The total number of male matai increased from 7.0 per cent in 2006 to 8.0 per cent in 2011, and to 8.5 per cent by 2016. • The total female matai decreased from 1.8 per cent in 2006 to 0.9 per cent in 2011, but increased to 1.0 per cent by 2016.

(c) Matai by gender and age • Matai holders in Samoa are aged 21 years and over. • The majority of male and female matai holders in Samoa are between the ages of 40 to 70-years-old. • Most females with matai titles are between the ages of 30 to 60-years-old.

(d) Matai distribution across region by gender • Most matai reside in Savaii (13 per cent), compared to 8.7 per cent in Apia Urban Area, 8.6 per cent in Rest of Upolu, and 8.1 per cent in North West Upolu. • The gender distribution is also skewed to Savaii where the majority of male matai holders reside. • Most female matai are found in Apia Urban Area.

(e) Matai distribution across district by gender • Gagaemauga II, Faasaleleaga IV, Faasaleleaga I, and Faasaleleaga II are the districts with the highest total number of matai holders, equating to 19 per cent, 16 per cent, 15 per cent, and 14 per cent respectively of the total population in each district eligible to hold a title. • Gagaemauga II, Faasaleleaga IV, Faasaleleaga I, and Faasaleleaga II are the districts with the highest total number of matai holders and has the highest proportion of male matai holders, equating to 17 per cent, 14 per cent, 13.8 per cent and 13 per cent respectively of persons with matai titles in each district. • Faasaleleaga IV, Vaimauga West and Gagaemauga II are the districts where the majority of female matai reside at 2 per cent, compared to only 1 per cent or lower in other districts.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XIX Gender voting patterns (a) Eligible to vote population • The total ‘eligible to vote population’ aged 21 years and over was 98,674 in 2016, compared to 93,075 in 2011– an increase of 6 per cent. • The 2016 Census male-to-female ‘eligible to vote population’ distribution is 51.1 per Ex ecutive summary

cent male and 48.9 per cent female. The 2011 Census male-to-female ‘eligible to vote  population’ distribution was 50.8 per cent male and 49.2 per cent female. • The female eligible to vote population grew slightly by 0.7 per cent compared with a minor drop of 0.6 per cent in the male eligible to vote population. • There are more potential male voters in Samoa.

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

(1) A high population dependency ratio is a burden on economic and social systems. The labour force participation among females (11.6 per cent) is much lower than males (28.8 per cent). A total of 75 per cent of economically inactive persons engaged in domestic duties in Samoa are females. This high dependency population demands the care of parents, especially mothers, hence the high number of females engaged in domestic duties, compared to males.

The gender implication of this dependent population is the low labour force participation among females. The prioritization of domestic roles (to care for young children), and limited flexible working arrangements (e.g. part-time work) for working mothers, presents women with restricted opportunities (including time and space) to further themselves (e.g. developing a career or business) and their livelihoods in the formal and informal sectors.

To address these imbalances, there is a need to enable women to participate in the labour force to achieve a balanced proportion of the population that is working, including an increased proportion of females. It is thus recommended to:

• Increase investments in women’s livelihoods (e.g. home-based small businesses) in order to address the gender inequality that exists with a young dependent population. • Consider the development of flexible working arrangements to enable more females with young families and children to participate in the workforce. • Encourage more females to undertaken continuous education, with the education system and programmes providing an enabling and flexible learning environment for females with young families and children to undertake further studies including distance or extramural studies and associated programmes to assist their transition into paid employment.

(2) Urbanization is a concern for urban and rural development and social issues. With 54 per cent of the population living in Apia Urban Area and North West Upolu, it signifies a major urban drift or urbanization in Samoa. The gender implications of the ongoing urban drift need a better understanding, including proper planning in ways that support the different needs of women, men and children. Addressing this developmental inequality will address gender disparities that exist across the different regions/districts in Samoa, including those that exist between females and males living in rural and urban areas – as per the data and evidence presented in this monograph. It is recommended to:

• Consider the development of a rural development policy for Samoa, integrated as part of the government district planning process. The policy needs to include a gender component addressing the gender inequalities/imbalances identified in this monograph and other analyses. • Provide incentives for people to move back to rural areas and for people in rural areas to remain in their communities, including paying special attention to the needs of women and children, especially those who are vulnerable.

XX 2016 Population and Housing Census  Ex ecutive summary

• Consider the establishment by policy and law of a governing body for residential areas in the urban areas not under the fa’amatai system. This governing body needs to be gender- oriented – able to look at addressing key gender inequality issues in these residential areas, including the needs of women especially those who are vulnerable (e.g. those living as squatters) and require social protection.

(3) The gender differences in marital status need a holistic consideration in policy and supporting programmes. There is a need for social support services for females and males faced with marital issues, which also involve children, especially the high prevalence rates of gender-based violence (GBV) in Samoa. Old age care for females (given they have a higher life expectancy than males) is needed when care is not provided by family members. It is recommended to:

• Note the gender differences in the marital status of females and males for holistic consideration in policy and programmes particularly for those who are separated, divorced or widowed. • Consider that more females in the long run will require social support services to deal with marital and child issue matters, especially when these matters are also related to the high prevalence of GBV (physical, sexual, and psychological) and violence against children in Samoa. • Consider the situation that more widowed women in Samoa in the long run will need support services with self-care at old age if care services are not provided by family members.

(4) Gender differences in religious attendance need consideration in policy and development programmes. The higher number of females attending recently-established churches needs consideration in advocacy and civil awareness programmes addressing gender, female and child issues. It is recommended to note the gender differences in the religious status of females and males for a holistic consideration in policy and programmes. For instance, the role of religions in gender equality and women’s empowerment interventions and programmes.

(5) School non-attendance, dropouts and widening rural-urban gap in non-attendance rates needs special consideration. School non-attendance among males and females, especially among males, and the widening rural-urban gap in school non-attendance have serious implications for a non-educated workforce and the development future of those not able to complete schooling. It is recommended:

• That the Government of Samoa, Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture and village councils seriously consider the situations of children and adolescents not going to school. This includes revisiting the school compulsory legislation and enforcement mechanisms. • That the Government of Samoa consider in its policy, planning and programmes the need to cater for the high number of school dropouts at the secondary school and college levels. • That the rural-urban gap in school attendance must be revisited and relevant actions taken to address high school non-attendance rates in rural areas. • That the Government and relevant authorities pay special attention to vulnerable families, parents and mothers with children who are not attending school. • To consider the possibility of establishing affirmative policy responses (e.g. scholarships, special assistance, and no school fees) for vulnerable families, parents, mothers and children not able or unwilling to provide education for themselves and their children.

(6) Males still outnumber females in academic achievements at postgraduate, master and PhD levels. Whilst there are more females continuing their education beyond secondary school and university preparatory year as well as undergraduate levels, continuing education beyond undergraduate levels remains limited for females compared to males. It is recommended to:

• Consider affirmative measures within Samoa’s scholarship schemes, national school and

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XXI university systems, employers’ human resource policy and programmes, development partners’ assistance, and other avenues to support more females to pursue higher studies, including options for child care and support. • Consider the establishment of scholarships for women through public and private sector support to encourage completion of post graduate studies. Ex ecutive summary

Support career pathways for women following completion of tertiary studies so that •  there is a reason for them to continue to pursue higher education.

(7) The average number of children per mother (total fertility rate) and adolescent birth rates are considered high for a country with a high dependency population. The average fertility rate of four children per female and the adolescent birth rate are considered high given Samoa’s high dependency population and that it is a small island developing country. It is recommended to:

• Encourage and emphasize sexual and reproductive health education particularly for females, given the emerging youth and teenager population levels, and in rural areas • Increase access to sexual and reproductive health services and information to enable women’s decision-making around family size. • Conduct in-depth assessments of females who have over five children as well as youth and teenage mothers who are most likely to have more than five children in the next 10 years, with a specific focus on those in rural areas. Those assessments will help identify mothers and females who are in the most vulnerable positions.

(8) Teenage pregnancy needs to be acknowledged as an issue in Samoa and needs to be addressed appropriately. It is recommended to:

• Consider ‘age-appropriate’, compulsory sex education at all levels of schooling. • Promote and encourage good reproductive health and safer sex for all teenagers, both females and males. • Conduct sexual and reproductive health education for teenagers and also for parents, village and church authorities, teachers and other government and community leaders. • Improve access to modern contraceptives especially their availability in public places and rural residential areas.

(9) Higher fertility rates in rural areas and among unemployed females need special consideration. The higher fertility rates in rural areas compared to urban areas as well as among vulnerable mothers who are unemployed and less educated needs special consideration. It is recommended to:

• Carry out an active campaign on sexual and reproductive health education targeting rural areas with high fertility rates. • Integrate as part of ongoing programmes on female empowerment and domestic violence advocacy activities addressing issues of sexual and reproductive health for females. • Conduct research to address gaps in existing knowledge about reproductive health issues in Samoa, such as determining levels of reproductive coercion, and understanding the differences in the fertility rates to devise appropriate programming support, including the link between fertility and maternal mortality rates.

(10) The needs of persons with disability and those at old ages should be addressed. There is a need for a specific focus on the intersectionality of gender including the elderly and women with a disability. Among the number of persons living with a disability, the proportion is higher among females than males with mobility and self-care (not able to care for own) being the domains of disability where the disparity is most marked. More females experience these forms of disability at old ages than males. Also, females tend to remain single (as widowed) at older ages compared to males. It is recommended to:

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• Revise the Samoa Disability Policy to incorporate the findings of this monograph – to ensure that the Policy reflects the needs of the population with a disability, including the particular needs of females with a disability as distinct from men, given the differences in population numbers of those with a disability, including recognizing women’s burden of caring for persons living with a disability. • Give special consideration to females given that a higher proportion of persons experiencing a disability are female and are also females within the old age group. • Give special consideration to females with mobility and self-care disabilities as these are the most common forms of disability in Samoa and among females.

(11) Females are more economically vulnerable than males. The fact that only 29 per cent of the economically active population is female, with the vast majority of females engaged in domestic roles is an indication of the situation faced by many females who are not able to participate in economic activities. The limited proportion of females seeking jobs at the time of the 2016 Census compared to males indicates that females may be less willing to join the workforce than males, reflecting a priority of domestic roles over employment. The economic empowerment of females, particularly the majority of them who are engaged in domestic roles and are not yet in the labour force, is essential to advance gender equity, social justice and poverty elevation. It is recommended to:

• Integrate the findings of this monograph into current, ongoing and future gender and female economic empowerment interventions and programmes. • Revisit Samoa’s employment policy and programmes to see if there is a gender dimension targeting employment issues faced by females in Samoa. • Initiate and develop relevant interventions and programmes aimed at encouraging females who are engaged in domestic roles to take up further studies, especially formal and non-formal training programmes and courses in trades and vocational education. • Encourage females and girls in the school system and industries where the majority of youth females are employed to take up studies in occupations that are traditionally male- dominated.

(12) Employed males and females aged 10 to 14 years are considered child labour. The employment of 86 children and adolescents, mostly boys aged 10 to14 years, is considered child labour. This means that they have missed out on their educational life as part of their development as adolescents, youth and adults. These 86 children and adolescents should be given special consideration as persons in vulnerable circumstances who are not able to attend school but are already working for themselves and families. It is recommended:

• That the government and other relevant authorities closely examine the situations of these 86 child labour cases for relevant action. • To establish reasons and factors for child labour and school non-attendance among children and adolescents. • To consult with parents/guardians on their children’s labour and school non-attendance and the implications. • To provide special measures to address the issues of these 86 cases of child labour.

(13) The status of females as household heads and access to land and communication need consideration in female empowerment activities. Females are more economically, political and socially vulnerable than males given that the majority of land is customary land under the control of matai, with the matai system being male dominant as are household heads. These deeply- seated gender inequality realities in Samoa’s social structure will continue to be in place in the long-term, and need acknowledgement and advocacy for change. It is recommended to:

• Note the subtleties concerning gender inequalities in Samoa’s social structure and including religious beliefs in interventions aimed at addressing gender and female empowerment.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XXIII • Carefully consider in awareness programmes on gender inequality those gender inequality subtleties that do exist for a more nuanced understanding and appropriate actions.

(14) Support women’s leadership, including addressing the lack of female matai as well as the limited Ex ecutive summary

participation of females in village councils. The limited number of females who are matai, and the  rare participation of females who are matai in village councils, is a discrimination that prohibits the empowerment of females to progress into governance and decision-making roles. Addressing this issue is a prerequisite to addressing gender inequalities at deeper local levels which will in turn address the same at the national level. It is recommended to:

• Establish a national law explicitly disallowing villages not to prohibit females from becoming matai and to sit on village councils. • Enact and enforce village by-laws to encourage more females to become matai and to sit on village councils. • Continue advocacy programmes promoting the significant role females play asmatai in their families, villages and districts. • As a key focus of the government and stakeholders to close the gaps on gender inequality, conduct a gendered analysis of laws, policies and governance structures across all national and local systems. On the basis of the evidence established from this analysis, identify the key gender inequality gaps and provide sound recommendations on how to address these gaps. • Develop and implement a national policy that every policy, legislation and programme, including the national budget, should have a gender analysis component before they are further considered and approved. • Design a special programme encouraging urban female matai to participate in village affairs and at village council meetings.

(15) There is a need for more research into areas of gender disparities as highlighted by the evidence presented in this monograph. Further research and investigations are recommended to provide solid and well-grounded explanations about trends and patterns of gender inequalities from this analysis of census and administrative data. These include the need for further qualitative research and analysis to establish reasons and answers to questions related to causality. Apart from research already identified under the recommendations outlined above, other key research needs include, but are not limited, to the following:

• Population demographics and dynamics and gender implications - National gender population ◦ Establish a good understanding about the implications of the changing demographics and dynamics of Samoa’s population on its environmental, economic and social development, including predictions on needed development trends and services that are required to accommodate changing population demographics/dynamics. ◦ Undertake additional research on the reasons for and factors underlying gender norms and attitudinal aspects of Samoa’s population and society. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors relating to the higher growth in the female population compared to the growth in the male population. ◦ Undertake evidence-based analyses of the implications of the young population of Samoa from different perspectives - political, economic, social, gender and environmental. ◦ Establish a good understanding about the implications of the changing demographics and dynamics of Samoa’s population on its environmental, economic and social development.

- Region, district and village gender population ◦ Undertake evidence-based analyses (including a gender analysis component) to explore the reasons and factors for the large number of the population (including

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women and children) living in the North West Upolu, and the small number living in the bigger island of Savaii. ◦ Undertake evidence-based analyses of the gender differences across population areas – by region, district, villages and sub-villages in both traditional and non- traditional defined villages. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors for why there are more females living in the district of Gagaemauga II compared to all other districts where there are more male residents. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors for why there are more females living in the village of Vaitele Fou and more males living in the villages of Faleasiu, Vaiusu and Fasitoouta compared to other villages.

- Citizenship and migration ◦ Establish the gender implications of having dual citizenship including citizenship differences between males and females. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors for why there are more males than females with New Zealand, China, Australia, Tonga, other Pacific island countries, and other Asian countries citizenship, while there are more females than males with European, Japanese or Canadian citizenship status living in Samoa. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors behind the low internal migration in Samoa – between regions and villages. ◦ Establish the gender implications of the urban drift in Samoa – political, economic, social, gender and environmental perspectives. ◦ Establish whether males or females tend to migrate and to what extent – in terms of internal (village-village) migration and overseas migration.

- Marital status ◦ Establish the reasons, factors and implications of why females are more likely to get married (especially at a young age), divorce/separate or be widowed compared to males. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors behind why more males are single than females.

- Religious status ◦ Establish the reasons, factors and implications of why there are more females associated with a religious belief as well as with the newly-established churches, compared to males.

• Education - Establish the reasons and factors and implications of the 7 per cent of the population who have never attended school in their lifetime. - Provide solid evidence about the key influences (e.g. tradition/culture) on the education differences between males and females, including the gender differences by location (rural and urban). - Research to establish key factors and reasons behind the widening urban and rural gap in males and females not attending school across different age groups, taking into account differences in social and economic situations. - Research to establish the key factors and reasons behind the ‘push out’ as well as ‘drop out’ of males and females – from different perspectives – e.g. school system’s entry requirements, parental aspects. - Research, including a gender analysis, to establish the reasons, factors and implications of the 902 children who were not attending school at the time of the 2016 Census. - Establish the factors and reasons why more males pursue and complete postgraduate qualifications compared to females, while it is the opposite for undergraduate qualifications where there are more females than males. - Research to establish the implications of illiteracy levels among females and males.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph XXV • Health - Determine the implications of the increased life expectancy of both males and females on Samoa’s economic and social development. - Establish the reasons and factors behind the high fertility rates in Samoa, with disaggregation by age group, region/village, and including establishing relationships Ex ecutive summary

.between fertility and religious, cultural factors, and other belief systems  - Research to provide qualitative explanations on the current fertility differentials as outlined under Section 2.3.1 e) above. - Research to explain the factors or reasons behind the differences in mortality rates among males and females. - Research to provide more explanation about the population with disabilities in relation to the status of their disability and access to needed services, including gender differences and inequalities in disability status and access to services as well as the implications.

• Employment, income, households and assets - Research to establish more qualitative groundings (reasons, factors, and implications) of the gender differences in the areas of employment, households and asset ownership, across different age groups, industries, occupational groups, location, etc. - Research to provide solid evidences about the key influences (e.g. tradition/culture) on the employment differences between males and females. - Establish the gender implications of the different types of economic activity with a focus on vulnerable employment (subsistence and unpaid work). - Research on human resource needs for the future economy of Samoa and special measures to adopt to increase women’s labour force participation. - Research to explore the current status and conditions (location, living conditions, parental care, etc.) of children already working with a specific focus on the vulnerable.

• Decision-making participation - Research to provide solid evidence on the key factors and reasons for the non- participation of female matai in village council meetings, including those relating to the limited number of female matai in Samoa. - Research to establish solid evidence on the key factors and reasons why there are more female matai in the Apia Urban Area compared to other regions, as well as in Faasaleleaga IV, Vaimauga West and Gagaemauga II districts compared to other districts.

• General - Conduct comparative research (investigations, assessments, analyses, etc.) at the regional and global levels on key gender inequality and equality areas identified in this Samoa Gender Monograph.

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Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and context

Samoa is a small island developing country in the South Pacific. It was the first Pacific Island Country to become independent in 1962 from the colonial rule of Germany in 1899 and New Zealand in 1914. It consists of four main islands – Savaii, Upolu, Manono and Apolima. Upolu, the main island, is where the capital of Apia is located.

Samoa’s governance system is a blend of the Westminster system of government and the local fa’aSamoa system where only matai1 stand for elections to national parliament. The local village-based community is governed by matai (chiefs) under the fa’amatai (chiefly system), which operates relatively independent from the national government in terms of decision-making, law and order, and village affairs. Christianity is the main religion with the Congregational Christian Church of Samoa (CCCS), Methodist, Roman Catholic and Mormon as the main churches.

Samoa has a narrow and open economy dependent on agriculture, fishing, tourism, remittances and service industries. It is highly vulnerable to natural disasters, climate change and external shocks. Table 1 summarizes Samoa’s development performance based on global development indicators. Samoa is ranked 104 under the United Nations’ Human Development Index. It is classified as an upper middle-income country under the World Bank’s classification of countries based on income levels.

Table 1.1: Samoa national development performance

National Performance indicators Samoa’s status Human Development Index 104 (rank out of 188 countries) (2018)2

MDGs 2, 4 and 7 were on track but MDGs 1, 3 (gender), 5 and 6 MDGs3 (now replaced by SDGs)4 were mixed in achievements (2015)

Classification by income level (World Bank)5 Upper middle income (2018)

Gross National Income (World Bank, 2016) US$4,120 (2016)

Population below national basic needs poverty lines 18.8 per cent (2016)

Sources: SBS and UNDP (2016), UN (2015a, 2015b), World Bank (2016).

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which replaced the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) at the end of 2015, are the globally agreed development goals of the United Nations. The

1 Matai (chiefs, heads of lineages) hold titles (ancestral names) that are the common property of a lineage comprising all those who are ancestrally connected (suli) to the title. Titles are conferred by a consensus decision among the elders of the lineage. 2 See http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries. 3 The six priority millennium development goals (MDGs) were: eradicate extreme hunger and poverty; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; and combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. (See http://www.ws.undp.org/content/samoa/en/home/post-2015/ mdgoverview.html). 4 The 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) are: end poverty in all its forms everywhere; end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture; ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages; ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all; achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls; ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all; ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all; promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all; build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation; reduce inequality within and among countries; make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable; protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reserve land degradation and halt biodiversity loss; promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels; strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development. 5 Classifications range from low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income, based on Gross National Income per capita. See https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 1 2015 MDG reports show that for Samoa, three MDGs were on track, but another four s had mixed achievements. Improved progress was noted in primary education access and enrolment, child mortality, maternal health, water quality, and a reduction in infection diseases (UN, 2015b). Post- I ntroduction achievements included “significant progress in halving the proportion of the population living 2015  below the basic needs poverty line from 27 per cent (2008) to just over 10 per cent (2015) and marked improvements in the representation of women in parliament following the 2016 elections. As well, Samoa graduated out of Least Developed Country status in 2014.” (UN, 2016, p. 1).

However, the Pacific MDGs report, which combined an assessment of Samoa’s performance with all other Pacific island countries as a region, notes that:

• “Gender inequality persists despite more representation of women in parliament and more girls going to school. • Women continue to face discrimination in access to work, economic assets and participation in private and public decision-making. • About 800 million people still live in extreme poverty and suffer from hunger. • Children from the poorest 20 per cent of households are more than twice as likely to be stunted as those from the wealthiest 20 per cent and are also four times as likely to be out of school.” (UN, 2015a).

Further, the first quadrennial Pacific Sustainable Development Report (2018) noted the following challenges and areas of gender equality in development for the region inclusive of Samoa:

• One in four Pacific islanders live under their national poverty line. • There is increasing inequality among marginalized population groups and for people living in remote communities. • Unemployment, particularly of females and young people, is a major concern, with youth unemployment averaging 23 per cent in the Pacific Region compared with the global average of 13 per cent. • Pacific males outnumber Pacific women 2:1 in formal employment. • Gender inequality in the region is manifested in high prevalence rates of violence against women, with rates of more than 60 per cent in Melanesia, and more than 40 per cent in Polynesian and Micronesia. 6 • The burden of cervical cancer caused by the sexually transmitted Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is significant. • Pacific governments allocate very limited financing to national institutions and initiatives to address gender equality and persons with disabilities development. • Non communicable diseases (NCDs) are at crisis levels in the Pacific... and account for up to 84 per cent of deaths in some cases (Fiji and Samoa). • Obesity and diabetes rates are among the highest worldwide, and are much greater than the estimated global prevalence of 10 per cent, with over 50 per cent of the population in 10 Pacific island countries being overweight. • While access to education has improved, quality remains a challenge… results such as literacy and numeracy have not made the expected gains for all. • Pacific women hold the lowest percentage of Parliamentary seats worldwide with only 7.7 per cent of seats in national parliaments in Forum Islands Countries held by women. • Despite the call by leaders for increased collection and use of sex-disaggregated data across sectors, the lack of investments in national budgets remains a major obstacle. (PIFS, 2018, pp. viii - xv).

6 “Approximately two in three Pacific women reported having experienced physical and/or sexual violence from their spouse/ partner during their life – very high by world standards.” (UNDAF for the Pacific Region (2013-2017, p.21).

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1.2 Gender and development

1.2.1 Gender and development in Samoa It is widely acknowledged that males and females have different roles in society, different needs and interests, and different access and control over resources. Understanding these differences is key to addressing gender inequalities. In Samoa, females have performed academically well compared to their male counterparts. As such, females are making good progress in career progression across various professions. For instance, around 60 per cent of second-level positions in the public service are held by females. Also, some of the well-performing non-government organizations (NGOs) and private businesses are run by females. Nevertheless, there remain key challenges and issues that Samoa continues to face which prevent and constrain the ability and capacity of females to fully utilize their potential. These key challenges include a:

• Low numbers of females in political decision-making at all levels – such as in village councils, state-owned enterprises’ governance boards, and national parliament.7 • Low numbers of females who are matai. • Low numbers of females who actively participate in the village council of chiefs. • High levels of GBV against women and girls (see Ombudsman/National Human Rights Institution, June 2018). 8 • High rates of unemployed female youth. • High rates of teenage pregnancy. • High rates of STIs (e.g. chlamydia). (Meleisea et al., 2015; MWCSD, 2007, 2015, 2016, 2017; Ombudsman/National Human Rights Institution, June 2018; SLRC, 2016; SNYC, 2017; UN, 2017b; UNFPA, 2014 2015b).

In Samoa, females play a prominent role in many spheres of society; and these roles are widely acknowledged. This is realized in the establishment of village women committees where matters relating to female issues, health and welfare are voiced and discussed among village females. However, those committees are separate from the village council (of matai) which is the paramount governing and decision-making institution of villages and families (aiga).9 Only 10 per cent of matai and 3 per cent of Pulenu’u (village mayors) are female (Meleisea et al., 2015; MWCSD, 2015). Most females who are matai rarely sit and participate in village councils. In this respect, females are marginalized in that their voices are not consistently heard in decision-making at the village level. Given the low number of female matai and the fact that only matai can stand for election to national parliament, pathways for more females in national parliament and decision-making roles at the national level are limited. Only five females sit in the national parliament, equating to 10 per cent of parliamentary seats. This 10 per cent female representation in Parliament (following a 2013 Constitutional amendment) guarantees a “floating” five reserved seats for women. In the last elections in 2016, four females were elected from a total of 24 women who ran (which was a 300 per cent increase from the previous elections). An additional one seat (for women) led to a total of five women in Parliament, and a total of 50 number of seats in Parliament (from 49 in the previous election).

Addressing the above-mentioned challenges of gender in Samoa requires up-to-date and quality data and analysis on gender — to inform relevant policy interventions and programmes as well as to monitor and evaluate progress towards achieving SDG 5. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5: “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” is an acknowledgement by the international community that gender equality is a prerequisite to advancing social justice and sustainable development (UN, 2017a). As such, the regional Pacific SDG indicator framework (see Annex 1) calls for sex-disaggregated indicators and gender statistics to reflect not only gender equality and the empowerment of women but also poverty, food security, education, health, decent work,

7 Samoa is ranked 165 of 192 countries in the world classification of women in national parliaments (seehttp://archive.ipu. org/wmn-e/classif.htm, accessed 23/12/2019). 8 The 2018 Samoa National Human Rights Institution reported that “9 out of 10 children in Samoa experience violence in their lifetime”, with child sexual abuse and incest reaching ‘epidemic’ proportions (Ombudsman & NHRI, 2018, p. 6). There is a strong connection between violence against women and violence against children and young girls (see UNICEF, 2015). 9 Aiga means an extended family in Samoa related by blood, marriage and matai titles belonging to a clan or groups of families.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 3 peace and justice, climate change and other development areas. The Pacific SDG indicators directly related to gender including sex-disaggregated and gender statistical needs are as follows: I ntroduction SDG Goal Indicators  1.1.1 Proportion of population below the international poverty line, by sex, age, employment status and geographical location (urban/rural). 1.2.1 Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age. 1.2.2 Proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions. 1.3.1 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex, distinguishing children, unemployed persons, older persons, persons with disabilities, pregnant women, newborns, work-injury victims and the poor and the vulnerable.

2.3.2 Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status.

3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio. 3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate. 3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15 to 49 years) who have their need for family planning satisfied with modern methods. 3.7.2 Adolescent birth rate (aged 10 to 24 years; aged 15 to 19 years) per 1,000 women in these age groups. 3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services (defined as the average coverage of essential services based on tracer interventions that include reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health, infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases and service capacity and access, among the general and the most disadvantaged populations).

4.1.1 Proportion of children and young people: (a) in Grades 2/3; (b) at the end of primary; and at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a minimum proficiency level in (i) reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex. 4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry age), by sex. 4.3.1 Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, by sex. 4.5.1 Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated. 4.6.1 Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex. 4.7.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all levels in: (a) national education policies; b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment. 4.a.1 Proportion of schools with access to: (a) electricity; (b) the internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (d) adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic hand washing facilities (as per the WASH indicator definitions).

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SDG Goal Indicators 5.1.1 Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non- discrimination on the basis of sex. 5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age. 5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence. 5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20 to 24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18. 5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location. 5.5.1 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments and (b) local governments. 5.5.2 Proportion of women in managerial positions. 5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15 to 49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care. (5.6.2) Number of countries with a reproductive health policy, guidelines and protocols for service delivery fully or partially resourced.* 5.a.2 Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control. 5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex. 5.c.1 Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women’s empowerment.

6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely-managed drinking water services. 6.2.1 Proportion of population using safely-managed sanitation services including a hand washing facility with soap and water. 6.3.1 Proportion of wastewater safely treated.

7.1.1 Proportion of population with electricity. 7.2.1 Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption. 7.a.1 International financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy research and development and renewable energy production, including in hybrid systems. 7.b.1 Investments in energy efficiency as a proportion of the gross domestic product (GDP) and the amount of foreign direct investment in financial transfer for infrastructure and technology to sustainable development services.

8.1.1 Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita. 8.3.1 Proportion of informal employment in non-agriculture employment, by sex. 8.5.1 Average hourly earnings of female and male employees, by occupation, age and persons with disabilities. 8.5.2 Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities. 8.6.1 Proportion of youth (aged 15 to 24 years) not in education, employment or training. 8.9.1 Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate. 8.9.2 Proportion of jobs in sustainable tourism industries out of total tourism jobs. 8.10.2 Proportion of adults (aged 15+) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with mobile-money service provider. 8.a.1 Aid for trade commitments and disbursement.

10.2.1 Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income, by sex, age and persons with disabilities responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group.

16.1.3 Proportion of population subjected to physical, psychological or sexual violence in the previous 12 months. 16.3.1 Proportion of victims of violence in the previous 12 months who reported their victimization to competent authorities or other officially recognized conflict resolution mechanisms. 16.6.1 Primary government expenditures as a proportion of original approved budget, by sector (or by budget codes or similar). 16.7.1 Proportions of positions (by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups) in public institutions (national and local legislatures, public service, and judiciary) compared to national distributions. 16.7.2 Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group.

Source: SPC (2016) Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 5 The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA, 2017) similarly recognizes that: “The empowerment of all women and girls, and reproductive rights… in development and humanitarian settings” will achieve “universal access to sexual and reproductive health, realized reproductive rights and reduced maternal I ntroduction mortality, to accelerate progress on the agenda of the International Conference on Population and  Development (ICPD) and to improve the lives of women, adolescents and youth”.

The Government of Samoa recognizes the centrality of gender equality and women’s empowerment in development through its 2016-2020 Strategy for the Development of Samoa’s (SDS) Outcome 8.1: “Inclusion of vulnerable groups (women, youth, people with disabilities, children, elderly and disadvantaged people) in community planning and governance activities will be enhanced”.

The 2016-2021 Samoa’s Community Development Plan Outcome 1: Improved Inclusive Governance at all levels and Community Development and the 2016-2020 National Policy for Gender Equality Policy Priority Outcome 4: Increased participation of women in public leadership and decision-making further identify strategic actions for gender equality. These include community advocacy, media campaigns and partnerships encouraging and supporting women’s engagement in village planning and decision-making, continuing community conversations, and amending the Village Fono Act 1990 to enable women to actively participate in village councils. Official information about how the above Gender Equality Policy is being implemented and progress made on outcome areas was not available at the time of writing this monograph.

1.2.2 Why a gender monograph Evidence-based assessments and evaluation of Samoa’s progress towards SDG 5 and indicators on gender equality require quality and robust gender analyses based on reliable data and information. Taking gender differences into account and overcoming gender inequality is also an obligation under international law; the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), as well as other human rights commitments such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) as summarized in the Universal Periodic Review.

Addressing gender equality is essential for addressing core issues of human rights, social justice and sustainable development. Widely acknowledged is the direct link between gender inequality and poverty as well as low economic performance. Addressing gender issues is a prerequisite for addressing poverty and the basic needs of children, families and communities.

Gender is a development concept. It provides an analytical lens and tool for understanding development processes at a deeper level. Every development or public policy area and issue (in health, education, the environment, climate change, social justice, employment, business, etc.) has a gender dimension that needs to be well-understood so that it can be appropriately addressed. Approaching an issue with a gender lens brings about a better perspective on the inequalities, disparities, marginalization, poverty gaps and critical needs that exist in communities and societies.

A better understanding of gender and gender developmental issues and needs are required to inform appropriate policy responses as well as the best ways on how to implement programmes targeting key social and economic inequalities. This is informed by having accurate data and analysis interpreted with a gender worldview and constructed with an informed understanding that gender inequality is a reality of every society which needs addressing.

The limitation of accurate and up-to-date sex-disaggregated data is a common challenge of national statistical systems. Samoa is no exception to this issue. Often data is available but are not properly analysed, interpreted and presented in a manner that people can easily understand, comprehend and use. This monograph aims to address this gap – to analyse and publish data specifically for gender analysis and purposes. It is the first of its kind in Samoa with the expectation that the production of gender monographs will become a standard practice in the future for the purpose of providing up-to- date information on gender analysis for policy and programming purposes.

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1.3 Methodology

Given the objectives of this monograph, data analysis and interpretation in this report are presented using a gender lens. It is a gender analysis of census data to help “build up the evidence-base informing development policies and programmes in a way that takes into account the specific needs of women and men, and girls and boys”. (UNFPA, 2015a).

Analysis presented in this report are based on available data from censuses and surveys conducted by the Samoa Bureau of Statistics (SBS). The 2016 Census data was extracted, processed and analysed using CSPro 6.3 as well as Census Briefs produced by the SBS. Available reports and statistical tables on previous censuses were used for trend analyses.

Data and information from other sources such as the Secretariat of the Pacific Community’s statistics for development’s online datasets and forecasts, demographic and health surveys, administrative data and information of relevant government authorities (Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development (MWCSD), Public Service Commission (PSC), Ministry of Public Enterprises (MPE), Office of the Electoral Commissioner (OEC), National University of Samoa (Martinussen), etc.) were extracted to fill gaps in data available from the SBS.

1.4 Concepts and definitions

Sex refers to the biological and physiological differences between males and females. Sex characteristics of being a female or male at birth are universal and are relatively fixed.

Gender refers to socio-cultural differences and social relationships between females and males that can change, over time for the same individual, and differ within and among societies. This includes the different responsibilities of females and males in a given culture or location, and the allocation of power and resources based on gender-based social constructions.

Sex versus gender - while sex is a biological feature and hence relatively fixed, gender is a social construct that can change over time depending on a society’s social, political and economic structure. Feminine versus masculine is often referred to as gender differences while female versus male is referred to as sex differences.

Gender monograph is a specific analysis of the social differences that exist between females and males. It is not about females per se or looking at females as an isolated group. Rather, it is a gender analysis involving the examination of the differences that exist between males and females. This is to determine power relationships and how certain behaviours come to be socially perceived and constructed for females, and for males (UNFPA, 2015a). As such, gender cannot be analysed on its own; it needs to be examined as a concept, issue and dimension in the context in which gender is socially constructed, in connection as well to the overall social-political and economic setting of a society and country.

1.5 Limitations

This report relies mainly on data collected and available in national censuses, surveys and other available administrative sources. As such, only aspects of gender for which available data exists are analysed and presented in this report.

Given the quantitative nature of censuses and surveys, they typically lack the details for the purposes of an in-depth gender analysis. Responding to questions of ‘why’ means there is a need for other data sources including qualitative studies to enable a deeper or more meaningful interpretation of information provided in census and survey data given their universal coverage. Further research and analysis will be needed to provide in-depth explanations about trends and patterns shown by quantitative data analysis.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 7 1.6 Outline of the monograph report

The remaining parts of the report are as follows: I ntroduction  • Chapter 2 presents a gender data analysis of the population of Samoa’s demographics and dynamics. • Chapter 3 presents a gender data analysis of the population of Samoa’s education. • Chapter 4 presents a gender data analysis of the population of Samoa’s health and well- being. • Chapter 5 presents a gender data analysis of the population of Samoa’s employment, income, housing and assets. • Chapter 6 presents a gender data analysis of the decision-making participation of females and males in Samoa. • Chapter 7 concludes with implications and recommendations for possible actions.

8 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Chapter 2. POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS AND DYNAMICS

2.1 Introduction and overview

The development of a country is shaped to a considerable extent by its population demographics and vice versa. As well, a country’s demographics are, or should be, shaped by development policy and progress. Understanding population demographics and dynamics is essential for initiating, formulating and implementing policies and programmes aimed at changing a country’s environmental, social-political and economic demographics, dynamics and development prospects. The following sections analyse the gender demographics of Samoa in terms of the overall population, citizenship and migration, marital status, and religion.

Samoa’s total population by region, district and village10 as per the 2016 Census is shown in Annex 2. Samoa’s total population recorded at the 2016 Census was 195,979 persons, with 100,892 (51 per cent) male, and 95,087 (49 per cent) female.

Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1 depict Samoa’s inter-census population growth as well as the growth in the male and female populations. The total population increased by 9.6 per cent from 1991 to 2001 (10- year period), but grew at a lesser rate of 2.3 per cent, 3.9 per cent and 4.3 per cent within a five-year period, from 2001 to 2006, 2006 to 2011, and 2011 to 2016, respectively.

Based on the 4.3 per cent increase in 2016, the estimated annual population growth rate was 0.9 per cent; an additional 1,632 people per year. Samoa’s population is estimated to reach 239,100 by 2050, based on an estimated growth rate of 0.8 per cent (SPC, 2018).

Table 2.1: Samoa population and growth by sex and census years, 1981–2016

Total Population Total Total Male Female Census Year % Males % Females Population growth % Males Females growth % growth % 1951 84,909

1961 114,427 34.8% 58,785 55,642 51% 49% 34.2% 35.3%

1971 146,647 28.2% 75,950 70,677 52% 48% 29.1% 27.0%

1981 156,349 6.6% 81,027 75,322 52% 48% 6.7% 6.6%

1991 161,298 3.2% 84,601 76,697 52% 48% 4.4% 1.8%

2001 176,710 9.6% 92,050 84,660 52% 48% 8.8% 10.4%

2006 180,741 2.3% 93,677 87,064 52% 48% 1.8% 2.8%

2011 187,820 3.9% 96,990 90,830 52% 48% 3.5% 4.3%

2016 195,979 4.3% 100,892 95,087 51% 49% 4.0% 4.7%

Source: SBS (2017a).

10 Samoa society is made up of village-based communities. District is a grouping of villages based on kinship and geographical linages (fa’alupega o nuu ma alalafaga or matai traditional salutations). Region refers to a defined grouping of districts in Samoa based on geographical settings.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 9 Figure 2.1: Samoa inter-census population and growth by sex and census years, 1961–2016

3.% 9.% 8.% 8.% 6.% 4.% 7.% .% .% 18.% 16.% 14.% 1.% 1.4% 1.% 6.6% 9.6% 8.% 6.6% 4.4% 4.3% 4.7% 6.% 8.8% .8% 4.% 6.7% 3.9% 4.3% 3.% .3% P opulation demographics and dynamics .%

3.5%  1.8% 1.8% 4.% .% 19611971 1971 1981 1981 1991 1991 1 1 6 6 11 11 16 Population ot Males ot Feales ot

Source: SBS (2017a).

2.2 National population by gender

2.2.1 Population growth – male-to-female comparison Figure 2.1 provides Samoa’s gender population growth; the increase in the total male versus female populations from the previous census to the next census (i.e. 1981-1991, 1991-2001, 2001-2006, 2006-2011, and 2011-2016). The significant trend to note is that the growth in the female population recorded at every census since 2001 is higher than the growth in the male population, and higher than the growth for Samoa’s overall population. The only exception is the 1991 Census, where the male population increased by 4.4 per cent from the 1981 to 1991 censuses, while the female population grew by only 1.8 per cent during the same period (see Table 2.1). This provides an indication that while males dominate Samoa’s population landscape, the female population appears to grow at a faster rate than the male population.

2.2.2 Population distribution – male-to-female ratio Figure 2.2 shows Samoa’s gender population distribution based on the eight censuses from 1961 up to the 2016 Census. In 1961, 51 per cent of the total population was male and 49 per cent was female, a difference of 2 per cent. In 1971, this difference (i.e. ‘male-to-female’ ratio) rose to 4 per cent, with males increasing to 53 per cent and females to 47 per cent. In 1981, the ratio decreased by 6 per cent, with males decreasing to 52 per cent and females to 48 per cent. This 6 per cent ratio remained the same in subsequent census years up to 2011. In 2016, the ‘male-to-female’ ratio decreased by 2 per cent, with 51 per cent of the total population male and 49 per cent female. This means that in the 2016 census – the latest – the sex ratio at birth was 106, meaning there were 106 male births for every 100 female births.11 Males still dominate Samoa’s gender population, with the ‘male-to-female’ ratio fluctuating between a difference of 2 per cent, 4 per cent and 6 per cent over the eight censuses from 1961 to 2016.

11 Compared to other Pacific island countries, Fiji’s male-to-female ratio is 102 (see https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/), while that for Tonga is 99 (more females than males) (see https://tonga.prism.spc.int/component/advlisting/?view=download&fileId=2478).

10 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Figure 2.2: Samoa population sex ratio by census years, 1961–2016

16 51% 49% 11 5% 48% 6 5% 48% 1 5% 48% 1991 5% 48% 1981 5% 48% 1971 53% 47% 1961 51% 49%

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Male Feale

Source: SBS (2017a).

2.2.3 Population pyramid Table 2.2 and Figure 2.3 show Samoa’s population distribution by sex ratio and by age group for the 2016 Census. Samoa’s population remained relatively young with 50 per cent of the total population below the age of 21-years-old and 38 per cent aged 14 years and below (see Annex 3 for the population numbers by single age).12 This means that half of the population of Samoa are in the dependent school ages. Samoa’s retired population, those aged 55 years and above, equates to 11 per cent of the total population, with 8 per cent at the ages of 60 years and above.

Those at the working ages of 15 to 64 years constitute 57 per cent of the total population of Samoa, while those at the dependency ages of 0 to 14 and 65+ years equate to 43 per cent. The age dependency ratio is 84 per cent, which is high given that the largest number of dependents in Samoa are in the younger age groups.

From the youngest age group to the age group of 64-years-old, there are more males than females. This means that there are more males at infant, school, youth, and up to the middle-aged groups. However, from the 65 year and above age group, there are more females than males. This means that females live longer than males at the retired and old ages of 65 years and over.

A comparion of the 2006 and 2016 Censuses (10-year timeframe) shows that Samoa is slowing moving out of a baby boomer population structure. The proportion of the population at the youngest ages is decreasing while the proportion at older ages is increasing. This reflects a trend of declining fertility over the years in Samoa (see Section 4.3 on fertility). This is a positive trend - Samoa needs to lessen its dependency population (young and old aged persons) and increase its working population in the middle-aged groups (see section 5.2 for a further discussion on this subject).

12 Samoa has a much younger population compared to other Pacific island countries. For instance, 14 per cent of Samoa’s population is below the age of 5 while Fiji has only 10 per cent of its population below the age of 5 years 102 (see https:// www.statsfiji.gov.fj/). For Tonga, 12 per cent of its population are at the age level of below the age of 5 (see https://tonga. prism.spc.int/component/advlisting/?view=download&fileId=2478).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 11 Table 2.2: Samoa population by age and sex, 2016 Census

2016 Census 2006 Census Age Total Male Female Total Female group Male Female Ratio Male Female Male (%) population (%) (%) population (%)

0-4 28,159 14,601 13,558 14.47% 14.37% 108 24,737 12,893 11,844 13.76% 13.60%

5-9 25,019 13,151 11,868 13.03% 12.77% 111 23,547 12,321 11,226 13.15% 12.89%

10-14 21,438 11,056 10,382 10.96% 10.94% 106 22,653 11,810 10,843 12.61% 12.45%

15-19 18,952 9,968 8,984 9.88% 9.67% 111 17,945 9,457 8,488 10.10% 9.75%

20-24 15,919 8,184 7,735 8.11% 8.12% 106 14,057 7,456 6,601 7.96% 7.58%

25-29 13,332 6,700 6,632 6.64% 6.80% 101 12,494 6,478 6,016 6.92% 6.91%

30-34 11,916 6,051 5,865 6.00% 6.08% 103 11,870 6,146 5,724 6.56% 6.57%

P opulation demographics and dynamics 35-39 10,799 5,564 5,235 5.51% 5.51% 106 11,319 6,017 5,302 6.42% 6.09% 

40-44 10,252 5,333 4,919 5.29% 5.23% 108 9,724 5,029 4,695 5.37% 5.39%

45-49 9,774 5,240 4,534 5.19% 4.99% 116 8,249 4,307 3,942 4.60% 4.53%

50-54 8,448 4,336 4,112 4.30% 4.31% 105 6,711 3,423 3,288 3.65% 3.78%

55-59 7,010 3,658 3,352 3.63% 3.58% 109 4,819 2,485 2,334 2.65% 2.68%

60-64 5,225 2,667 2,558 2.64% 2.67% 104 3,811 1,868 1,943 1.99% 2.23%

65-69 3,475 1,702 1,773 1.69% 1.77% 96 3,270 1,575 1,695 1.68% 1.95%

70-74 2,688 1,267 1,421 1.26% 1.37% 89 2,346 1,109 1,237 1.18% 1.42%

75+ 3,429 1,330 2,099 1.32% 1.75% 63 3,131 1,256 1,875 1.34% 2.15%

Not stated 144 84 60 0.08% 0.07% 140 58 47 11 0.05% 0.01%

Total 195,979 100,892 95,087 100% 100% 106 180,741 93,677 87,064 100% 100%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System; (SBS, 2007a).

Figure 2.3: Samoa population distribution between census years, 2006–2016

75 .1 .1 . . 774 .1 .1 .1 .1 6569 . . . . 664 . .3 .3 . 5559 .3 .4 .4 .3 554 .4 .4 .4 .4 4549 .5 .5 .5 .5 444 .5 .5 .5 .5 3539 .6 .6 .6 .6

Age Group 334 .7 .6 .6 .7 59 .7 .7 .7 .7 4 .8 .8 .8 .8 1519 .1 .1 .1 .1 114 .13 .11 .11 .1 59 .13 .13 .13 .13 4 .14 .14 .14 .14

Feale 16 Male 16 Male 6 Feales 6

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System; SBS.

12 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

2.3 Region, district and village population

2.3.1 Population by region and gender Table 2.3 and Figure 2.4 analyse the distribution of Samoa’s total population and gender population across the four regions in Samoa – Apia Urban Area (AUA), North West Upolu (NWU), Rest of Upolu (ROU) and Savaii (see Annex 2 for more details).

The number of people residing in the main island of Upolu equates to 78 per cent of the total population, with North West Upolu being the most populated region. With only 22 per cent residing in the bigger island of Savaii, and with 54 per cent living in the Apia Urban Area and North West Upolu, this shows a major urbanization drift in Samoa over the years.

In all regions, there are more males than females and there is no major gender difference in which regions females and/or males reside. However, the only minor variation worth noting is the difference between males and females living in the Apia Urban Area was much smaller or narrower compared to Savaii and the rural regions of Upolu.

Table 2.3: Samoa population distribution by region and sex, 2016 Census

Region Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female North West Upolu (NWU) 69,376 35.4% 35,704 51.5% 33,672 48.5%

Rest of Upolu (ROU) 45,652 23.3% 23,774 52.1% 21,878 47.9%

Apia Urban Area (AUA) 37,391 19.1% 18,760 50.2% 18,631 49.8%

Savaii Island 43,560 22.2% 22,654 52.0% 20,906 48.0%

Total 195,979 100% 100,892 51.5% 95,087 48.5%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 2.4: Samoa population distribution by region and sex, 2016 Census

7, 65, 6, 55, 5, 45, 4, 35, 69,376 , 3, 45,65

5, 43,56 35.4% , 37,391 , 35,74

, 33,67 1,878 18,631 ,96 3,774 18,76 ,654 , , , , , , , , 15, , 3.3% 1, .% 19.1% 51.5% 48.5% 49.8% 48.% 47.9% 5.% 5.% 5, 5.1% Not est Upolu est o Upolu Apia Uan Aea aaii sland Total Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 13 2.3.2 Population by district and gender

Table 2.4 and Figure 2.5 display Samoa’s gender population distribution by district. Table 2.4 is sorted by the ascending difference between total males and females living in districts.

Relative to the population size of the districts, most females and males reside in urban districts, with Vaimauga West, Faleata West, Faleata East and Sagaga le Falefa being the most populated districts. Except Gagaemauga II, there are more males than females in all districts in Samoa. Gagaemauga II (Savaii) is the only district where females outnumber males, by a difference of only eight females.

Table 2.4: Male and female population variations by district, 2016

No. District Total Male Female Diff No. District Total Male Female Diff 1 Gagaemauga II 600 296 304 8 23 Faasaleleaga III 2,787 1,450 1,337 - 113

2 Falealupo 1,092 553 539 - 14 24 Gagaifomauga I 1,387 751 636 - 115 P opulation demographics and dynamics  3 Vaisigano East 2,102 1,060 1,042 - 18 25 Falelatai & Samatau 3,192 1,656 1,536 - 120

4 Gagaemauga II 371 198 173 - 25 26 Aleipata itupa i Lalo 4,188 2,157 2,031 - 126

5 Aleipata itupa i Luga 1,246 638 608 - 30 27 Lefaga & Faleseela 4,059 2,094 1,965 - 129

6 Palauli East 2,399 1,217 1,182 - 35 28 Alataua West 1,750 944 806 - 138

7 Palauli West 3,334 1,686 1,648 - 38 29 Vaimauga East 8,151 4,148 4,003 - 145

8 Satuipaitea 1,938 993 945 - 48 30 Salega 3,323 1,737 1,586 - 151

9 Gagaemauga III 1,695 876 819 - 57 31 Faasaleleaga II 2,910 1,537 1,373 - 164

10 Aana Alofi 2 3,239 1,648 1,591 - 57 32 Anoamaa West 4,993 2,582 2,411 - 171

11 Vaimauga West 23,527 11,794 11,733 - 61 33 Aana Alofi 3 6,227 3,213 3,014 - 199

12 Faasalelelaga IV 1,541 804 737 - 67 34 Safata 6,269 3,236 3,033 - 203

13 Faleata East 13,864 6,966 6,898 - 68 35 Palauli le Falefa 3,567 1,887 1,680 - 207

14 Vaa o Fonoti 1,621 845 776 - 69 36 Aiga i le Tai 5,029 2,619 2,410 - 209

15 Gagaifomauga III 1,448 762 686 - 76 37 Sagaga le Usoga 6,005 3,118 2,887 - 231

16 Lotofaga 1,841 961 880 - 81 38 Faasaleleaga I 6,328 3,281 3,047 - 234

17 Siumu 2,342 1,212 1,130 - 82 39 Anoamaa East 4,196 2,228 1,968 - 260

18 Lepa 1,521 803 718 - 85 40 Aana Alofi 1 6,548 3,416 3,132 - 284

19 Gagaifomauga II 2,043 1,067 976 - 91 41 Falealili 4,784 2,545 2,239 - 306

20 Gagaemauga I 1,717 905 812 - 93 42 Sagaga le Falefa 12,760 6,563 6,197 - 366

21 Vaisigano West 1,599 848 751 - 97 43 Faleata West 22,989 11,814 11,175 - 639

22 Gagaemauga I 3,457 1,784 1,673 - 111 Total 195,979 100,892 95,087 - 5,805

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

14 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Figure 2.5: Samoa population distribution by district and sex, 2016 Census

aiaua est 11,794 11,733 Faleata est 11,814 11,175 Faleata ast 6,966 6,898 aaa le Falea 6,563 6,197 aiaua ast 4,148 4,3 Aana Alofi 1 3,416 3,13 Faasaleleaa 3,81 3,47 aata 3,36 3,33 Aana Alofi 3 3,13 3,14 aaa le Usoa 3,118 ,887 Aia i le Tai ,619 ,41 Anoaaa est ,58 ,411 Falealili ,545 ,39 Anoaaa ast ,8 1,968 Aleipata itupa i alo ,157 ,31 eaa Faleseela ,94 1,965 Palauli le Falea 1,887 1,68 aaeaua 1,784 1,673 Palauli est 1,686 1,648 alea 1,737 1,586 Aana Alofi 2 1,648 1,591 Falelatai aatau 1,656 1,536 Faasaleleaa 1,537 1,373 Faasaleleaa 1,45 1,337 Palauli ast 1,17 1,18 iuu 1,1 1,13 aisiano ast 1,6 1,4 aaioaua 1,67 976 atuipaitea 993 945 otoaa 961 88 Alataua est 944 86 aaeaua 95 81 aaeaua 876 819 aa o Fonoti 845 776 aisiano est 848 751 Faasalelelaa 84 737 epa 83 718 aaioaua 76 686 aaioaua 751 636 Aleipata itupa i ua 638 68 Falealupo 553 539 aaeaua 494 477

4 6 8 1 1 14 16 18 4

Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 15 2.3.3 Population by village and sex Annex 3 lists the population of the 337 villages recorded at the 2016 Census in ascending order. Figure 2.6 shows village populations from the most to the least populated village/area of residence. Vaitele Fou, Faleasiu, Siusega, Vaitele Uta, Faleula, Vaiusu, Vaimoso, Malie, Laulii and Vailele Tai are the most populated villages and residential areas by rank. Vaitele Fou has the highest number of female residents compared to all other residential areas and villages. Tafaigata is where most males reside compared to females - it is also where the prison is situated and most prisoners are males. If Tafaigata is removed, then Faleasiu, Vaiusu and Fasitoouta villages have the highest numbers of male residents compared to females.

Figure 2.6: Samoa population distribution by village and sex, 2016 Census

olaua Taataa Mataele 4 114 15 Malae Tiai 6 11 17 Falelauniu Muliai 9 11 19 Manunu 16 95 Alaou 1 4 aleia 11 1 iupapa 1 8 Tooatai 17 119

P opulation demographics and dynamics Utuloa 1 1 aai

11 114  Faleolo 17 8 Faleai 117 11 Mulinuu 14 13 Afia 15 15 Leifiifi 11 Leufisa 11 13 lo 18 14 Faaau 13 114 alauu Tai 17 16 Maiai Uta 13 115 auniatu 18 16 auano 115 13 Toitoia 15 ataoa Tai 119 11 aipouli 5 19 otopue 133 17 aaea 1 4 Fualei 116 15 Piu 8 1 Malaealu 1 11 Fuiatu 7 5 Taeleaa 19 115 Afiamalu West 9 4 Faleu 136 113 Tausai 5 3 Tapatapao 136 115 eaupani 37 19 Foatuli 137 114 Saleufi 9 35 aisaano 117 137 aliu 34 3 Papaloloa 14 133 iniou 36 35 Uaato 131 16 Malololelei eili 39 35 13 16 aletaaloa Fatitu 31 45 14 1 aliu Matanoo 38 38 14 136 Maluaou atoalepai 15 138 33 44 Faasa Musuusu 4 38 19 136 Puleia aiaata 136 13 66 17 aiou Tanualeo 136 136 4 44 oi atuilai 14 139 46 44 elepa Apolia sland 154 15 54 4 Aao atoi 14 137 48 54 Maota 147 133 aanapu Tai 45 58 Paia 153 17 aialu 56 5 a 157 16 Falepuna 67 49 Pitonuu 15 133 ei 65 53 atuiatua 139 15 Manase 65 58 etui 154 14 Apai 67 57 Asaa 15 146 aai 6 65 Tapueleele 143 154 aalalo 6 66 uua 145 155 Maasina 7 57 Foapoa 146 156 apoe 66 65 Fausaa 15 15 eee 7 6 iuu Uta 156 148 alua 61 75 aloalaa 159 145 iuniu 69 67 Neiau Tai 178 19 autaai 67 74 Fataloa 158 15 Pesea 79 64 aua 149 16 aea 71 74 aune 157 154 Afiamalu East 78 69 Foua 166 154 epale 79 68 ailoa 171 154 aisaulu 77 7 aloaea est 18 151 Mataai 71 76 Foailalo 179 156 Tiapapata 81 69 alauu Uta 181 157 aipuna Tuloto 8 69 179 16 Foasaaii aiola 77 76 18 164 alesatele Utuaalalaa 81 73 17 175 Mutiatele Tauese 188 16 68 87 Taaaanu Malia 183 173 85 75 Papa Aai o Fiti 188 169 76 85 Aata 187 174 Neuneu 83 78 aaua 18 185 Tanualala 89 74 Faletaaloa 196 17 ealatele 95 68 atalo 13 157 Maua 83 8 Naanua 193 181 Paepaeala 78 87 Tauusi 186 194 aletele 95 73 Muliai 197 183 Aai o Niue 9 8 aloaua 1 17 Moataa Uta 11 7 Faaalo 195 188 epa 93 85 Aopo 181 Mataaa 93 88 aiaa 14 171 epuiai 9 91 aaia 11 175 aotupua 96 9 aau 9 18 Matautu Tai 17 83 Faiaai 195 197 ona 11 81 alelesi 4 189 Tuasii 1 91 aaa 19 Utulaelae 113 81 Fusi 13 183 Fatualu 95 99 aiala Uta 1 196 Tuaeu 18 9 Alautu 3 194 lise Fou 9 16 Malua 13 185 atalaai 18 9 Taua 18 186 elata 95 15 Aele 199 6 Fusi 9 18 Poutasi 5 1 Falelia Faaee 19 91 9 183 Falefia eaiai 11 93 15 1 Aaile 1 13 eusoalii 14 3 Fatausi 16 99 aata Tai 9 188 aipua Apia 1 18 8 193 Toauaua Malaela 17 11 16 7 Matautu 38 188 apini 111 99 Tuuiopa 9 18 aiala 118 95 Papauta 184 47 Ulutoia 11 13 aina 11 16 1 3 4 Matautu 15 11 5 1 15 Male Feale

16 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Tuutaoe 31 3 aiaai 19 19 Taa 391 411 iutu 3 6 ailia 418 47 Motootua 33 ataua 446 381 Maninoa 33 7 aoluata 47 4 apunaoa 41 1 uatuanuu 43 4 Auaa 41 ausu 418 417 Niusuatia 4 Faleseela 49 49 aisala 4 3 otosoa 438 43 Matatuu 38 3 Tanuaanono 433 4 aloaea ast 44 8 aitele Tai 431 46 Tafitoala 36 36 Tulaele 49 49 aiea 3 47 ailuutai 455 414 eaaoalii 6 4 Ululoloa 439 444 Pata 64 1 Faatoialeanu 454 443 Tanuapua 47 4 alailua 471 431 alelaalu Tai 38 5 Aleisa ast 468 435 Nonoa 5 4 Lufilufi 467 44 Tuanaiato ast 56 37 apapalii 49 416 aoai 65 4 Tiaea 473 443 Utualii 6 44 Faala 459 47 Auala 73 33 aalaeulu 53 433 Papa Uta 73 34 Alaaoto 434 55 Apolia Fou 59 5 aoala 468 484 aiase Uta aloi 8 4 477 476 ailele Uta Moasula 75 49 477 491 Matautu aasaai 86 43 484 486 otoaa 514 466 Puapua 84 59 ei 514 469 Falealupo 7 75 Moaoa Fou 54 5 alani 93 58 aiase Tai 536 53 aleaauua 81 7 Puipaa 58 537 Foailua 83 7 ili 567 51 aiee 96 6 ataoa Uta 571 517 Satufia 66 95 Mataai Asau 535 576 aea 3 68 ataiai 593 55 asina 97 74 Palisi 586 548 iuaa 96 79 aatau 577 567 aaatoa 31 69 aanapu Uta 64 576 aaio e ao 93 91 iuu 61 563 eone 311 8 Fuailoloo 64 59 etaa 97 94 apulu 65 57 aiala Tai 94 99 euluoea 631 599 aleapaa 38 85 aotu 686 578 Taliatau 3 97 etoo 697 633 Neiau Uta 36 91 Tuulele 688 665 eesee 37 91 Moaoa 76 69 aleaula 96 34 Manono Uta 731 674 Faleapuna 36 35 Alaua 736 7 alelaalu Uta 35 89 inaoa 74 719 Pataea 319 99 Taaiata 95 551 aone 331 88 Tuanai 763 693 epea 36 3 Moataa 718 749 Aele Fou 335 3 Faalii 796 736 iuaa 347 9 Falea 8 743 aata Uta 31 38 Fasitoo Tai 8 78 aitoloa 336 334 otopa 811 818 ailoa Faleatiu 36 3 863 88 Toaua aitoouli 364 3 884 841 Nuu Faleao 377 38 89 871 Maiai Tai aipipi 376 318 947 883 olosolo ano 37 33 935 96 atapuala 1,16 959 aloanu 355 351 Nooalii 1,17 99 aleilua 384 34 Aea 1,11 1,7 Tanoaleia 37 34 Fasitoouta 1,138 1,3 atitoa 364 349 ailele Tai 1,8 1,74 alepouae 374 349 aulii 1,98 1,69 Fusi 379 359 Malie 1,45 1,167 otoaa 395 347 aioso 1,3 1,83 Aleisa est 373 371 aiusu 1,41 1,74 Satuimalufilufi 371 379 Faleula 1,5 1,46 Matautu Uta 36 391 aitele Uta 1,5 1,47 Tino a 394 36 iusea 1,546 1,488 ailoa 394 39 Faleasiu ,199 ,61 aiaa 48 361 aitele Fou ,11 ,6

4 6 8 1, , 3, 4, Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 17 2.4 Citizenship status and migration

Table 2.5 and Figure 2.7 depict the citizenship status of Samoan people by sex. The majority (96 per cent) are Samoans, which means that 4 per cent are citizens of other countries. Most of those with dual citizenships have both Samoa and New Zealand citizenship. There are slightly more females (than males) with dual Samoa and New Zealand citizenship, this is similar to Samoa and Australia and Samoa and other citizenship. There are, however, more males than females with dual Samoa and USA/American Samoa citizenship or with USA/America Samoa citizenship. There are more males than females living in Samoa with overseas citizenship of New Zealand, China, Australia, Tonga, other Pacific island countries, and other Asian countries. This is in contrast to those with citizenship of Europe (e.g. Britain, Germany), Japan and Canada where there are more females than males living in Samoa.

Table 2.5: Ctitizenship status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 Census P opulation demographics and dynamics Citizenship Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female  Samoa 189,035 96.46% 97,350 51.5% 91,685 48.5%

Samoa & NZ 3,678 1.88% 1,832 49.8% 1,846 50.2%

Samoa & USA/ 1,271 0.65% 658 51.8% 613 48.2% American Samoa

Samoa & Australia 523 0.27% 250 47.8% 273 52.2%

Samoa & others 379 0.19% 183 48.3% 196 51.7%

Fiji 225 0.11% 108 48.0% 117 52.0%

USA/American Samoa 155 0.08% 91 58.7% 64 41.3%

Other Pacific Islands 134 0.07% 74 55.2% 60 44.8%

New Zealand 132 0.07% 72 54.5% 60 45.5%

China 101 0.05% 82 81.2% 19 18.8%

Australia 86 0.04% 43 50.0% 43 50.0%

Other Asia nations 68 0.03% 43 63.2% 25 36.8%

Tonga 65 0.03% 39 60.0% 26 40.0%

Other nations 42 0.02% 28 66.7% 14 33.3%

Other Europe nations 25 0.01% 11 44.0% 14 56.0%

Britain 20 0.01% 9 45.0% 11 55.0%

Germany 18 0.01% 9 50.0% 9 50.0%

Japan 14 0.01% 6 42.9% 8 57.1%

Canada 8 0.00% 4 50.0% 4 50.0%

Total 195,979 100% 100,892 51% 95,087 49%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

18 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Figure 2.7: Citizenship status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 Census

aoa 97,35 91,685 aoa N 1,83 1,846 aoa UAAeican aoa 658 613 aoa Austalia 5 73 aoa otes 183 196 Fii 18 117 UAAeican aoa 91 64 te Pacific slands 74 6 Ne ealand 7 6 Cina 8 19 Austalia 43 43 te Asia nations 43 5 Tona 39 6 te nations 8 14 te uope nations 11 14 itain 9 11 ean 9 9 apan 6 8 Canada 4 4

% % 4% 6% 8% 1% Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Table 2.6 further shows the industries in which non-Samoan citizens were engaged at the time of the 2016 Census. The majority of Chinese who were living in Samoa at the time of the 2016 Census were engaged in ‘construction’, and ‘whole and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and motorcycles’. While Australians were mostly engaged in ‘professional scientific and technical activities’, ‘education’, and ‘public administration and defence compulsory social security’. Similarly for New Zealanders, the majority were engaged mainly in ‘professional scientific and technical activities’, ‘education’, and ‘agriculture forestry and fishing’. Fijians were engaged more in ‘activities of households as employers undifferentiated goods and services producing activities of household for own use’ (i.e. working as housekeepers, carers, nannies, etc., in private households). The analysis presented in Table 2.5 above shows that there are more non-Samoan males living in Samoa than females - perhaps this is due to family choices and the convenience of having a male spouse working overseas while wives (or female spouses) look after the children at home.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 19 Table 2.6: Non-Samoan ctitizenship by industry, 2016 Census

Industry NZ Fiji island Japan China Other Tonga Samoa Britain nations nations nations Canada Australia Germany USA/ Am. Other Asia Other Pacific Other Europe

Agriculture forestry and 3 2 2 1 2 6 2 2 1 1 fishing

Wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and 8 25 10 2 2 2 2 2 6 1 motorcycles

Public administration and defence compulsory social 4 1 5 2 5 1 4 1 1 1 security P opulation demographics and dynamics

Transportation and Storage 3 1 4 1 1 2 3 1 1 

Education 5 2 2 3 5 6 2 2 4 4 1

Accommodation and food 10 3 2 4 3 1 1 2 3 services activities

Construction 7 35 1 1 2 2 1 2 1

Manufacturing 4 5 3 1 2 1 1 1

Administrative & support 6 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 services activities

Activities of households as employers undifferentiated goods and services 26 2 2 2 1 1 1 producing activities of household for own use

Financial and insurance 6 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 activities

Professional scientific and 9 1 5 3 6 6 1 1 1 2 3 1 technical activities

Information and 4 1 1 2 2 3 Communication

Human health and social 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 workers activities

Electricity gas steam and air 3 1 2 conditioning supply

Arts entertainment and 2 1 1 3 recreation

Water supply sewage waste management and 1 1 remediation activities

Activities of extraterritorial 1 1 1 4 3 1 organisations and bodies

Other service activities 10 3 14 20 4 6 8 4 3 2

Total 113 82 51 44 44 42 28 19 19 19 14 7 5 5

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

According to the analysis undertaken by SBS (2018a, p. 15) on migration, the majority of the population remain at their place of birth in terms of internal (village-to-village or district-to-district) migration. The 2016 Census recorded a total of 141,727 people (72 per cent of Samoa’s total population of 195,979) who did not move (non-movers), and remained at their place of birth at the time of the census enumeration. This means that only 25 per cent had changed their place of residence from their place

20 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

of birth while 2 per cent were born overseas and 1 per cent were ‘not stated responses’. Further, the North West Upolu continues to gain more people than other regions, while Savaii and Rest of Upolu regions lost the highest population numbers in the last five years. These figures signify that a one-in- four people moving is quite an significant trend especially if they are moving from rural-to-urban for better opportunities. There is no significant gender difference among males and females in relation to internal migration patterns.

2.5 Marital status

2.5.1 Marital status by gender Table 2.7 and Figure 2.8 show the marital status of males and females in Samoa as recorded at the 2016 Census. The percentages in Table 2.7 and Figure 2.8 are the proportion of the total male and female populations who were either single, married (living as married), divorced/separated, or widowed, in the whole of Samoa at the time of the 2016 Census. Given Samoa’s younger population (see section 2.2.3), the majority of people in Samoa (59 per cent of the 95,087 total population) were single or not married. A majority of single people are males (32 per cent) which is consistent with Samoa’s male dominant population. Notwithstanding this male dominant population, there are more females than males, who are either married, divorced/separated or widowed. Widows are mostly older women. This means more females are likely to get married compared to males. Also, the number of females who were divorced or separated was nearly double the corresponding number for males.

Table 2.7: Population marital status, 2016 Census

Total % Total Male Female % Male % Female Single 116,283 59% 63,468 52,815 54.6% 45.4%

Married 67,548 34% 33,854 33,694 50.1% 49.9%

Divorced / Separated 5,127 3% 1,846 3,281 36.0% 64.0%

Widowed 7,021 4% 1,724 5,297 24.6% 75.4%

Total 195,979 100% 100,892 95,087 51.5% 48.5%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 2.8: Population marital status, 2016 Census

7% 63% 65% 59% 6% 56% 55% 5% 45% 4% 35% 34% 34% 35% 3% 5% % 15% 1% 3% 4% 6% 5% 3% % % % inle Maied iocedepaated idoed Total Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 21 2.5.2 Marital status by gender and age Table 2.8 and Figure 2.9 further compare the marital status of males and females in Samoa. It supports the findings presented in section 2.5.1 above that females in the younger aged population groups (e.g. 15 to 29-years-old) are more likely to get married than males. However, as the population reaches the ages of 30 years and above, the proportion of males compared to females who are married is higher. This means that the number of males who are either divorced/separated or widowed at older ages is lower than females, indicating that males are more likely to marry at older ages, and stay married (or remarried) if their spouses pass away compared to females, particularly at older ages. The majority of the widowed population are mostly older females. In Samoa the legal age of marriage is 18 years for males and 16 years for females. The 2016 Census recorded no person was either married or divorced/ separated at the age of 16 and below.

Table 2.8: Samoa population’s marital status by sex and age, 2016 Census Total Male Female P opulation demographics and dynamics  Age (years) Total Total Total Single Single Single Married Married Married Widowed Widowed Widowed Divorced/ Divorced/ Divorced/ Separated Separated Separated

0-15 78,583 - - - 40,943 40,943 - - - 40,943 37,640 - - - 37,640

16-21 21,812 1,722 186 11 10,901 11,419 487 29 2 10,901 10,393 1,235 157 9 8,992

22-27 17,355 8,046 650 63 5,420 8,761 3,147 175 19 5,420 8,594 4,899 475 44 3,176

28-33 14,746 10,450 707 74 2,394 7,460 4,812 231 23 2,394 7,286 5,638 476 51 1,121

34-39 13,038 10,381 702 115 1,302 6,692 5,086 274 30 1,302 6,346 5,295 428 85 538

40-45 12,339 10,158 705 217 865 6,384 5,169 280 70 865 5,955 4,989 425 147 394

46-51 11,135 8,984 662 432 718 5,952 4,848 270 116 718 5,183 4,136 392 316 339

52-57 9,398 7,343 610 775 428 4,825 3,976 234 187 428 4,573 3,367 376 588 242

58-63 6,856 5,017 409 1,048 238 3,572 2,927 145 262 238 3,284 2,090 264 786 144

64-69 4,456 2,866 218 1,167 123 2,203 1,691 101 288 123 2,253 1,175 117 879 82

70+ 6,117 2,530 272 3,109 85 2,597 1,683 105 724 85 3,520 847 167 2,385 121

NS 144 51 6 10 51 84 28 2 3 51 60 23 4 7 26

Total 195,979 67,548 5,127 7,021 63,468 100,892 33,854 1,846 1,724 63,468 95,087 33,694 3,281 5,297 52,815

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

22 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Figure 2.9: Marital status of males and females in Samoa, 2016

Male 7 1,683 15 74 85 6769 716 36 14 6 6466 975 65 146 63 6163 1,99 6 141 95 586 1,68 85 11 143 5557 1,856 18 19 179 554 ,1 16 78 49 4951 ,66 139 39 4648 ,58 131 49 4345 ,556 151 418 44 ,613 19 447 3739 ,567 131 56 3436 ,519 74 3133 ,58 98 83 ,3 1,414 57 1,874 ,181 4 1,73 3,39 191 487 4,81 1618 6,8 15 4,943

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Female 7 847 167 ,385 11 6769 488 47 443 8 6466 687 7 436 54 6163 868 115 413 58 586 1, 149 373 86 5557 1,556 177 318 95 554 1,811 199 7 147 4951 1,945 19 188 15 4648 ,191 18 187 4345 ,589 5 191 44 ,4 3 3739 ,56 1 7 3436 ,735 18 311 3133 ,846 1 44 83 ,79 55 681 57 ,668 59 1,149 4 ,31 16 ,7 191 1,35 157 3,57 1618 5,485 15 37,64

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Maied ioced epaated idoed inle

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

2.6 Religious status

Table 2.9 and Figure 2.10 show the gender distribution by religion in Samoa. The Congregational Christian Church of Samoa or Ekalesia Faalapotopotoga Kerisiano o Samoa (CCCS/EFKS) remains the dominant church with most males and females affiliating with it in Samoa. The next most populous churches are the Roman Catholic, Latter Day Saints (Goldsmith) and Methodist. Among these four oldest churches or religious dominations, there is no significant preference among males and females about which religious church they attend.

However, for the relatively recently-established churches such as the Amazing Love Christian Church, Peace Chapel, Protestant and Elim, more females tend to affiliate with these religions compared to the four oldest mainstream church dominations; CCCS, Roman Catholic, LDS and Methodist. For the 87 followers of the Muslim faith, the proportion of males is much higher than females, compared to all other religions. Similarly, there are more males with ‘no religion’, compared to females, which may signify that females are generally more associated with a religious belief (of any kind) compared to males.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 23 Samoan people and communities have strong spiritual beliefs and hence the church system has a central role in Samoa’s social-political and economic development. A number of faith-based organizations (FBOs) can be categorized as civil society organizations (CSOs) – their set-up are often intertwined with village-based institutions, groups and networks – providing church-based services and activities that benefit the community generally, not just church members. As such, church institutions (reverends and their wives, and others closely associated with the churches) can deliver messages effectively (through preaching and spiritual teaching) on gender equality issues such as women’s empowerment, GBV, child abuse, family reconciliation, and other related matters. Faith-based non-governmental organizations (e.g. Teen Challenge, Adventist Disaster Relief Agency and Mafuifagalele elderly home) and CSOs (e.g. youth groups, women’s groups, and men’s groups) are providing social services in different areas (e.g. counselling, healing, elderly care, advocacy and awareness programmes, charity, and child labour assistance) – filling the gaps in areas where public service provisions are either absent or limited.

P opulation demographics and dynamics Table 2.9: Religious status of males and females in Samoa, 2016 Census  Church Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female EFKS/ CCCS 56,818 28.99% 29,199 51% 27,619 49%

Roman Catholic 36,766 18.76% 18,833 51% 17,933 49%

Latter Day Saints 33,077 16.88% 17,097 52% 15,980 48%

Methodist 24,228 12.36% 12,531 52% 11,697 48%

Assembly of God 13,399 6.84% 6,908 52% 6,491 48%

Seventh Day Adventist (SDA) 6,782 3.46% 3,522 52% 3,260 48%

Worship Centre 5,433 2.77% 2,752 51% 2,681 49%

Pentecostal 1,946 0.99% 995 51% 951 49%

Voice of Christ 1,841 0.94% 935 51% 906 49%

Seventh Day Adventist (SISDAC) 1,752 0.89% 923 53% 829 47%

Jehovah’s Witness 1,503 0.77% 786 52% 717 48%

Nazareth 1,358 0.69% 698 51% 660 49%

Bahai 817 0.42% 437 53% 380 47%

Amazing Love Christian Church 806 0.41% 388 48% 418 52%

Peace Chapel 762 0.39% 368 48% 394 52%

Baptism 679 0.35% 362 53% 317 47%

CCCJ Samoa (EFIS) 657 0.34% 348 53% 309 47%

Bible Study/Aoga Tusi Paia 639 0.33% 342 54% 297 46%

Christian Fellowship 539 0.28% 271 50% 268 50%

Protestant 282 0.14% 130 46% 152 54%

Angelican 252 0.13% 126 50% 126 50%

Elim 159 0.08% 76 48% 83 52%

Evangelism 130 0.07% 67 52% 63 48%

Muslim 87 0.04% 54 62% 33 38%

Other Churches 4,793 2.45% 2,467 51% 2,326 49%

No religion 381 0.19% 238 62% 143 38%

Not Stated 93 0.05% 39 42% 54 58%

Total 195,979 100.00% 100,892 51% 95,087 49%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

24 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Figure 2.10: Population religious status by sex, 2016 Census

Musli 54 33 anelis 67 63 li 76 83 Anelican 16 16 Potestant 13 15 Cistian Fellosip 71 68 ile tudAoa Tusi Paia 34 97 CCC aoa F 348 39 aptis 36 317 Peace Capel 368 394 Aain oe Cistian Cuc 388 418 aai 437 38 Naaet 698 66 eoas itness 786 717 eent a Adentist AC 93 89 oice o Cist 935 96 Pentecostal 995 951 osip Cente ,75 ,681 eent a Adentist A 3,5 3,6 Assel o od 6,98 6,491 Metodist 1,531 11,697 atte a aints 17,97 15,98 oan Catolic 18,833 17,933 F Coneation CC 9,199 7,619 te Cuces ,467 ,36 No eliion 38 143 Not tated 39 54

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 25 2.7 Summary

Table 2.10 summarizes the key findings on Samoa’s population demographics and dynamics highlighting key gender differences in these demographics and dynamics:

Table 2.10: Summary of key findings on Samoa’s gender population demographics and dynamics

Area Key findings National population by sex

• Samoa’s total population recorded at the 2016 Census was 195,979 persons, with 100,892 (51 per cent) male, and 95,087 (49 per cent) female. • The male-to-female ratio in 2016 was 106; for every 106 males, there are 100 females. Male to female • Males continue to dominate Samoa’s population, with the ‘male-to-female’ ratio fluctuating between a comparisons difference of 2 per cent, 4 per cent and 6 per cent for total males and females over the 1961 to 2016 eight censuses. • While males dominate Samoa’s population, the female population is growing at a faster pace than the P opulation demographics and dynamics

.male population and Samoa’s overall population 

• Samoa’s population remains young with 50 per cent of the total population below the age of 21 years, and 38 per cent at the dependency ages of 14 years and below. • Samoa’s retired populaton at the ages of 55 years and over equates to 11 per cent of the total population, with 8 per cent at the ages of 60 years and over. • Samoa’s working population (aged 15 to 59 years) totals 54 per cent while the dependency population Age comparison (aged 0 to 14 years and 65+ years) amount to 46 per cent. The dependency ratio is 84 per cent; 84 dependents for every 100 workers. • Males outnumber females in the population aged 0 to 64 years while females outnumber males in the population aged 65+ years. • Females outnumber males at the old and retired ages of 65 years and over.

Region, district and village population by sex

• People residing on the main island of Upolu equate to 78 per cent of Samoa’s total population, with North West Upolu being the most populated region where 35 per cent of Samoa’s total population resides. • With only 22 per cent residing in the bigger island of Savaii, and with 54 per cent living in the Apia Urban Area and North West Upolu, this presents sustained urbanization in Samoa over the census years. Region • In all four regions of Apia Urban Area, North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii, there are more males than females. • There is no significant difference in which region females and/or males reside. A minor variation is the difference between males and females living in Apia Urban Area which is much smaller compared to North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii.

• Relative to the population size of districts, most females and males reside in urban districts, with Vaimauga West, Faleata West, Faleata East and Sagaga le Falefa being the most populated districts. District • There are more males than females in all districts in Samoa, except Gagaemauga II, where females outnumber males, by a difference of only eight females.

• Vaitele Fou, Faleasiu, Siusega, Vaitele Uta, Faleula, Vaiusu, Vaimoso, Malie, Laulii and Vailele Tai are the most populated villages/residential areas by rank. Village • Most females resided in Vaitele Fou at the time of the 2016 Census compared to all other residential areas and villages. • Most males reside in Faleasiu, Vaiusu and Fasitoouta compared to females.

26 2016 Population and Housing Census  P opulation demographics and dynamics

Area Key findings Citizenship and migration

• Ninety-six (96) per cent of Samoa’s population hold Samoan citizenship. • Most people living in Samoa with dual citizenship had Samoa & New Zealand dual citizenship at the time of the 2016 Census, equating to 2 per cent of Samoa’s total population. • Females with Samoa and New Zealand dual citizenship outnumber males by a very small margin of 50.2 per cent female and 49.8 per cent male. • Females with Samoa and Australia as well as Samoa and other citizenship outnumber males by a ratio Citizenship of 48 per cent to 52 per cent male-to-female. • Males with dual Samoa and USA/American Samoa citizenship or with USA/America Samoa citizenship outnumber females by a male-to-female ratio of 52 per cent to 48 per cent and 59 per cent to 41 per cent respectively. • There are more males than females with New Zealand, China, Australia, Tonga, other Pacific island countries, and other Asian country citizenship living in Samoa. • There are more females than males with European, Japan or Canada citizenship status living in Samoa.

• The majority of the population remained at their place of birth in terms of internal migration at the time of the 2016 Census. • The 2016 Census recorded that 72 per cent of Samoa’s total population did not move and were still Migration living at their place of birth at the time of the 2016 Census enumeration. • North West Upolu continues to gain more people than other regions, while Savaii and Rural Upolu areas lost the highest numbers of their population in the last five years. • There is no significant difference between males and females in relation to internal migration patterns.

Marital status

• Fifty-nine (59) per cent of Samoa’s total population are single or not married. • The majority of the single population are males consistent with Samoa’s male dominant population. Marital status • Notwithstanding Samoa’s male dominant population, there are more females than males who are married, divorced/separated or widowed. • More females are likely to get married than males.

• More females, compared to males, are likely to get married at younger ages (15 to 29 years). Marital status • As the population reaches the age of 30 years and above, the proportion of males-to-females who are by sex and age married is higher. • The proportion of males who are either divorced/separated or widowed is less than females, indicating that males are more likely to stay married compared to females, particularly at older ages.

Religious status

• The Congregational Christian Church of Samoa (CCCS/EFKS) remains the dominant church attended by most males and females in Samoa. • The next most-attended churches are the Roman Catholic, Latter Day Saints (Goldsmith) and Methodist. • Among the four oldest churches of CCCS, Roman, Catholic, LDS and Methodist, there is no significant difference between males and females about which religious church they attend. • For relatively recently-established churches such as the Amazing Love Christian Church, Peace Chapel, Religious Protestant and Elim, more females than males follow these religions compared to the four oldest mainstream church dominations; CCCS, Roman Catholic, LDS and Methodist, which are more male attended than female. • The proportion of males practising the Muslim religion is much higher than females, compared to all other religions. • There are more males with ‘no religion’, compared to females, which may signify that females are generally more associated with a religious belief compared to males.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 27 Chapter 3. EDUCATION E ducation 

3.1 Introduction and overview

The eduational attainment of people is directly linked with development progress. Samoa’s sustainable social and economic development depends on a literate and numerate population who understand their social and economic rights as well as a workforce equipped with the right skills and talents. Samoa has four levels of education: i) Early Childhood Education, kindergarten or pre-school (3 to 5-years-old); ii) Primary school (Year 1 to Year 8); iii) Secondary school and college (Year 9 to Year 13); and iv) Tertiary (additional two to six years of post-secondary or higher education depending on qualifications). Primary school education is compulsory under Samoa’s legislation where all children between the ages of 6 to 14 are required to attend school, or until they have finished Year 8 of primary school. Samoa is implementing inclusive development programmes in education.

Section 2.2.3 shows that Samoa’s population is young with 50 per cent of its total population below the age of 21 years, and with 38 per cent below the age of 15 years. This means that half of the population of Samoa are children, adolescents, and emerging youth, who ought to be in school from primary up to tertiary levels. Females and males can continue their education beyond the ages of 20 years at local and overseas academic institutions. Such a large proportion of Samoa’s population at the youngest ages puts pressure on Samoa’s education and school systems, in terms of having sufficient and quality resources (teachers, teaching materials, classrooms, etc.) to operate effectively.

Using the 2016 Census data on school attendance, educational level of attainment, qualification and literacy, the following sections analyse education in Samoa, in relation to females and males who are, and are not, attending school, as well their educational attainment and literacy levels.

3.2 Educational attendance

3.2.1 Population ever-attended school by sex and region Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1 present the proportion of Samoa’s 179,052 population aged three years and over who have, and have not, attended school in their lifetime, as per the 2016 Census.

A total of 167,245 persons (or 93 per cent of the 179,052 population aged three years and over) have ever-attended school; 93 per cent male and 94 per cent female, a variation of only 1 per cent. A total of 11,807 persons (or 7 per cent of 179,052) – 7 per cent male and 6 per cent female – have never attended school in their lifetime. This means that more females tend to go to school than males in spite of an overall male dominated population. A comparison of Samoa to Fiji and Tonga shows similar trends where school attendance is higher among females than male.13

The variation in school attendance between urban and rural areas is 1 per cent. North West Upolu Region has 1 per cent lower school attendance compared to the rest of the regions in Upolu and Savaii. North West Upolu is the most populated area in Samoa (see section 1.3.2) and has the highest number of persons aged three years and over who have never been to school.

13 See https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/ & https://tonga.prism.spc.int/component/advlisting/?view=download&fileId=2478).

28 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Table 3.1: Persons aged three years and over who ever and never attended school by sex, 2016 Census Ever attended % Ever attended Never attended % Never attended Population aged 3

school school school school years and over Male 85,829 93% 6,248 7% 92,077

Female 81,416 94% 5,559 6% 86,975

Urban 32,500 94% 1,975 6% 34,475

Rural 134,745 93% 9,832 7% 144,577

Apia Urban Area 32,500 94% 1,975 6% 34,475

North West Upolu 58,577 93% 4,618 7% 63,195

Rest of Upolu 38,949 94% 2,702 6% 41,651

Savaii 37,219 94% 2,512 6% 39,731

Total 167,245 93% 11,807 7% 179,052

Source: SBS (2017a, p. 4).

Figure 3.1: Population aged three years and over who ever and never attended school by sex, 2016 Census

aaii 37,19 , 94% ,51 , 6% est o Upolu 38,949 , 94% ,7 , 6% Not est Upolu 58,577 , 93% 4,618 , 7% Apia Uan Aea 3,5 , 94% 1,975 , 6%

ual 134,745 , 93% 9,83 , 7% Uan 3,5 , 94% 1,975 , 6%

Feale 81,416 , 94% 5,559 , 6% Male 85,89 , 93% 6,48 , 7% Total 167,45 , 93% 11,87 , 7%

45% 5% 55% 6% 65% 7% 75% 8% 85% 9% 95% 1%

e attended scool 3 eas and oe Nee attended scool 3 eas and oe

Source: SBS (2017a, p. 4).

3.2.2 Population aged 3 to 24 years currently attending school by sex Samoa’s population aged 3 to 24 years numbered 92,704 at the 2016 Census. Table 3.2 and Figure 3.2 provide the total number of persons aged 3 to 24 years who were, and were not attending school, at the time of the census. A total of 62,252 persons (or 67 per cent of the 92,704 population aged 3 to 24 years) were attending school. Of the male population aged 3 to 24 years, 66 per cent were attending school; the corresponding figure was 69 per cent for females. A total of 30,542 (or 33 per cent of persons aged 3 to 24) were not at school – 34 per cent male and 31 per cent female. This shows a higher rate of school attendance among females than males in the 3 to 24 year age group.

Figure 3.2 further shows that the peak net attendance rates for both males and females are at the ages of 6 to 14 years, the age group for which education is compulsory. Attendance is more than 90 per cent for each age group. At the ages of 15 to 24 years, the attendance rates decline slightly for

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 29 both males and females, with more females than males attending school, meaning that more girls than boys have opportunities to go onto higher education or tertiary studies. An opposite trend is E ducation apparent for persons not attending school, where the highest non-attendance rates are at the ages of  3 to 5 years, and also increase with those aged 15 years and over. The school dropout rate increases with age for both males and females, but is higher for males.

The Samoa education compulsory law requires all children between the ages of 6 to 14 to attend school, or until they have finished Year 8 of primary school. However, of the 902 children aged 6 to 14 years who were not at school (see Table 3.2), 60 per cent were reported as never having attended school, while 40 per cent withdrew or stopped going to school before completing the year (SBS, 2018b, p. 8). The majority of these 902 children were male (62 per cent), compared to 38 per cent female.

Further, the urban versus rural gap on persons not attending school is widening, with more than 80 per cent found in rural areas compared to only 18 per cent and less in urban areas (SBS, 2018b, p. 8), reflecting ongoing challenges to ensure every child has access to quality education.

Table 3.2: Population aged 3 to 24 years attending, and not attending school, by sex, 2016 Census Population aged 3-24 In school Not in school years

Age Total Male Female Total Male Female % Total % Male % Female Total Male Female % Total % Male % Female

3 5,628 2,890 2,738 903 432 471 16% 15% 17% 4,725 2,458 2,267 84% 85% 83%

4 5,748 2,980 2,768 1,698 889 809 30% 30% 29% 4,050 2,091 1,959 70% 70% 71%

5 5,337 2,853 2,484 3,879 2,021 1,858 73% 71% 75% 1,458 832 626 27% 29% 25%

6 5,260 2,758 2,502 4,901 2,548 2,353 93% 92% 94% 359 210 149 7% 8% 6%

7 4,966 2,591 2,375 4,865 2,534 2,331 98% 98% 98% 101 57 44 2% 2% 2%

8 4,986 2,598 2,388 4,929 2,561 2,368 99% 99% 99% 57 37 20 1% 1% 1%

9 4,470 2,351 2,119 4,417 2,321 2,096 99% 99% 99% 53 30 23 1% 1% 1%

10 4,623 2,373 2,250 4,593 2,359 2,234 99% 99% 99% 30 14 16 1% 1% 1%

11 4,439 2,283 2,156 4,399 2,253 2,146 99% 99% 100% 40 30 10 1% 1% 0%

12 4,334 2,291 2,043 4,289 2,259 2,030 99% 99% 99% 45 32 13 1% 1% 1%

13 4,146 2,145 2,001 4,071 2,094 1,977 98% 98% 99% 75 51 24 2% 2% 1%

14 3,896 1,964 1,932 3,754 1,862 1,892 96% 95% 98% 142 102 40 4% 5% 2%

15 3,967 2,135 1,832 3,611 1,865 1,746 91% 87% 95% 356 270 86 9% 13% 5%

16 4,231 2,250 1,981 3,537 1,745 1,792 84% 78% 90% 694 505 189 16% 22% 10%

17 3,796 1,990 1,806 2,792 1,334 1,458 74% 67% 81% 1,004 656 348 26% 33% 19%

18 3,538 1,840 1,698 2,051 960 1,091 58% 52% 64% 1,487 880 607 42% 48% 36%

19 3,420 1,753 1,667 1,433 676 757 42% 39% 45% 1,987 1,077 910 58% 61% 55%

20 3,593 1,909 1,684 880 421 459 24% 22% 27% 2,713 1,488 1,225 76% 78% 73%

21 3,234 1,677 1,557 540 260 280 17% 16% 18% 2,694 1,417 1,277 83% 84% 82%

22 3,116 1,598 1,518 352 166 186 11% 10% 12% 2,764 1,432 1,332 89% 90% 88%

23 2,923 1,481 1,442 207 84 123 7% 6% 9% 2,716 1,397 1,319 93% 94% 91%

24 3,053 1,519 1,534 151 71 80 5% 5% 5% 2,902 1,448 1,454 95% 95% 95%

Total 92,704 48,229 44,475 62,252 31,715 30,537 67% 66% 69% 30,452 16,514 13,938 33% 34% 31%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

30 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Figure 3.2: Population aged 3 to 24 years attending and not in school by sex and age, 2016 Census

At school

1% 9% 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% % 1% % 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 11 1 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 3 4 Age

Not at school

1% 9% 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% % 1% % 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 11 1 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 3 4 Age Total Male FFealeeale

Source: SBS (2017a, p. 5).

3.2.3 Population aged 6 to 24 years currently attending school Table 3.3 and Figure 3.3 show Samoa’s population aged 6 to 24 attending school (either full-time or part-time), and not attending school, by sex and age at the time of the 2016 Census.

Similar to the analysis presented in previous sections, there are more males (52 per cent) than females (48 per cent) in Samoa’s population, and this is the same with the population in the 6 to 24 age bracket. However, the overall educational trends for the population aged 6 to 24 years is that females outnumber males in terms of the proportion of males and females attending school, both as full-time and part-time students.

As the population ages, the numbers or proportion of both males and females attending school declines indicating a drop-out or drop-off issue as students start to reach the youth age bracket. The census data also shows that a small number of those aged 19 to 24 years are unable to continue their education. Or a large number in this age bracket do not get the opportunity to complete their education especially at the tertiary level.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 31 A total of 20,213 persons aged 6 to 24 years (or 27 per cent of the population aged 6 to 24) were not attending school at the time of the 2016 Census – with a proportion of 28 per cent male and 25 per E ducation cent female. Males outnumbered females in the numbers of those not attending school at the time of  the census, except at the age of 10 years where there were slightly more females than males.

Table 3.3: Population aged 6 to 24 years attending, and not attending school, by sex, 2016 Census 4 1 1 1 1 F 2 1 1 M 6 2 1 1 1 1 Not Stated Total 0.01% 9.5 4.7 2.1 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.7 1.1 0.8 1.9 6.0 %F 94.8 91.4 87.7 82.0 72.7 54.5 35.7 19.3 25% 86 40 24 13 10 16 23 20 44 F 909 606 348 189 149 1,454 1,318 1,331 1,277 1,225 9,082 5.2 2.4 1.4 1.3 0.6 1.3 1.4 2.2 7.6 95.3 94.3 89.6 84.5 77.9 %M 61.4 47.8 32.9 22.4 12.6 28% 51 32 30 14 30 37 57 880 655 505 270 102 210 M Not at school 1,448 1,396 1,432 1,417 1,488 1,077 11,131 75 45 40 30 53 57 694 356 142 101 359 27% 2,902 2,714 2,763 2,694 2,713 1,986 1,486 1,003 Total 20,213 0.8 1.1 0.8 1.9 2.3 1.6 0.7 0.2 %F 0.4% 4 13 16 12 29 38 26 12 F 150 0.2 0.5 1.1 1.5 1.6 0.9 1.0 0.3 %M 0.3% 3 8 5 18 25 31 15 19 M 124 Student - Part-time 9 16 24 30 54 69 41 31 274 0.4% Total 4.4 7.4 %F 11.5 16.1 25.0 43.9 63.5 80.5 90.5 95.3 97.9 98.8 99.4 99.5 99.3 98.9 99.2 98.1 94.0 75% 67 107 174 251 421 731 F 1,079 1,454 1,792 1,746 1,892 1,977 2,030 2,146 2,234 2,096 2,368 2,331 2,353 27,249 4.5 5.1 9.3 14.0 20.4 %M 37.7 51.1 66.8 77.6 87.4 94.8 97.6 98.6 98.7 99.4 98.7 98.6 97.8 92.4 72% 68 76 148 235 390 661 941 M 1,329 1,745 1,865 1,862 2,094 2,259 2,253 2,359 2,321 2,561 2,534 2,548 28,249 Full-time student 135 183 322 486 811 73% 1,392 2,020 2,783 3,537 3,611 3,754 4,071 4,289 4,399 4,593 4,417 4,929 4,865 4,901 Total 55,498 F 48% 1,534 1,442 1,518 1,557 1,684 1,667 1,698 1,806 1,981 1,832 1,932 2,001 2,043 2,156 2,250 2,119 2,388 2,375 2,502 36,485 52% M 1,519 1,481 1,598 1,677 1,909 1,753 1,840 1,990 2,250 2,135 1,964 2,145 2,291 2,283 2,373 2,351 2,598 2,591 2,758 39,506 Grand Total 39% 3,053 2,923 3,116 3,234 3,593 3,420 3,538 3,796 4,231 3,967 3,896 4,146 4,334 4,439 4,623 4,470 4,986 4,966 5,260 Total 75,991

9 8 7 6 % 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Age Total Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s and Survey Processing System.

32 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Figure 3.3: Population aged 6 to 24 years currently attending and not attending school by sex, 2016 Census

Population aed 64 Not at scool

4 1,519 1,534 19 1,448 1,454 3 1,481 1,44 18 1,396 1,318 1,598 1,518 17 1,43 1,331 1 1,677 1,557 16 1,417 1,77 1,99 1,684 15 1,488 1,5 19 1,753 1,667 14 1,77 99 18 1,84 1,698 13 88 66 17 1,99 1,86 1 655 348 16 ,5 1,981 11 55 189 15 ,135 1,83 1 7 86 14 1,964 1,93 9 1 4 13 ,145 ,1 8 51 4 1 ,91 ,43 7 3 13 11 ,83 ,156 6 3 1 1 ,373 ,5 5 14 16 9 ,351 ,119 4 3 3 8 ,598 ,388 3 37 7 ,591 ,375 57 44 6 ,758 ,5 1 1 149 % % 4% 6% 8% 1% % % 4% 6% 8% 1%

tudent ulltie tudent pattie

19 68 67 19 3 13 18 76 17 18 8 16 17 148 174 17 18 1 16 35 51 16 5 9 15 39 41 15 31 38 14 661 731 14 15 6 13 941 1,79 13 19 1 1 1,39 1,454 1 5 4 11 1,745 1,79 11 1 1,865 1,746 1 9 1,86 1,89 9 8 ,94 1,977 8 7 ,59 ,3 7 6 ,53 ,146 6 5 ,359 ,34 5 4 ,31 ,96 4 3 ,561 ,368 3 ,534 ,331 1 ,548 ,353 1 % % 4% 6% 8% 1% % % 4% 6% 8% 1%

Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing.

3.2.4 Population aged 3 years and over currently attending school by sex Table 3.4 and Figure 3.4 show the number of people in Samoa attending school (either full-time or part-time), and not attending school, and by sex and age, for the population aged three years and above, as recorded at the 2016 Census. Of Samoa’s 179,052 population aged three years and over, 62,562 persons (or 35 per cent) were currently full-time students, and 486 (or 0.3 per cent) were part- time students, while 115,964 persons (or 65 per cent) were not in school, which is quite high.

A total of 9,140 children and adolescents (14 per cent of the population at the school ages of 6 to 20 years) were currently not in school at the time of the 2016 Census – 16 per cent male and 12 per cent female of the total population aged 6 to 20 years. Of this number who were not in school, a total of 902 (or 5 per cent) were within the primary and secondary school ages of 6 to 14-years.14 This is similar to Tonga, where 6 per cent of the population aged 5 to14 years were not enrolled in school according to the 2016 Census – with enrolment rates higher for females than males.15

14 SBS (2017a, p. 7) reported that “the 2016 Census revealed that 6 per cent of primary school children aged 5 to 12 were not attending school as well as 11 per cent of secondary school children aged 13 to 17. Only 23 per cent of the youngest pre- school age group of 3 to 4 were attending school. The census did not seek reasons for not attending school”. 15 See https://tonga.prism.spc.int/component/advlisting/?view=download&fileId=2478).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 33 For the 15 to 25-year-age-group, a total of 22,016 (or 58 per cent of persons aged 15 to 25) were not in school – 61 per cent male and 56 per cent female of the total population in this age group. This shows E ducation a high level of students who do not continue schooling after the age of 15, when education is no  longer compulsory; school dropouts are particularly high at the ages of 16 to 20 years. There remains a significant number of young people, both males and females, not able to continue education beyond secondary school and college levels. The number of those discontinuing education is higher among males than females.

Figure 3.4 further shows that while the overall population of males is higher than females in Samoa, the proportion of males not attending school is higher than females across all age groups, except those aged 51 and over (old-aged).

In addition, more females tend to undertake part-time studies than males. For those attending school full-time, more females than males continue their studies at the ages of 16 to 25-years-old. This means that more females pursue higher education than males at the youth ages of 16 to 25 years. This indicates that part-time study is a preference, perhaps because of other family responsibilities, to fit with work, or financial reasons.

The dropout rate among males in the 16 to 25 age group is higher than females. This trend might reflect a cultural dimension in Samoan families where males are expected, traditionally, to continue in the same occupation/business as their fathers. While females are often pushed to continue their education further as a way of securing their futures and their families’ futures. These cultural influences on gender require further research and investigation.

Table 3.4: Population aged three years and over who were attending school, and not at school by sex, 2016 Census Total population aged 3 Full-time student Part-time student Not at school Age group Not years and over (years) stated Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

3-5 6,480 3,342 3,138 - - - 10,233 5,381 4,852 - 16,713 8,723 7,990

6-10 23,705 12,323 11,382 - - - 600 348 252 - 24,305 12,671 11,634

11-14 16,513 8,468 8,045 - - - 302 215 87 - 16,815 8,683 8,132

15-20 14,154 6,931 7,223 150 70 80 8,238 4,875 3,363 3 22,545 11,877 10,668

21-25 1,204 565 639 141 60 81 13,778 7,100 6,678 3 15,126 7,726 7,398

26-30 223 121 102 69 30 39 12,674 6,318 6,356 4 12,970 6,473 6,497

31-35 111 58 53 32 15 17 11,389 5,797 5,592 3 11,535 5,872 5,662

36-40 77 42 35 29 9 20 10,676 5,527 5,149 4 10,786 5,581 5,204

41-45 44 27 17 30 4 26 10,218 5,288 4,930 3 10,295 5,322 4,973

46-50 37 20 17 21 5 16 9,388 5,083 4,305 3 9,449 5,108 4,338

51+ 14 7 7 14 6 8 28,468 14,021 14,447 17 28,513 14,041 14,462

Total 62,562 31,904 30,658 486 199 287 115,964 59,953 56,011 40 179,052 92,077 86,975

% of Total 35% 35% 35% 0.3% 0.2% 0.3% 65% 65% 64% 51% 49% Population

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

34 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Figure 3.4: Population aged three years and over currently attending and not attending school by sex, 2016 Census

Total males and females attending and not attending school 51 8,468 46 5 9,388 41 45 1,18 36 4 1,676 31 35 11,389 6 3 1,674 1 5 1,4 13,778 16 1,543 7,88 11 15 ,14 658 6 1 3,75 6 5 6,48 1,33

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Total ulltie Total pattie Total not at scool Not at school 51 14,1 14,447 46 5 5,83 4,35 41 45 5,88 4,93 36 4 5,57 5,149 31 35 5,797 5,59 6 3 6,318 6,356 1 5 7,1 6,678 16 4,65 3,77 11 15 485 173 6 1 348 5 5 5,381 4,85 % 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Student - Part-time 51 6 8 46 5 5 16 41 45 4 6 36 4 9 31 35 15 17 6 3 3 39 1 5 6 81 16 7 8 11 15 6 1 5 % 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Student - Full time 51 7 7 46 5 17 41 45 7 17 36 4 4 35 31 35 58 53 6 3 11 1 1 5 565 639 16 5,66 5,477 11 15 1,333 9,791 6 1 1,33 11,38 5 3,34 3,138 % 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 35 3.3 Educational attainment E ducation Highest education level attained by sex 3.3.1  Table 3.5 and Figure 3.5 show the highest educational level attained for Samoa’s population aged three years and over, by sex as per the 2016 Census as a percentage of the total population aged three years and over.

The majority of the population completed secondary school grades/levels, with Grade/Level 12 or Year 12 being the highest level completed by the population aged three years and over. Of this same population, 11.2 per cent, 11.7 per cent and 14.1 per cent had completed Grade/Level 11, Grade/Level 13, and higher education or tertiary level, respectively.

Males slightly outnumber females in terms of the percentages of persons completing and attaining Grade/Level 1 up to Grade/Level 11 (primary school up to secondary school year 11). However, females outnumber males for the completion and attainment of Grade/Level 12 up to higher educational levels. This reflects a higher school dropout for males than females after males reach senior levels of secondary school and college.

Completion and attainment of Grade/Level 13 and higher education is much higher in Apia Urban Area (AUA) than the rest of the region, most likely because most higher education institutions are located in AUA. Attainments for other lower grades/levels are slightly higher in North West Upolu (NWU), Rest of Upolu (ROU) and Savaii than AUA, this is most likely attributed to the higher population numbers, and hence school and student numbers in NWU, ROU and Savaii, are higher, than in AUA.

Table 3.5: Population aged three years and over by highest grade completed and sex, 2016 Census

Gender comparison Highest grade completed Total Male Female %Total %Male % Female

Early Childhood Education (ECE) 4,264 2,151 2,113 2.50% 2.50% 2.60%

Grade 1 6,414 3,461 2,953 3.80% 4.00% 3.63% Grade 2 5,343 2,822 2,521 3.20% 3.30% 3.10% Grade 3 5,372 2,786 2,586 3.20% 3.20% 3.18% Grade 4 5,858 3,150 2,708 3.50% 3.70% 3.33% Grade 5 5,440 2,806 2,634 3.30% 3.30% 3.24%

Grade 6 5,931 3,056 2,875 3.50% 3.60% 3.53%

Grade 7 6,042 3,262 2,780 3.60% 3.80% 3.41% Grade 8 12,688 7,254 5,434 7.60% 8.50% 6.67% Grade 9 8,072 4,476 3,596 4.80% 5.20% 4.42% Grade 10 12,899 7,394 5,505 7.70% 8.60% 6.76% Grade 11 19,574 10,430 9,144 11.70% 12.20% 11.23% Grade 12 25,606 12,218 13,388 15.30% 14.20% 16.44% Grade 13 19,647 9,018 10,629 11.70% 10.50% 13.06% Higher 23,601 11,299 12,302 14.10% 13.20% 15.11% Special Needs Education (SNE) 141 76 65 0.10% 0.10% 0.08% Missionaries 146 69 77 0.10% 0.10% 0.09% Not stated 204 101 103 0.10% 0.10% 0.13% Total 167,242 85,829 81,413 100% 100% 100%

36 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Region comparison Highest grade completed AUA NWU ROU SAVAII % AUA % NWU % ROU SAVAII Early Childhood Education (ECE) 581 939 1,086 1,658 1.80% 1.60% 2.80% 4.45% Grade 1 1,061 2,016 1,653 1,684 3.30% 3.40% 4.20% 4.52% Grade 2 922 1,818 1,307 1,296 2.80% 3.10% 3.40% 3.48% Grade 3 927 1,857 1,265 1,323 2.90% 3.20% 3.20% 3.55% Grade 4 992 2,021 1,400 1,445 3.10% 3.50% 3.60% 3.88% Grade 5 949 1,899 1,293 1,299 2.90% 3.20% 3.30% 3.49% Grade 6 952 1,989 1,477 1,513 2.90% 3.40% 3.80% 4.07% Grade 7 984 2,104 1,473 1,481 3.00% 3.60% 3.80% 3.98% Grade 8 1,896 4,554 3,131 3,107 5.80% 7.80% 8.00% 8.35% Grade 9 1,361 2,832 1,920 1,959 4.20% 4.80% 4.90% 5.26% Grade 10 2,051 4,660 3,126 3,062 6.30% 8.00% 8.00% 8.23% Grade 11 2,563 6,524 5,275 5,212 7.90% 11.10% 13.50% 14.00% Grade 12 4,480 9,010 6,340 5,776 13.80% 15.40% 16.30% 15.52% Grade 13 4,416 7,461 4,174 3,596 13.60% 12.70% 10.70% 9.66% Higher 8,300 8,686 3,906 2,709 25.50% 14.80% 10.00% 7.28% Special Needs Education (SNE) 34 65 18 24 0.10% 0.10% 0.00% 0.06% Missionaries 21 50 33 42 0.10% 0.10% 0.10% 0.11% Not stated 8 92 72 32 0.00% 0.20% 0.20% 0.09% Total 32,498 58,577 38,949 37,218 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 12).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 37 Figure 3.5: Population aged three years and over by highest grade completed and sex, 2016 Census E ducation 

14.1 Hie 15.1 13. 11.7 ade 13 13.1 1.5 15.3 ade 1 16.4 14. 11.7 ade 11 11. 1. 7.7 ade 1 6.8 8.6 4.8 ade 9 4.4 5. 7.6 ade 8 6.7 8.5 3.6 ade 7 3.4 3.8 3.5 ade 6 3.5 3.6 3.3 ade 5 3. 3.3 3.5 ade 4 3.3 3.7 3. ade 3 3. 3. 3. ade 3.1 3.3 3.8 ade 1 3.6 4. .5 C .6 .5

1. . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. 11. 1. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Total Feale Male

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 12).

3.3.2 Population’s qualifications by sex Table 3.6 and Figure 3.6 display academic achievements for a total of 86,461 persons aged 24 years old and over, as recorded at the 2016 Census. Of the total population aged 24 years and older, 43,732 (or 51 per cent) are male and 42,729 (or 49 per cent) are female. A total of 37,982 (or 42 per cent of 86,461) people left school without any formal qualifications.16 Of the 37,982 population with no qualifications,, there were more males (47 per cent) than females (40 per cent). A total of 48,322 (or 56 per cent) persons aged 24 years and over were recorded as having a qualification.

A total of 20,605 (or 24 per cent) persons achieved the Year 12 (Form 5) School Certificate (SC) or lower Year 8 or Year 11 level certificates. A total of 18,292 (or 15 per cent) persons aged 24 years and older attained the Year 13 (Form 6) Pacific Secondary School Certificate (PSSC) or Secondary School Leaving Certificate (SSLC). Only 12,617 (or 15 per cent) persons had qualifications at the tertiary level – at the undergraduate certificate, diploma, and degree up to PhD levels. Compared to other Pacific island countries, Fiji’s 2017 Census shows similar completion rates for tertiary education – 15.1 per cent of the population in urban Central/Eastern division of Fiji had educational attainment at the tertiary level. However, the population in other divisions were less – 10.6 per cent of the Western – urban division of Fiji had attained tertiary education.

16 Compared to Fiji, only around 2.5 per cent had no education – see https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/.

38 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Table 3.6 and Figure 3.6 further show that in Samoa, females exceed males in educational achievements at the SC, PSSC/SSLC, University Preparatory Year (UPY)/Form 7, diploma, and degree levels. However, males exceed females in academic achievements at the Certificate, Postgraduate, Master and PhD levels.

Table 3.6: Population aged 24 years and over by qualification and sex, 2016 Census

Academic qualifications Population % Total Males % Males Females % Females None 37,982 43.9% 20,731 47.4% 17,251 40.4%

SC or Lower (Yr11 & Yr8-cert) 20,605 23.8% 9,708 22.2% 10,897 25.5%

PSSC/SSLC 12,816 14.8% 5,928 13.6% 6,888 16.1%

UPY/ Foundation Certificate 2,284 2.6% 1,073 2.5% 1,211 2.8%

Certificate 4,336 5.0% 2,277 5.2% 2,059 4.8%

Diploma 4,216 4.9% 1,868 4.3% 2,348 5.5%

Degree 2,846 3.3% 1,403 3.2% 1,443 3.4%

Post Graduate 443 0.5% 226 0.5% 217 0.5%

Master 610 0.7% 340 0.8% 270 0.6%

PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) 166 0.2% 103 0.2% 63 0.1%

Not Stated 157 0.2% 75 0.2% 82 0.2%

Total 86,461 100% 43,732 51% 42,729 49%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 3.6: Population aged 24 years and over by qualification and sex, 2016 Census

Not tated 9 9 None 8,85 ,381 C o oe 11 8cet 14,814 16,415 PCC 8,44 9,868 Cetificate ,955 ,753 iploa ,144 ,685 UP Foundation Cetificate 1,89 ,59 eee 1,53 1,656 Maste 346 74 Post aduate 4 38 P octo o Pilosop 14 66

% % 4% 6% 8% 1%

Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

3.3.3 Population’s qualifications by sex and age Table 3.7 and Figure 3.7 further show Samoa’s population’s educational qualifications by sex and age distribution for those aged 15 years and over. A high number of both males and females have not attained an educational qualification, even at Year 8, Year 11 and School Certificate (SC) levels. Given Samoa’s male dominant population, the ‘none’ qualification status is higher among males than females. As well, given Samoa’s young population distribution, the ‘none’ qualification is higher among youth and middle-aged populations. On the contrary, given the higher proportion of females than males at the ages of 63 years and over, there are more females than males in the old age groups with no qualifications.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 39 Despite the male dominant features of the population, females outnumber males in educational achievements for SC, PSCC/SSLC, UPY, diploma, and degree levels, and this is a trend across most E ducation age groups. However, at the postgraduate/tertiary level, men outnumber women. Women only  outnumber men at undergraduate levels.

Table 3.7: Population aged 15 years and over by academic achievements and sex, 2016 Census

Males SC or Lower Ages PSSC/ Not Total None (Yr11 & Yr8- UPY Cert Dip Degree Postgrad Master PhD (years) SSLC stated cert)

0-14 ------

15-21 13,481 6,843 4,022 1,579 521 352 114 30 5 5 - 10

22-28 9,943 3,406 2,496 2,021 536 687 444 289 26 16 4 18

29-35 8,331 2,992 2,166 1,541 296 546 426 273 38 33 6 14

36-42 7,662 3,160 2,025 1,197 184 425 297 259 37 50 13 15

43-48 6,295 2,988 1,471 804 123 331 280 180 35 60 13 10

49-55 5,996 3,248 1,239 604 97 257 249 178 37 60 21 6

56-62 4,554 2,740 717 381 69 175 180 175 31 62 15 9

63-69 2,621 1,691 377 171 33 92 91 85 21 38 17 5

70-76 1,556 1,062 196 84 23 56 49 45 9 18 12 2

77+ 956 722 105 42 10 34 14 18 1 4 3 3

Total 61,395 28,852 14,814 8,424 1,892 2,955 2,144 1,532 240 346 104 92

Females SC or Lower Ages PSSC/ Not Total None (Yr11 & Yr8- UPY Cert Dip Degree Postgrad Master PhD (years) SSLC stated cert)

0-14 ------

15-21 12,186 4,704 4,431 1,828 660 363 137 47 6 1 - 9

22-28 9,793 2,157 2,605 2,518 686 740 581 433 37 17 4 15

29-35 8,090 1,984 2,474 1,769 337 508 553 353 51 45 8 8

36-42 7,057 2,224 2,149 1,357 202 307 408 274 45 63 14 14

43-48 5,725 2,108 1,674 958 136 221 358 176 42 38 6 8

49-55 5,514 2,557 1,425 670 82 242 294 164 29 35 11 5

56-62 4,274 2,355 852 421 75 191 198 103 17 42 12 8

63-69 2,641 1,749 408 175 36 83 86 61 6 24 7 6

70-76 1,800 1,304 212 104 26 57 42 35 4 6 4 6

77+ 1,607 1,239 185 68 19 41 28 10 1 3 - 13

Total 58,687 22,381 16,415 9,868 2,259 2,753 2,685 1,656 238 274 66 92

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

40 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Figure 3.7: Population aged 15 years and over by academic achievements and sex, 2016 Census Males

77 7 15 4 34 776 1,6 196 84 56 49 45 6369 1,691 377 171 9 91 85 566 ,74 717 381 175 18 175 4955 3,48 1,39 64 57 49 4348 ,988 1,471 84 331 8 364 3,16 ,5 1,197 45 97 935 ,99 ,166 1,541 96 546 46 8 3,46 ,496 ,1 536 687 444 151 6,843 4, 1,579 51 14

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Females

77 1,39 185 68 41

776 1,34 1 14 57 4 6369 1,749 48 175 83 86 61

566 ,355 85 41 191 198 4955 ,557 1,45 67 4 94

4348 ,18 1,674 958 1 358 176 364 ,4 ,149 1,357 37 48 74

935 1,984 ,474 1,769 337 58 553 353 8 ,157 ,65 ,518 686 74 581 433

151 4,74 4,431 1,88 66 363 14

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% None C o oe 11 8cet PCC UP Cet ip eee Postad Maste Pd

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 41 3.4 Literacy E ducation Literacy refers to census respondents reported ability to read and write with understanding a simple  statement of everyday life in any language, and in the 2016 Census respondents were asked to report their literacy ability. The literacy rate is the proportion of literate persons in a given group/population.

Table 3.8 and Figure 3.8 show the literacy rate for Samoa’s population aged 15 years and over by sex, region, and with an urban versus rural comparison. Of the 121,129 people aged 15 years and over in Samoa, 117,156 were reported as literate, representing a literacy rate of 96.6 per cent, with 96.5 per cent male and 96.8 per cent female.

Literacy levels vary slightly by sex and age. The literacy rate for females is a few decimal points (0.3 per cent) higher than males, and the rate starts to decline slightly as the population ages.

The literacy rate is higher among younger generations compared to older generations. As well, the rate is higher in urban areas by 2.3 per cent compared to rural areas. Of the four regions in Samoa, Apia Urban Area (AUA) has the highest literacy rate at 98.5 per cent, while Savaii records the lowest literacy rate. The literacy rates for North West Upolu (NWU) and Rest of Upolu (ROU) are 97.1 per cent and 96.7 per cent respectively.

Table 3.8: Population aged 15 and over by literacy rate, sex and region, 2016 Census

Total Total % Male Male % Female Female % Total 117,156 96.6 59,853 96.5 57,303 96.8

Age group

15-19 18,653 98.4 9,782 98.1 8,871 98.7

20-24 15,624 98.1 7,998 97.7 7,626 98.6

25-29 13,091 98.2 6,552 97.8 6,539 98.6

30-34 11,697 98.2 5,925 97.9 5,772 98.4

35-39 10,575 97.9 5,431 97.6 5,144 98.3

40-44 10,028 97.8 5,205 97.6 4,823 98.0

45-49 9,506 97.3 5,081 97.0 4,425 97.6

50-54 8,174 96.8 4,181 96.4 3,993 97.1

55-59 6,701 95.6 3,472 94.9 3,229 96.3

60-64 4,945 94.6 2,533 95.0 2,412 94.3

65-69 3,179 91.5 1,541 90.5 1,638 92.4

70-74 2,362 87.9 1,112 87.8 1,250 88.0

75+ 2,621 76.4 1,040 78.2 1,581 75.3

Urban versus rural

Urban 23,923 98.5 11,845 98.5 12,078 98.5

Rural 93,233 96.2 48,008 96.1 45,225 96.3

Region

AUA 23,923 98.5 11,845 98.5 12,078 98.5

NWU 41,755 96.9 21,304 96.7 20,451 97.1

ROU 26,685 96.7 13,958 96.6 12,727 96.7

Savaii 24,793 94.6 12,746 94.5 12,047 94.6

Source: SBS (2018b, p. 16).

42 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Figure 3.8: Population aged 15 years and over by literacy rate, sex and region, 2016 Census

1 95 98.7 98.6 98.6 98.4 98.3 98.1 98. 97.7 97.8 97.9 97.6 97.6 97.6 97.1 97. 96.4 9 96.3 94.9 95. 94.3

85 9.4 9.5 88. 8 87.8 75 78. 7 75.3

Literacy rate (%) 65 6 55 5 1519 4 59 334 3539 444 4549 554 5559 664 6569 774 75

Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 43 3.5 Summary E ducation Table 3.9 summarizes the key findings on the population of Samoa’s education demographics and  dynamics by sex.

Table 3.9: Summary of key findings on the population of Samoa’s education by sex and age

Area Key findings Education attendance

• A total of 167,245 persons or 93 per cent (of the 179,052 population aged three years and over) has attended school in Samoa. • A total of 11,807 persons or 7 per cent have never attended school in their lifetime. • Of the male population aged three years and over, 93 per cent have attended school. For the female population this figure is 94 per cent. The gender variation for the total population aged three years and over who have attended school is 1 per cent higher for females than males. • Of the male population aged three years and over, 7 per cent have never attended school in Population ever attended their lifetime, while the figure is 6 per cent for the female population. The sex variation for school by sex and region the total population aged three years and over who have never attended school is higher for males than females. • More females tend to go to school than males despite Samoa’s male dominated population. • The sex variation in school attendance between urban and rural areas is 1 per cent higher for urban areas. • The North West Upolu region has a 1 per cent lower school attendance rate compared to the rest of the regions in Upolu and Savaii, and has the highest number of persons aged three years and over who have never attended school.

• A total of 62,252 persons (or 67 per cent of the 92,704 population aged 3 to 24 years) are attending school – 66 per cent of the male population and 69 per cent of the female population aged 3 to 24 years. • A total of 30,542 (or 33 per cent of the 92,704 population aged 3 to 24 years) are not in school – 34 per cent of the male population and 31 per cent of the female population. • Females have a higher rate of school attendance. • The peak net school attendance rates for both males and females are at the ages of 6 to 14 years, at more than 90 per cent for both sexes. Population aged 3 to 24 • School attendance rates start to decline slightly for both males and females at the ages of 15 years currently attending to 24, with more females than males attending. More young females than young males have school by sex the opportunity to go on to higher education. • Non-attendance rates are highest at the ages of 3 to 5 years and increase for those aged 15 years and over. • The school dropout rate increases with age for both males and females but is higher for males. • The majority of the 902 children aged 6 to 14 years who are not in school are males (62 per cent), compared to 38 per cent of females. • The urban-rural gap for persons not attending school is widening, at more than 80 per cent in rural areas compared to only 18 per cent and less in urban areas.

• Of Samoa’s 179,052 population aged three years and over, 62,562 persons (or 35 per cent) are currently full-time students, and 486 persons (or 0.3 per cent) are part-time students, while 15,964 (or 65 per cent) are not in school. • A total of 9,140 persons or 14 per cent of the population at the school ages of 6 to 20 years were currently not in school at the time of the 2016 Census, 16 per cent male and 12 per cent female for the total population aged 6 to 20 years. • Of the 9,140 persons aged 6 to 20 years currently not in school, a total of 902 (or 2 per cent) were within the primary and secondary school ages of 6 to 14 years. • For the age group 15 to 25 years, a total of 21,016 (or 58 per cent) persons were not in school Population currently – 61 per cent male and 56 per cent female for the total population in the 16 to 25 year age attending schools by sex group. and age • A high proportion of students end their schooling between 16 to 20 years. A significant number of young males and females are not able to continue education beyond secondary school and college levels. The rate of school dropouts in the 16 to 20 year age group is higher for males than females. • Whilst the overall population of males is higher than females, the proportion of males not attending school is higher than females across all ages, except for those aged 51 years and over. • More females tend to undertake part-time studies than males. • For those attending school full-time, more females than males continue studies at the ages of 16 to 25 years.

44 2016 Population and Housing Census  E ducation

Educational attainment

• The majority of Samoa’s population complete secondary school grades/levels, with Grade/Level 12 or Year 12 being the highest level completed by the population aged three years and over. • Of this same population, 11.2 per cent, 11.7 per cent and 14.1 per cent complete Grade/Level 11, Grade/Level 13, and higher education/ tertiary levels respectively. • Males slightly outnumber females in the percentages of persons completing and attaining Grade/Level 1 up to the Grade/Level 11 (primary school up to secondary school year 11). • Females outnumber males in the completion and attainment of Grade/Level 12 up to higher Highest education educational levels. This reflects a higher school dropout for males compared to females. attainment by sex • Completion and attainment of Grade/Level 13 and higher education is much higher in Apia Urban Area than the rest of the region, perhaps because most of the higher education institutions are located in urban areas. • Completion and attainment for other grades/levels lower than Grade/Level 3 are slightly higher in North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii than in Apia Urban Area. This is most likely attributed to the higher population numbers (and hence schools and students) in North West Upolu, Rest of Upolu and Savaii, than in Apia Urban Area.

• Of the total 120,082 population aged 15 years old and over, 51,233 (or 43 per cent) have no formal qualifications. • A total of 68,665 (or 57 per cent) have a qualification. • Of the 51,233 population with no qualification, there are more males (56 per cent) than females (44 per cent). • A total of 31,229 (or 26 per cent) have completed the Year 12 School Certificate or lower level certificates at Year 8 or Year 11. Population’s • A total of 18,292 (or 15 per cent) have completed the Year 13 Pacific Secondary School qualifications by sex Certificate or Secondary School Leaving Certificate. • Only 14,993 (or 12.5 per cent) have completed qualifications at the tertiary level; undergraduate certificate, diploma, and degree up to PhD levels. • Females exceed males in educational achievements at the School Certificate, Pacific Secondary School Certificate/Secondary School Leaving Certificate, University Preparatory Year, diploma, and degree levels. • Males exceed females in academic achievements at the certificate, postgraduate, master and PhD levels.

• Given Samoa’s male dominant population, the ‘none’ qualification status is higher among males, than females, and higher for the youth and middle-aged population levels. Population’s • Given the higher proportion of females than males at the ages of 63 years and over, there are qualifications by sex more females at old ages with no qualifications than males. and age • Females outnumber males in educational achievements for School Certificate, PSCC/SSLC, UPY, diploma, and degree levels across most age groups.

Literacy

• Of the 121,129 people aged 15 years and over in Samoa, 117,156 reported as being literate, representing a literacy rate of 96.6 per cent for Samoa –96.5 per cent male and 96.8 per cent female. • Literacy levels vary slightly by sex and age. • The literacy rate for females is only 0.3 per cent higher than males. Literacy levels by sex • The literacy rate starts to decline slightly as the population ages. • The literacy rate is higher among younger generations compared to older generations. • The literacy rate is higher in urban areas compared to rural areas by a difference of 2.3 per cent. • Of the four regions in Samoa, Apia Urban Area has the highest literacy rate of 98.5 per cent, while Savaii records the lowest at 94.6 per cent. The literacy rates for North West Upolu and Rest of Upolu are 97.1 per cent and 96.7 per cent respectively.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 45 Chapter 4. HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

4.1 Introduction and overview H ealth and well - being The government recognizes “reproductive and maternal and child health for the long-term health of  the community” and “rapidly increasing levels of non-communicable diseases” are some of the crucial health challenges in Samoa. They will have “major impacts on the health system, community mortality and morbidity, and the economy of Samoa” (Ministry of Health, 2008, p. 11). A healthy population with long life expectancy is a happy and productive society able to contribute to everyone’s well-being and welfare.

Women play significant roles in the care, health and well-being of children, families and communities contributing to addressing the health challenges in Samoa. As such, the health and well-being of women and girls themselves are essential to healthy and strong families and communities. Safe motherhood, and quality maternal health and reproductive health are essential to improving the social and economic status of females and children. It is also important for a healthy population that everyone’s health and well-being, including vulnerable groups, is addressed and this includes women who are primarily responsible for caring for those with poor health. This requires a better understanding from a gender perspective of the population health demographics, trends, dynamics and issues in Samoa and the following sections analyse the health and well-being profiles of males and females in Samoa.

Fertility, mortality, life expectancy and disability levels are some key indicators commonly used to profile the health and well-being status of a population and are used in this gender monograph. Other indicators that relate to Samoa’s health status (not analysed in this monograph due to data unavailability) are the levels of non-communicable diseases and associated risk factors such as smoking, alcohol, nutrition, and other health and lifestyle behaviours of the local people and community.

4.2 Life expectancy

Life expectancy indicates the average number of additional years a person would live if the current mortality trends were to continue. Figure 4.1 shows that the life expectancy at birth of Samoa’s population has improved over the 15-year period of 2001 to 2016, with an increase from 74.2 in 2001 to 74.9 in 2016. The life expectancy of both males and females has increased over the reference years but females have historically outlived males at birth, consistent with global demographic data.

Figure 4.1: Life expectancy at birth by sex, 2001 to 2016

77 76. 76 75.6 74.9 75 74. 74. 73.8 73.7 74 73. 7.8 7.7 73 71.8 7 71.5 71

Average life expectancy 7 69 11 6 11 16

Total Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 13).

46 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

4.3 Fertility

4.3.1 Total fertility Fertility refers to the childbearing performance of an individual (usually women) measured for a specified age group or population. The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of live births each woman will have over her reproductive life.

Figure 4.2 portrays the TFR for Samoa over the last 50 years as estimated from censuses and demographic and health surveys (DHS). It shows a declining average number of children per woman over the years, from the 1960s to 2016, giving an overall picture of a downward trend in the TFR of Samoan women. The TFR dropped from seven (7) children per woman in 1966 to four (4) children per woman by 2016, relatively high compared to the global average of just below 2.5 children.

Figure 4.2: Total fertility rate by health demographic surveys 1999 to 2014 and 1966–2016 census

8 7.3 7.4 6.7 7

6 5.6 5.1 4.8 4.7 5 4.5 4.6

TFR 4.4 4. 3.8 4

3

1966 1971 1976 1986 1991 1999 1 6 9 11 14 16 census census census census census H census census H census H census

TF pon. TF

Source: SBS (2009, 2014; 2018a, p. 6).

Table 4.1 and Figure 4.3 show the TFR by region and district in Samoa. Fertility is lowest in Apia Urban Area and highest in the rural areas of Upolu as well as in Savaii. At the district level, fertility rates are highest in Gagaifomauga II, Falealupo, Aleipata Itupa I Lalo, Lepa, Gagaifomauga III and Vaa O Fonoti, and lowest in Faleata East, Faleata West, Vaimauga West, and Gagaemauga II.

Table 4.1: Total fertility rate by region, census years, 2001 to 2016

Census Year Samoa AUA NWU ROU Savaii 2001 census 4.4 3.6 4.4 4.8 4.7

2006 census 4.2 3.5 4.3 4.5 4.8

2011 census 4.7 4.0 4.6 5.0 5.1

2016 census 3.8 3.0 3.8 4.1 4.1

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 47 Figure 4.3: Total fertility rate by region and census years, 2011 to 2016

6.

5. 5.1 4.8 4.8 5. 4.7 4.6 4.7 4.4 4.4 4.5 4. 4.3 4. 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.8 H ealth and well - being 4. 3.5 3.6  3. 3. TFR

.

1.

. aoa AUA NU U aaii 1 census 6 census 11 census 16 census

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 6).

4.3.2 Women who had given birth by age and urban-rural residence Table 4.2 shows that the 2016 Census recorded a total of 43,904 females in the reproductive ages of 15 to 49 years, which equates to 46 per cent of the total female population in Samoa. Of this number, a total of 26,053 had given birth, implying that 59 per cent had become mothers and were raising children at the time of the 2016 Census (see Table 4.2 and Figure 4.4). The number of females who had given birth was lower (as expected) at the teenage (15 to 19) years as females were just entering their reproductive life. The lowest number of females who had already given birth was recorded in Apia Urban Area (AUA) but it was relatively higher in the rural regions of Upolu and Savaii.

Table 4.2: Females aged 15 to 49 years ever-given birth by age and region, 2016 Census

Total Yes (given birth) No (not given birth) % Yes % No Total 43,904 26,053 17,851 59% 41%

15-19 8,984 467 8,517 5% 95%

20-24 7,735 3,311 4,424 43% 57%

25-29 6,632 4,662 1,970 70% 30%

Age Group 30-34 5,865 4,768 1,097 81% 19%

35-39 5,235 4,528 707 86% 14%

40-44 4,919 4,367 552 89% 11%

45-49 4,534 3,950 584 87% 13%

AUA 9,189 4,956 4,233 54% 46%

NWU 16,115 9,579 6,536 59% 41% Region ROU 9,601 5,999 3,602 62% 38%

Savaii 8,999 5,519 3,480 61% 39%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

48 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

Figure 4.4: Females aged 15 to 49 years ever-given birth by age and region, 2016 Census

1% 95% 86% 89% 87% 9% 81% 8% 7% 7% 6% 61% 57% 59% 6% 54% 5% 43% 46% 41% 38% 39% 4% 3% 3% 19% % 14% 11% 13% 1% 5% % 1519 4 59 334 3539 444 4549 AUA NU U aaii

Age Group Region

ien it Not ien it

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the: SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

The 2016 Census further estimated the age of 23 years as the mean age of childbearing for Samoan women, which is how early or late a woman starts to have children. Half of females in their reproductive years (aged 15 to 49) who had ever given birth, would be bearing children before the age of 23, while the other half would give birth after this age (SBS, 2018a, p. 7).

4.3.3 Age-specific fertility The age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) is the “annual number of live births per 1,000 females of a specified age”. The ASFR is normally lowest at the youngest (15 to 19 years) and oldest (45 to 49 years) ages as females enter and end their reproductive life (SBS, 2018a, p. 4). The ASFR is the annual number of live births per 1,000 females aged 15 to 49.

Table 4.3 and Figure 4.5 show the ASFR for Samoan women as derived from the 2016 Census. There were 4,835 births in the 12 months prior to the 2016 Census, equating to 110 children per 1,000 females aged 15 to 49 years. The ASFR is highest for the age group 25 to 29 years and lowest in the youngest (15 to 19 years) and oldest age groups (40 to 49 years).

Table 4.3: Age specific fertility rate, 2016 Census Number of Children born alive in Age % of total ASFR (x 1000) females last 12 months 15-19 8,984 282 0.03 31.4 20-24 7,735 1290 0.17 166.8 25-29 6,632 1321 0.20 199.2 30-34 5,865 965 0.16 164.5 35-39 5,235 634 0.12 121.1 40-44 4,919 277 0.06 56.3 45-49 4,534 66 0.01 14.6 Total 43,904 4,835 0.11 110.1

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 49 Figure 4.5: Age specific fertility rate, 2016 Census

.

. 199. 18. 166.8 16. 164.5 H ealth and well - being .14  1. 11.1 1. 8. 1,000 women) 6. 56.3 4. 31.4 . 14.6 Age fertility rate (annual live births per . 1519 4 59 334 3539 444 4549

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

4.3.4 Teenage fertility The teenage fertility rate is the ASFR of females aged 15 to 19 years, expressed as the number of children per 1,000 teenage mothers. As shown at Table 4.4, the 2016 Census recorded a total of 467 teenagers (or 5 per cent of 8,984 total females aged 15 to 19 years) who had already given birth. The 467 teenage mothers had given birth to a total of 578 children at the time of the 2016 Census.

Pregnant teenagers face many health and socioeconomic issues because of their young biological and immature ages. Health issues may include the increased possibility of anaemia, premature and complicated labour and delivery, and low birth weight of babies, compared to women aged over 20 years. Socioeconomic issues may include social stigma (for unmarried teenagers), difficulties in providing or accessing child care, child neglect, lower educational levels (due to discontinuation of education), and poverty among other issues.

Teenage mothers – number of children and marital status Table 4.4 provides the number of teenage mothers and the number of children they had given birth to at the time of the 2016 Census. The majority of teenagers with one child were aged 18 and 19 years. Four teenagers aged 17 years already had two children, while two had already given birth to three children. A total of nine teenagers already had three children at the age of 19, while five teenagers had the same number of three children at the age of 18. One teenager aged 18 already had four children.

Table 4.4 and Figure 4.6 also show that the majority of the 467 teenage mothers (a total of 296 or 63 per cent) were single or not married at the time of the 2016 Census, while 32 per cent were already married. Twenty-one (or 4.5 per cent) teenage mothers were divorced/separated. The 63 per cent of teenage mothers who were single at the time of the census reflect a high rate of teenage pregnancy, perhaps indicating limited knowledge and use of voluntary family planning methods, including modern contraceptives.

50 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

Table 4.4: Teenage mothers with one to four children and marital status, 2016 Census

Age No of children Total 15-years-old 16-years-old 17-years-old 18-years-old 19-years-old

1 376 1 7 48 122 198

2 73 - 1 4 22 46

3 16 - - 2 5 9

4 2 - - - 1 1

Total 467 1 8 54 150 254

Given Birth Marital Status Total Yes (given No (not given % Yes % No birth) birth)

Single 8,708 296 63.4% 8,412 98.8%

Married 244 148 31.7% 96 1.1%

Divorced/ 29 21 4.5% 8 0.1% Separated

Widowed 3 2 0.4% 1 0.0%

Total 8,984 467 100% 8,517 100%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 4.6: Marital status of the 467 teenage mothers, 2016 Census

inle 96 Maied 148 iocedepaated 1 idoed

5 1 15 5 3

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 51 Teenage fertility rate by region Figure 4.7 shows that although there was an increase in the teenage fertility rate from 2006 to 2011, and a decrease from 2011 to 2016, the overall trend in the teenage fertility rate since 2001 is it is declining. The teenage fertility rate at the 2016 Census was estimated at 31 children per 1,000 teenage mothers, compared to 39 recorded at the 2011 Census.

Figure 4.7: Teenage fertility rate, 2001 to 2016 H ealth and well - being 

5 46

45 39 4 31 35 9 3 5 15 Teenage Fetility Rate 1 5 1 census 6 census 11 census 16 census

Teenae Fetilit ate it pe 1 teenae otes inea Teenae Fetilit ate it pe 1 teenae otes

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 8).

Table 4.5 and Figure 4.8 further highlight that the teenage fertility rate is lower in Apia Urban Area (15 per cent), followed by Savaii (18 per cent), compared to North West Upolu (44 per cent) and Rest of Upolu (22 per cent). This may show a low level of reproductive health awareness and access to services in the rural areas of Upolu compared to Apia Urban Area. The low rate for Savaii may reflect the low population numbers in Savaii compared to Upolu where 78 per cent of the total population reside (see section 2.3.1).

Table 4.5: Teenage fertility rate by region, 2016 Census

Total teenage % of teenage Total children Residence 1 child 2 children 3 - 5 children mothers mothers ever born

AUA 71 15% 84 61 14 9

NWU 207 44% 246 172 62 12

ROU 105 22% 132 84 32 16

SAVAII 84 18% 116 59 38 19

SAMOA 467 100% 578 376 146 56

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

52 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

Figure 4.8: Teenage fertility rate by region, 2016 Census

7 578 6 5 467 4

3 46 7 13 116 84 15 84 1 71 AUA NU U AA AMA

Total teenae otes Total cilden ee on

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

4.3.5 Current fertility differentials Table 4.5 and Figure 4.9 show the current fertility differentials of females aged 15 to 49 and 45 to 49 years. The older age group is included to allow comparison with the fertility patterns of women who have completed childbearing or are at the end of their reproductive years according to international definitions.

The patterns show that TFRs are highest among females aged 15 to 49 years who are: • Living in rural areas compared to urban areas. • In a married relationship. • Attend the Assembly of God, Seven Day Adventist and Latter Day Saints churches. • Have secondary and primary education levels. • Have no academic qualifications and have educational completion at PSSC and lower levels. • Not in the labour force and are engaged in domestic duties.

The TFRs among females aged 45 to 49 further highlight that: • Females who live in rural areas end fertility with 4.9 children compared to 4.4 children for females in urban areas. • Females who are married end fertility with 4.9 children compared to 2.1 children for single females. • Females who attend the LDS church end fertility with 5.2 children compared to 4.4 children for females who attend the CCCS. • Females with primary education end fertility with 5.1 children compared to 4.1 for females with tertiary education. • Females with no qualification end fertility with 5.1 children compared to 3.6 children for females with a higher degree. • Females not in the labour force or engaged in domestic duties end fertility with 5.0 children compared to 4.3 children for employed females.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 53 Table 4.6: Current fertility differentials of females aged 15 to 49 and 45 to 49 years, 2016 Census Females aged 15-49 Females aged 45-49 Births last 12 Birth last 12 No. females TFR No. females TFR months months

Total 43,904 4,835 3.8 18,645 3,950 4.7

Apia Urban Area 9,198 823 3.0 3,224 741 4.4 H ealth and well - being  North West Upolu 16,115 1,932 3.8 6,519 1,398 4.7 Region Rest of Upolu 9,601 1,135 4.1 4,542 922 4.9

Savaii 8,999 1,045 4.1 4,360 889 4.9

Married 24,879 4,069 6.8 16,595 3,400 4.9

Divorced/Married 2,212 281 5.2 1,015 278 3.7 Marital status Widowed 519 23 4.0 846 184 4.6

Single 16,294 462 0.8 189 88 2.1

CCCS 12,628 1,290 3.5 5,342 12,116 4.4

Methodist 5,335 573 3.7 2,310 498 4.6

Roman Catholic 8,245 906 3.7 3,193 694 4.6

LDS 7,424 832 3.9 3,311 631 5.2

Religion Assembly of God 2,981 391 4.4 1,332 265 5.0

SDA 1,912 226 4.0 708 158 4.5

Other Religion 5,274 610 3.9 2,422 480 5.0

No religion 85 6 2.5 21 6 3.5

Not stated 20 1 1.0 6 2 3.0

Never to school 291 18 2.7

Special needs 57 3 2.6 5 1 5.0

Education Primary level 2,107 225 4.4 1,643 323 5.1 attainment Secondary level 31,238 3,535 4.6 13,903 2,869 4.8

Higher/Tertiary 10,151 1,050 3.1 2,958 728 4.1

Not stated 60 4 2.2 29 7 4.1

None 13,785 1,401 4.2 7,936 1,547 5.1

PSSC and lower 22,081 2,598 3.9 8,047 1,718 4.7

Academic Certificate 4,210 474 3.2 691 162 4.3 Qualification Diploma 2,080 203 2.7 1,097 260 4.2

Degree and higher 1,694 154 2.4 548 153 3.6

Not stated 54 5 3.4 11 5 2.2

Employed 12,466 1,146 2.9 5,852 1,375 4.3

Labour force Unemployed 950 104 2.9 56 13 4.3 participation Not in labour 30,488 3,538 4.3 12,737 2,562 5.0 force

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 9).

54 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

Figure 4.9: Current fertility differentials of females aged 15 to 49 and 45 to 49 years, 2016 Census

7 6.8

6

5. 5. 5.1 5.1 5 4.9 4.9 4.9 5 5 5 4.8 4.7 5 4.7 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.1 4.1 4. 4.3 4.4 4.6 4 4 4. 4.1 4.1 4 3.5 3.6 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.4 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.7 3 3.5 3. 3 3.1 3 .9 .9 .5 .7 .7 .6 .4 . .1 .

1 .8 1 d e t A a t CCC None aaii inle s

t Maied iploa o idoed ploed Certificate Metodist Not stated Not stated N No eliion Pia leel Uneploed est o Upolu pecial needs te eliion HieTetia PC and loe Nee to scool econda leel oan Catolic Apia Uan Aea Assel o od iocedMaied Not est Upolu eee and ie Not in laou oce eion Maital status eliion ducation attainent Academic Qualification aou oce paticipation

Feales aed 1549 Feales aes 4549

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 9).

4.4 Mortality

4.4.1 Population mortality by sex The rate at which death occurs during a year is measured by the crude death rate (CDR) which is expressed as deaths per 1,000 people in a population. Figure 4.10 illustrates the CDR over the last three censuses for Samoa. It increased slightly from 2006 to 2011 by 0.4, but remained the same at the rate of 4.4 in 2011 and 2016. This means that since 2006 the rate at which death occurs during the year is four deaths per 1,000 people in Samoa. The mortality rate remains higher for males than females across all census years. However, the rate for males decreased from 2011 to 2016 from 4.6 to 4.4 while it increased for females from 4.2 to 4.3 over the same period – reflecting improved life expectancy –narrowing the gap in life expectancy between women and men (see section 4.2).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 55 Figure 4.10: Morality rate by sex and census years, 2006 to 2016

5 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4. 4.3 4 4 3.8 H ealth and well - being 3 

Crude Death Rate 1

(per 1000 people in the population) 6 census 11 census 16 census Total Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 12).

4.4.2 Child mortality by sex Child mortality is measured by the infant and under-five mortality rates, which are expressed as per 1,000 live births. The ‘infant mortality rate’ (IMR) is the probability (expressed as a rate per 1,000 live births) of a child born in a specified year dying before reaching their first birthday subject to current age-specific mortality rates. It estimates the probability of a newborn child surviving to their first birthday (SBS, 2018a, p. 12). The under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is the probability (expressed as a rate per 1,000 live births) of a child born in a specified year dying before reaching the age of five if subject to current age-specific mortality rates – giving the probability of a child surviving to their fifth birthday.

Figure 4.11 provides the IMR and U5MR for Samoa, showing an overall decline in total levels of infant and child deaths from 2006 to 2016 reflected in a declining IMR and U5MR. However, there are some differences in the IMR and U5MR trends that are worth noting. The IMR for females increased from 14.0 in 2011 to 16.2 in 2016, but decreased for males from 17.0 to 12.5 over the same period. Similarly, the U5MR for females increased slightly from 18 in 2011 to 18.6 in 2016, but declined significantly for males from 27.0 to 17.0 over the same period.

Figure 4.11: Infant mortality rate and under-five mortality rate by sex and census years, 2001 to 2016

35 Infant Mortality Under-five Mortality 3 7 6.9 4.7 3.1

5 .9 .8 .7 .5 .4 19.5 19.3 19 18.6 18. 18 17 17 17 16. 15.6 14.3 15 14 1.5 five Mortality Rate/1,000 - 1 Infant Morality Rate/1,000

Under 5

1 6 11 16 1 6 11 16

Total Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018a, p. 13).

56 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

4.5 Disability

4.5.1 Domain of disability by sex According to the Samoa Bureau of Statistics (SBS, 2017a, p. 9), approximately 1 per cent of all persons five years and over live with some form of disability. Table 4.7 shows the number of people in Samoa living with some form of disability and the sex distribution. Figure 4.12 further depicts the total number of people with both ‘cannot do’ and ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication (see last two columns of Table 4.7).

Samoa’s population aged five years and above is 167,676 with 86,207 (51 per cent) males and 81,647 (49 per cent) females. A total of 8,045 persons (or 5 per cent of the population aged 5 years and over) have the above types of disability – 4 per cent male and 5 per cent female.

Mobility ranks as the highest domain of disabilities with a total of 1,726 (24 per cent) persons who either ‘cannot do’ or have ‘a lot of difficulty’ in this domain. Second ranked is self-care with 1,380 (or 23 per cent) persons who either ‘cannot do’ or have ‘a lot of difficulty’ with self-care. The third highest ranked is vision with 1,125 (or 16 per cent) people who cannot see or have a lot of difficulty with seeing.

These domains of disability are higher among females than males. For instance, 1,126 (or 1.4 per cent of) females either ‘cannot’ or have ‘a lot difficulty’ with mobility, compared to 835 (or 1 per cent of) males. Similarly, 906 (or 1.1 per cent of) females either ‘cannot’, or have ‘a lot difficulty’ with self- care, compared to 653 (0.8 per cent of) males. Only for hearing is the number of males slightly higher than females who ‘cannot’ do or have ‘a lot of difficulty’ with, while for communication there is little difference.

Table 4.7: Population aged 5 to 79 years by domain of disability, 2016 Census A lot of % A lot of No Some A lot of Cannot Not difficulty & difficulty & Total difficulty difficulty difficulty do at all Stated Cannot do Cannot do combined combined Total 167,676 162,575 3,334 1,023 703 41 1,726 1.0%

Mobility Male 86,207 83,930 1,494 450 311 22 761 0.9%

Female 81,469 78,645 1,840 573 392 19 965 1.2%

Total 167,676 163,833 2,420 780 600 43 1,380 0.8%

Self-care Male 86,207 84,420 1,159 347 258 23 605 0.7%

Female 81,469 79,413 1,261 433 342 20 775 1.0%

Total 167,676 160,487 6,026 843 282 38 1,125 0.7%

Vision Male 86,207 82,772 2,878 397 140 20 537 0.6%

Female 81,469 77,715 3,148 446 142 18 588 0.7%

Total 167,676 163,271 3,349 668 344 44 1,012 0.6%

Memory Male 86,207 84,109 1,600 317 159 22 476 0.6%

Female 81,469 79,162 1,749 351 185 22 536 0.7%

Total 167,676 163,381 3,303 680 269 43 949 0.6%

Hearing Male 86,207 84,061 1,629 349 146 22 495 0.6%

Female 81,469 79,320 1,674 331 123 21 454 0.6%

Total 167,676 164,450 2,238 605 338 45 943 0.6%

Communication Male 86,207 84,614 1,096 303 170 24 473 0.5%

Female 81,469 79,836 1,142 302 168 21 470 0.6%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 57 Figure 4.12: Population aged 5 to 79 years by domain of disability and sex, 2016 Census

1,8 1,76

1,5 1,38 H ealth and well - being  1, 1,15 1,1 965 949 943 9 761 775

65 588 6 537 536 495 476 454 473 47

3 Moilit elcae ision Meo Heain Counication

Total Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

4.5.2 Disability by sex and age Table 4.8 and Figure 4.13 combine the total number of persons who ‘cannot do’ and with ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication, by sex andage distribution. All domains of disability are most prevalent among old-aged persons of over 70 years, and are higher among females than males. This means that more females tend to experience these domains of disability when they reach old age than males, in line with the longer female life expectancy. The difference/disparity among males and females is much wider in the mobility and self- care domains of disability compared to the other domains such as hearing and memory. However, more males experience these domains of disability more than females at younger ages including as children and adolescents.

58 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

Table 4.8: Population aged 5 years and above by functional domain and degree of difficulty, 2016 Census - 78 79 74 70 66 99 95 5% F 278 317 137 141 244 368 124 1,618 3,788 - 90 94 95 4% 266 317 855 113 109 115 159 196 230 407 165 136 M 3,347 - Grand Total T 544 634 191 169 183 164 161 214 296 337 474 775 260 260 2,473 7,135 - 18 18 15 15 14 14 10 19 17 12 17 95 21 30 F 470 155 0.6% - 18 22 77 22 17 26 17 17 15 22 16 20 37 33 M 473 114 0.6% - 36 40 37 32 40 31 27 34 39 28 37 58 63 T 943 232 209 Communication - 7 8 7 9 9 30 31 11 10 22 21 21 39 19 F 454 210 0.6% - 7 40 51 15 12 14 13 11 22 34 43 41 27 20 M 495 145 0.6% Hearing - 70 82 22 20 21 22 18 21 44 55 64 80 36 39 T 949 355 - 9 36 27 17 14 15 12 18 15 13 28 63 22 21 F 536 226 0.7% - 41 29 20 18 20 16 15 18 19 19 22 68 32 24 M 476 115 0.6% Memory - 77 56 37 32 35 28 24 36 34 32 50 54 45 T 341 131 1,012 - 8 42 52 12 13 11 12 17 23 35 49 10 11 46 F 588 247 0.7% - 54 57 13 11 16 16 20 28 33 38 18 18 20 42 M 537 153 0.6% Vision - 96 25 24 27 28 37 51 68 87 28 29 28 88 T 400 109 1,125 - 68 58 16 14 11 11 15 24 20 38 21 22 17 86 F 775 354 1.0% - 54 49 16 22 18 18 18 25 34 39 29 24 18 94 M 605 147 0.7% - Self-care 32 36 29 29 33 49 54 77 50 46 35 T 122 501 107 180 1,380 - 14 11 13 13 20 36 40 91 93 12 21 14 39 F 965 122 426 1.2% - 95 14 16 14 22 33 43 60 68 73 22 17 18 48 M 761 218 0.9% Mobility - 28 27 27 35 53 79 34 38 32 87 T 217 644 100 159 166 1,726 Age (Years) 70-74 75-79 Total % pop Samoa population aged 5-79 years is 165,997 (85,623 males and 80,374 females) T – Total, M Male, F - Female 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 10-14 15-19 20-24 0-4 5-9

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 59 Figure 4.13: Population aged 5 years and over by functional domain and degree of difficulty and sex, 2016 Census

Mobility Self-care 7579 46 18 7579 354 147 774 1 95 774 68 54 6569 93 73 6569 58 49 H ealth and well - being 39 38 664 68 91 664  5559 4 6 5559 34 554 36 43 554 4 5 4549 33 4549 15 18 444 13 444 11 18 3539 13 14 3539 11 18 334 11 16 334 14 59 14 14 59 16 16 4 14 18 4 17 18 1519 1 17 1519 4 114 1 114 1 9 59 39 48 59 86 94

5% 4% 3% % 1% % 1% % 3% 4% 5% 4% 3% % 1% % 1% % 3% 4%

Vision Memory 7579 47 153 7579 6 115 774 4 54 774 36 41 6569 5 57 6569 7 9 664 49 38 664 8 5559 35 33 5559 13 19 554 3 8 554 15 19 4549 17 4549 18 18 444 1 16 444 9 15 3539 11 16 3539 1 16 334 13 11 334 15 59 1 13 59 14 18 4 8 4 17 1519 11 18 1519 1 4 114 1 18 114 3 59 46 4 59 63 68 5% 4% 3% % 1% % 1% % 3% 4% 5% 4% 3% % 1% % 1% % 3% 4%

Hearing Communication 7579 1 145 7579 155 77 774 31 51 774 18 6569 3 4 6569 18 18 664 1 43 664 17 5559 1 34 5559 1 16 554 554 17 4549 1 11 4549 19 15 444 11 7 444 1 17 3539 9 13 3539 14 17 334 7 14 334 14 6 59 8 1 59 15 17 4 7 15 4 15 1519 19 1519 3 33 114 9 7 114 1 37 59 39 41 59 95 114 6%5%4%3%%1% % 1% % 3% 4% 4% 3% % 1% % 1% % 3% 4%

Feale Male

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

60 2016 Population and Housing Census  H ealth and well - being

4.6 Summary

Table 4.9 summarizes the key findings on the population of Samoa’s health and well-being demographics and dynamics highlighting key differences between males and females within those health demographics and dynamics.

Table 4.9: Summary of key findings on population health and well-being

Area Key findings Fertility

• The 2016 Census recorded a total of 43,904 females in the reproductive ages of 15 to 49 years, equating to 46 per cent of the total female population in Samoa. • Of the 43,904 females in the reproductive ages of 15 to 49 years, a total of 26,053 (59 per cent) had given birth; had become mothers and were in the stage of motherhood. Women • The number of females giving birth was lower at the teenage years of 15 to 19 years (5 per cent) as already given females were just entering their reproductive years. birth • The lowest number of females who had already given birth was recorded in Apia Urban Area (AUA) but was relatively higher in the rural regions of Upolu and Savaii. • The mean childbearing age for Samoan females was estimated at the 2016 Census as 23 years. Half of women of reproductive age (15 to 49 years) who had ever given birth would be bearing children before the age of 23, while the other half would give birth after this age.

• Females aged 15 to 49 gave birth to 4,835 newborns in the 12 months prior to the 2016 Census, equating to five children per 1,000 females. • The number of births in the 12 months prior to the 2016 Census peaked at the ages of 25 to 29 years and Age-specific then declined as females aged. fertility • The age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) was highest at the ages of 25 to 29 years, and lowest at the youngest (15 to 19 years) and oldest (45 to 49 years) ages when females were just entering and ending their reproductive years.

• The average number of children per woman over the past 50 years is declining, from seven children per woman in 1966 to four in 2016, showing a downward trend in the fertility levels of Samoan women. Total fertility • Total fertility is lower in urban areas compared to rural areas – 3.31 children per woman in Apia Urban rate Area compared to 3.46 in North West Upolu, 3.73 in Rest of Upolu, 3.67 in Savaii, and 3.54 for Samoa overall.

• A total of 467 teenagers (or 5 per cent of the 8,984 female population aged 15 to 19 years) had already given birth at the time of the 2016 Census. • The 467 teenage mothers had given birth to a total of 578 children by the time of the 2016 Census. • The majority of teenagers with one child were aged 18 and 19 years. • Four teenagers aged 17 years had two children and two had given birth to three children. • A total of nine teenagers had three children by the age of 19, while five teenagers had 3 children by the age of 18. • One teenager aged 18 had four children. Teenage • The majority of the 467 teenage mothers (a total of 296 or 63 per cent) were single at the time of the 2016 fertility rate Census, while 32 per cent were married. • Twenty-one (or 4.5 per cent) of teenage mothers were divorced/separated. • Sixty-three (63) per cent of teenage mothers were single at the time of the census. • The overall teenage fertility trend since 2001 has declined from 46 children (per 1,000 teenage mothers) in 2001, to 31 children (per 1,000 teenage mothers) in 2016. • Teenage fertility was lowest in Apia Urban Area (15 per cent of teenage mothers) followed by Savaii (18 per cent of teenage mothers) compared to North West Upolu (44 per cent of teenage mothers) and Rest of Upolu (22 per cent of teenage mothers).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 61 • Fertility rates were highest amongst females aged 15 to 49 who were: • Living in rural areas compared to urban areas. • Married. • Attending the Assembly of God, Seven Day Adventist and Latter Day Saints churches. • With secondary and primary education. • With no academic qualifications. • With educational completion at PSSC and lower levels. • Not in the labour force and engaged in domestic duties. Current • Fertility rates among females aged 45 to 49 highlight that: H ealth and well - being .Females in rural areas end fertility with 4.9 children compared to 4.4 children for females in urban areas fertility •  differentials • Married females end fertility with 4.9 children compared to 2.1 children for single females. • Females attending the LDS church end fertility with 5.2 children compared to 4.4 for females attending the CCCS. • Females with primary education end fertility with 5.1 children compared to 4.1 for females with tertiary education. • Females with no qualification end fertility with 5.1 children compared to 3.6 children for females with a higher degree. • Females not in the labour force or engaged in domestic duties end fertility with 5.0 children compared to 4.3 children for employed females.

Mortality

• Since 2006 the rate at which death occurs during the year in Samoa is 4 deaths per 1,000 people. • The death rate (per 1,000 people) increased slightly from 4.0 in 2006 to 4.4 in 2011, but remained the Population same at 4.4 in 2011 and 2016. mortality • The morality rate remains higher for males than females across all census years. However, the rate for males decreased slightly in 2016, from 4.6 in 2011 to 4.4 in 2016, while it increased for females from 4.2 to 4.3 over the same period.

• The IMR (ratio of live-birth children per 1,000 live births who die before reaching their first birthday) for Samoa declined from 20.4 in 2006 to 14.3 in 2016. • The U5MR (ratio of under-five children per 1,000 live births who die before reaching their fifth birthday) Child for Samoa declined from 22.8 in 2006 to 17.0 in 2016. mortality • The IMR for females increased from 14.0 in 2011 to 16.2 in 2016, but decreased for males from 17.0 to 12.5 over the same period. • Similarly, the U5MR for females increased slightly from 18 in 2011 to 18.6 in 2016, but declined significantly for males from 27.0 to 17.0 over the same period.

• Life expectancy of Samoa’s population has improved over the 15-year period of 2001 to 2016, with an increase from 74.2 years in 2001 to 74.9 years in 2016. Life • The life expectancy of both males and females has increased over the years from 71.8 years in 2001 to expectancy 73.7 years in 2016 for males and 73.8 years in 2001 to 76.0 years in 2016 for females. • Females historically survive longer than males from birth.

Disability

• A total of 7,134 persons (or 8 per cent of the 167,676 population aged five years and over) in Samoa ‘cannot’ and have ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication domains of disability. The distribution of males to females is 4 per cent male and 2.3 per cent female. • Mobility is the highest ranked domain of disability, followed by self-care and vision. • A total of 1,726 (24 per cent of 7,134) persons either ‘cannot do’ or have ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility. • A total of 761 (or 23 per cent of 7,134) persons either ‘cannot do’ or have ‘a lot of difficulty’ with self-care. Domains of • A total of 1,125 (or 16 per cent of 7,134) persons ‘cannot’ see or ‘have a lot of difficulty’ with vision. disability • ‘Cannot’ or have ‘a lot of difficulty’ with mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication is higher for females than males. • 965 females either ‘cannot’ or have ‘a lot difficulty’ with mobility, compared to 761 males. • 775 females either ‘cannot’, or have ‘a lot difficulty’ with self-care or caring for one’s own self, compared to 605 males. • The difference between males and females is much wider in the mobility and self-care domains of disability, compared to the other domains of disability of vision, hearing, memory and communication.

• All domains of disability (mobility, self-care, vision, memory, hearing and communication) are most prevalent among old aged persons of over 70 years, and higher for females than males at old ages. Disability by • More females tend to experience these domains of disability when they reach old ages than males, given sex and age female’s life expectancy is longer than males. • More males experience disability than females at younger ages including as children and adolescents.

62 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Chapter 5. EMPLOYMENT, INCOME, HOUSEHOLDS AND ASSETS

5.1 Introduction and overview

Similar to other economic and social indicators such as good education, health and well-being, employment and income levels, housing conditions, and ownership of assets/properties are other important indicators of quality of life and social and economic prosperities and potential. Examining indicators such as types, conditions and levels of employment, as well as housing conditions, access to land, and control of assets/properties for females and males17 is essential to understanding key gender issues. Traditionally, females have been disadvantaged when it comes to work in the formal sector and access to and control over productive resources, credit etc., and typically female’s earnings are lower as a result, putting them in vulnerable situations, which affects their ability to support themselves and their children. A lack of employment, and limited access to land and other assets means that opportunities are limited for females for empowerment and self-reliance; to raise capital for economic activities (e.g. businesses) and income to support themselves and their children. This in turn leads to a cycle of poverty gaps among families, particularly for those who are in vulnerable situations.

Samoa’s small economy is dependent on agriculture, fishing, tourism, remittances, and service industries. Manufacturing is very small and the economy is highly vulnerable to natural disasters and external shocks. Government policies and programmes focus on private sector-led investment and employment, however the supply of labour is far higher than demand and formal sector labour market growth. Samoa inherits the unique features of a small island economy of remoteness (from world markets), income volatility, limited economic diversification, susceptibility to natural disasters, environmental damage, and limited institutional capacity. Samoa’s dual labour force is comprised of the formal segment (40 per cent) and the non-formal segment (60 per cent). Samoa has been an International Labour Organization (ILO) member since 2005 and is undertaking a range of activities under its decent work programme to strengthen the legal framework for labour and employment; to improve females and males access to information and employment services; and to strengthen labour tripartite capacity (ILO, 2013). There is no national legislated retirement age and most employers and employees follow the mandated retirement age of 55 years of the public service (Samoa Public Service Act 2014 and regulations). There is no universal social security system in Samoa; all employed persons are required to pay contributions to the Samoa National Provident Fund and those who reach the age of 65 years are entitled to a senior citizen pension of Samoan Tala (ST)$135 per month.18

The following sections further analyse the work, employment and income status of males and females, as well as households and assets in Samoa.

5.2 Employment

5.2.1 Economically and non-economically active The profiling of work and employment of people in a country is often analysed in terms ofthe economic characteristics of a population within a certain age group who are able to work or perform economic activities. This group is called the ‘economically active population’ or the ‘labour force’ – all persons who are active in an economy, and are, or should be, able to carry out economic activities in relation to working and employment, whether employed or unemployed, and in capacities such as an employer, employee, self-employed, volunteer and others.

17 Not available from censuses. 18 See https://www.npf.ws/scbf.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 63 In the 2016 Census, the Samoa Bureau of Statistics (SBS) defined the ‘economically active’ population as the ‘population aged 10 years and over’. In previous censuses, the economically active population was the population aged 15 years and over. The reason for the change was to count children at young ages who are already in the labour force. All persons attending school or training courses during the reference period, doing housework and care, unable to work due to old age and disability, or any other reasons were classified as ‘non-economically active’ or outside the labour force (SBS, 2018b, p. 18).

In the 2016 Census, the population aged 10 years and over amounted to 142,657 (see Annex 3), which equates to 73 per cent of Samoa’s overall population (of 195,979 persons), with 51 per cent males and 49 per cent females (see Table 2.1). Of this working-age population, 40 per cent (57,585) were economically active and 60 per cent (85,037) were non-economically active (see Figure 5.1). There were 71 per cent males to 29 per cent females in the economically active population, and 38 per cent males to 62 per cent females in the non-economically active population.

Figure 5.1: Economically active and non-economically active population by sex, 2016 Census E mployment , income households and assets

 Population aged Economically Non-economically 10 years and over Active Active

16,565 85,037 57,585 Female 53,020 32,017 Non- Economically 29% Female Male economically Active 41,020 62% 38% Active 40% Male 60% 71%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

5.2.2 Main activity

Main activities by sex Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2 show the main activities for both the economically active and non- economically active population in Samoa as reported in the 2016 Census. The majority (42,415 or 30 per cent of the 142,657 population aged 10 years and over) were engaged in domestic duties – undertaking unpaid work in the home including child raising and caring for other dependents. The second highest non-economically active group were students numbering 37,140 (or 26 per cent of 142,657) persons. There were 5,448 persons (4 per cent) who were not able to work due to disability or old age. Of the economically active population, the majority (26,919 or 19 per cent) were employees (working for wages or salaries). The second highest number of economically active persons (20,907 or 15 per cent) were engaged in subsistence economic activities, mostly in horticulture, agriculture and fisheries. There were 2,117 persons seeking employment (and available for work) during the 2016 Census period.

Males dominate the workforce or the economically active population, mostly as employees, subsistence workers and self-employed. There are also more males looking for work compared to females. Females on the other hand dominate the non-economically active population, mainly engaging in domestic duties, equating to 75 per cent of persons undertaking domestic duties, compared to 25 per cent of males.

While most males are involved in formal and informal economic activities either as employees, subsistence workers, and self-employed, females are engaged in domestic duties. This reflects a

64 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

traditional division of labour among females and males in Samoa and other jurisdictions where males dominate the formal labour force earning income and cash ‘outside the home’; while females are responsible for domestic duties ‘inside the home’.

There is minimal variation between females and males attending school as students. There are however more females (53 per cent) than males (47 per cent) who are non-economically active due to old age/disability, in line with the larger population of older females and that they are more likely to be living with a disability. While the number of people reporting begging as their main activity was small (34 in total), there were more males (21) than females (13).

Table 5.1: Population’s main activities by sex, 2016 Census

Main activity Total % Total Male Female % Male % Female Employee (formal/informal) 26,919 18.9% 16,173 10,746 60.1% 39.9%

Subsistence 20,907 14.7% 18,878 2,029 90.3% 9.7%

Self-employed 3,794 2.7% 2,390 1,404 63.0% 37.0%

Economically Contributing family member 2,343 1.6% 1,521 822 64.9% 35.1% Aactive Look for work (unemployed) 2,117 1.5% 1,154 963 54.5% 45.5%

Employer (formal/informal) 1,193 0.8% 741 452 62.1% 37.9%

Voluntary work 312 0.2% 163 149 52.2% 47.8%

Total 57,585 40.4% 41,020 16,565 71.2% 28.8%

Student (full/part time) 37,140 26.0% 18,687 18,453 50.3% 49.7%

Domestic duties 42,415 29.7% 10,754 31,661 25.4% 74.6% Non- economically Incapable due to elderly/disability 5,448 3.8% 2,555 2,893 46.9% 53.1% active Beggar 34 0.0% 21 13 61.8% 38.2%

Total 85,037 59.6% 32,017 53,020 37.7% 62.3%

Not stated 35 0.0% 19 16 54.3% 45.7%

Total 142,657 100% 73,056 69,601 51.2% 48.8%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.2: Population aged 10 years and over by main activities and sex, 2016 Census

ploee oalinoal 16,173 1,746 usistence 18,878 ,9 eleploed ,39 1,44 Contiutin ee 1,51 8 oo o o uneploed 1,154 963 ploe oalinoal 741 45 olunta 163 149

oestic duties 1,754 31,661 tudent ullpat tie 18,687 18,453 ncapale ,555 ,893 ea 1 13

% % 4% 6% 8% 1%

Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 65 Main activity by sex and age Table 5.2 and Figure 5.3 further explore the main activities for the economically active and non- economically active males and females in Samoa by age distribution. They further elaborate on the analysis provided under section 5.2.1 that, of the economically active population, the majority of both males and females in Samoa are working as employees and subsistence workers. However, the number of males who are employees and subsistence workers is considerably higher than females, at 60 per cent male compared to 40 per cent female.

The proportion of persons working as employees relative to those working as subsistence workers is relatively higher among females. The majority of the workforce in Samoa who are economically active are within the age range of 20 to 44 years. Similarly, for non-economically active persons, most males and females are engaged in domestic duties. However, the proportion of females engaged in domestic roles is much higher than males. The majority of females and males engaged in domestic duties is spread across all age groups, from youth up to middle-age and the elderly. Most people not able to work due to old age or disability were at the older ages of 55 years and over. E mployment , income households and assets  A total of 86 persons aged 10 to 14 years who were children and adolescents were currently employed, mainly in subsistence economic activities, and with a few working as employees. This employment of young people may be considered as child labour under international labour standards, and Samoa is implementing a programme with ILO support to eliminate child labour. Table 5.3 shows that the majority of those 86 children were living in North West Upolu (NWU) followed by Savaii and Rest of Upolu (ROU) (see Annex 2 for villages in these regions). North West Upolu is the most populated region in Samoa (see Table 2.3) and is the region where the suburb villages of Samoa are located.

The 2016 Census recorded a total of 65 males and 12 females aged 10 to 14 years who were employed and not attending school at the time of the 2016 Census (see section 5.2.5). Most of them (62 persons) were employed as skilled workers in agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery. A total of eight persons aged 10 to 14 years were employed in the service and sale occupations while seven persons were working in the craft and trade, machinery and elementary occupations.

66 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Table 5.2: Population aged 10 years and over by main activities and sex, 2016 Census

Male Economically active Non-economically active

Age Grand group Total Self- Total Total work duties Beggar Student Look for member Domestic Employer Incapable Employee Voluntary employed Subsistence Contributing

10-14 11,052 71 43 9 6 1 12 - - 10,981 10,823 139 19 - 15-19 9,964 2,314 1,233 535 230 43 258 11 4 7,650 6,573 1,041 35 1 20-24 8,179 5,632 2,430 2,162 457 146 350 58 29 2,547 960 1,553 34 - 25-29 6,697 5,339 2,136 2,442 203 218 249 69 22 1,358 147 1,173 33 5 30-34 6,049 4,987 2,028 2,298 116 271 163 95 16 1,062 88 937 33 4 35-39 5,564 4,658 1,976 2,074 55 320 139 79 15 906 33 838 33 2 40-44 5,333 4,518 2,009 1,919 42 343 100 98 7 815 29 739 45 2 45-49 5,240 4,385 2,007 1,816 25 343 88 94 12 855 25 772 57 1 50-54 4,336 3,434 1,732 1,287 8 258 56 77 16 902 7 788 106 1 55-59 3,658 2,689 1,483 854 10 202 50 74 16 969 - 771 197 1 60-64 2,667 1,648 1,001 441 1 130 28 38 9 1,019 - 708 308 3 65-69 1,702 782 459 203 - 65 16 29 10 920 - 554 366 - 70-74 1,266 371 231 83 - 33 8 11 5 895 2 397 496 - 75-79 1,330 192 110 50 1 17 4 8 2 1,138 - 344 793 1 80+ 403 50 24 15 1 6 - 3 1 353 - 81 271 1 Total 73,037 41,020 18,878 16,173 1,154 2,390 1,521 741 163 32,017 18,687 10,754 2,555 21

Female Economically active Non-economically active

Age Grand group total Self- Total Total duties Beggar Student member Domestic Employer Incapable Employee Voluntary employed Subsistence Contributing Look for work

10-14 10,377 15 8 2 3 - 2 - - 10,362 10,272 76 14 - 15-19 8,981 646 116 276 178 15 54 5 2 8,335 6,840 1,463 31 1 20-24 7,732 2,600 308 1,642 402 74 114 38 22 5,132 1,075 4,024 32 1 25-29 6,631 2,602 255 1,845 172 133 113 63 21 4,029 117 3,880 31 1 30-34 5,865 2,247 272 1,540 92 164 114 50 15 3,618 49 3,530 38 1 35-39 5,235 1,931 211 1,347 44 176 93 50 10 3,304 42 3,231 30 1 40-44 4,918 1,771 214 1,180 34 186 87 61 9 3,147 24 3,084 39 - 45-49 4,533 1,610 169 1,094 19 195 71 56 6 2,923 22 2,860 41 - 50-54 4,112 1,255 159 810 5 152 75 39 15 2,857 6 2,758 93 - 55-59 3,351 903 126 559 5 127 36 37 13 2,448 3 2,309 134 2 60-64 2,558 513 85 284 4 83 26 22 9 2,045 1 1,742 299 3 65-69 1,773 256 46 106 2 52 18 18 14 1,517 1 1,183 332 1 70-74 1,421 141 34 44 - 37 11 8 7 1,280 1 746 532 1 75-79 2,098 75 26 17 3 10 8 5 6 2,023 - 775 1,247 1 80+ 721 26 8 5 - 5 3 1 4 695 - 233 462 - Total 69,585 16,565 2,029 10,746 963 1,404 822 452 149 53,020 18,453 31,661 2,893 13

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 67 Figure 5.3: Population aged 10 years and over by labour force participation and sex, 2016 Census

Economically Active Males 75 91 4 14 6 71 75 189 69 3 7 1 66 7 418 165 59 11 6 61 65 866 46 11 3 56 6 1,45 775 9 183 47 51 55 1,647 1,185 9 37 46 5 ,7 1,71 17 334 9 41 45 1,999 1,93 4 357 88 36 4 ,11 ,86 5 317 13 31 35 ,4 ,1 93 87 154 6 3 ,44 ,46 191 15 34 1 5 ,368 ,319 373 175 33 15 1,766 89 364 6 337 1 14 43 9 1 9 E mployment , income households and assets  % 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Economically Active Females

75 11 5 8 5 5 6 71 75 35 9 1 33 1 5 66 7 9 44 1 45 18 17 16 61 65 7 65 76 4 3 56 6 5 1 7 14 3 51 55 748 149 5 146 44 46 5 1,41 176 17 18 5 41 45 1, 4 7 199 67 36 4 1,3 14 45 175 31 35 1,461 59 81 161 6 3 1,89 6 144 141 1 5 1,785 95 356 93 15 515 177 7 3 1 14 8 9

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% ploee usistence oo o o eleploed Contiutin ee ploe olunta

Non-economically Active Females Non-economically Active Males 75 674 1,161 75 8 71 75 67 513 71 75 365 66 7 1,1 381 66 7 537 61 65 1,546 316 61 65 671 56 6 ,93 56 6 781 51 55 ,673 51 55 78 46 5 ,75 46 5 759 41 45 3,11 41 45 75 36 4 3,51 36 4 8 31 35 3,447 31 35 917 6 3 3,816 6 3 136 1,16 1 5 665 3,994 1 5 59 1,44 15 7,85 ,53 15 6,981 1 14 1 14 1,7 9 9

% % 4% 6% 8% 1% % % 4% 6% 8% 1% tudent ncapale oestic duties ea

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

68 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Table 5.3: Population aged 10 to 14 years by main activities and region, 2016 Census

Main activity Total AUA NWU ROU SAVAII Total 86 8 31 20 27 Subsistence 51 1 15 14 21 Employee 11 5 5 1 Economically active Look for work 9 - 4 5 - Self-employed 1 1 Contributing 14 1 7 1 5 member

Total 21,343 3,800 7,302 5,145 5,096 Student 21,095 3,761 7,210 5,082 5,042 Non-economically active Domestic duties 215 36 79 52 48 Incapable 33 3 13 11 6

Grand total 21,429 3,808 7,333 5,165 5,123

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

5.2.3 Labour force participation rate

Labour force participation rate by sex and age Table 5.4 and Figure 5.4 further depict Samoa’s labour force participation by sex and age. The labour force participation rate is the proportion of economically active people in the total population. In addition to the analysis presented in section 5.2.1, males have a higher labour force participation rate than females; 29 per cent male, compared to only 12 per cent female, noting that only 40 per cent of Samoa’s working age population were economically active at the time of the 2016 Census. The labour force participation rate for males is higher across all age groups than females. The most active working ages for both males and females are from 20 to 44 years. The participation rates begin to decline for both males and females after the ages of 29 years as workers age, and as they reach retirement at the age of 55 years.

Table 5.4: Population aged 10 years and over by labour force participation, sex and region, 2016 Census

Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female Total 57,585 40.4 41,020 28.8 16,565 11.6 10-14 86 0.1 71 0.0 15 0.0 15-19 2,960 2.1 2,314 1.6 646 0.5 20-24 8,232 5.8 5,632 4.0 2,600 1.8 25-29 7,941 5.6 5,339 3.7 2,602 1.8 30-34 7,234 5.1 4,987 3.5 2,247 1.6 35-39 6,589 4.6 4,658 3.3 1,931 1.4 40-44 6,289 4.4 4,518 3.2 1,771 1.2 Age Group 45-49 5,995 4.2 4,385 3.1 1,610 1.1 50-54 4,689 3.3 3,434 2.4 1,255 0.9 55-59 3,592 2.5 2,689 1.9 903 0.6 60-64 2,161 1.5 1,648 1.2 513 0.4 65-69 1,038 0.7 782 0.5 256 0.2 70-74 512 0.4 371 0.3 141 0.1 75+ 267 0.19 192 0.1 75 0.05 Apia Urban Area 12,451 8.7 7,582 5.3 4,869 3.4 North West Upolu 21,122 14.8 14,452 10.1 6,670 4.7 Region Rest of Upolu 12,324 8.6 9,821 6.9 2,503 1.8 Savaii 11,688 8.2 9,165 6.4 2,523 1.8

Source: SBS (2018b, p. 22).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 69 Figure 5.4: Population aged 10 years and over by labour force participation, sex and region, 2016 Census

6. 5.8 5.6

5.1 5. 4.6 4.4 4. 4. 4. 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.3 3. 3.1 3. .4 .5 .1 . 1.9 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.4 1. 1. 1. E mployment , income households and assets

7. 1.1  .19 .9 .5 .4 .5 .6 .3 .1 .4 . .5 . 9 114 1519 4 59 334 3539 444 4549 554 5559 664 6569 774 75

Total Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018b, p. 22). Employment by industry and sex Table 5.5 and Figure 5.5 outline employment in Samoa by industry19 and with a comparison by sex. The majority of Samoa’s employed population work in agriculture, forestry and fishing, which equates to 42 per cent of the current workforce, with a sex distribution of 89 per cent male and 11 per cent female. The second largest employment industry in Samoa is wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and motorcycles summing to 8.9 per cent of the total workforce, with 56 per cent male and 44 per cent female. The third largest employment industry is public administration and defence and social security equating to 7.4 per cent, with 59 per cent male and 41 per cent female. Employment in professional scientific and technical activities accounts for only 1.4 per cent of the total workforce.

Males dominate most industries, except education, health and social work activities, financial and insurance activities, and activities of households as employers (home helpers, gardeners, babysitters, security, etc.), in which females outnumber males. Workers in this sector are typically considered to be in vulnerable employment where there is limited worker protection and rights.

Industries dominated by males include the construction, transportation and storage; agriculture, forestry and fishing; electricity gas steam and air conditioning supply; water supply sewage waste management and remediation activities; professional scientific and technical activities; and mining and quarrying and real estate activities. Most of these industries involve hard labour, and more physical-oriented and trade-related work activities that are traditionally dominated by males.

Females slightly outnumber males in education and health occupations, with teaching and nursing professions traditionally female dominant. As well, females are more engaged in financial and insurance activities than males.

19 These are industry categories used by the SBS for the 2016 Census which are based on the Australian and New Zealand Standards Industrial Classification (ANZIC) (seehttp://archive.stats.govt.nz/methods/classifications-and-standards/ classification-related-stats-standards/industrial-classification.aspx).

70 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Table 5.5: Population aged 10 years and over by industry and sex, 2016 Census

Industry Total Total % Male Female % Male % Female Agriculture, forestry and fishing 23,259 41.9% 20,597 2,662 89% 11% Wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and 4,932 8.9% 2,771 2,161 56% 44% motorcycles Public administration and defence compulsory social security 4,051 7.3% 2,378 1,673 59% 41% Transportation and Storage 2,919 5.3% 2,711 208 93% 7% Education 2,806 5.1% 899 1,907 32% 68% Accommodation and food services activities 2,630 4.7% 1,352 1,278 51% 49% Construction 2,598 4.7% 2,468 130 95% 5% Manufacturing 1,373 2.5% 789 584 57% 43% Administrative and support services activities 1,332 2.4% 680 652 51% 49% Activities of households as employers undifferentiated goods 1,233 2.2% 528 705 43% 57% and services producing activities of household for own use Financial and insurance activities 1,116 2.0% 424 692 38% 62% Professional scientific and technical activities 794 1.4% 502 292 63% 37% Information and Communication 723 1.3% 402 321 56% 44% Human health and social workers activities 715 1.3% 248 467 35% 65% Electricity gas steam and air conditioning supply 615 1.1% 505 110 82% 18% Arts entertainment and recreation 590 1.1% 337 253 57% 43% Water supply sewage waste management and remediation 415 0.7% 295 120 71% 29% activities Activities of extraterritorial organisations and bodies 151 0.3% 76 75 50% 50% Mining and quarrying 121 0.2% 75 46 62% 38% Real estate activities 45 0.1% 28 17 62% 38% Other service activities 2,971 5.4% 1,754 1,217 59% 41% Not Stated 79 0.1% 47 32 59% 41% Total 55,468 100% 39,866 15,602 60% 40% Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.5: Population aged 10 years and over by industry and sex, 2016 Census

Agriculture forestry and fishing ,597 ,66 olesale and etail tade epai o oto eicle and otoccles ,771 ,161 Pulic adinistation and deence copulso social secuit ,378 1,673 te seice actiites 1,754 1,17 Tanspotation and toae ,711 8 ducation 899 1,97 Accoodation and ood seices actiities 1,35 1,78 Constuction ,468 13 Manuactuin 789 584 Adinistatie and suppot seices actiites 68 65 Activites of households as employers undifferentiated goods and seices poducin actiities o ouseold o on use 58 75 Financial and insuance actiities 44 69 Professional scientific and technical activites 5 9 noation and Counication 4 31 Huan ealt and social oes actiites 48 467 lecticit as stea and ai conditionin suppl 55 11 Ats enttainent and eceation 337 53 ate suppl seae aste anaeent and 95 1 eediation actiities Actiites o etateitoial oansations and odies 76 75 Minin and uain 75 46 Not tated 47 3 eal state actiities 8 17

% % 4% 6% 8% 1% Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 71 Employment by industry, sex and age Table 5.6 and Figures 5.6 and 5.7 show the distribution of Samoa’s employed population by industry and age group. There are minimal age differences in male and female employment patterns across various industries. The patterns shown at Figures 5.6 and 5.7 reiterate previous analyses of a young workforce across all industries. The majority of persons employed in industries are youth and middle-aged, with the number of employed persons declining as the population ages.

Table 5.6: Population aged 10 years and over by industry and sex, 2016 Census

Employment by industry - Males Industry 10-14 15-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61+ Total Agriculture forestry and fishing 53 2,082 2,697 2,286 2,182 2,157 2,131 2,149 1,731 1,484 1,645 20,597 Wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and 2 236 501 399 332 341 289 221 161 114 175 2,771 motorcycles Transportation and Storage - 57 241 366 428 421 403 333 229 133 100 2,711 Construction 1 134 305 298 341 338 342 321 189 120 79 2,468 E mployment , income households and assets  Public administration and defence compulsory social - 34 295 382 352 325 280 269 205 115 121 2,378 security Other service activities 1 93 142 151 155 186 228 229 202 188 179 1,754 Accommodation and food - 156 268 235 167 165 125 100 51 47 38 1,352 services activities Education - 9 83 137 120 90 111 125 94 78 52 899 Manufacturing 1 100 166 127 104 87 62 57 37 25 23 789 Administrative and support - 19 90 92 89 88 82 89 55 33 43 680 services activities Activities of households as employers undifferentiated goods and services producing 3 51 72 57 70 64 52 52 34 40 33 528 activities of household for own use Electricity gas steam and air - 16 62 89 70 65 83 50 41 15 14 505 conditioning supply Professional scientific and - 8 59 62 61 70 74 56 42 37 33 502 technical activities Financial and insurance - 14 68 82 53 52 41 42 31 19 22 424 activities Information and - 18 90 64 66 46 34 34 23 14 13 402 Communication Arts entertainment and 4 24 48 55 50 41 33 31 23 18 10 337 recreation Water supply sewage waste management & remediation - 16 44 48 50 34 33 33 15 10 12 295 activities Human health and social - 9 28 38 36 32 22 32 22 11 18 248 workers activities Activities of extraterritorial - - 9 7 17 11 8 7 8 4 5 76 organisations and bodies Mining and quarrying - 1 8 14 9 12 11 11 5 - 4 75 Real estate activities - - 4 6 2 3 6 4 1 2 - 28 Not Stated - 4 2 6 3 10 7 4 - 6 5 47 Total 65 3,081 5,282 5,001 4,757 4,638 4,457 4,249 3,199 2,513 2,624 39,866

72 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Employment by industry - Females Industry 10-14 15-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61+ Total

Agriculture forestry and fishing 10 233 389 339 339 285 276 243 200 148 200 2,662

Wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and - 169 412 304 270 260 222 165 128 106 125 2,161 motorcycles

Education - 18 158 333 235 205 242 254 193 148 121 1,907

Public administration and defence compulsory social 1 39 305 354 281 200 163 134 89 66 41 1,673 security

Accommodation and food - 118 250 203 176 146 130 103 77 33 42 1,278 services activities

Other service activities - 32 99 125 117 153 183 156 134 122 96 1,217

Activities of households as employers undifferentiated goods and services producing 1 32 58 67 85 80 120 99 76 47 40 705 activities of household for own use

Financial and insurance - 23 153 158 115 68 57 53 34 22 9 692 activities

Administrative and support - 16 107 113 92 86 67 75 43 33 20 652 services activities

Manufacturing - 61 98 72 56 84 82 56 35 21 19 584

Human health and social - 8 72 67 45 60 40 48 53 36 38 467 workers activities

Information and - 8 68 64 57 43 33 18 19 8 3 321 Communication

Professional scientific and - 5 46 47 35 40 44 23 18 16 18 292 technical activities

Arts entertainment and - 13 30 32 33 35 23 32 22 11 22 253 recreation

Transportation and Storage - 14 33 34 33 30 19 16 11 9 9 208

Construction - 15 19 15 18 17 13 13 7 7 6 130

Water supply sewage waste management and remediation - 5 19 26 17 15 15 9 7 3 4 120 activities

Electricity gas steam and air - 3 15 27 23 8 14 8 7 3 2 110 conditioning supply

Activities of extraterritorial - - 5 15 9 15 10 12 4 2 3 75 organisations and bodies

Mining and quarrying - - 9 6 6 4 4 7 3 1 6 46

Real estate activities - - 1 2 - - 1 5 3 3 2 17

Not Stated - 1 6 8 1 8 4 - 2 - 2 32

Total 12 813 2,352 2,411 2,043 1,842 1,762 1,529 1,165 845 828 15,602

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 73 Figure 5.6: Male population aged 10 years and over by industry, 2016 Census

61 1,645 175 1 79 11 179 566 1,484 114 133 1 115 188 5155 1,731 161 9 189 5 465 ,149 1 333 31 69 9 4145 ,131 89 43 34 8 8 364 ,157 341 41 338 35 186 3135 ,18 33 48 341 35 155 63 ,86 399 366 98 38 151 15 ,697 51 41 35 95 14 15 ,8 36 57 134 93 114 53

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Agriculture forestry and fishing olesale and etail tade epai o oto eicle and otoccles E mployment , income households and assets Tanspotation and toae Constuction  Pulic adinistation and deence copulso social secuit te seice actiites Accoodation and ood seices actiities ducation Manuactuin Adinistatie and suppot seices actiites Actiites o ouseolds as eploes. lecticit as stea and ai conditionin suppl Professional scientific and technical activites Financial and insuance actiities noation and Counication Ats entetainent and eceation ate suppl seae aste anaeent and eediation actiites Huan ealt and social oes actiites Actiites o etateitoial oansations ans odies Minin and uain eal state actiities Not tated

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.7: Female population aged 10 years and over by industry, 2016 Census

61 15 11 41 4 96 4 566 148 16 148 66 33 1 47 5155 18 193 89 77 134 76 465 43 165 54 134 13 156 99 4145 76 4 163 13 183 1 364 85 6 5 146 153 8 3135 339 7 35 81 176 117 85 63 339 34 333 354 3 15 67 15 389 41 158 35 5 99 58 15 33 169 18 39 118 3 3 114 1 1 1

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Agriculture forestry and fishing olesale and etail tade epai o oto eicle and otoccles ducation Pulic adinistation and deence copulso social secuit Accoodation and ood seices actiities te seice actiites Actiites o ouseolds as eploes. Financial and insuance actiities Adinistatie and suppot seices actiites Manuactuin Huan ealt and social oes actiites noation and Counication Professional scientific and technical activites Ats enettainent and eceation Tanspotation and toae Constuction ate suppl seae aste anaeent and eediation actiites lecticit as stea and ai conditionin suppl Actiites o etateitoial oansations ans odies Minin and uain eal state actiities Not tated

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System

74 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Unemployment rate by sex distribution Figures 5.8 and 5.9 show Samoa’s unemployment rate and unemployed persons by sex as recorded in the censuses. Unemployment is defined as those who were not working, looking for work and available for work if a job became available in the week before the census.

Figure 5.8 shows the fluctuation in the unemployment rate over the years of the last four censuses for the population aged 15 years and over. Despite the fluctuation, the unemployment rate remains higher among females than males over the reference period.

Figure 5.9 further shows that 55 per cent of the total unemployed population aged 10 years and over are male, while 45 per cent are female. The proportion of unemployed males remains higher than females across all ages between 10 to 54 years, except those at the age of 55 years and over who are retired. This may indicate that males are more likely to seek employment than females.

Figure 5.8: Unemployment rate by sex and census years, 2001–2016

7. 6.8

6. 5.7 5.8 5. 5. 4. 4. 3.7 .9 3. .8

. .4 1.6 1.3 1. 1.1 . 1 6 11 16

Male Feale Total

Source: SBS (2018b, p. 27).

Figure 5.9: Unemployed population aged 10 years and over by sex, 2016 Census

7 67 6 56 56 56 57 6 55 53 54 55 54 47 46 46 5 45 44 44 44 45 43 38 4 33 3 Percentage

1

Total 114 1519 4 59 334 3539 444 4549 554 55 Age Group Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018b, p. 27).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 75 5.2.4 Occupation by gender Occupation is defined as the profession or job of an individual in which she/he was employed at the time of the 2016 Census. Table 5.7 and Figure 5.10 show the occupations of the 55,468 employed population of Samoa as recorded at the 2016 Census. Skilled agricultural, livestock, forestry and fishery related occupations recorded the highest employment, employing 42 per cent of the total employed population. Service and sale workers was the second highest at 15 per cent, followed by the professionals as the third occupation with 11 per cent. These top three occupations constituted 67 per cent of the employed population; consistent with the industry or sector of employment statistics. Males dominate most occupations except the professionals and clerical occupations where females outnumber males. Males tend to be employed or work in labouring and trade-related occupations such as in machine operators, skilled agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery, and craft related trade and food. Females on the other hand tend to work in office related professionals and clerical work. Nonetheless this should not be considered a crude contrast as males still outnumber females in legislators and managerial occupations.

Table 5.7: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census E mployment , income households and assets Occupation Total % Total Male Female % Male % Female  Skilled agriculture, livestock, forestry & fishery 23,146 41.7% 20,516 2,630 88.6% 11.4%

Service & Sales 8,472 15.3% 4,836 3,636 57.1% 42.9%

Professionals 5,745 10.4% 2,622 3,123 45.6% 54.4%

Craft related trade workers and food 4,281 7.7% 3,211 1,070 75.0% 25.0%

Clerical 3,364 6.1% 1,296 2,068 38.5% 61.5%

Machinery 3,127 5.6% 2,841 286 90.9% 9.1%

Elementary occupation 2,737 4.9% 1,781 956 65.1% 34.9%

Technicians/Associate Professionals 2,304 4.2% 1,380 924 59.9% 40.1%

Legislators and Managers 2,257 4.1% 1,359 898 60.2% 39.8%

Armed force 35 0.1% 24 11 68.6% 31.4%

Total 55,468 100% 39,866 15,602 71.9% 28.1%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.10: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census

Aed oce 4 11 eislatos and Manaes 1,359 898 TecniciansAssociate Poessionals 1,38 94 leenta occupation 1,781 956 Macine ,841 86 Cleical 1,96 ,68 Cat elated tade oes and ood 3,11 1,7 Poessionals ,6 3,13 eice ales 4,836 3,636 Skilled agriculture livestock forestry & fishery ,516 ,63

% % 4% 6% 8% 1% Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

76 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Figure 5.11 further shows that although males still outnumber females as legislators and in managerial occupations, a comparison of the 2016 Census with previous consensus shows a slight increase in female legislators and managers over the years. The proportion of female legislators and managers increased from 29 per cent in 2001 to 40 per cent of these occupations in 2016, but decreased for males from 71 per cent to 60 per cent over the same period.

Figure 5.11: Population aged 10 years and over employed as legislators and managers by sex, 2001 to 2016

16 6 4

11 68 36

6 6 38 Census year

1 71 9

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018b, p. 25). 5.2.5 Occupation by sex and age Table 5.8 and Figure 5.12 depict the occupations for the employed male and female populations in Samoa by age group. They show similar patterns of employment across all age groups for both males and females. The majority of employed males and females across all occupations are within the youth and middle-aged groups of 21 to 50 years. Also, the number of employed persons for both males and females declines as the population ages. This means that Samoa has a young workforce for both males and females, with no significant variation in participation by sex across most age groups.

Of the 77 persons (65 males and 12 females) aged 10 to 14 who were employed (not attending school at the time of the census) most of them (62 persons) were employed as skilled workers in agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery. A total of eight persons aged 10 to 14 years were employed in the service and sales occupation while seven persons were working in the craft and trade, machinery and elementary occupations.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 77 Table 5.8: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census ------1 1 2 3 1 2 5 3 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 1 24 11 force force Armed Armed - - - - 6 6 1 2 3 1 23 57 40 33 38 24 13 50 41 47 32 53 109 117 286 164 217 256 249 1,296 Clerical Machinery - - 9 6 9 57 98 96 96 76 46 23 20 62 28 12 77 157 135 137 110 198 112 108 172 898 147 142 124 1,359 and and Managers Managers Legislators Legislators - - 5 3 8 3 2 10 84 49 28 89 79 68 34 12 44 123 121 113 140 136 154 924 117 191 220 236 235 1,380 E mployment , income households and assets Associate Associate  Technicians/ Technicians/ Professionals Professionals - 9 2 3 4 1 3 3 82 30 95 51 19 62 103 143 125 163 111 116 105 193 956 121 226 224 238 322 183 1,781 occupation occupation Elementary Elementary - - 2 60 89 54 37 32 10 20 13 78 31 289 265 128 136 118 346 127 121 144 340 131 290 313 320 198 2,622 1,070 and food Craft related Professionals trade workers - 6 4 5 2 1 1 11 66 92 61 21 75 91 255 126 158 138 350 462 332 231 421 490 446 435 378 251 2,841 2,068 Clerical Males Machinery Females 2 2 18 46 13 76 54 10 37 30 220 128 268 238 197 147 381 338 336 280 389 386 233 418 454 426 241 473 3,211 2,630 fishery workers and food Skilled agriculture, Craft related trade livestock, forestry & - 7 7 79 28 55 15 20 34 306 208 142 398 391 302 225 446 100 530 382 377 546 302 603 578 738 352 788 4,836 3,123 Professionals Service & Sales 1 87 56 94 27 11 52 434 200 912 361 294 202 157 575 460 439 276 690 1,725 1,480 2,133 2,120 2,149 2,172 2,283 2,076 2,686 3,636 20,516 Service & Sales Skilled agriculture, livestock, forestry & fishery 12 60 65 685 311 845 421 230 813 154 117 3,199 2,513 1,474 1,762 1,529 1,165 4,249 2,411 2,043 1,842 4,457 2,352 4,638 4,757 5,001 3,081 5,282 Total Total 39,866 15,602 Age Age group group 66-70 71-75 51-55 56-60 61-65 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 46-50 26-30 31-35 36-40 61-65 66-70 10-14 15-20 76+ Total 41-45 21-25 71-75 36-40 76+ 31-35 Total 26-30 15-20 21-25 10-14 Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s and Survey Processing System.

78 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Figure 5.12: Population aged 10 years and over by occupation and sex, 2016 Census

Occupations - Male 76 1 3 3 15 94 4 3 71 75 3 3 5 8 13 6 66 7 57 6 1 6 79 434 18 119 61 65 98 18 83 14 91 46 66 3 56 6 135 65 49 4 8 1,48 18 16 8 51 55 157 89 84 57 36 1,75 55 13 46 5 198 346 11 19 446 ,133 381 35 163 41 45 17 34 154 117 546 ,1 389 41 193 36 4 147 9 191 164 63 ,149 418 446 6 31 35 14 313 17 578 ,17 454 435 4 6 3 14 3 36 56 738 ,83 46 378 38 1 5 198 35 49 788 ,686 473 51 3 15 53 35 ,76 41 91 183

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1%

Occupations - Females 76 6 7 1 11 3 1 71 75 1 3 7 37 13 3 66 7 8 55 8 5 56 54 4 61 65 46 1 34 1 87 76 37 1 19 56 6 76 5 68 61 157 147 54 6 51 51 55 96 3 79 9 197 89 13 95 46 5 11 391 89 138 94 38 118 4 15 41 45 137 398 13 158 361 68 136 38 143 36 4 96 377 136 31 439 8 144 33 15 31 35 18 38 14 33 46 336 11 47 116 6 3 11 53 113 46 575 338 17 41 111 1 5 6 3 117 49 69 386 131 5 11 15 9 34 1 75 76 33 78 3 6

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% eislatos and Manaes Poessionals TecniciansAssociate Poessionals Cleical eice ales Skilled agriculture livestock forestry & fishery Cat elated tade oes and ood Macine leenta occupation Aed oce

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

5.3 Income

5.3.1 Wage levels by sex The minimum wage in Samoa is ST$2.30 per hour (MCIL, 2018). Table 5.9 and Figure 5.13 provide annual wage levels of the employed population recorded at the 2016 Census. A high number of employed persons (19,457 in total or 35 per cent of employed persons in Samoa) did not state their wage level at the time of the 2016 Census; perhaps because their work (e.g. subsistence) meant that they did not have a wage/salary. A total of 23,509 (or 42 per cent) employed persons in Samoa receive annual wages of $12,000 and below, with 20 per cent earning less than $5,000, and 22 per cent earning $5,001-$12,000. Only 5 per cent, 2 per cent and 1.7 per cent were earning wages of $29,001-$49,000, $49,001-$79,000 and above $79,000 respectively.

Given that males dominate the workforce in Samoa, they also receive more of the wages at all levels, hence the disparity in wage levels between males and females. Males dominate the low wage levels of up to $12,000 and higher salary ranges of $79,000 and over, showing a wider gap among males and females. However, the gap between males and females becomes narrower in the middle wage ranges of $12,001 to $79,000. This reflects the differences in occupations in which most males and females are employed (see sections 5.2 and 5.3). Males are mostly employed in skilled agricultural, fishery and

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 79 forestry, construction, transportation, trades and craft related occupations while females are mostly employed in professional and clerical occupations.

Table 5.9: Population aged 10 years and over by wage levels and sex, 2016 Census

Salary level (ST$) Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female < $5000 11,081 20% 8,122 73% 2,959 27%

$5,001-$12,000 12,428 22% 8,448 68% 3,980 32%

$12,001-$29,000 7,784 14% 4,419 57% 3,365 43%

$29,001-$49,000 2,580 5% 1,354 52% 1,226 48%

$49,001-$79,000 1,192 2.1% 690 58% 502 42%

$79,0001+ 946 1.7% 581 61% 365 39%

Not Stated 19,457 35% 16,252 84% 3,205 16%

Total 55,468 100% 39,866 72% 15,602 28% E mployment , income households and assets .Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System 

Figure 5.13: Population aged 10 years and over by wage levels and sex, 2016 Census

9%

8% 84%

7% , 73%

6% , 165 68% , 61% 5% 81 , 58% 57% , 8448 , 5% 581

4% , 48% 69 , 4419 43% 4% , ,

3% 1354 39% , 16 3% 5 3365

% , 16% 7% 365 , , 1% 398 35 959 % < 5 1,19, 49,179, Not tated

Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

5.3.2 Wage levels by sex and occupation Table 5.10 and Figures 5.14 and 5.15 show the employed population’s wage levels by occupation and by sex. The majority of those earning salaries below $5,000 are males, and are mainly those employed in machinery related occupations, followed by those in clerical roles.

The difference between the number of males and females earning wages of $12,001-$29,000, $29,001-$49,000 and $49,001-$79,000 is much less than those earning wages of less than $5,000 and $5,001-$12,000. This is mainly because males dominate the skilled, trades, crafts and technicians/ associated occupations, which are usually remunerated at lower salary levels compared to salary rates of professional occupations.

While males receive more wages in most occupations compared to females, there are a few salary ranges where females outnumber their male counterparts. In the service and sales occupation, there are more females with wages in the ranges of $12,001-$29,000 and $29,001-$49,000. This is also the same for females who are in the craft related trade and food occupations earning wages of $5,001-

80 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

$12,000, $12,001-$29,000, and $29,001-$49,000. Similarly, for the professionals, there are more females earning wages of $12,001-$29,000 than males.

Table 5.10: Population aged 10 years and over by wage levels, by occupation and sex, 2016 Census

Male $5,001 $12,001 - $29,001 - $49,001 - Not Occupation Total < $5,000 $79,001+ -$12,000 $29,000 $49,000 $79,000 Stated

Machinery 20,516 4,418 1,338 357 84 34 107 14,178

Clerical 4,836 1,052 2,033 857 178 61 42 613

Elementary occupation 3,211 772 1,425 557 76 24 10 347

Technicians/Associate 2,841 701 1,321 437 43 18 13 308 Professionals

Service & Sales 2,622 207 381 813 457 252 163 349

Legislators and 1,781 553 902 158 14 2 4 148 Managers

Professionals 1,380 120 354 511 224 78 18 75

Skilled agriculture livestock forestry & 1,359 181 241 226 163 181 208 159 fishery

Craft related trade 1,296 113 448 500 112 39 16 68 workers and food

Armed force 24 5 5 3 3 1 - 7

Total 39,866 8,122 8,448 4,419 1,354 690 581 16,252

Females $5,001- $12,001- $29,001- $49,001- Not Occupation Total < $5,000 $79,001+ $12,000 $29000 $49,000 $79,000 Stated

Machinery 2,630 746 198 45 20 7 27 1,587

Clerical 3,636 855 1,509 516 114 44 24 574

Elementary occupation 1,070 339 377 96 13 13 8 224

Technicians/Associate 286 97 137 26 2 2 - 22 Professionals

Service & Sales 3,123 201 436 1,341 511 206 133 295

Legislators and 956 355 456 57 8 3 4 73 Managers

Professionals 924 71 126 258 186 52 10 221

Skilled agriculture livestock forestry & 898 93 131 181 139 125 137 92 fishery

Craft related trade 2,068 198 607 845 233 50 22 113 workers and food

Armed force 11 4 3 - - - - 4

Total 15,602 2,959 3,980 3,365 1,226 502 365 3,205

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 81 Figure 5.14: Male wage levels by occupation, 2016 Census

Aed oce 5 5 3 3 1

Cat elated tade oes and ood 113 448 5 11 39 Skilled agriculture livestock forestry & fishery 181 41 6 163 181 8 Poessionals 1 354 511 4 78 eislatos and Manaes 553 9 158

eice ales 7 381 813 457 5 163 TecniciansAssociate Poessionals 71 1,31 437 43 leenta occupation 77 1,45 557 76

Cleical 1,5 ,33 857 178 Macine 4,418 1,338 357

% % 4% 6% 8% 1%

< 5, 5,11, 1,19 E mployment , income households and assets 79,1 ,49,179 ,9,149 

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.15: Female wage levels by occupation, 2016

Aed oce 4 3 TecniciansAssociate Poessionals 97 137 6 Skilled agriculture livestock forestry & fishery 93 131 181 139 15 137 Poessionals 71 16 58 186 5 eislatos and Manaes 355 456 57 leenta occupation 339 377 96 Cat elated tade oes and ood 198 67 845 33 5 Macine 746 198 45 eice ales 1 436 1,341 511 6 133 Cleical 855 1,59 516 114

% % 4% 6% 8% 1%

< 5, 5,11, 1,19 9,149, 49,179, 79,1

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

5.4 Households and assets

5.4.1 Household heads and compositions The average household size in Samoa is seven persons per household. The number of people living in a household indicates the density of a household and the extent of the crowdedness of households.

A household is defined as a group of persons who live together, eat and sleep in the same house or houses. The persons living in a household may be related or unrelated. A household has a head figure that is in charge of the household chores and household activities. In Samoa, most household heads are either the matai or the eldest person in the household. A single person living alone and looking after himself/herself is also counted as a single household. (SBS, 2018c, p. 4)

Table 5.11 and Figure 5.16 outline the composition of households in Samoa. A total of 80,887 (or 41 per cent of 195,979) persons are the households’ ‘own children (including foster children)’. Heads

82 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

of households make up 15 per cent while spouses of the head equate to 10 per cent of persons in the households. Others contribute to 33 per cent of persons in the households who may constitute extended family members of the aiga. In terms of comparisons by sex, most heads of households (80 per cent) are males compared to only 20 per cent of females. As such, most spouses in households are females, equating to 98 per cent, compared to only 2 per cent of male spouses. Given the traditional set-up of families in strong Christian societies like Samoa, and the fact that households in Samoa are mostly headed by matai, who are commonly males, females who are heads of households appear as mostly widowed. Most head/spouse parents are females (83 per cent), compared to only 17 per cent males, which may mean that the mother/female parent is most likely to stay with the head/spouse parent than the father/male parent.

Table 5.11: Household compositions by sex, 2016 Census

Household Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female composition

Head 28,880 14.7% 23,121 80.1% 5,759 19.9%

Spouse of the 20,128 10.3% 396 2.0% 19,732 98.0% head

Own children (foster child 80,885 41.3% 42,664 52.7% 38,221 47.3% adopted)

Head / Spouse 966 0.5% 168 17.4% 798 82.6% Parents

Others 65,120 33.2% 34,543 53.0% 30,577 47.0%

Total 195,979 100.0% 100,892 51.5% 95,087 48.5%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.16: Household compositions by sex, 2016 Census

5, 45, 4, 35, 4,664

3, , 38,1 ,

5, 34,543 5.7% , , 3,577 , 47.3%

15, 53.% 3,11 798 5,759 19,73 168 396 , , , , , 47.%

1, , 5, 8.1% 8.6% 98.% 19.9% 17.4% .% Head pouse n cilden Head pouse tes Paents Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

5.4.2 Land tenure Table 5.12 and Figure 5.17 show land tenure in Samoa in relation to where the 28,880 households by a breakdown by sex reside. A total of 18,497 (or 64 per cent of 28,880) households were living on customary land, with 81 per cent of households headed by males and 19 per cent of households headed by females. A total of 8,017 (or 28 per cent) households were living on freehold land with 77 per cent male-headed households and only 23 per cent female-headed households. A total of 945 households (or 3 per cent) were residing on church-owned land, with households headed by males

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 83 (90 per cent) much higher than households headed by females (10 per cent) – this is because the majority of church priests are males. There were more households headed by males than females residing on business/employer owned land and government owned land, consistent with the higher labour force participation of males, and other types of land tenure arrangements. Freehold land is where the gender disparity is lowest compared to the all other types of land tenure.

Table 5.12: Land tenure by households heads and sex, 2016 Census

Total % Total Male % Male Female % Female Customary 18,497 64.0% 14,898 80.5% 3,599 19.5%

Freehold 8,017 27.8% 6,193 77.2% 1,824 22.8%

Church owned 945 3.3% 855 90.5% 90 9.5%

Business/Employer owned 777 2.7% 637 82.0% 140 18.0%

Government owned 408 1.4% 344 84.3% 64 15.7%

Others 236 0.8% 194 82.2% 42 17.8% E mployment , income households and assets  Total 28,880 100.0% 23,121 80.1% 5,759 19.9%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing.

Figure 5.17: Land tenure by household head and sex, 2016 Census

1% 9% 8% 9% ,

7% 84% 8% 8% , 81% , , 77% , 855 6% , 344 194 5% 637 6,193 4% 14,898 3% 3% 19% , 18% , , 18% % 16% , 1% , 1% , 4 1,84 14 64 3,599 9 % Custoa Feeold Cuc oned usinessploe oenent oned tes oned Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing.

Table 5.13 and Figure 5.18 further show the land tenure of households by region or area of residence. The majority of households living on customary land are in Savaii (5,723 or 31 per cent) followed by Rest of Upolu (5,450 or 29 per cent) which are the most rural areas of Samoa. A total of only 1,933 households (or 10 per cent) were living on customary land in Apia Urban Area. The majority of freehold land is in Apia Urban Area and North West of Upolu, hence most of those living on freehold land were in these urban areas, with 3,119 (39 per cent) in Apia Urban Area and 3,472 (43 per cent) in North West Upolu, while only 897 (11 per cent) were found in Rest of Upolu and 529 (7 per cent) in Savaii. Most households living on church owned land were also found in urban areas, equating to 314 (33 per cent) for Apia Urban Area and 384 (41) for North West Upolu of the total households living on church owned land. There is a major variation or disparity between males and females in land tenure reflecting the patriarchal structure of local society.

84 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Table 5.13: Land tenure by household heads, by sex and region, 2016 Census

Total Apia Urban Area North West Upolu Rest of Upolu Savaii

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Customary 18,497 14,898 3,599 1,933 1,507 426 5,391 4,283 1,108 5,450 4,396 1,054 5,723 4,712 1,011

Freehold 8,017 6,193 1,824 3,119 2,313 806 3,472 2,735 737 897 720 177 529 425 104

Church 945 855 90 314 270 44 384 347 37 143 139 4 104 99 5 owned

Government 408 344 64 95 77 18 289 245 44 11 9 2 13 13 - owned

Business/ Employer 777 637 140 353 275 78 365 309 56 46 41 5 13 12 1 owned

Others 236 194 42 26 16 10 204 173 31 2 2 - 4 3 1

Total 28,880 23,121 5,759 5,840 4,458 1,382 10,105 8,092 2,013 6,549 5,307 1,242 6,386 5,264 1,122

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Figure 5.18: Land tenure by household head, by sex and region, 2016 Census Males

aaii ,41 1,791

U 19,89 3,8

NU 19,56 11,643

AUA 6,796 9,568

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Females

aaii 18,838 1,698

U 18,61 3,69

NU 18,96 11,498

AUA 6,599 9,738

% 1% % 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 1% Custoa Feeold Cuc oned oenent oned usinessploe oned tes

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 85 5.4.3 Access to a mobile phone Accessibility of households to means of communication is one indication of the level of household living standards in Samoa. The census question about mobile phones asked all households about access to a mobile phone at the time of the census. Table 5.14 and Figure 5.19 depict the number of private households with mobile phones in Samoa. The majority of private households with mobile phones are in the North West of Upolu, followed by those in Savaii and Apia Urban Areas. The proportion of private households headed by males with mobile phones is much higher than females across all regions. This is because the majority of households are headed by males.

Table 5.14: Private households with mobile phones by household head, by sex and region, 2016 Census

Region Total Male-Head % Male Head Female-Head % Female Head AUA 5636 4295 76.2 1341 23.8

NWU 9532 7610 79.8 1922 20.2

ROU 6006 4856 80.9 1150 19.1 E mployment , income households and assets SAVAII 6061 5007 82.6 1054 17.4 

Total 27235 21768 79.9 5467 20.1

Source: SBS (2018c, p. 74 & 78).

Figure 5.19: Private households with mobile phones by region, by household head and sex, 2016 Census

8, 7,814

7,

6, 5,8 4,788 5, 4,38 4,446 4, 3,118 ,779 3, ,669 lues pones ,

1, Piate ouseoldes it iicel and Apia Uan Aea Not est Upolu est o Upolu aaii

Male Feale

Source: SBS (2018c).

86 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

5.5 Summary

Table 5.15 summarizes the key findings on the population of Samoa’s employment, income, household heads and assets highlighting the key differences between males and females within these areas.

Table 5.15: Summary of key findings on population employment, income, households and assets

Area Key findings Employment

• In the 2016 Census, the ‘economically active’ population was defined as the ‘population aged 10 years and over’ who were working for pay, profit, in subsistence, working in family enterprises or volunteers. • All persons attending school or training courses during the census period, doing housework and care, unable to work due to old age and disability, or any other reasons were classified as ‘non-economically Economically active’ or outside the labour force. and non- • In the 2016 Census, the population aged 10 years and over amounted to 142,657, which equates to 73 economically per cent of Samoa’s overall population. active • Of this working-age population of 142,657 persons, 57,585 (or 40 per cent) were economically active and 85,037 (60 per cent) were non-economically active. • There were 71 per cent males to 29 per cent females in the economically active population and 38 per cent males to 62 per cent females in the non-economically active population.

• Non-economically active persons of the population aged 10 years and over:- • The majority (42,415 or 30 per cent of 142,657 population aged 10 years and over) were engaged in domestic duties and not able to actively participate in economic activities. • The second highest non-economically active group were students numbering 37,140 (or 26 per cent of 142,657) persons. • There were 5,448 (4 per cent) persons who were not able to work due to disability or old age. • A total of 34 persons were beggars. • Economically active population persons of the population aged 10 years and over (the workforce):- • The majority (26,919 or 19 per cent) were employees. • The second highest group were persons (20,907 or 15 per cent) involved in subsistence activities. • The third highest were self-employed persons totalling 3,794 (or 3 per cent). • Employers accounted for only 1 per cent (1,193) of the workforce. • A total of 2,117 persons were seeking employment at the time of the 2016 Census. • The majority of both males and females in Samoa were working as employees and as subsistence workers; 60 per cent male and 40 per cent female. • Comparison by sex:- Main activities • Males dominate the workforce or economically active population, equating to 71 per cent of the economically active population, mostly as employees, subsistent workers and self-employed. • Only 29 per cent of the economically active population (total persons) are females. • Females dominate the non-economically active population, engaged mainly in domestic duties, equating to 75 per cent of the total persons engaged in domestic duties, compared to 25 per cent of males. • Most males and females are engaged in domestic duties. However, the proportion of females undertaking domestic roles is much higher than males. • While most males are engaged in formal and informal economic activities either as employees, subsistence workers, or self-employed, most females are engaged in domestic duties. • There are more males looking for work than females. • There is a minimal variation in females and males attending school. • There are more females (53 per cent) than males (47 per cent) who are non-economically active due to old age/disability. • There are more male beggars than female beggars – 61.8 per cent male to 38.2 per cent female recorded at the 2016 Census. • The proportion of persons working as employees relative to those working as subsistence workers is relatively higher among females compared to males.

• The majority of the workforce in Samoa who are economically active are between the ages of 21 to 46 years. • The majority of females and males engaged in domestic duties are spread across all age groups, from Main activity by youth to middle-aged and elderly persons. sex and age • Most people not able to work due to old age/disability are in the old age groups of 51 years and over. • A total of 86 persons aged 10 to 14 years who are children and adolescents were currently employed, mostly in subsistence economic activities, and with a few working as employees. This employment of youngsters may be considered child labour under international labour standards.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 87 • Males have a higher labour force participation rate than females; 28.8 per cent male and 11.6 per cent female, noting that only 40 per cent of Samoa’s working-age population were economically active at the Labour force time of the 2016 Census. participation • The labour force participation rate for males is higher across all age groups. by sex and age • The most active working groups for both males and females are those aged 20 to 44 years. • The labour participation rates begin to decline for both males and females after the ages of 29 years as workers age, and as they reach retirement at the age of 55 years.

• The majority of Samoa’s employed population work in agriculture, forestry and fishing, equating to 42 per cent of the current workforce, with 89 per cent male and 11 per cent female. • The second largest employment industry in Samoa is wholesale and retail trade repair of motor vehicle and motorcycles amounting to 8.9 per cent of the total workforce, with 56 per cent male and 44 per cent female. • The third largest employment industry is public administration and defence compulsory social security, equating to 7.4 per cent, with 59 per cent male and 41 per cent female. • Employment in professional scientific and technical activities is only 1.4 per cent of the total workforce. Employment • Males dominate most industries, except education, human health and social workers activities, financial by industry and and insurance activities, and activities of households as employers, in which females outnumber males. sex • Industries dominated by males include the construction, transportation and storage; agriculture, forestry and fishing; electricity gas steam and air conditioning supply; water supply sewage waste management and remediation activities; professional scientific and technical activities; mining and

E mployment , income households and assets quarrying; and real estate activities. Most of these industries involve hard labour, and are more physical-  oriented and trade related work activities that are traditionally male dominated. • Females slightly outnumber males in education and health; teaching and nursing professions being traditionally female dominant. • Females slightly outnumber males in financial and insurance activities.

• There is minimal age difference between male and female employment patterns across various Employment by industries. industry, sex • Employment by industry reiterates a younger workforce across all industries. and age • The majority of persons employed in different industries are in the youth and middle-aged groups, with the number of employed persons declining as the population ages.

• Despite the fluctuation in the unemployment rate as recorded in the last four censuses (2001 to 2016), the unemployment rate has remained higher for females than males over the years. • Fifty-five (55) per cent of the total unemployed population aged 10 years and over were males, while 45 Unemployment per cent were females. rate by sex • The proportion of unemployed males remains higher than females for persons aged 10 to 54 years, except for those aged 55 years and over who are retired. • A higher proportion of females are not in work.

Occupation

• •Skilled agricultural, livestock, forestry and fishery, service and sale workers, and professionals are the top ranked occupational groups, constituting 67 per cent of the employed population. • Skilled agricultural, livestock, forestry and fishery employ 42 per cent of the total workforce, while service and sale workers accounts for 15 per cent. The professionals equate to 11 per cent of the total employed population in Samoa. • Males dominate most occupations except the professionals and clerical occupations where females Occupation by outnumber males. sex • Males tend to be employed or work in hard labour and trade related occupations such as in machinery, skilled agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery, craft related trade and food, and the armed forces. • Females tend to work in office related professions and clerical work. • Males outnumber females as legislators and in managerial occupations, although female legislators and managers increased from 29 per cent in 2001 to 40 per cent in 2016, there was a decrease in male legislators and mangers from 71 per cent to 60 per cent over the same period.

• Similar patterns of employment exist across most age groups for both males and females. • The majority of employed males and females across all occupations are within the youth and middle- aged groups of 21 to 50 years. Samoa has a young workforce for both males and females, with no significant variation by sex across most age groups. Occupation by • The number of employed persons for both males and females declines as the population ages. sex and age • A total of 62 males and 12 females aged 10 to 14 were employed, with 62 persons as skilled workers in agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery. • A total of eight persons aged 10 to 14 years were employed in services and sales while seven persons aged 10 to14 years were working in the craft and trade, machinery and elementary occupations.

88 2016 Population and Housing Census  E mployment , income households and assets

Income

• A high number of employed persons (19,457 in total or 35 per cent of employed persons in Samoa) did not state their wage levels at the time of the census, possibly because they did not work for wages. • A total of 23,509 (or 42 per cent) employed persons in Samoa received annual wage levels of $12,000 and below, with 22.4 per cent earning $5,001 to $12,000, and 20 per cent earning less than $5,000 per annum. Wage levels by • Only 1.7 per cent were earning a wage of above $79,000. sex • Given that males dominate Samoa’s workforce, they receive most of the wages at all levels, hence the disparity in wage levels between males and females. • Males dominate the low wage levels of up to $12,000 and higher wage ranges of $79,000 and over, showing a wider gap between males and females. • The gap between males and females becomes narrower in the middle wage ranges of $12,001-79,000, reflecting the differences in occupations in which most males and females are employed.

• The majority of those earning annual wages below $5,000 were males, and were mostly those employed in machinery related occupations, followed by clerical roles. • The difference between the number of males and females earning wages ranging between $12,001- $29,000, $29,001-$49,000 and $49,001-$79,000 was much less than those earning wages of less than $5,000 and $5,001-$12,000. This is mainly because males dominate the skilled, trades, crafts and technicians/associated occupations that are usually remunerated at lower wage rates compared to Wage levels remuneration levels for professional occupations. by sex and • While males receive more wages in most occupations compared to females, there are a few salary occupation ranges where females outnumber males. • In the service and sales occupation, there are more females with wages of $12,001-$29,000 and $29,001- $49,000. • In the craft related trade and food occupations, there are more females than males earning wages of $5,001-$12,000, $12,001-$29,000, and $29,001-$49,000. • For the professionals, there are more females earning wages of $12,001-$29,000 than males.

Household and assets

• The average household size for Samoa is seven persons per household. • The count of households in Samoa was 28,880 at the time of the census. A total of 80,887 (or 41 per cent of 195,979) persons were the households’ ‘own children (including foster children)’. • Heads of households make up 15 per cent of the total persons in households. • Spouses account for 10 per cent of the total persons in households. Household • Others contribute to 33 per cent of the total persons in households – they may constitute extended heads and family members of the aiga. compositions • Most heads of households (80 per cent) are males compared to only 20 per cent of females. • Given Samoa’s social structure, females who are heads of households appear as mainly widowed. • Most head/spouse parents are females (83 per cent), compared to only 17 per cent of males, which may indicates that a mother/female parent is most likely to stay with the head/spouse parent, rather than with the father/male parent.

• A total of 18,497 (or 64 per cent of 28,880) households were living on customary land, comprised of 81 per cent males and 19 per cent females. • A total of 8,017 (or 28 per cent) households were living on freehold land, comprised of 77 per cent of households headed by males and 23 per cent of households headed by females. • A total of 945 households (or 3 per cent) were residing on church owned land, with male-headed households (90 per cent) much higher than female (10 per cent) because the majority of church priests are males. • There were more males than females residing on business/employer owned land and government owned land, consistent with the higher labour force participation of males, and other types of land tenure arrangements. • Freehold land is where the gender disparity is the lowest compared to all other types of land tenure. Land tenure • The majority of households living on customary land were in Savaii (5,723 or 31 per cent) followed by Rest of Upolu (5,450 or 29 per cent) which are the most rural areas of Samoa. • A total of only 1,933 households (or 10 per cent) were living on customary land in Apia Urban Area. • The majority of freehold land is in Apia Urban Area and North West of Upolu, hence most of those living on freehold land were in these urban areas, with 3,119 (39 per cent) in Apia Urban Area and 3,472 (43 per cent) in North West Upolu, and only 897 (11 per cent) in Rest of Upolu and 529 (7 per cent) in Savaii. • Most households living on church owned land were also found in urban areas, equating to 314 (33 per cent) for Apia Urban Area and 384 (41) for North West Upolu of the total households living on church owned land. • There is a major variation between males and females in land tenure reflecting the patriarchal structure of society and associated land inheritance rights and traditions.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 89 • The majority of private households using mobile phones are in the North West of Upolu, followed by those in Savaii and Apia Urban Area. • The Rest of Upolu has the lowest number of households headed by males and females with access to a Access to mobile phone. mobile phone • The proportion of private households with mobile phones is much higher among males than females across all regions. This may mean that males are more likely to have access to a phone compared to females. E mployment , income households and assets 

90 2016 Population and Housing Census  D ecision - making participation

Chapter 6. DECISION-MAKING PARTICIPATION

6.1 Introduction and overview

Section 1.2 highlights that in Samoa and the Pacific, “females continue to face discrimination in access to work, economic assets and participation in private and public decision-making” (UN, 2015a). There are real challenges for females entering politics or the highest levels of decision-making in Samoa at the national and local levels; across traditional and ‘western’ institutions. Understanding gender equality and inequality requires an understanding of Samoa’s political landscape and how females, compared to males, feature in the political landscape at local and national levels. Samoa is the only Pacific island country with a Temporary Special Measure of 10 per cent reserved seats for females in national parliament. Programmes (e.g. Samoa Women Shaping Development and Women in Leadership in Samoa) are being implemented with the support of development partners to strengthen women’s empowerment, leadership and gender equality in Samoa.

The following sections provide a gender analysis of Samoan females participation in decision-making roles, based on information available at the time of researching this monograph.

6.2 Matai title population by gender

As stated in Chapter 1, Samoan families and village-based community are governed by matai. Matai are the heads and decision makers of the extended families or aiga and villages in Samoa (also see Chapter 1). Like their male counterparts, the matai status of females defines their social standing and is vital in determining their pathways into politics and decision-making roles in families, village councils, national parliament, executive government, governing committees, public administration, and other community-based affiliations and connections.

6.2.1 Matai title proportion by sex Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1 show the status of females and males with and without matai titles in Samoa recorded at the 2016 Census. A total of only 15,929 (or 9.5 per cent) persons in Samoa held matai titles, 8.5 per cent of which were males, and 1 per cent were females. This means that a total of 151,747 (or 90.5 per cent) persons in Samoa were without matai titles, 42.9 per cent male, and 47.6 per cent female. The ratio of male to female matai is 9 to 1 – for every nine male matai in Samoa, there is only one female matai.

Table 6.1: Population with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 Census

Matai status Total Total Male % Male Female % Female With a matai title 15,929 9.5% 14,335 8.5% 1,594 1.0%

Without a matai title 151,747 90.5% 71,872 42.9% 79,875 47.6%

Total 167,676 100% 86,207 51.0% 81,469 49.0%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 91 Figure 6.1: Population with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 Census

People in Samoa People in Samoa with matai titles without matai titles

14,335 79,875 71,872 1,594 Male Female Male Female 90% 53% 47% 10% D ecision - making participation 

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System. 6.2.2 Inter-census data on matai records by sex Table 6.2 and Figure 6.2 provide a comparison of total persons in Samoa with matai titles based on 2006, 2011 and 2016 census data. The total number of persons in Samoa with matai titles increased from 8.7 per cent in 2006 to 8.9 per cent in 2011 and further increased to 9.5 per cent in 2016. Total male matai increased from 7.0 per cent in 2006 to 8.0 per cent in 2011, and to 8.5 per cent in 2016. However, total female matai remains low, decreasing from 1.8 per cent in 2006 to 0.9 per cent in 2011, but then increasing to 1.0 per cent in 2016. In Samoa, matai titles are conferred by a consensus decision among the elders of the lineage and a family member has to accept the decision to hold a title. Traditionally, and in most families, the male member (uncle, father, brother, nephew, etc.) is usually given preference for a title. This is further reinforced by religious beliefs about the man as the head of the family and so the preference is often given (by male and female members of families and villages) to male members to hold authoritative figures such as matai in families and the village council.

Table 6.2: Population with matai titles by sex and census years, 2006–2016

Census Total / Male / Female With matai titles Without matai titles Not stated Total Total 15,783 [8.7%] 163,041 [90.2%] 1,917 [1.1%] 180,741 [100%]

2006 Male 12,589 [7.0%] 80,052 [44.3%] 1,036 [0.6%] 93,677 [51.8%]

Female 3,194 [1.8%] 82,989 [45.9%] 881 [0.5%] 87,064 [48.2%]

Total 16,787 [8.9%] 171,024 [91.1%] 9 [0.0%] 187,820 [100%]

2011 Males 15,021 [8.0%] 81,962 [43.6%] 7 [0.0%] 96,990 [51.6%]

Females 1,766 [0.9%] 89,062 [47.4%] 2 [0.0%] 90,830 [48.4%]

Total 15,929 [9.5%] 151,747 [90.5%] 167,676 [100%]

2016 Male 14,335 [8.5%] 71,872 [42.9%] 86,207 [51.4%]

Female 1,594 [1.0%] 79,875 [47.6%] 81,469 [48.6%]

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System, (SBS, 2007b; 2012, p. 50).

92 2016 Population and Housing Census  D ecision - making participation

Figure 6.2: Population with matai titles by sex and census years, 2006–2016

1.% 8.9% 9.5% 8.7% 8.5% 8.% 8.% 7.%

6.%

4.%

1.8% .% .9% 1.%

.% 6 11 16 Total Males Feales

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

6.2.3 Matai by sex and age Table 6.3 and Figure 6.3 further show the distribution of Samoan people with and without matai titles by sex and age group. Matai holders in Samoa are over 20 years of age. The majority of male and female matai holders in Samoa are between the ages of 40 to 70 years. Figure 6.3 further highlights the fact that very few females in Samoa are matai holders and this is true across all ages. Most females with matai titles are between 30 to 60 years of age.

Table 6.3: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex, 2016 Census

Age With matai titles Without matai titles Group Male Female Total Male Female Total

≤ 20 - - - 36,084 32,918 69,002

21 - 30 374 134 508 13,825 13,763 27,588

31 - 40 1,511 201 1,712 9,942 10,667 20,609

41 - 50 3,498 319 3,817 6,932 8,995 15,927

51 - 60 4,307 413 4,720 3,339 6,832 10,171

61 - 70 2,867 297 3,164 1,225 3,728 4,953

70 - 80 1,403 173 1,576 422 2,095 2,517

81 - 90 342 55 397 94 779 873

91+ 33 2 35 9 98 107

Total 14,335 1,594 15,929 71,872 79,875 151,747

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 93 Figure 6.3: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex, 2016

With matai titles Without matai titles

9 33 9 9 98 8 9 34 55 8 9 94 779 7 8 1,43 173 7 8 4 ,95 6 7 ,867 97 6 7 1,5 3,78 5 6 4,37 413 5 6 3,339 6,83

D ecision - making participation 4 5 3,498 319 4 5 8,995 6,93  3 4 1,511 1 3 4 9,94 1,667 3 374 134 3 13,85 13,763 36,84 3,918

% % 4% 6% 8% 1% % % 4% 6% 8% 1% Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

6.2.4 Matai title distribution across regions by sex distribution Table 6.4 and Figure 6.4 provide a distribution of persons in Samoa with matai titles across the four regions in Samoa as reported at the 2016 Census. The percentages are the total persons with matai titles in a region proportional to the population of persons living in the region who are eligible to become matai. The patterns show that most matai live in Savaii (13 per cent), followed by 8.7 per cent in Apia Urban Area (AUA), 8.6 per cent in Rest of Upolu (ROU), and 8.1 per cent in North West Upolu (NWU). The sex distribution is also skewed to Savaii where the majority of male matai holders reside – almost one in four males report that they are matai title holders. This is an indication of more traditional village life and associations in Savaii compared to the more urban village settings of Upolu. However, most female matai reside in Apia Urban Area. Over the years, more and more educated females in formal employment and occupying higher positions in the public and private sectors in urban areas are being bestowed matai titles by their families as a way of honouring and respecting their achievements and status in positions of authority.

Table 6.4: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex and region, 2016 Census

Total Male Female Total AUA NWU ROU SAVAII Total AUA NWU ROU SAVAII Total AUA NWU ROU SAVAII

Total 167,676 32,546 59,139 38,880 37,111 86,207 16,280 30,458 20,234 19,235 81,469 16,266 28,681 18,646 17,876

With 15,929 2,832 4,806 3,346 4,945 14,335 2,355 4,268 3,080 4,632 1,594 477 538 266 313 titles 9.5% 8.7% 8.1% 8.6% 13.3% 16.6% 14.5% 14.0% 15.2% 24.1% 2.0% 2.9% 1.9% 1.4% 1.8%

No 151,747 29,714 54,333 35,534 32,166 71,872 13,925 26,190 17,154 14,603 79,875 15,789 28,143 18,380 17,563 titles 90.5% 91.3% 91.9% 91.4% 86.7% 83.4% 85.5% 86.0% 84.8% 75.9% 98.0% 97.1% 98.1% 98.6% 98.2%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

94 2016 Population and Housing Census  D ecision - making participation

Figure 6.4: Population aged 15 years and over with and without matai titles by sex and region, 2016 Census

4% 5%

% 17% 14% 15% 15% 13% 14%

9% 1% 9% 8% 9%

5% 3% % % 1% %

% Total AUA NU U AA Total AUA NU U AA Total AUA NU U AA

Total Male Female

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

6.2.5 Matai title distribution across districts by sex distribution Table 6.5 and Figure 6.5 show the distribution of matai holders by district and sex. The districts of Gagaemauga II, Faasaleleaga IV, Faasaleleaga I, and Faasaleleaga II are the districts with the highest total number of matai holders as well as with the highest proportion of male matai, equating to 19 per cent, 16 per cent, 15 per cent, and 14 per cent respectively of total persons in a district eligible to hold a title. However, Faasalelelaga IV, Vaimauga West and Gagaemauga II are districts where the majority of female matai reside, equating to 2 per cent of female matai found in these districts, compared to only 1 per cent or lower in other districts.

Table 6.5: Popuation aged 15 years and over by matai holders , districts and sex, 2016 Census Total with % Persons District Region Total Male % Male Female % Female matai titles with matai Gagaemauga II Savaii 491 93 18.9% 85 17.3% 8 1.6%

Faasaleleaga IV Savaii 1,331 215 16.2% 192 14.4% 23 1.7%

Faasaleleaga I Savaii 5,420 807 14.9% 749 13.8% 58 1.1%

Faasaleleaga II Savaii 2,499 357 14.3% 332 13.3% 25 1.0%

Palauli East Savaii 2,056 287 14.0% 268 13.0% 19 0.9%

Alataua West Savaii 1,456 202 13.9% 191 13.1% 11 0.8%

Satuipaitea Savaii 1,655 224 13.5% 213 12.9% 11 0.7%

Gagaifomauga III Savaii 1,229 165 13.4% 156 12.7% 9 0.7%

Faasaleleaga III Savaii 2,403 319 13.3% 296 12.3% 23 1.0%

Palauli West Savaii 2,827 375 13.3% 350 12.4% 25 0.9%

Salega Savaii 2,815 359 12.8% 335 11.9% 24 0.9%

Gagaemauga I Savaii 1,451 185 12.7% 178 12.3% 7 0.5%

Vaisigano East Savaii 1,794 226 12.6% 212 11.8% 14 0.8%

Gagaemauga III Savaii 1,433 178 12.4% 172 12.0% 6 0.4%

Palauli le Falefa Savaii 3,022 375 12.4% 364 12.0% 11 0.4%

Falealupo Savaii 904 105 11.6% 103 11.4% 2 0.2%

Vaisigano West Savaii 1,342 153 11.4% 143 10.7% 10 0.7%

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 95 Total with % Persons District Region Total Male % Male Female % Female matai titles with matai Falelatai & Samatau ROU 2,729 307 11.2% 288 10.6% 19 0.7%

Gagaifomauga II Savaii 1,769 197 11.1% 174 9.8% 23 1.3%

Gagaemauga I part (Leauvaa) NWU 2,933 317 10.8% 274 9.3% 43 1.5%

Siumu ROU 1,973 202 10.2% 174 8.8% 28 1.4%

Vaa o Fonoti ROU 1,380 140 10.1% 134 9.7% 6 0.4%

Gagaifomauga I Savaii 1,214 123 10.1% 119 9.8% 4 0.3%

D ecision - making participation Falealili ROU 4,077 386 9.5% 344 8.4% 42 1.0% 

Aiga i le Tai ROU 4,227 396 9.4% 357 8.4% 39 0.9%

Vaimauga West AUA 20,474 1,854 9.1% 1,512 7.4% 342 1.7%

Safata ROU 5,320 464 8.7% 428 8.0% 36 0.7%

Faleata West NWU 19,789 1,724 8.7% 1,521 7.7% 203 1.0%

Lefaga & Faleseela ROU 3,483 295 8.5% 262 7.5% 33 0.9%

Vaimauga East NWU 6,997 569 8.1% 491 7.0% 78 1.1%

Faleata East AUA 12,072 978 8.1% 843 7.0% 135 1.1%

Lepa ROU 1,317 105 8.0% 99 7.5% 6 0.5%

Aana Alofi 3 NWU 5,221 413 7.9% 370 7.1% 43 0.8%

Sagaga le Usoga NWU 5,117 403 7.9% 372 7.3% 31 0.6%

Anoamaa East ROU 3,592 279 7.8% 258 7.2% 21 0.6%

Aana Alofi 1 NWU 5,535 425 7.7% 370 6.7% 55 1.0%

Gagaemauga II-part (Salamumu) Savaii 316 24 7.6% 24 7.6% - 0.0%

Aleipata itupa i Luga ROU 1,081 82 7.6% 80 7.4% 2 0.2%

Anoamaa West ROU 4,264 320 7.5% 300 7.0% 20 0.5%

Sagaga le Falefa NWU 10,786 768 7.1% 700 6.5% 68 0.6%

Aleipata itupa i Lalo ROU 3,550 241 6.8% 230 6.5% 11 0.3%

Aana Alofi 2 NWU 2,761 187 6.8% 170 6.2% 17 0.6%

Lotofaga ROU 1,571 105 6.7% 102 6.5% 3 0.2%

Total 167,676 15,929 9.5% 14,335 8.5% 1,594 1.0%

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

96 2016 Population and Housing Census  D ecision - making participation

Figure 6.5: Popuation aged 15 years and over by matai holders, districts and sex, 2016 Census

aaeaua 17.3% 1.6% Faasalelelaa 14.4% 1.7% Faasaleleaa 13.8% 1.1% Faasaleleaa 13.3% 1.% Palauli ast 13.% .9% Alataua est 13.1% .8% atuipaitea 1.9% .7% aaioaua 1.7% .7% Faasaleleaa 1.3% 1.% Palauli est 1.4% .9% alea 11.9% .9% aaeaua 1.3% .5% aisiano ast 11.8% .8% aaeaua 1.% .4% Palauli le Falea 1.% .4% Falealupo 11.4% .% aisiano est 1.7% .7% Falelatai aatau 1.6% .7% aaioaua 9.8% 1.3% aaeaua 9.3% 1.5% iuu 8.8% 1.4% aa o Fonoti 9.7% .4% aaioaua 9.8% .3% Falealili 8.4% 1.% Aia i le Tai 8.4% .9% aiaua est 7.4% 1.7% aata 8.% .7% Faleata est 7.7% 1.% eaa Faleseela 7.5% .9% aiaua ast 7.% 1.1% Faleata ast 7.% 1.1% epa 7.5% .5% Aana Alofi 3 7.1% .8% aaa le Usoa 7.3% .6% Anoaaa ast 7.% .6% Aana Alofi 1 6.7% 1.% aaeaua 7.6% .% Aleipata itupa i ua 7.4% .% Anoaaa est 7.% .5% aaa le Falea 6.5% .6% Aleipata itupa i alo 6.5% .3% Aana Alofi 2 6.% .6% otoaa 6.5% .%

% 5% 1% 15% % Male Feale

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 97 6.3 Summary

Table 6.6 summarizes the key findings on the participation of Samoan females in politics and decision- making.

Table 6.6: Summary of key findings on females’ participation in decision-making

Area Key findings Matai gender distribution

• A total of only 15,929 (or 9.5 per cent) persons in Samoa held matai titles at the time of

D ecision - making participation the 2016 Census, 8.5 per cent were males, while 1 per cent were females.  • A total of 151,747 (or 90.5 per cent) persons in Samoa were without matai titles at the Matai distribution time of the 2016 Census, 42.9 per cent were males, and 47.6 per cent were females. • The ratio of male to female matai is 9 to 1 – for every nine male matai in Samoa, there is only one female matai.

• The total number of persons in Samoa with matai titles increased from 8.7 per cent in 2006 to 8.9 per cent in 2011 and further increased to 9.5 per cent in 2016. Comparison of inter-census • Total male matai increased from 7.0 per cent in 2006 to 8.0 per cent in 2011, and to 8.5 data on matai records per cent in 2016. • Total female matai decreased from 1.8 per cent in 2006 to 0.9 per cent in 2011, but increased to 1.0 per cent in 2016.

• Matai holders in Samoa are aged 21 years and over. • The majority of male and female matai holders in Samoa are between the ages of 40 to Matai by sex and age 70-years-old. • Most females with matai titles are between the ages of 30 to 60 years.

• Most matai are in Savaii (13 per cent), followed by 8.7 per cent in Apia Urban Area, 8.6 per cent in Rest of Upolu, and 8.1 per cent in North West Upolu. Matai distribution across • The sex distribution is also skewed to Savaii where the majority of male matai holders region by sex reside. • Most female matai are found in Apia Urban Area.

• Gagaemauga II, Faasaleleaga IV, Faasaleleaga I, and Faasaleleaga II are the districts with the highest total number of matai holders, equating to 19 per cent, 16 per cent, 15 per cent, and 14 per cent respectively, of total persons in each district eligible to hold a title. • Gagaemauga II, Faasaleleaga IV, Faasaleleaga I, and Faasaleleaga II are the districts with Matai distribution across the highest total number of matai holders and the highest proportion of male matai district by sex holders, equating to 17 per cent, 14 per cent, 13.8 per cent and 13 per cent respectively, of persons with matai titles in each district. • Faasalelelaga IV, Vaimauga West and Gagaemauga II are the districts where the majority of female matai reside, equating to 2 per cent of female matai found in those districts, compared to only 1 per cent or lower in other districts.

98 2016 Population and Housing Census  D ecision - making participation

Chapter 7. IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

7.1 Introduction

Based on the monograph’s key findings summarized in sections 2.7, 3.5, 4.6, 5.6 and 6.5, this section discusses the implications of these findings and recommends possible actions for consideration in policy, programmes and interventions aimed at addressing gender issues in Samoa.

Gender and gender equality cannot be considered in isolation, it is across-disciplines and a complex issue needing consideration and mainstreaming in all development and public policy areas. Every development issue and policy response have a gender dimension; hence gender cannot be considered on its own as a separate issue but needs consideration in the overall context of development challenges, policies and programmes. As such, some of the implications and recommendations discussed in the sections that follow may not be directly or explicitly ‘female’ or ‘gender’ related, but they do and will have broad effects on gender demographics and dynamics in Samoa, in the immediate and long-term future.

Other nations in small island developing states with similar situations and challenges like Samoa will find this monograph and the recommendations presented in this section useful for their gender policy and programmes.

7.2 Implications and recommendations

7.2.1 Population demographics and dynamics

A high population dependency ratio for Samoa is a burden to the economy and social system

A high dependency ratio of 84 per cent for Samoa places a huge burden on its economy and social system, particularly on education, health, employment, infrastructure, utilities (water, energy, transportation, etc.) and other services. This is already self-evident in overcrowded schools with insufficient quality teachers to cope with large numbers of primary school aged children.

As well, Samoa has a significant youth employment issue, particularly among female youth who are still typically not oriented to Samoa’s dominant subsistence economic activities in agriculture and fishing. The cost of electricity in Samoa is relatively high compared to other countries, especially given the low wages among the majority of local skilled and trade workers. This affects the industry structure and employment creation and sustainability in Samoa because of the high energy costs to run businesses.20 Also the use of manual power advantages males in the workforce over females. A gender issue also lies in mothers (young and matured) not able to join the workforce due to domestic roles.

Consideration of a national policy and programmes aimed at lessening the dependency of the population at the younger ages are recommended. The purpose of such policies would be to facilitate the achievement of a balanced population structure and dependency ratio to support the country’s economic and social development, and to mitigate the rising social and economic problems in Samoa, such as increased social crimes, child labour, children not going to school, domestic violence, and poverty. Addressing these issues would also directly involve addressing issues and challenges faced by females such as unemployment, violence and poverty. 20 For instance, “high electricity costs impose a significant burden on het profitability of the sector (i.e. tourism)… which further erodes industry profitability and viability” (see Samoa Tourism Authority, 2014, p. 28).

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 99 The labour force participation among females is much lower than males (28.8 per cent for males and 11.6 per cent for females). A total of 75 per cent of economically inactive persons engaged in domestic duties in Samoa are females. A high dependency population (of many young ones) demands the care of parents, especially the attention and time of mothers.

The gender implication of a high dependent young population is the low labour force participation of females. The prioritization of family and children’s needs (e.g. personal care and schooling) or domestic roles within a labour force environment in Samoa where there are limited flexible working arrangements (e.g. part-time work) present females with limited access to opportunities to develop themselves and their livelihoods in the formal and informal sectors. This is the situation D ecision - making participation with many women especially those with young families, and those in rural village communities with  low education levels and with a lack of access to continuous education beyond secondary school.

To address these imbalances, it is thus recommended to:

• Consider investments, within a broader national policy framework, to reduce the population dependency ratio, within an appropriate period of time.

• Increase investments in women’s livelihoods (e.g. home-based small businesses) in order to address the gender inequality that exists in having a young dependent population.

• Consider the development of flexible working arrangements in order to enable more females with young families and children to participate in the workforce.

• Encourage more females to undertaken continuous education, with the education system and programmes providing an enabling and flexible learning environment for females with young families and children, to undertake further studies including distance or extramural studies and associated programmes to assist their transition into paid employment

Urbanization is a concern for urban and rural development and social issues With 54 per cent of the population living in Apia Urban Area and North West Upolu, it signifies a major urban drift or urbanization in Samoa. The government’s selling of land in urban areas such as Vaitele, Falelauniu, Aleisa, Vailele and other nearby urban areas since mid-1990s has resulted in a major urban movement. Faleata and its residential area of Vaitele are over-crowded with increased social crimes (e.g. bribery, domestic violence) among unemployed youth.

Although the ruling government continues to advocate for a fair distribution of resources and development for both urban and rural areas (o mea e lelei mo Upolu e lelei foi mo Savaii), the development of Samoa’s rural economy, amenities and services remain a challenge for a small island economy. There appears to be an ongoing centralization of power and services and whilst there are ongoing positive efforts for rural development activities (in agriculture, infrastructure, hospitals, schools, water, sanitation, etc.) with the support of development partners, these efforts are often ad-hoc and not sustainable.

The gender implications of the ongoing urban drift need a better understanding, such as the need for proper planning in ways that support the different needs of women, men and children. For example, more women living in urban areas will require increased health and sexual and reproductive health services, lighting and community police services for their health, safety and social protection.

There is a need to develop a good understanding about whether there are more women or men who are moving into the urban areas and why. If there are more men, then there is a need to look at ways to deal with the women remaining (or left behind) in rural areas, including their access to livelihoods, educational opportunities, and other required services (e.g. health and social services). If there are more women than men, there is a need to accommodate the needs of more women

100 2016 Population and Housing Census  D ecision - making participation

(including their children) living in urban areas, such as needed social services, employment, education and other development opportunities.

It is recommended to:

• Consider the development of a rural development policy for Samoa, integrated as part of the government district planning process. The policy needs to have a gender component addressing the gender inequalities/imbalances identified in this monograph and other analyses.

• Provide incentives for people to move back to rural areas and for people in rural areas to remain in their communities, including special attention to the needs of women and their children, especially those in vulnerable conditions.

• Consider the establishment by policy and law of a governing body for residential areas in urban areas not under the fa’amatai system. This governing body needs to be gender- oriented – able to look at addressing key gender inequality issues in these residential areas, including the needs of women especially those in vulnerable conditions (e.g. those living as squatters) and requiring social protection.

Gender differences in citizenship, religious and marital status need holistic consider- ation in policy and programmes

The findings in Section 2.7 indicate that there are more females than males who are either married, divorced/separated or widowed. Also, more females are likely to get married than males. The implication is that females face more marital issues and challenges than males, hence the need for more social support services dealing with marital issues. These support services are even more needed and important when children are also involved in marital and separation/divorce matters, which are also related to other family issues such as gender-based and domestic violence, children leaving home and dropping out of school.

Further, more females tend to become widowed at old ages than males. This means that there is a great need for support for old-aged widowed females, especially when care at old ages is not provided by family members.

Moreover, the trend for more females than males to attend recently-established churches (e.g. Amazing Love Christian Church, Peace Chapel, Protestant and Elim), compared to the four oldest church dominations (CCCS, Roman Catholic, LDS and Methodist) where there are more males, signifies a need to consider targeting more females attending recently-established churches, for advocacy and civil awareness programmes and activities aimed at addressing gender, female and child issues.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• Note the gender differences in the citizenship, religious and marital status of females and males for holistic consideration in policy and programmes. This includes for instance the role of religions in gender equality and female empowerment programmes.

• Consider the fact that more females in the long run will require more social support services with marital and children issues and matters, especially when these matters are also related to other domestic issues such as violence, school dropouts and homeless children.

• Consider the situation that more widowed females in Samoa in the long run will need support services with self-care at old ages if care is not provided by family members.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 101 7.2.2 Education

School non-attendance, dropouts and widening rural-urban gap in non-attendance rates need special consideration

Females outnumber males in school attendance, education continuation beyond secondary school, and educational completion and attainment at secondary school up to undergraduate levels. There remains a high number of persons in Samoa not attending school at younger ages, such as the 14 per cent of those aged 6 to 20 years; the 2 per cent of those aged 6 to 14 years; and the 58 per cent of those aged 15 to 25 years not in school at the time of the 2016 Census. There are more males than females not at school including school dropouts. The urban-rural gap in persons not attending school is widening, with more non-attendance found in rural than in urban areas. Literacy rates are also lower in rural than in urban areas.

The above issues of school non-attendance for both males and females, especially among males, as well as the widening rural-urban gap in school non-attendance have serious implications on the school system, an uneducated workforce, and the future of those not able to complete an education. Everyone regardless of their social and economic situations should be entitled to an education.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• The Government of Samoa, Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture and village councils to seriously consider the situations of children and adolescents not going to school. This includes revisiting the school compulsory legislation and enforcement mechanisms.

• The Government of Samoa to consider in its policy, planning and programmes the need to cater for high school dropouts at the secondary school and college levels.

• The rural-urban gap in school attendance must be revisited for relevant actions to address the high school non-attendance rates in rural areas.

• The Government and relevant authorities to pay special attention to vulnerable families, parents and mothers with children who are not attending school.

• Consider the possibility of establishing affirmative policy responses (e.g. scholarships, special assistance, and no school fees) for vulnerable families, parents, mothers and children not able or unwilling to provide an education for themselves and their children.

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Males still outnumber females in academic achievements at postgraduate, master and PhD levels

While females outnumber males in school attendance, and educational completion and attainment at secondary school attainment and up to undergraduate levels, males still outnumber females in academic achievements at postgraduate, master and PhD levels. This means that whilst there are more females continuing their education beyond secondary schools and university preparatory year as well as undergraduate studies, continuing education beyond undergraduate levels remains a challenge for females compared to males.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• Encourage and support more females to take up higher postgraduate studies.

• Consider affirmative measures within Samoa’s scholarship schemes, national schools and university systems, employers’ human resource policy and programmes, development partners’ assistances, and other avenues to support more females in pursuing higher studies, including options for child care and support.

7.2.3 Health and well-being

The average number of children per mother and adolescent birth rates are consid- ered high for a country with a high dependency population

A high dependency population will remain with Samoa for a number of years in the near and long- term future. As such, the total fertility rate of five in Samoa and the high adolescent birth rate are considered high given a high dependency population and a small island developing country.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• Encourage and emphasize sex education and good reproductive health for all females, especially the emerging youth and teenager populations and in rural areas.

• Increase access to sexual and reproductive health services to enable women’s decision- making around family size.

• Conduct in-depth assessments of females with over five children as well as youth and teenage mothers who are most likely to have more than five children in the next 10 years, with a specific focus on those in rural areas. These assessments will help to identify mothers and females who are most vulnerable.

• Consider regulatory policy measures on fertility and reproduction targeting the achievement of a balanced dependency ratio for a certain timeframe. Those measures must be continuously revised to ensure adaptions to the changes in Samoa’s population demographics and dynamics.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 103 Teenage pregnancy needs special consideration The findings in section 4.6 highlight that teenage pregnancy is an issue in Samoa, with 467 teenagers having already given birth to 578 children at the time of the 2016 Census. Most mothers are single mothers with the number of children ranging from one to four. Teenage pregnancy is also higher in rural than in urban areas.

To address the issue of teenage pregnancy, the following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• Consider age-appropriate sex education compulsory at all levels of schooling. D ecision - making participation  • Promote and encourage reproductive health and safer sex for all teenagers, both female and male.

• Conduct sexual and reproductive health education for teenagers and also for parents, village and church authorities, teachers and other government and community leaders.

• Improve access to modern contraceptives and safe sex measures especially in public places and rural residential areas.

Higher fertility rates in rural areas need special consideration The higher fertility rates in rural areas compared to urban areas need special consideration. Mothers who have had limited education are also vulnerable to having more children than mothers who are working and those who have had a good education.

In additional to recommendations provided under section 7.2.3.2, the following actions are recommended for further consideration:

• Carry out awareness raising on sexual and reproductive health targeting rural areas with high fertility rates.

• Integrate as part of ongoing programmes on female empowerment and domestic violence advocacy activities addressing issues of sexual and reproductive health for females.

• Conduct research to address gaps in existing knowledge about reproductive health issues in Samoa, such as determining levels of reproductive coercion, and understanding the differences in the fertility rates to devise appropriate programming support, including the link between fertility and maternal mortality rates.

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The needs of persons with disability should be addressed Findings in section 4.6 show a number of persons in Samoa living with a disability (mobility, self- care, vision, memory, hearing and communication). The proportion is however higher among females than males. Mobility and self-care are the most common forms of disability. More females experience these forms of disability at old ages than males.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• Revise the Samoa Disability Policy to incorporate the findings of this monograph – to ensure that the Policy reflects the needs of the population with a disability, including the particular needs of females with a disability as distinct from men, given the differences in population numbers of those with a disability such as recognizing women’s burden of caring for persons living with a disability.

• Give special consideration to females given that the higher proportion of persons experiencing disability are females and also females who are at older ages.

• Give special consideration to females with mobility and self-care disabilities as the most common forms of disability in Samoa and among females.

$ 7.2.4 Employment, income, households and assets

Females are more economically vulnerable than males The fact that only 29 per cent of the economically active population are females, with the vast majority undertaking domestic roles is an indication of a problem faced by many females in Samoa who are not able to participate in economic activities. The limited proportion of females seeking jobs at the time of the census compared to males indicates that females may be less willing to join the workforce than males, reflecting a priority for domestic roles over employment. The economic empowerment of females, particularly the majority of them who are engaged in domestic roles and are not yet in the labour force, is essential to gender equity, social justice and poverty elevation.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• Integrate the findings of this monograph into current, ongoing and future gender and female economic empowerment interventions and programmes.

• Revisit Samoa’s employment policy and programmes to see if there is a gender dimension targeting employment issues faced by females in Samoa.

• Initiate and develop relevant interventions and programmes aimed at encouraging females who are in domestic roles to take up further studies, especially formal and non- formal training programmes and courses in trade and vocational education.

• Encourage females and girls in the school system and industries where the majority of youth females are employed to take up studies in occupations that are traditionally male dominated.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 105 Employing males and females aged 10 to 14 years is child labour The employment of 86 children and adolescents, mostly boys, aged 10 to 14 years is considered as child labour. This means that they have missed out on their educational life as part of their development as adolescents, youth and the transition into adulthood. These 86 children and adolescents should be given special consideration as persons in vulnerable circumstances not able to attend school and already working for themselves and their families.

In addition to recommendations provided under section 7.2.2.1 on enforcing compulsory education, the following possible actions are recommended for further consideration: D ecision - making participation The government and other relevant authorities should look deeply into the situation of •  these 86 child labour cases for relevant actions.

• Establish reasons and factors for child labour and children not attending school.

• Consult with parents/guardians on their child’s employment and school non-attendance and their implications.

• Provide special measures to address the issues of these 86 cases of child labour.

The status of females as household heads and access to land and communications need consideration in female empowerment activities

Related to the point discussed under section 7.2.4.1 is the fact that females are more economically, political and socially vulnerable than males given that the majority of land is customary land under the control of matai. The matai system is male dominated as are household heads. These deeply seated gender inequality realities in Samoa’s social structure will continue to be in place in the immediate future, but they need to be acknowledged and there should be advocacy for needed social change.

In addition to recommendations provided under section 7.2.4.1, the following possible actions are further recommended for consideration:

• Note the subtleties concerning gender inequalities in Samoa’s social structure, including religious beliefs in interventions aimed at addressing gender and female empowerment.

• Carefully consider in awareness programmes on gender inequality those gender inequality subtleties for more nuanced understanding and appropriate policy responses and interventions.

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7.2.5 Decision-making participation

The lack of female matai including females participating in village councils requires deliberate attention and actions

The dearth of females who are matai, and the rare participation of females who are matai in village councils is a discrimination that prohibits the empowerment of females to progress into governance and decision-making roles. Addressing this issue is a prerequisite to addressing gender inequalities at the deeper local levels which will in turn address those at the national levels.

The following possible actions are recommended for consideration:

• A national law explicitly disallowing villages not to prohibit females from becoming matai and to sit on village councils.

• Enact and enforce village bylaws to encourage more females to become matai and to sit on village councils.

• Continue advocacy programmes promoting the significant roles females play asmatai in their families, villages and districts.

• As a key focus of the government and stakeholders to close the gaps on gender inequality, conduct a gendered analysis of laws, policies and governance structures across all national and local systems. On the basis of the evidence established from this analysis, identify the key gender inequality gaps and provide sound recommendations on how to address those gaps.

• Develop and implement a national policy that every policy, legislation and programme, including the national budget, should have a gender analysis and component before they are further considered and approved.

• Design a special programme encouraging urban female matai to participate in village affairs and village council meetings.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 107 7.2.6 There is a need for more research into areas of gender disparities as highlighted by the evidence presented in this monograph.

Further research and investigations are recommended to provide solid and well-grounded explanations about trends and patterns of gender inequalities from this analysis of census and administrative data. These include the need for further qualitative research and analysis to establish reasons and answers to questions related to causality. Apart from research already identified in the recommendations outlined above, other key research needs include, but are not limited, to those outlined below:

• Population demographics and dynamics and gender implications D ecision - making participation National population -  ◦ Establish a good understanding about the implications of the changing demographics and dynamics of Samoa’s population on its environmental, economic and social development, including predictions on needed development trends and services to accommodate changing population demographics/dynamics. ◦ More research is needed on the reasons and factors relating to the gender norms and attitudinal aspects of Samoa’s population and society. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors relating to the higher growth in the female population compared to the growth in the male population. ◦ Undertake evidence-based analyses of the implications of the young population in Samoa from different perspectives - political, economic, social, gender and environmental.

- Region, district and village population ◦ Undertake evidence-based analyses (including a gender analysis component) of the large number of the population (including women and their children) living in North West Upolu, and the minimal number living in the bigger island of Savaii. ◦ Implement evidence-based analyses of the gender differences across population areas – by region, district, village and sub-village in both traditional and non- traditional defined villages. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors of why there are more females living in the district of Gagaemauga II compared to all other districts where there are more male residents. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors of why there are more females living in the village of Vaitele Fou and more males living in the villages of Faleasiu, Vaiusu and Fasitoouta compared to other villages.

- Citizenship and migration ◦ Establish the gender implications of having dual citizenship including citizenship differences between males and females. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors of why there are more males than females with New Zealand, China, Australia, Tonga, other Pacific island countries, and other Asian countries citizenship, while there are more females than males with European, Japanese or Canadian citizenship status living in Samoa. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors behind the low movement of internal migration in Samoa – between regions and villages. ◦ Establish the gender implications of the urban drift in Samoa – political, economic, social, gender and environmental perspectives. ◦ Establish whether males or females tend to migrate and to what extent – in terms of internal (village-village) migration, overseas migration and emigration.

- Marital status ◦ Establish the reasons, factors and implications as to why females are more likely to get married (especially at a young age), divorced, separated or widowed compared to males. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors behind more males being single than females.

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- Religious status ◦ Establish the reasons, factors and implications of why there are more females associated with a religious belief as well as with the newly-established churches, compared to males.

- Education ◦ Establish the reasons and factors and implications of the 7 per cent of the population who have never attended school in their lifetime. ◦ Provide solid evidence about the key influences (e.g. tradition/culture) on the education differences between males and females, including the gender differences by location (rural and urban). ◦ Research to establish key factors and reasons behind the widening urban and rural gap in males and females not attending school across different age groups and taking into account differences in social and economic situations. ◦ Research to establish the key factors and reasons behind the ‘push out’ as well as ‘drop out’ of males and females – from different perspectives – e.g. school system entry requirements, parental aspects. ◦ Research including a gender analysis of the reasons, factors and implications of the 902 children who were not attending school at the time of the census. ◦ Establish the factors and reasons why more males pursue and complete postgraduate qualifications compared to females, while it is the opposite for undergraduate qualifications where there are more females than males. ◦ Research to establish the implications of illiteracy levels among females and males.

- Health ◦ Determine the implications of the increased life expectancy for both males and females on Samoa’s economic and social development. ◦ Establish the reasons and factors behind the high fertility rates in Samoa, with disaggregation by age group, region/village, and including establishing relationships between fertility and religious, cultural factors, and other belief systems. ◦ Research to provide qualitative explanations on the current fertility differentials as outlined under Section 2.3.1 e) above. ◦ Research to explain the factors or reasons behind the differences in mortality rates among males and females. ◦ Research to provide more explanation about the population with a disability in relation to the status of their disability and access to needed services, including gender differences and inequalities in disability status and access to services as well as the implications.

- Employment, income, households and assets ◦ Research to establish more qualitative groundings (reasons, factors, and implications) of the gender differences in the areas of employment, households and asset ownership, across different age groups, industries, occupational groups, location, etc. ◦ Research to provide solid evidence about the key influences (e.g. tradition/culture) on the employment differences between males and females. ◦ Establish the gender implications of the different types of economic activity with a focus on vulnerable employment (subsistence and unpaid work). ◦ Research to explore the current status and conditions (location, living conditions, parental care, etc.) of children already working with a specific focus on the vulnerable.

- Decision-making participation ◦ Research to provide solid evidence on the key factors and reasons for the non- participation of female matai in village council meetings, including those relating to the limited number of female matai in Samoa. ◦ Research to establish solid evidence on the key factors and reasons for why there

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 109 are more female matai in Apia Urban Area compared to other regions, as well as in Faasaleleaga IV, Vaimauga West and Gagaemauga II districts compared to other districts. ◦ Research to establish a better understanding about the reasons and factors why females tend to participate more in the voting process and elections of national leaders than males. ◦ Research to establish a better understanding about the limited number of females compared to males in Chief Executive Officer roles of government ministries, agencies and corporations. D ecision - making participation General -  ◦ Conduct comparative research (investigations, assessments, analyses, etc.) at the regional and global levels on key gender inequality and equality areas identified under this Samoa Gender Monograph.

7.3 Conclusion

This monograph analyses the gender differences between males and females in Samoa. The findings give an overall picture of females and girls being marginalized in economic and social-political life in Samoa.

The recommendations provided in the concluding sections provide some possible actions to address gender inequalities in Samoa, and to ensure inclusivity in Samoa’s development processes, where males, females and children are all able to contribute effectively.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Goldsmith, A. A. (2012). Is governance reform a catalyst for SBS. (2018c). 2016 Census Brief No.4: Housing/Dwelling Details development? In J. K. Sundaram & A. Chowdhury (Eds.), Is good & Household amenities and capital goods. Retrieved from Apia. governance good for development? Bloomsbury Academic: UN SBS, & UNDP. (2016). Samoa Hardship and Poverty Report - Series of Development. Analysis of the 2013/14 Household Income and Expenditure ILO. (2013). Samoa Decent Work Country Programme. Retrieved Survey. Retrieved from Apia. from Apia: SLRC. (2016). August 2016 Report on Samoa’s Legislative Martinussen, J. (2007). Society, state & market: A guide to Compliance with the CEDAW, Submitted by the Samoa Prime competing theories of development. Canada: Fernwood Books Minister to the Legislative Assembly of Samoa. Retrieved from Ltd. Apia. MCIL. (2018). The minimum wage. Apia: Ministry of Commerce, SNYC. (2017). Tracer Youth Employment Survey Report and Industry and Labour (MCIL), Government of Samoa. Position Statement. Retrieved from Apia. Meleisea, L. M., Meredith, M., Chan Mow, M. I., Schoeffel, P., SPC. (2016). Sustainable Development Goals in the Pacific: the Boodoosingh, R., & Sahib, M. (2015). Political representation 132 indicators in this booklet represent the subset of SDGs selected and women’s empowerment in Samoa. Retrieved from Centre by the Pacific SDG Taskforce, as part of the Pacific Roadmap for for Samoan Studies, National University of Samoa, Apia. Sustainable Development. Retrieved from Noumea, Fiji. Ministry of Health. (2008). Samoa National Health Sector Plan SPC. (2018). Pacific Islands Population - Estimates and 2008 – 2018. Apia: Government of Samoa. projections of demographic indicators for selected years. Retrieved from SPC website. MWCSD. (2007). Samoa Family Health and Safety Study 2007. Retrieved from Apia. UN. (2015a). The Millennium Development Goals report: Oceania region makes some progress but will miss critical targets. Retrieved MWCSD. (2015). Women: Matai and Leadership Survey. from New York: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_ Retrieved from Apia. MDG_Report/pdf/MDG per cent202015 per cent20PR per MWCSD. (2016). Samoa National Policy for Gender Equality cent20Regional per cent20Oceania.pdf. 2016-2020. Retrieved from Apia. UN. (2015b). Millennium Development Goals report: Oceania MWCSD. (2017). Samoa Family Safety Study 2017. Retrieved region makes some progress but will miss critical targets. from Apia. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_ MDG_Report/pdf/MDG per cent202015 per cent20PR per OEC. (2016). Office of the Electoral Commissioner‘s Official cent20Regional per cent20Oceania.pdf. Report on the 2016 General Elections. Retrieved from Apia. UN. (2016). Summary of National Voluntary Review Process - Ombudsman/National Human Rights Institution. (June 2018). Independent State of Samoa. UN. National public inequiry into family violence in Samoa: State of Human Rights Report. Retrieved from Apia: UN. (2017a). UNDP Strategic Plan, 2018-2021. A Multi-Country Sustainable Development Framework in the Pacific Region. PIFS. (2018). First Quadrennial Pacific Sustainable Development Retrieved from Fiji, Samoa. Report. Suva: PIFS. UN. (2017b). United Nations Development Assistance Framework Samoa Tourism Authority. (2014). Samoa Tourism Sector Plan, (UNDAF) for the Pacific Region, 2013-2017. Retrieved from Fiji. 2014 - 2019, Apia: Government of Samoa. UNFPA. (2014). Population and Development Profiles: Pacific SBS. (2007a). Samoa 2006 Census, Table 3. Population by five- Island Countries. Retrieved from Fiji, Samoa. year age group, marital status and sex, 2006. Retrieved from SBS Office, Apia. UNFPA. (2015a). Methodological Guidelines for the Gender Analysis of National Population and Housing Census Data. SBS. (2007b). Samoa 2006 Census, Table 6. Population by Retrieved from UNFPA. matai status, major age groups and sex, 2006. Retrieved from Apia. UNFPA. (2015b). Samoa Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights Needs Assessment. Retrieved from Fiji, Samoa. SBS. (2009). Samoa Demographic and Health Survey. Retrieved from Apia. UNFPA. (2017). UNFPA strategic plan, 2018-2021. Retrieved from UNFPA website. SBS. (2012). Samoa 2011 Census Report. Retrieved from Apia. UNICEF. (2015). Harmful Connections: Examining the relationship SBS. (2014). Samoa Demographic and Health Survey. Retrieved between violence against women and violence against children in from Apia. the South Pacific, Fiji: UNICEF Pacific. SBS. (2017a). 2016 Census Brief No.1: Revised Version - Population Snapshot and Household Highlights. Retrieved from Apia. SBS. (2017b). Samoa 2016 Population and Housing Census Tables. Retrieved from Apia. SBS. (2018a). 2016 Census Brief No.2: Population dynamics and trends. Retrieved from Apia. SBS. (2018b). 2016 Census Brief No.3: Education and Economic Characteristics. Retrieved from Apia.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 111 A nne x es ANNEXES 

Annex 1. Pacific Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Indicator Framework

SDG Indicator

1.1.1 Proportion of population below the international poverty line, by sex, age, employment status and geographical location (urban/rural). 1.2.1 Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age. 1.2.2 Proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions. 1.3.1 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex, distinguishing children, unemployed persons, older persons, persons with disabilities, pregnant women, newborns, work-injury victims and the poor and the vulnerable. 1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services.

2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment 2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age. 2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height ³+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age, by type (wasting and overweight). 2.3.2 Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status. 2.4.1 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture. 2.5.1 Number of plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture secured in either medium or long-term conservation facilities. 2.a.1 The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures.

3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio. 3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel. 3.2.1 Under-five mortality rate. 3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate. 3.3.2 Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000 population. 3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1,000 population. 3.3.5 Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases. 3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease or diabetes. 3.5.2 Harmful use of alcohol, defined according to the national context as alcohol per capita consumption (aged 15 years and older) within a calendar year in litres of pure alcohol. 3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15-49 years) who have their need for family planning satisfied with modern methods. 3.7.2 Adolescent birth rate (aged 10-14 years; aged 15-19 years) per 1,000 women in that age group. 3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services (defined as the average coverage of essential services based on tracer interventions that include reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health, infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases and service capacity and access, among the general and the most disadvantaged population). 3.9.2 Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene (exposure to unsafe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All (WASH) services). 3.a.1 Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years and older. 3.c.1 Health worker density and distribution. 3.d.1 International Health Regulations (IHR) capacity and health emergency preparedness.

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SDG Indicator 4.1.1 Proportion of children and young people: (a) in grades 2/3; (b) at the end of primary; and at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a minimum proficiency level in (i) reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex. 4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry age), by sex. 4.3.1 Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, by sex. 4.5.1 Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated. 4.6.1 Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex. 4.7.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all levels in: (a) national education policies; b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment. 4.a.1 Proportion of schools with access to: (a) electricity; (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (d) adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic hand washing facilities (as per the WASH indicator definitions). 4.c.1 Proportion of teachers in: (a) pre-primary; primary; (c) lower secondary; and (d) upper secondary education who have received at least the minimum organized teacher training (e.g. pedagogical training) pre-service or in-service required for teaching at the relevant level in a given country.

5.1.1 Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sex. 5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age. 5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence. 5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20-24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18. 5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location. 5.5.1 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments and (b) local governments. 5.5.2 Proportion of women in managerial positions. 5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15-49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care. (5.6.2) Number of countries with a reproductive health policy, guidelines and protocols for service delivery fully or partially resourced.* 5.a.2 Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control. 5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex. 5.c.1 Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women’s empowerment.

6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services. 6.2.1 Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services including a hand washing facility with soap and water. 6.3.1 Proportion of wastewater safely treated.

7.1.1 Proportion of population with electricity. 7.2.1 Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption. 7.a.1 International financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy research and development and renewable energy production, including in hybrid systems. 7.b.1 Investments in energy efficiency as a proportion of GDP and the amount of foreign direct investment in financial transfer for infrastructure and technology to sustainable development services.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 113 SDG Indicator A nne x es  8.1.1 Annual growth rate of real gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. 8.3.1 Proportion of informal employment in non-agriculture employment, by sex. 8.5.1 Average hourly earnings of female and male employees, by occupation, age and persons with disabilities. 8.5.2 Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities. 8.6.1 Proportion of youth (aged 15-24 years) not in education, employment or training. 8.9.1 Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate. 8.9.2 Proportion of jobs in sustainable tourism industries out of total tourism jobs. 8.10.2 Proportion of adults (aged 15+) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with mobile-money service provider. 8.a.1 Aid for trade commitments and disbursements.

9.2.2 Manufacturing employment as a proportion of total employment. 9.a.1 Total official international support (official development assistance plus other official flows) to infrastructure. 9.c.1 Proportion of population covered by a mobile network, by technology.

10.1.1 Growth rates of household expenditure or income per capita among the bottom 40 per cent of the population and the total population. 10.2.1 Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income, by sex, age and persons with disabilities. 10.4.1 Labour share of GDP, comprising wages and social protection transfers. 10.6.1 Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations. 10.7.2 Number of countries that have implemented well-managed migration policies. 10.b.1 Total resource flows for development, by recipient and donor countries and type of flow (e.g. official development assistance, foreign direct investment and other flows). 10.c.1 Remittance costs as a proportion of the amount remitted.

11.1.1 Proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing. (11.4.1) Proportion of the national budget allocated to culture, including for protection, preservation (heritage) and promotion.* 11.5.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 people. 11.5.2 Direct economic loss in relation to global GDP, damage to critical infrastructure and number of disruptions to basic services, attributed to disasters. 11.6.1 Proportion of urban solid waste regularly collected and with adequate final discharge out of total urban solid waste generated, by cities. 11.b.2 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies.

*Pacific Proxy Indicators modified from the global definition.

12.4.1 Number of parties to international multilateral environmental agreements on hazardous waste, and other chemicals that meet their commitments and obligations in transmitting information as required by each relevant agreement. 12.4.2 Hazardous waste generated per capita and proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment. 12.5.1 National recycling rate, tons of material recycled. 12.b.1 Number of sustainable tourism strategies or policies and implemented action plans with agreed monitoring and evaluation tools.

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SDG Indicator

13.1.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. 13.2.1 Number of countries that have communicated the establishment or operationalization of an integrated policy/ strategy/plan which increases their ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change, and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development in a manner that does not threaten food production (including a national adaptation plan, nationally determined contribution, national communication, biennial update report or other). 13.3.1 Number of countries that have integrated mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning into primary, secondary and tertiary curricula. 13.a.1 Mobilized amount of United States dollars per year between 2020 and 2025 accountable towards the $100 billion commitment. 13.b.1 Number of least developed countries and small island developing States that are receiving specialized support, and amount of support, including finance, technology and capacity- building, for mechanisms for raising capacities for effective climate change-related planning and management, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities.

14.1.1 Index of coastal eutrophication and floating plastic debris density. 14.2.1 Proportion of national exclusive economic zones managed using ecosystem-based approaches. 14.3.1 Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations. 14.4.1 Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels. 14.5.1 Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas. 14.6.1 Progress by countries in the degree of implementation of international instruments aiming to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. 14.7.1 Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP in small island developing States, least developed countries and all countries. 14.a.1 Proportion of total research budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology. 14.b.1 Progress by countries in the degree of application of a legal/regulatory/policy/ institutional framework which recognizes and protects access rights for small-scale fisheries.

15.1.1 Forest area as a proportion of total land area. 15.1.2 Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type. 15.5.1 Red List Index. 15.6.1 Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits. 15.7.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked. 15.8.1 Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species.

16.1.3 Proportion of population subjected to physical, psychological or sexual violence in the previous 12 months. 16.3.1 Proportion of victims of violence in the previous 12 months who reported their victimization to competent authorities or other officially recognized conflict resolution mechanisms. 16.6.1 Primary government expenditures as a proportion of original approved budget, by sector (or by budget codes or similar). 16.7.1 Proportions of positions (by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups) in public institutions (national and local legislatures, public service, and judiciary) compared to national distributions. 16.7.2 Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group. 16.9.1 Proportion of children under 5 years of age whose births have been registered with a civil authority, by age. 16.10.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/ or policy guarantees for public access to information. (16.a.1) Existence of implementation plan for the different UN Treaty Body recommendations and UPR recommendations which are fully or partially resourced.*

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 115 SDG Indicator A nne x es  17.1.1 Total government revenue as a proportion of GDP, by source. 17.1.2 Proportion of domestic budget funded by domestic taxes. 17.2.1 Net official development assistance, total and to least developed countries, as a proportion of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee donors’ gross national income (GNI). 17.3.1 Foreign direct investments (FDI), official development assistance and South- South Cooperation as a proportion of total domestic budget. 17.3.2 Volume of remittances (in United States dollars) as a proportion of total GDP. 17.4.1 Debt service as a proportion of exports of goods and services. 17.6.2 Fixed Internet broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, by speed. 17.7.1 Total amount of approved funding for developing countries to promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies. 7.8.1 Proportion of individuals using the Internet. 17.9.1 Dollar value of financial and technical assistance (including through North-South, South- South and triangular cooperation) committed to developing countries. (17.11.1) Value of PIC exports of goods and services.* 17.14.1 Number of countries with mechanisms in place to enhance policy coherence of sustainable development. 17.15.1 Extent of use of country-owned results frameworks and planning tools by providers of development cooperation. 17.16.1 Number of countries reporting progress in multi-stakeholder development effectiveness monitoring frameworks that support the achievement of the sustainable development goals. 17.17.1 Amount of United States dollars committed to public-private and civil society partnerships. (17.18.1) Percent of SDG Pacific Headline Indicators included in regional progress reports.*

*Pacific Proxy Indicators are modified from the global definition.

17.18.2 Number of countries that have national statistical legislation that complies with the Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics. 17.18.3 Number of countries with a national statistical plan that is fully funded and under implementation, by source of funding. 17.19.1 Dollar value of all resources made available to strengthen statistical capacity in developing countries. 17.19.2 Proportion of countries that (a) have conducted at least one population and housing census in the last 10 years.

Source: SPC (2016).

116 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

Annex 2. Total population by region, district, village and sex

Region, district and village Total Male Female Samoa 195,979 100,892 95,087 Apia Urban Area 37,391 18,760 18,631 Vaimauga West 23,527 11,794 11,733 Moataa 1,467 718 749 Vaivase Tai 1,039 536 503 Vaivase Uta 953 477 476 Magiagi Tai 1,830 947 883 Magiagi Uta 238 123 115 Toomatagi 226 107 119 Tanoaleia 712 372 340 Faatoialemanu 897 454 443 Vaiala Tai 593 294 299 Vaiala Uta 397 201 196 Vinifou 71 36 35 Vaipuna 339 179 160 Levili 74 39 35 Matautu Tai 190 107 83 Matautu Uta 751 360 391 Leone 591 311 280 Vaisagano 254 117 137 Aai o Niue 172 90 82 Maluafou 77 33 44 Malifa 160 85 75 Lelata 200 95 105 Leifiifi 31 11 20 Motootua 453 220 233 Leufisa 235 112 123 Tanugamanono 855 433 422 Papauta 431 184 247 Vailima 825 418 407 Avele 405 199 206 Letava 591 297 294 Vaoala 952 468 484 Tiapapata 150 81 69 Afiamalu East 147 78 69 Afiamalu West 53 29 24 Apia 208 100 108 Tauese 155 68 87 Tufuiopa 427 209 218 Lalovaea West 333 182 151 Palisi 1,134 586 548 Matafele 6 4 2 Mulivai 9 9 - Tuloto 151 82 69 Togafuafua 423 216 207 Taufusi 380 186 194 Alamagoto 939 434 505 Vaimea 479 232 247 Fugalei 241 116 125 Saleufi 64 29 35 Savalalo 126 60 66 Sogi 279 140 139 Mulinuu 27 14 13 Aai o Fiti 161 76 85 Moataa Uta 173 101 72

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 117 Region, district and village Total Male Female A nne x es Nafanua 374 193 181  Tanumaleko 84 40 44 Papaloloa 257 124 133 Lalovaea East 472 244 228 Malololelei 258 132 126 Tiavi 8 6 2 Faleata East 13,864 6,966 6,898 Sinamoga 1,443 724 719 Moamoa 1,396 706 690 Vaimoso 2,513 1,230 1,283 Pesega 143 79 64 Lotopa 1,629 811 818 Alafua 1,438 736 702 Tuaefu 198 108 90 Tuanaimato East 493 256 237 Seesee 598 307 291 Lepea 628 306 322 Vaitoloa 670 336 334 Vailoa 1,691 863 828 Moamoa Fou 1,024 504 520 North West Upolu 69,376 35,704 33,672 Vaimauga East 8,151 4,148 4,003 Laulii 2,167 1,098 1,069 Letogo 1,330 697 633 Fagalii 1,532 796 736 Vailele Uta 968 477 491 Vailele Tai 2,154 1,080 1,074 Faleata West 22,989 11,814 11,175 Tulaele 858 429 429 Talimatau 597 300 297 Vaiusu 2,686 1,412 1,274 Vaigaga 789 428 361 Elise Fou 198 92 106 Saina 216 110 106 Toamua 1,725 884 841 Safune I 311 157 154 Puipaa 1,065 528 537 Falelauniu 221 112 109 Leaupani 56 37 19 Tapatapao 251 136 115 Tanumapua 487 247 240 Tafaigata 1,456 905 551 Siusega 3,034 1,546 1,488 Ululoloa 883 439 444 Vaitele Tai 857 431 426 Vaitele Uta 2,992 1,520 1,472 Vaitele Fou 4,307 2,101 2,206 Sagaga La Falefa 12,760 6,563 6,197 Faleula 2,948 1,522 1,426 Alamutu 397 203 194 Levi 983 514 469 Lotosoa 841 438 403 Salepouae 723 374 349 Nonoa 492 252 240 Malua 398 213 185 Utualii 506 262 244 Tufulele 1,353 688 665 Aleisa East 903 468 435 Aleisa West 744 373 371 Aele Fou 635 335 300

118 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

Region, district and village Total Male Female Nuu 1,761 890 871 Fatitu 76 31 45 Sagaga Le Usoga 6,005 3,118 2,887 Malie 2,412 1,245 1,167 Afega 2,137 1,110 1,027 Tuanai 1,456 763 693 Aana Alofi I 6,548 3,416 3,132 Faleasiu 4,260 2,199 2,061 Fasitoouta 2,141 1,138 1,003 Lepale 147 79 68 Aana Alofi II 3,239 1,648 1,591 Nofoalii 2,009 1,017 992 Leulumoega 1,230 631 599 Aana Alofi III 6,227 3,213 3,014 Fasitoo Tai 1,582 802 780 Vailuutai 869 455 414 Faleatiu 680 360 320 Satapuala 1,975 1,016 959 Faleolo 25 17 8 Afia 230 125 105 Satuimalufilufi 750 371 379 Falepuna 116 67 49 Gagaemauga I 3,457 1,784 1,673 Leauvaa 3,457 1,784 1,673 Rest of Upolu 45,652 23,774 21,878 Safata 6,269 3,236 3,033 Saanapu Tai 103 45 58 Saanapu Uta 1,180 604 576 Sataoa Tai 240 119 121 Sataoa Uta 1,088 571 517 Lotofaga 742 395 347 Niusuatia 464 242 222 Vaiee 558 296 262 Fusi 738 379 359 Fausaga 304 152 152 Tafitoala 472 236 236 Mulivai 380 197 183 Siumu 2,342 1,212 1,130 Maninoa 460 233 227 Siumu 1,184 621 563 Siumu Uta 304 156 148 Saaga 394 202 192 Falelatai & Samatau 3,192 1,656 1,536 Samatau 1,144 577 567 Siufaga 639 347 292 Pata 485 264 221 Nefunefu 161 83 78 Matautu 217 105 112 Levi 118 65 53 Matanofo 76 38 38 Falevai 227 117 110 Samai 125 60 65 Lefaga & Faleseela 4,059 2,094 1,965 Matafaa 181 93 88 Faleseela 838 429 409 Tanumalala 163 89 74 Safaatoa 581 312 269 Tafagamanu 356 183 173 Savaia 386 211 175 Gagaifo O Le Vao 584 293 291

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 119 Region, district and village Total Male Female A nne x es Matautu 970 484 486  Aiga I Le Tai 5,029 2,619 2,410 Tausagi 55 52 3 Olo 32 18 14 Paepaeala 165 78 87 Samea 145 71 74 Fuailoloo 1,214 624 590 Lalovi 524 282 242 Apolima Fou 509 259 250 Manono Uta 1,405 731 674 Faleu 249 136 113 Lepuiai 183 92 91 Apai 124 67 57 Satuilagi 90 46 44 Salua 136 61 75 Satoi 102 48 54 Apolima Island 96 54 42 Falealili 4,784 2,545 2,239 Togitogiga 37 22 15 Saleilua 708 384 324 Poutasi 406 205 201 Vaovai 505 265 240 Matautu 426 238 188 Tafatafa 219 114 105 Malaemalu 243 122 121 Satalo 370 213 157 Piu 49 28 21 Sapunaoa 462 241 221 Salesatele 347 172 175 Siuniu 136 69 67 Salani 551 293 258 Utulaelae 194 113 81 Sapoe 131 66 65 Lotofaga 1,841 961 880 Matatufu 470 238 232 Lotofaga 980 514 466 Vavau 391 209 182 Lepa 1,521 803 718 Aufaga 463 241 222 Vaigalu 106 56 50 Lepa 178 93 85 Siupapa 18 10 8 Saleapaga 593 308 285 Lealatele 163 95 68 Aleipata Itupa I Luga 1,246 638 608 Lalomanu 706 355 351 Vailoa 325 171 154 Ulutogia 215 112 103 Aleipata Itupa I Lalo 4,188 2,157 2,031 Satitoa 713 364 349 Malaela 208 107 101 Lotopue 240 133 107 Mutiatele 350 188 162 Saleaaumua 553 281 272 Utufaalalafa 154 81 73 Samusu 835 418 417 Amaile 205 102 103 Tiavea 916 473 443 Alafou 14 10 4 Anoamaa East 4,196 2,228 1,968

120 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

Region, district and village Total Male Female Saletele 168 95 73 Sauano 238 115 123 Falevao 685 377 308 Lalomauga 380 210 170 Manunu 221 126 95 Sauniatu 34 18 16 Lufilufi 907 467 440 Falefa 1,563 820 743 Anoamaa West 4,993 2,582 2,411 Saolufata 829 427 402 Fusi 396 213 183 Salelesi 393 204 189 Eva 283 157 126 Solosolo 1,841 935 906 Luatuanuu 834 432 402 Leusoalii 417 214 203 Solaua - - - Vaa O Fonoti 1,621 845 776 Uafato 257 131 126 Samamea 45 21 24 Lona 191 110 81 Maasina 129 72 57 Taelefaga 244 129 115 Salimu 64 34 30 Musumusu 80 42 38 Faleapuna 611 306 305 Gagaemauga II 371 198 173 Salamumu Tai 33 17 16 Salamumu Uta 338 181 157 Savaii 43,560 22,654 20,906 Faasaleleaga I 6,328 3,281 3,047 Maota 280 147 133 Fataloa 308 158 150 Sapulu 1,220 650 570 Satalafai 198 108 90 Falefia 416 215 201 Foua 320 166 154 Saletagaloa 260 140 120 Salelavalu Tai 488 238 250 Salelavalu Uta 614 325 289 Vaifou 272 136 136 Tino I Iva 754 394 360 Vaiafai 438 219 219 Vaisaulu 147 77 70 Lalomalava 304 159 145 Safua 309 149 160 Faasaleleaga II 2,910 1,537 1,373 Sapapalii 908 492 416 Vaimaga 385 214 171 Eveeve 132 72 60 Fusi 200 92 108 Fuifatu 52 27 25 Fatausi 205 106 99 Fogapoa 302 146 156 Tuasivi 193 102 91 Tapueleele 297 143 154 Vaiola 153 77 76 Vaiaata 83 66 17 Faasaleleaga III 2,787 1,450 1,337 Siufaga 575 296 279

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 121 Region, district and village Total Male Female A nne x es Sapini 210 111 99  Luua 300 145 155 Malae 219 112 107 Salimu 260 124 136 Saasaai 529 286 243 Saipipi 694 376 318 Faasaleleaga IV 1,541 804 737 Lano 702 370 332 Asaga 296 150 146 Puapua 543 284 259 Gagaemauga I 1,717 905 812 Patamea 618 319 299 Samalaeulu 936 503 433 Mauga 163 83 80 Gagaemauga II 600 296 304 Saleaula 600 296 304 Gagaemauga III 1,695 876 819 Safai 226 114 112 Satoalepai 263 125 138 Fagamalo 383 195 188 Lelepa 279 154 125 Avao 279 142 137 Saleia 221 121 100 Vaipouli 44 25 19 Gagaifomauga I 1,387 751 636 Manase 123 65 58 Safotu 1,264 686 578 Gagaifomauga II 2,043 1,067 976 Paia 280 153 127 Samauga 367 182 185 Leagiagi 203 110 93 Lefagaoalii 484 260 224 Matavai 147 71 76 Faletagaloa 368 196 172 Fatuvalu 194 95 99 Gagaifomauga III 1,448 762 686 Fagaee 200 109 91 Sasina 571 297 274 Letui 294 154 140 Aopo 383 202 181 Vaisigano East 2,102 1,060 1,042 Utuloa 20 10 10 Matavai (Asau) 1,111 535 576 Auala 506 273 233 Vaisala 465 242 223 Vaisigano West 1,599 848 751 Fagasa 265 129 136 Sataua 827 446 381 Papa Uta 507 273 234 Falealupo 1,092 553 539 Falealupo 545 270 275 Vaotupua 186 96 90 Avata 361 187 174 Alataua West 1,750 944 806 Tufutafoe 434 231 203 Neiafu Tai 307 178 129 Neiafu Uta 597 306 291 Falelima 412 229 183 Salega 3,323 1,737 1,586 Fagafau 237 123 114

122 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

Region, district and village Total Male Female Samata I Tai 417 229 188 Samata I Uta 640 312 328 Fogatuli 251 137 114 Faiaai 392 195 197 Vaipua 421 228 193 Fogasavaii 346 182 164 Sagone 619 331 288 Palauli West 3,334 1,686 1,648 Foailuga 555 283 272 Foailalo 335 179 156 Satuiatua 291 139 152 Salailua 902 471 431 Siutu 449 223 226 Taga 802 391 411 Palauli Le Falefa 3,567 1,887 1,680 Gataivai 1,118 593 525 Gautavai 141 67 74 Vaiala 213 118 95 Sili 1,068 567 501 Puleia 266 136 130 Papa 357 188 169 Tafua 404 218 186 Satupaitea 1,938 993 945 Satufia 561 266 295 Vaega 570 302 268 Pitonuu 283 150 133 Moasula 524 275 249 Palauli East 2,399 1,217 1,182 Vailoa 786 394 392 Vaitoomuli 684 364 320 Faala 929 459 470 Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 123 A nne x es Annex 3. Total population by sex and single age 

Age (years) Total Male Female Age (years) Total Male Female <1 5,554 2,870 2,684 57 1,443 732 711 1 5,592 2,916 2,676 58 1,320 706 614 2 5,637 2,945 2,692 59 1,292 700 592 3 5,628 2,890 2,738 60 1,195 571 624 4 5,748 2,980 2,768 61 1,028 548 480 5 5,337 2,853 2,484 62 1,112 567 545 6 5,260 2,758 2,502 63 909 480 429 7 4,966 2,591 2,375 64 981 501 480 8 4,986 2,598 2,388 65 744 388 356 9 4,470 2,351 2,119 66 771 360 411 10 4,623 2,373 2,250 67 710 340 370 11 4,439 2,283 2,156 68 652 310 342 12 4,334 2,291 2,043 69 598 304 294 13 4,146 2,145 2,001 70 612 294 318 14 3,896 1,964 1,932 71 588 270 318 15 3,967 2,135 1,832 72 555 259 296 16 4,231 2,250 1,981 73 492 237 255 17 3,796 1,990 1,806 74 441 207 234 18 3,538 1,840 1,698 75 381 181 200 19 3,420 1,753 1,667 76 384 156 228 20 3,593 1,909 1,684 77 355 146 209 21 3,234 1,677 1,557 78 332 139 193 22 3,116 1,598 1,518 79 298 124 174 23 2,923 1,481 1,442 80 267 106 161 24 3,053 1,519 1,534 81 205 80 125 25 2,800 1,451 1,349 82 230 75 155 26 2,836 1,389 1,447 83 156 63 93 27 2,627 1,323 1,304 84 153 41 112 28 2,500 1,243 1,257 85 113 38 75 29 2,569 1,294 1,275 86 124 42 82 30 2,438 1,224 1,214 87 89 34 55 31 2,441 1,219 1,222 88 75 23 52 32 2,425 1,267 1,158 89 75 26 49 33 2,373 1,213 1,160 90 50 14 36 34 2,239 1,128 1,111 91 39 17 22 35 2,057 1,045 1,012 92 37 9 28 36 2,427 1,246 1,181 93 19 4 15 37 2,185 1,120 1,065 94 14 4 10 38 2,046 1,037 1,009 95 8 2 6 39 2,084 1,116 968 96 8 1 7 40 2,044 1,062 982 97 2 1 1 41 1,980 1,031 949 98 6 1 5 42 2,073 1,120 953 99 3 1 2 43 2,121 1,066 1,055 100 1 1 - 44 2,034 1,054 980 101 1 - 1 45 2,087 1,051 1,036 102 1 1 - 46 2,047 1,088 959 103 1 - 1 47 1,997 1,102 895 104 - - - 48 1,842 990 852 105 1 - 1 49 1,801 1,009 792 106 - - - 50 1,762 919 843 107 - - - 51 1,686 844 842 108 - - - 52 1,651 874 777 109 1 - 1 53 1,677 842 835 110 - - - 54 1,672 857 815 110+ - - - 55 1,381 709 672 NS 144 84 60 56 1,574 811 763 Total 195,979 100,892 95,087

Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

124 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

Annex 4. Population distribution by sex ranked by most populated village

No. Village Total Male Female Difference 1 Vaitele Fou 4,307 2,101 2,206 -105 2 Faleasiu 4,260 2,199 2,061 138 3 Siusega 3,034 1,546 1,488 58 4 Vaitele Uta 2,992 1,520 1,472 48 5 Faleula 2,948 1,522 1,426 96 6 Vaiusu 2,686 1,412 1,274 138 7 Vaimoso 2,513 1,230 1,283 -53 8 Malie 2,412 1,245 1,167 78 9 Laulii 2,167 1,098 1,069 29 10 Vailele Tai 2,154 1,080 1,074 6 11 Fasitoouta 2,141 1,138 1,003 135 12 Afega 2,137 1,110 1,027 83 13 Nofoalii 2,009 1,017 992 25 14 Satapuala 1,975 1,016 959 57 15 Solosolo 1,841 935 906 29 16 Magiagi Tai 1,830 947 883 64 17 Nuu 1,761 890 871 19 18 Toamua 1,725 884 841 43 19 Vailoa 1,691 863 828 35 20 Lotopa 1,629 811 818 -7 21 Fasitoo Tai 1,582 802 780 22 22 Falefa 1,563 820 743 77 23 Fagalii 1,532 796 736 60 24 Moataa 1,467 718 749 -31 25 Tafaigata 1,456 905 551 354 26 Tuanai 1,456 763 693 70 27 Sinamoga 1,443 724 719 5 28 Alafua 1,438 736 702 34 29 Manono Uta 1,405 731 674 57 30 Moamoa 1,396 706 690 16 31 Tufulele 1,353 688 665 23 32 Letogo 1,330 697 633 64 33 Safotu 1,264 686 578 108 34 Leulumoega 1,230 631 599 32 35 Sapulu 1,220 650 570 80 36 Fuailoloo 1,214 624 590 34 37 Siumu 1,184 621 563 58 38 Saanapu Uta 1,180 604 576 28 39 Samatau 1,144 577 567 10 40 Palisi 1,134 586 548 38 41 Gataivai 1,118 593 525 68 42 Matavai (Asau) 1,111 535 576 -41 43 Sataoa Uta 1,088 571 517 54 44 Sili 1,068 567 501 66 45 Puipaa 1,065 528 537 -9 46 Vaivase Tai 1,039 536 503 33 47 Moamoa Fou 1,024 504 520 -16 48 Levi 983 514 469 45 49 Lotofaga 980 514 466 48 50 Matautu 970 484 486 -2 51 Vailele Uta 968 477 491 -14 52 Vaivase Uta 953 477 476 1 53 Vaoala 952 468 484 -16 54 Alamagoto 939 434 505 -71 55 Samalaeulu 936 503 433 70

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 125 No. Village Total Male Female Difference A nne x es Faala 929 459 470 -11 56  57 Tiavea 916 473 443 30 58 Sapapalii 908 492 416 76 59 Lufilufi 907 467 440 27 60 Aleisa East 903 468 435 33 61 Salailua 902 471 431 40 62 Faatoialemanu 897 454 443 11 63 Ululoloa 883 439 444 -5 64 Vailuutai 869 455 414 41 65 Tulaele 858 429 429 0 66 Vaitele Tai 857 431 426 5 67 Tanugamanono 855 433 422 11 68 Lotosoa 841 438 403 35 69 Faleseela 838 429 409 20 70 Samusu 835 418 417 1 71 Luatuanuu 834 432 402 30 72 Saolufata 829 427 402 25 73 Sataua 827 446 381 65 74 Vailima 825 418 407 11 75 Taga 802 391 411 -20 76 Vaigaga 789 428 361 67 77 Vailoa 786 394 392 2 78 Tino I Iva 754 394 360 34 79 Matautu Uta 751 360 391 -31 80 Satuimalufilufi 750 371 379 -8 81 Aleisa West 744 373 371 2 82 Lotofaga 742 395 347 48 83 Fusi 738 379 359 20 84 Salepouae 723 374 349 25 85 Satitoa 713 364 349 15 86 Tanoaleia 712 372 340 32 87 Saleilua 708 384 324 60 88 Lalomanu 706 355 351 4 89 Lano 702 370 332 38 90 Saipipi 694 376 318 58 91 Falevao 685 377 308 69 92 Vaitoomuli 684 364 320 44 93 Faleatiu 680 360 320 40 94 Vaitoloa 670 336 334 2 95 Samata I Uta 640 312 328 -16 96 Siufaga 639 347 292 55 97 Aele Fou 635 335 300 35 98 Lepea 628 306 322 -16 99 Sagone 619 331 288 43 100 Patamea 618 319 299 20 101 Salelavalu Uta 614 325 289 36 102 Faleapuna 611 306 305 1 103 Saleaula 600 296 304 -8 104 Seesee 598 307 291 16 105 Talimatau 597 300 297 3 106 Neiafu Uta 597 306 291 15 107 Vaiala Tai 593 294 299 -5 108 Saleapaga 593 308 285 23 109 Leone 591 311 280 31 110 Letava 591 297 294 3 111 Gagaifo O Le Vao 584 293 291 2 112 Safaatoa 581 312 269 43 113 Siufaga 575 296 279 17 114 Sasina 571 297 274 23 115 Vaega 570 302 268 34

126 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

No. Village Total Male Female Difference 116 Satufia 561 266 295 -29 117 Vaiee 558 296 262 34 118 Foailuga 555 283 272 11 119 Saleaaumua 553 281 272 9 120 Salani 551 293 258 35 121 Falealupo 545 270 275 -5 122 Puapua 543 284 259 25 123 Saasaai 529 286 243 43 124 Lalovi 524 282 242 40 125 Moasula 524 275 249 26 126 Apolima Fou 509 259 250 9 127 Papa Uta 507 273 234 39 128 Utualii 506 262 244 18 129 Auala 506 273 233 40 130 Vaovai 505 265 240 25 131 Tuanaimato East 493 256 237 19 132 Nonoa 492 252 240 12 133 Salelavalu Tai 488 238 250 -12 134 Tanumapua 487 247 240 7 135 Pata 485 264 221 43 136 Lefagaoalii 484 260 224 36 137 Vaimea 479 232 247 -15 138 Lalovaea East 472 244 228 16 139 Tafitoala 472 236 236 0 140 Matatufu 470 238 232 6 141 Vaisala 465 242 223 19 142 Niusuatia 464 242 222 20 143 Aufaga 463 241 222 19 144 Sapunaoa 462 241 221 20 145 Maninoa 460 233 227 6 146 Motootua 453 220 233 -13 147 Siutu 449 223 226 -3 148 Vaiafai 438 219 219 0 149 Tufutafoe 434 231 203 28 150 Papauta 431 184 247 -63 151 Tufuiopa 427 209 218 -9 152 Matautu 426 238 188 50 153 Togafuafua 423 216 207 9 154 Vaipua 421 228 193 35 155 Leusoalii 417 214 203 11 156 Samata I Tai 417 229 188 41 157 Falefia 416 215 201 14 158 Falelima 412 229 183 46 159 Poutasi 406 205 201 4 160 Avele 405 199 206 -7 161 Tafua 404 218 186 32 162 Malua 398 213 185 28 163 Vaiala Uta 397 201 196 5 164 Alamutu 397 203 194 9 165 Fusi 396 213 183 30 166 Saaga 394 202 192 10 167 Salelesi 393 204 189 15 168 Faiaai 392 195 197 -2 169 Vavau 391 209 182 27 170 Savaia 386 211 175 36 171 Vaimaga 385 214 171 43 172 Fagamalo 383 195 188 7 173 Aopo 383 202 181 21 174 Taufusi 380 186 194 -8 175 Mulivai 380 197 183 14

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 127 No. Village Total Male Female Difference A nne x es Lalomauga 380 210 170 40 176  177 Nafanua 374 193 181 12 178 Satalo 370 213 157 56 179 Faletagaloa 368 196 172 24 180 Samauga 367 182 185 -3 181 Avata 361 187 174 13 182 Papa 357 188 169 19 183 Tafagamanu 356 183 173 10 184 Mutiatele 350 188 162 26 185 Salesatele 347 172 175 -3 186 Fogasavaii 346 182 164 18 187 Vaipuna 339 179 160 19 188 Salamumu Uta 338 181 157 24 189 Foailalo 335 179 156 23 190 Lalovaea West 333 182 151 31 191 Vailoa 325 171 154 17 192 Foua 320 166 154 12 193 Safune I 311 157 154 3 194 Safua 309 149 160 -11 195 Fataloa 308 158 150 8 196 Neiafu Tai 307 178 129 49 197 Fausaga 304 152 152 0 198 Siumu Uta 304 156 148 8 199 Lalomalava 304 159 145 14 200 Fogapoa 302 146 156 -10 201 Luua 300 145 155 -10 202 Tapueleele 297 143 154 -11 203 Asaga 296 150 146 4 204 Letui 294 154 140 14 205 Satuiatua 291 139 152 -13 206 Eva 283 157 126 31 207 Pitonuu 283 150 133 17 208 Maota 280 147 133 14 209 Paia 280 153 127 26 210 Sogi 279 140 139 1 211 Lelepa 279 154 125 29 212 Avao 279 142 137 5 213 Vaifou 272 136 136 0 214 Puleia 266 136 130 6 215 Fagasa 265 129 136 -7 216 Satoalepai 263 125 138 -13 217 Saletagaloa 260 140 120 20 218 Salimu 260 124 136 -12 219 Malololelei 258 132 126 6 220 Papaloloa 257 124 133 -9 221 Uafato 257 131 126 5 222 Vaisagano 254 117 137 -20 223 Tapatapao 251 136 115 21 224 Fogatuli 251 137 114 23 225 Faleu 249 136 113 23 226 Taelefaga 244 129 115 14 227 Malaemalu 243 122 121 1 228 Fugalei 241 116 125 -9 229 Sataoa Tai 240 119 121 -2 230 Lotopue 240 133 107 26 231 Magiagi Uta 238 123 115 8 232 Sauano 238 115 123 -8 233 Fagafau 237 123 114 9 234 Leufisa 235 112 123 -11 235 Afia 230 125 105 20

128 2016 Population and Housing Census  A nne x es

No. Village Total Male Female Difference 236 Falevai 227 117 110 7 237 Toomatagi 226 107 119 -12 238 Safai 226 114 112 2 239 Falelauniu 221 112 109 3 240 Manunu 221 126 95 31 241 Saleia 221 121 100 21 242 Tafatafa 219 114 105 9 243 Malae 219 112 107 5 244 Matautu 217 105 112 -7 245 Saina 216 110 106 4 246 Ulutogia 215 112 103 9 247 Vaiala 213 118 95 23 248 Sapini 210 111 99 12 249 Apia 208 100 108 -8 250 Malaela 208 107 101 6 251 Amaile 205 102 103 -1 252 Fatausi 205 106 99 7 253 Leagiagi 203 110 93 17 254 Lelata 200 95 105 -10 255 Fusi 200 92 108 -16 256 Fagaee 200 109 91 18 257 Tuaefu 198 108 90 18 258 Elise Fou 198 92 106 -14 259 Satalafai 198 108 90 18 260 Utulaelae 194 113 81 32 261 Fatuvalu 194 95 99 -4 262 Tuasivi 193 102 91 11 263 Lona 191 110 81 29 264 Matautu Tai 190 107 83 24 265 Vaotupua 186 96 90 6 266 Lepuiai 183 92 91 1 267 Matafaa 181 93 88 5 268 Lepa 178 93 85 8 269 Moataa Uta 173 101 72 29 270 Aai o Niue 172 90 82 8 271 Saletele 168 95 73 22 272 Paepaeala 165 78 87 -9 273 Tanumalala 163 89 74 15 274 Lealatele 163 95 68 27 275 Mauga 163 83 80 3 276 Aai o Fiti 161 76 85 -9 277 Nefunefu 161 83 78 5 278 Malifa 160 85 75 10 279 Tauese 155 68 87 -19 280 Utufaalalafa 154 81 73 8 281 Vaiola 153 77 76 1 282 Tuloto 151 82 69 13 283 Tiapapata 150 81 69 12 284 Afiamalu East 147 78 69 9 285 Lepale 147 79 68 11 286 Vaisaulu 147 77 70 7 287 Matavai 147 71 76 -5 288 Samea 145 71 74 -3 289 Pesega 143 79 64 15 290 Gautavai 141 67 74 -7 291 Salua 136 61 75 -14 292 Siuniu 136 69 67 2 293 Eveeve 132 72 60 12 294 Sapoe 131 66 65 1 295 Maasina 129 72 57 15

Samoa Gender Dynamics Monograph 129 No. Village Total Male Female Difference A nne x es Savalalo 126 60 66 -6 296  297 Samai 125 60 65 -5 298 Apai 124 67 57 10 299 Manase 123 65 58 7 300 Levi 118 65 53 12 301 Falepuna 116 67 49 18 302 Vaigalu 106 56 50 6 303 Saanapu Tai 103 45 58 -13 304 Satoi 102 48 54 -6 305 Apolima Island 96 54 42 12 306 Satuilagi 90 46 44 2 307 Tanumaleko 84 40 44 -4 308 Vaiaata 83 66 17 49 309 Musumusu 80 42 38 4 310 Maluafou 77 33 44 -11 311 Fatitu 76 31 45 -14 312 Matanofo 76 38 38 0 313 Levili 74 39 35 4 314 Vinifou 71 36 35 1 315 Saleufi 64 29 35 -6 316 Salimu 64 34 30 4 317 Leaupani 56 37 19 18 318 Tausagi 55 52 3 49 319 Afiamalu West 53 29 24 5 320 Fuifatu 52 27 25 2 321 Piu 49 28 21 7 322 Samamea 45 21 24 -3 323 Vaipouli 44 25 19 6 324 Togitogiga 37 22 15 7 325 Sauniatu 34 18 16 2 326 Salamumu Tai 33 17 16 1 327 Olo 32 18 14 4 328 Leifiifi 31 11 20 -9 329 Mulinuu 27 14 13 1 330 Faleolo 25 17 8 9 331 Utuloa 20 10 10 0 332 Siupapa 18 10 8 2 333 Alafou 14 10 4 6 334 Mulivai 9 9 0 9 335 Tiavi 8 6 2 4 336 Matafele 6 4 2 2 337 Solaua 0 0 0 0 Samoa 195,979 100,892 95,087 Source: 2016 Census data extracted from the SBS’s Census and Survey Processing System.

130 2016 Population and Housing Census