------_--...------~~~~~-~~ -- -- BUREAU OF GEOLOOY AND MINERAL TECHNOLOGY

Proceedings of the 21stForum on the Geolo f Industrial Minerals

Theme: Aggregates to Zeolites (AZ) in Arizona andtheSouthwest

BUREAU OF GEOLOGY AND MINERAL TECHNOLOGY

edited by tIo Wesley Peirce

Arizona Bureau ofGeology and Mineral Technology Geological Survey Branch

Special Paper 4 1987 Proceedings of the 21st forum on the Geology ofIndustrial Minerals Theme: ~ggregates to Zeolites (AZ) in Arizona andthe Southwest

editedby If. Wesley Peirce //'

Special Paper 4 1987

Arizona Bureau ofGeology and Mineral Technology Geological SurveyBranch Foreword

The 21st "corning-of age" meeting of the Fbrum on the Geolcgy of Industrial Minerals was held April 9 through 12, 1985 in Tucson, Arizona, under the sponsorship of the Geological survey Branch of the Bureau. Participants in this meeting, an official event of the University of Arizona's centennial celebration, carne from 28 states, canada, and Mexico. seventy-five percent of the attendees were non-Arizonans. The Forum was invited to Tucson to showcase the role of non­ metallic minerals in the economic development of the sunbelt region of Arizona and the Southwest. Twenty-three reports'were given and 22 of these are represented in these Proceedings, 16 as papers and 6 as abstracts only. All writing's were edited for general clarity and captions and bibliographies were standardized.

special thanks are extended to the Society of Economic Geolo­ gist's Foundation, Inc., for a $500 grant to assist in publishing the Proceedings; Union Carbide, National Gypsum, DJval COrporation, Sil-Flo Inc., GSA Resources Inc., and D.W. Jaquays CO., for assis­ tance with field trips; to Olga Hernandez for a heroic word pro­ cessing effort, Jon Shenk for manuscript trouble shooting, Peter COrrao for cover graphics, to JOe Lavoie for publication assembly, and, of course, to all authors.

H. V\esley Peirce General Chairman

iii Contents rbre~rd ••••••••••••••• ...... iii

Papers

Mining and environmentalism - finding common goals James R. ilinn ••••••••••••••••• 1 Geologic setting of industrial rocks and minerals in Arizona Stephen J. Reynolds and H. W8sley Peirce ••••••• •• 9 Industrial minerals and rocks of Arizona H. W8sley Pe irce ••••••••••••••••••••• 17 Industrial minerals of Nevada Keith G. Papke •••••••••••••••••••• 24 Industrial minerals of utah Bryce T. Tripp •••••••••••••• 31 The geology of cement raw materials - Pacific SOuthwest S. A. Kupferman ••••••••••••••••••• 37 Geologic-setting and operations overview, Ilicerne Valley limestone mining district, Lucerne Valley, California Ibward J. Brown. ••..••••••.•••.•..• 44 Natural lightweight aggregates of the SOuthwest [Ennis Bryan ...... 55 Acquisition of Federally owned industrial minerals Terry S. Maley •••• •••••••••• 64 Mining industrial minerals on Arizona State Trust Lands Etlward C. Spalding •••• ••••••••••••• 81 Minerals and health: The asbestos problem MalcolIn R:>ss ••••••••••••••••••• 83 A comparison of selected zeolite deposits of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas Mark R. Bowie, James M. Barker, and Stephen L. Peterson 90 Geology and industrial uses of Arizona1s volcanic rocks John W. W8lty and Jon E. Spencer ••••••• •••••• 106 Locating, Sampling, and evaluating potential aggregate deposits leo Langland ...... 116 SOlar salt in Arizona Jerry Grott •••• ...... 120 Bentonite and specialty sand deposits in the Bidahochi Fbrmation Ted H. Eyde and Ian T. Eyde ••••• ....•..• . 123

iv Abstracts

Mexico's industrial minerals Joaquin Ruiz and Bjrnundo Berlanga •••• ...... 128 Approach to locating high-quality aggregates in the Basin - Range Province 129 James R. Miller, G. Ramanjaneya, and Gerald Allen • . ... Geologic evaluation of the southern portion of Searles lake, california K. N. Santini ••• ...... •••• 130 Raw materials and the manufacture of vitrified clay pipe in Arizona Ibn t'brris . · .... 131 The Bowie chabazite deposit 'led H. Eyde and IE.n T. Eyde ••••••••••• ·.... 133 Arizona Portland Cement Obmpany's Rillito operation 134 J. W. Ra.ins ..•...•... ,e •••••••• · . ...

v ______rl Mining and the Environment: finding Common Ground

Jim Dmn Dunn Geoscience Cbrporation 5 Northway Lane North Latham, NY 12110

ABSTRACT a significant and growing number of eloquent and brilliant thinkers on the side of free Fbr decades many of us will are associated enterprise and industry, many of them environ­ with the mineral industry have tried to show mentalists, but without the anti-industry the public its economic and strategic impor­ mind-set. They have had remarkably little tance. Some of the mineral industry's propo­ help from the private sector or even from the nents have been politically powerfUl figures present administration. Industry may do far and have been widely quoted. Yet, as measured more for itself in the long run by encouragin;] by public opinion, legislative support, or these brave but bruised individuals and their almost any other standard, our efforts have organizations than by trying to work alone. been inadequate. '!hese friends of free enterprise are workin;] It is apparent that a set of environmental against a seemingly stacked deck relative to beliefs that discredit industry, firmly held much of the media, the bureaucracy, and the by a number of idealistic persons, has had educational system. However, despite their wider coverage in the media and in schools problems, their success to date has been re­ than has the mineral industry's message. Al­ markable. With more cooperation from industry though the fervor of our idealistic friends is they should do even better. often unfounded and, their stands unscien­ tific, they must be considered seriously. Ca.1MENTARY Unless we address the issues in terms the idealists will understand, the mineral indus­ Early this January I was taking a limou­ try will have little influence on them or on sine to Washington, D.C.' s National Airport the general public. and found myself alone with a well dressed, A striking thing is that, quite often, dignified gentlemen of about 70 who got on translation of idealists' views into action from one of the better Washington hotels. It has been counterproductive. The reason is turned out that he was from phoenix and that obvious. Excessive amounts of money and he was very much concerned with a series of energy have been spent on relatively minor things. Ha was worried about the inequalities problems. The common result is that larger of wealth between the rich and poor people in problems have been created. the U.S. and between rich and poor nations. It may be possible to help anti-industry He felt that corporations, particularly some idealists understand their own dependence on multinational corporations, should pay more minerals, and thus render their views more taxes. Ha also expressed concern about uncon­ realistic, if they are shown more effective trolled industrial pollution and its effects ways to reach their stated goals. If those on human health. As you might suspect, our goals can be shown to be held in common by all conversation was lively. sensitive human beings -- including those in Based on that short conversation, I think business and industry -- the dialogue becomes that I can guess much about why he was in one of illw to achieve common ends. Washington, what he may have done for a Individual mining companies acting by living, and what else he may believe. And, themselves have little possibility of success, most important to us, what impact he and and companies working in unison through trade others like him have on the mineral industry associations have not been successful. Fur- and on industry in general. it is unlikely that industry in general First, I suspect he was in Washington be successful in changing minds unless it lobbying for an environmental or social cause, seeks outside help. But friends among those possibly representing a group in Arizona, his who influence public opinion have been hard to home state. find. Historically, help from media has Second, I suspect that a career in educa­ proven difficult to get. Nor has enough help tion and government allowed him to develop his from educators been forthcoming. particular anti-industrial brand of idealism. Yet, a war is going on in the technolog­ Third, I suspect that he subscribes to a ical, philosophical, and political trenches, special set of environmental beliefs. For even though much of the public is not aware of instance, he may believe: (1) that industry it. Fbr the first time in years, there is now causes most cancer, (2) that industry is

I spewing wastes into the air and water and will omy, the national defense, or to the quality ultimately poison us all, (3) that our nation of life:' In a survey conducted by Opinion is beset withproblems caused by technology Research Cbrporation only 16% of the Americans and the profit motive, (4) that we are des­ sampled felt familiar with mining. In an troying our forests, wildlife, fish, and opinion section, 62% said that mining was soils, (5) that we are depleting our own and dangerous and unhealthy, and 43% believed that the world's energy and mineral resources, it damaged the environment. Q1ly one in seven especially those of the poor countries, (6) persons viewed mining as helping industry to that almost any sort of development is bad, improve the energy situation. especially mines, and (7) that mining is bad The bottom line is on the D9cember 17, for the environment, and probably it is not 1984, Business Week cover. It reads: "The really necessary, especially in our so-called D9ath of MiningYOf course, environmental post-industrial era. I could go on but you and regulatory pressures are not the whole get the picture. problem, but they make a significant contribu­ I suggest that my friend in the limousine tion. has one other important belief. I think that Has it occurred to you that we may be he considers himself to be a good, patriotic doing something wrong? It certainly has American and is trying to do his best for our occurred to me that I have. For one thing, I country and the world. suspect that the people we have tried to reach Finally, he and others like him are re­ may not even have been aware that we were sponsible for many of the problems which beset talking to them, and even if they were, the the mineral industry and, of course, industry words certainly had no measurable influence. in general. Further, I see now that the words from the Do we have any basis for believing that we many of us who have spoken up have been large­ can change the minds of this man or his ly directed toward reducing the impacts of friends? Can we say anything that he will symptoms. Unfortunately, there is almost an hear? Keep in mind that if you actually can infinite number of syOmptoms that can result reach him, you might just find that opening up from our common disease. I will suggest today a new mineral deposit could be easier or that that we should consider the disease, not the exploration in wilderness areas might just symptoms. become possible, or you could find that some One problem that we may have failed to of the more oppressive and unrealistic regula­ consider sufficiently is: can we realisti­ tions will diminish. cally expect to educate people like my limou­ But reaching him has not proven easy. We sine friend only about our particular narrow in the mineral industry have tried education, interests? Perhaps our attempts at education with such influential people as former secre­ should be broader than this and be put in tary of State Alexander Haig talking eloquent­ their terms and framed in their scale of ly about the resource war and the strategic values. I think doing otherwise has resulted implications of not developing our minerals. in failure in the past and assures failure in The American Institute of Professional the future. Geologists' "Metals, Minerals and Mining" I would like to suggest today that there (1981) was an attempt to educate the public. is a sound rationale for counteracting extreme People like Don Fife (1982) from California environmental beliefs and I suggest that my showed that being cut off from access to our friend in the limousine may understand and mineral resources will cost future generations appreciate that rationale. I will also sug­ of Americans trillions of dollars. The gest how you may start a dialogue with him. Northwest Mining Association at their And I will point out what you already know: D9cember, 1984, meeting devoted a full session it won't be easy. But I also suggest that you to the so-called wilderness problem. Through are now on the front of a favorable wave and the years there have been many such sessions. with a little help from your friends, you may We have talked often about the cost in jobs, benefit enormously from it; most imr:ortant, in Arizona being a particularly good example. my view, America can benefit enormously from And we have talked of the folly of laws and it. regulations which seem at times to be only for First, to understand the man in the limou­ the purpose of destroying an industry that sine. Clearly, he is idealistic and his provides vital commodities to society. idealism leads him to expect perfection, al­ But how successful has all of this effort most as though he is somehow owed perfection, been? a society, an environment, an economy, a po­ First, even under the current administra­ litical system with no blemishes. tion you find still more areas being given Basically, of course, the idealists -­ wilderness designation which excludes even those with unrealistic expectations -- are mineral exploration. In addition, according concentrated among those who do not work at to the January 1982 issue of Engineering & creating wealth. EXamples are the young and Mining Journal, "Only 30% of all Americans inexperienced, and those older persons with view mining as necessary to the national econ- careers in academia and government. In addi-

2 .ity tion, because it is easier to be idealistic if solving effort has been counterproductive in lion you do not have to worry about money, such its own stated or implied terms. ~ans idealists tend to concentrate among the well­ First, cancer. The ideal is no cancer. I an educated middle and upper classes, the long­ Absolutely no one is against wiping out was time wealthy. The wish of many of the ide­ cancer. A logical step -- at least in many that alists for a better world makes them vulnera­ people's minds -- has been the total elimina­ ~ven ble to those who know how to exploit their tion of all cancer-causing agents. The battle , to high motivations. The mind-set of the ide­ cry has been "one fiber of asbestos can kill alists is explained in a quote in California you" or "one molecule of a carcinogen can kill 17, Mining (1984) from the famous motivational you". This is probably true. In a recent 'The psychologist Abraham Maslow: "In a word, we letter to Science, Norman Gravitz of the ltal tend to take for granted the blessings we Edpidemiological Study Section, California lole already have, especially if we don't have to r:epartment of Health services, agreed that the lbu- struggle or work for them. The food, the "one molecule can kill you" concept is, security, the love, the admiration, the free­ strictly speaking, correct (Gravitz, 1984) • . be dom that have always been there, that never From epidemiological data he calculated, as an has have been lacking or yearned for tend not only example, that one molecule of benzene consumed ;I, I to be unnoticed but also even to be devalued in a liter of water per day over a lifetime ~ach or mocked or destroyed•••" carries with it a probability of 10-22 that 'ere Because the idealists tend to be well off, you will get cancer from it. Because the the they are also well-educated. one may wonder, world population is 5 x 109 the odds of any nce. if they are so well educated, how come they person living in the world today getting the are so unrealistic? Should not education lead cancer from such exposure are 5 x 10-13 or one ~ge­ to enlightenment? The california Mining arti­ chance in 50 trillion. We would have to i of cle gives some clues. Quoting work by measure time in units of the geologic time . an Inglehart (1977) they conclude that many scale before anyone got cancer from such ex­ mlt people are" ••••buffered from and unaware of, posure. Saying that one fiber of asbestos or )day the problems of goods production and natural one molecule of a carcinogen can kill you is the resources except in the most theoretical way. like saying that crossing a street once or a As (they) become better educated, (thei r) single falling meteorite can kill you. These l to goals and problems." Herman Kahn has called statements are true, but they are misleading iti­ this "educated incapacity" and pointed out if solemnly stated by so-called authorities. 10U­ that it has led to the paradox that the more Now, what happens when you apply modern :row ovno.~r, or at least more educated a person, :ion technology to the "one-molecule-can-kill-you" more likely he is to be affected by concept? We find that we can now detect in "educated incapacity". I suggest that the of smaller and smaller amounts of many carcino­ class has always known this. gens and consequently we have a very expensive Lted All of this, of course, is well known to ~ in industrial nightmare, the problem of the SOviets. Hede Massing, who broke with the shifting zero. As the limits of detectability party in 1981, said in an interview drop, the acceptable limits for various con­ lere canada: "An idealistic approach works best taminants also drop. As our ability to detect 'eme the privileged of America. It would be less and less improves, standards constantly : my impossible to recruit the working class shift downward as demanded by the idealistic and and middle class. COmmunism appeals concept of perfection -- the "one-molecule­ mg­ the elite••••" (Stevenson, 1984, p. 192). can-kill-you" approach. How far downward? lim. Most, but obviously not all, of the ide- There is no real limit because virtually all lOW: istic environmental extremists who exhibit contaminants with measurable vapor pressure you anti-industry syndrome are patriots who contaminate everything and always have. Prob­ and honestly trying to do what they believe is ably we are all daily taking into our system may These are the people you may be able to most poisons or carcinogens produced by man , in because, as fellow-Americans, we want and nature. According to Dr. Raymond P. :rom things: a better environment, less Mariella, former Dean and Vice President of .cancer and better health, less poverty, etc, the Loyola Medical Center: "If you look long 10U­ common goals we now have a basis for a and hard with currently available techniques, his about how best to achieve our common you probably will find vanishingly small con­ al- centrations of potentially toxic ingredients ion, us now examine some of the idealists' everywhere in everything." po- ,Ff:~v.~~ to solve these problems we have in OUr regulators have attempted to reduce because that is where they really need the risk of cancer from industrial products to In each of the following cases I will zero -- the ideal or perfect situation. Vast are lUgl;jeE;t that by concentrating efforts on sol­ sums of money have been spent to find indus­ , at ing only a relatively minor component of a trial causes of cancer. In fact, the Toxic and l:"()blem, or by expecting perfection, a much Substances COntrol .Act mandates that this be 'ith ilrger problem has been or will likely be the case. Not surprisingly, many are found idi- l:"eated, i.e., in each case the problem- because that is the expressed major purpose of

3 so much government-sponsored research. yet environmental problems associated with ex­ less than 5% of all cancer is caused by indus­ ploiting energy sources, we would not mine try's chemicals (Higginson, 1980, p. 187). By ,coal, drill for oil, or mine radioactive min­ concentrating on the less than 5% we have done erals. The result would be an environmental proportionately less to understand and mini­ catastrophe. Fbr instead of mineral fuels we mize the problems with the 95% attributed to would harvest and burn our forests just as all all other causes. For example, we are now of the poor countries are now doing and just apparently finding that certain substances in as we ourselves once did before we had our food, such as carotene and Vitamin C, are present alternative energy sources. Carbon apparently anticancer agents. We also know dioxide in the atmosphere would be higher than that each culture has its own special types of necessary, erosion would increase, game would cancer but may be seemingly immune to others. decrease, and recreational facilities would be What might we have learned had we devoted more lost. Thus the concept of saving the local funds to understanding such things? environment from the effects of energy produc­ Thus, excessive zeal applied to less than tion would itself be environmentally destruc­ 5% of the causes of cancer may itself be an tive and would adversely influence the en­ indirect cause of cancer because it must have vironment of entire regions. I called this reduced the money spent on research on the problem "the dispersed-benefit riddle" al­ other 95% of all causes. As Weinberg (1984) though calling it the "dispersed problem said "••••our preoccupation with small efflu­ riddle" may be better. ents of carcinogens from various industrial An example of the counterproductivityof processes represents a serious misdirection of expecting too much or going for the wrong goal resources'. Media distortions, at times aided has occurred at New York City. In the mid­ by members of government, promote hysteria and 1960' s plans were drawn up for a new sewage displace real information about what can be plant for the west side of Manhattan so the done in everyday living to reduce the likeli­ Hudson estuary could be cleaned (Eisenbud, hood of contracting cancer. CX1e has to wonder 1985). Environmental pressures led to insis­ how many people have died because of a dis­ tence that the plant be redesigned to reduce torted perspective that leads to misdirected by 90% the biochemical oxygen demand. funding and energy, or misused media space and Results: (1) after 15 years of construction, time? Trying to solve a relatively minor New York City has found that it has insuffi­ problem can, thus, create a larger one. cient money for such a plant, and (2) insuffi­ Having seen how efforts can be misdirected ciently treated sewage continues to dtmlp into in handling a major health problem, let's look waterways and there is little chance that it now at economics. Ideally there should be no will change in the near future. Thus the poverty, no farm or business failures, or no idealistic expectation of more perfection than economic inequities. Yet is this ideal at all can be afforded has led to the problem's con­ realistic? As an extreme example, suppose a tinuing • poor country tried to create this perfect The dispersed-benefit or dispersed-problem situation. Instantly one realizes that no riddle is obviously far from solved because poor country can afford perfection, and to exaggerated and unrealistic environmental con­ attempt to create and maintain this economic cern is potentially environmentally destruc­ ideal would clearly bankrupt the country. we tive; application of the "one-molecule-can­ now suspect that even we, with our great kill-you" concept to cancer research and regu­ wealth, cannot afford that economic ideal lations may cause neglect of broader research either. 'Ib try to attain economic perfection on prevention of cancer; attempting economic is to threaten national bankruptcy, a condi­ perfection can make us all poor; attempting tion that would make us all poor. Applying too high a level of perfection in sewage the ideal of economic perfection can, there­ treatment in New York City causes the problem fore, create the problem it is trying to to continue. These are a few examples of solve. confused priorities and misdirected efforts Ibw about nature? If we define nature as resulting from an unrealistic environmental­ perfection, then anything that we do to change ism. nature is defined as creating imperfection, These examples are the essence of the and more people result in more imperfection. dispersed benefit riddle or the other side of This leads to the wilderness concept, leaving the coin, the dispersed problem. Trying to nature absolutely alone. This is a form of solve environmental problems by attempting to the one-molecule-can-kiU-you concept applied force conformity to unrealistic goals in prac­ to the natural environment. tically all cases will increase the very prob­ I suggested at the Fbrtml on too Geology of lems we are trying to solve, will adversely Industrial Minerals in 1983 that trying for influence more people or larger areas than if the perfect environment at local levels could we had utilized our resources more wisely. create much larger environmental problems for A different sort of example of confused much larger areas. For example, I suggested priorities is clearly seen in the changes that if we truly solved all of the micro- through the years in the nature of the work

4 p

that my own company, ilinn C?eoscience Cbrp:lr­ millions of lives through malaria control. ex­ ation, does. My personal training was di­ Remember that Professor Barry Commoner, jne rected toward being a mineral explorer, a Director of the Center for the Biology of lin­ creator of wealth. Most all of DGC's staff Natural Systems at Washington University at Ital have been trained to develop mineral or water st. Louis, said that "In the process of we resources. originally, some 30 years ago when creating new goods and services technology is all we began, almost all of our work was related destroying the country's capital of land, ust to the production of wealth. Now, however, water and other resources as well as injuring our over 95% of our work is directed toward people" (Efron, 1984, p. 36). It is useful to bon reducing the impacts of regulations, many of know that the most severe degradation of land, :han which are oppressive and unrealistic. As water and other resources and, the greatest )uld scientific entreprenuers, we responded to a problems with hwnan longevity, were then, and I be changing world rather successfully. In fact, have always been, in the low technology cal had we not done this we would now be either countries. Further, for the past 100 years lue­ non-existent or very small. But what has mineral resources have only become more :ue­ really happened is that a group of people abundant as reflected by falling prices in en­ largely trained to create wealth or develop terms of Consumer Price Index or relative to his resources is now using too much of its talent wages per hour (osterfield, op.cit.). al­ to help people stay even or lose minimally. And on September 11, 1978, Secretary of lem We, as a company, have benefitted; but the Health, El:1ucation and Welfare Joseph califano United states has lost. Our situation on a said that industry is the overwhelming cause r of small scale is, I think, an accurate depiction of cancer (Efron, 1984, p. 438). Yet, virtu­ lOal of what has happened to much of our nation. ally all authorities on cancer in the world id­ Vast amounts of energy seem to have been mis­ knew his figures were absurd at the time he age directed. stated them. the Why are so many attempted solutions to The counter argwnents to most of the ,ud, social and environmental problems counter­ apocalyptic predictions have always been known lis­ productive in their own terms? In each case, to various experts in the relevant fields. lice concentrating on a small facet of a problem But it may be easy to forget that apoca­ nd. creates a larger problem. This appears to be lyptic views were once so common, so fashion­ on, a rule, applicable to many, many situations. able and so accepted that when some of us fi­ We all know that if a company diverts its tried to suggest that they may be wrong, our fi­ energy to nonproductive trivia it will soon go words were squelched because they were con­ nto out of business. Keeping your eye on the ball sidered to be "too controversial". This is a it is the game. curious phenomenon. Aleksandr Sol zhenitsyn the It is easy to see why so many of our (1978), the Soviet author who defected, gives han environmental laws are questionable: they the reason in a 1978 speech at Harvard: ::)0- often are based on pop-science and hysteria. "Without any censorship, fashionable trends of There is no way such laws could have been thought and ideas in the West are carefully lem reasonable, oould have really solved problems. separated from those which are not fashion­ use They were based on apocalyptic pronouncements able; nothing is forbidden, but what is not on­ of the environmentalist of the 1970's. Recall fashionable will hardly ever find its way into uc­ that the influential environmentalist, Profes­ periodicals or books or be heard in the col­ p'n­ sor Paul Erhlich of Stanford Uliversity, once leges". As Albert Einstein once said: "A gu­ said in a scenario for the future that the fashion rules each age, without most people rch oceans would be dead by 1979, that there would being able to see the tyrants that rule them". nic be massive world-wide starvation by 1985, that Things are changing, fortunately. But do ing life expectancy for "Americans born since 1946 not feel too oomplacent. 'Ib my knowledge not :1ge (when DDT usage began) would be 42 years by a single one of the highest visibility envi­ Lem 1980" (Ehrlich, 1969). It is useful to know ronmental-thought leaders has ever been of that oceans are still alive. It is useful to censured by the media, by his oontemporaries, r-ts know that the world's per capita food produc­ or in any other way. In fact, some seem to :11- tion has increased about 1% per year since have only been rewarded. Professor Cbmmoner, 1948 according to the UN'S Food and Agricul­ for instance, formed his own political party, the ture organization (Osterfield, 1984). It is The Citizen's Party, and ran for President in of also useful to know that a book by the World 1980; and Paul Ehrlich's work continues to be to Health Organization (1979) concludes: "No published since his astoundingly incorrect and to harmful effect has ever been reported in the gloomy predictions. ae­ vector control operators who have applied DDT The apocalyptic thought leaders and the ab­ during the past three decades in public health mind-set of the excessively idealistic among :lly programmes" (p. 180), and" •••the excellent us are two factors that cause problems. A if safety record, never matched by any other third is the media, which influences us all insecticide used in antimalaria campaigns, but, mostly, the idealistic. Often what we other vector oontroi programmes, and agricul­ receive through the media is what has been ture ••••" (p. 20). Further, DDT has saved called disinformation. It may have once been

5 true, or appropriate, but the pressure of much of the contemporary environmental mind getting out news often means facts are not set; if you try to change the attitudes of the researched and updated. Surprisingly, every privileged who believe silly things, you may statement by our media may be correct, but on find yourself offending many of the clergy; if certain subjects it is easy to draw all wrong you try to show the folly of their positions conclusions because only one side has been on cancer, environment, etc., you find your­ shown or obsolete examples have been used. self seemingly being against motherhood-type Consequently, many of us find ourselves be­ causes. If you try to work throu;:)h your trade lieving strange things like: associations, you may find that those associa­ We are poisoning ourselves with industrial tions have long ago been systematically dis­ wastes -- even though we keep living credited. Further, they are not usually longer; oriented to deal with conditions in the tech­ Atomic energy is environmentally bad -­ nologic, economic and philosophic trenches -­ even though it is the cleanest, least and that is where the battles are. polluting system we have; Yet we must try to establish contact with We are amid a cancer epidemic -- even so-called enviromnentalists and in terms they though several types of cancer are might understand. Clearly, education is the decreasing and cures are ever more effec­ answer. Stevenson (1984, p. 246), talking tive; about how the Nazis controlled information, Industry is destroying the enviromnent -­ said: "But the only safe counterweapon was even though industry and the wealth it freedom of ideas, freedom of expression, and a creates are absolutely the only hope for belief in the good sense of an informed long term enviromnental improvement; citizenry." 'Ihe lead article by K. W. Mote in We are running out of resources, even the Northwest Mining Association's November, thOll]h the history of civilization is that 1984, Bulletin is titled "Etlucation is the Key resources expand as we learn better how to to the Future of Mining". It is difficult to find and use them. Remember that at one disagree with Mr. stevenson or Mr. Mote about time our major mineral resource was the importance of education. probably flint for arrowheads. And the Logically, then, we should work through ancient Athenians were concerned with the education system. Unfortunately, the their resource base when their per-capita record of our education system has not always income was "eight or ten dollars per been reassuring either. Most of us, I assune, annum" (Gramm, 1978) and their use of have heard strange and incorrect ideas brought resources was a small fraction of those home from school by our children. London currently used. (1984), writing in Why are They Lying To Our 'Ihe whole problem of counteracting illog­ Children?, tells us why in his review ofsome ical beliefs is compounded by groups that 70 textbooks used in our schools. He cites benefit from or are able to take advantage of case after case where textbooks present the the problems created by the inadequate public cluster of perspectives that I suggested my information system. This includes many p0­ friend in the limousine might have. London liticians, lawyers, government bureaucrats, concludes that in school texts wealth is consulting firms and even some industries. As assumed to be a given and "not treated as a an example of the latter, those industries precarious endowment that can be affected by advertising products as being "all natural" bad judgment or reduced throu;:)h trade-offs for are exploiting and reinforcing the position other values". And he says further: "The that mamnade chemicals are, seemingly by defi­ texts exploit and bring to the surface the nition, hazardous and, therefore, must be subterranean fears of the populous. 'Ihere are regulated more and more. I liken companies either explicitly apocalyptic visions of rich like mine, which benefit from the hysteria nations fighting poor ones in a war of sur­ often produced by inferior information, to vival or suggestions that environmental being like undertakers: someone has to do the hazards may well doom us all". In their one­ work, but that does not necessarily mean that sided view, the industrial nations, and par­ we favor killing people. ticularly the United States, are cast as As mining people, can we improve the sys­ heavies, exploiting the poor. Clearly, we are tem? can we help the good citizens among the creating some of our problems through our environmentalists to achieve their stated education system and our education system is goals? Obviously, changes are needed and contributing to what has been called "educated priorities need reordering. The problem is incapacity" • very difficult because many things need to Another alternative is working through the change, social attitudes first then some laws media. To some extent we can and certainly and regulations. If you concentrate your must. But when we consider that the major energy on problems created by the political national media have repeated with remarkable left, you find yourself offending many wealthy credulity and innocence (or, worse, without people who either cynically gain from the innocence) the wildest charges, it is diffi­ confusion or have idealistically swallowed cult to feel reassured that they will really

6 p

nind be helpful. Historically they have been part industry can buy off its enemies is no more the of the problem and not an answer. As Philip valid than the concept that we can buy off our may Abelson (1984) says in an editorial in national foes by disarming. Our enemies are ;if Science: "'!he media are seemingly uncritical implacable, and they see our contributions to Lons in their treatment of so-called deadly chemi­ them as weakness in us and as vindication that )ur- cals. In recent scares about dioxin they have they are correct. type roused sufficient public anxiety to force the 'Ib repeat, help your friends'. They have rade agency (EPA) to give a minor matter top atten­ taken the time to get the facts that counter­ cia­ tion at the expense of more important risks to balance the absurdities with which we have dis­ the public ". This is another example of the been bombarded. They have both credibility illy dispersed-problem riddle. and intellectual credentials, so academics and ech- I do not suggest that we give up on the idealists are much more likely to hear them. s -- education system or the media. I suggest that And they get quoted evermore by people in the we might get to them via another route I will media. '!hey can tell the concerned but misin­ /lith now discuss. formed that we absolutely must encourage they So what can we do? Mainly, we can do what America's wealth-creating industrial machine, the industry and business have probably failed to because without it no viable environmental, dng do to date: that is, support our friends, the social or economic programs are possible. Lon, friends of free enterprise. These are people They can tell the people of our country that was who see very clearly the problems that I have the mineral industry must flourish for the 1d a described and their origins, and as individ­ economic, strategic and environmental benefit 'med uals and as organizations, have taken on the of the nation. And they can most effectively ~ in thankless task of counteracting those prob­ question the whole mass of regulations and )er, lems. Thanks to these brave people it is laws that were developed in an atmosphere of Key becoming more and more difficult for our media near mass panic. They can show how so many t. to to quote people who say things that are out­ regulations and other government activities )Out rageously at odds with common sense or with are counterproductive to solving problems of scientific, statistical or economic data. health, economics, environment, and social mgh Some change in public perspective has inequities that are the concerns of all good the already occurred naturally, because the public citizens. ~ays has undergone a national opinion pendulum Our free-enterprise friends and philoso­ me, swing. It has become skeptical of the phers may ultimately have enough influence on 19ht carcinogen-of-the-month, the apocalyptic pre­ the writers of textbooks, on legislators and ldon diction-of-the-week, and so on. Most people, on the idealists in general so that we as a Our fortunately, have good sense. nation will benefit enormously. They are the ;ome But much of the change has occurred be­ best hope for making sensible progress toward tes cause of brave people like Edith Efron and her achieving the stated goals of the idealists the Apocalyptics; Simon and Kahn and their Re­ for both the future of the mineral industry I my sourceful Earth; Herbert J. London and his Why and the United States in general. They are Idon are They Lying To Our Children?; Wattenberg the best hope because they are addressing the is and his The Good News is The Bad News Is general problems, not just the problems of the lS a Wrong; Margaret Maxey' s Reguiatory~fc;rm;- and mineral industry. They are finding a common I by so:many others; so many good ones, in fact, ground. for that it is difficult to have to leave out any The of them. These people are first rate intel­ the lectuals and they have been attacked by the are forces that seem to insist that we believe REr'ERENCES ~ich absurdities. What keeps our friends going, ur­ what helps them to feel less isolated, is AIPG, Colorado Section, 1981, Metals, min­ tal reinforcement from others who have also put erals, and mining, 2nd ed.: Golden, CO, me­ their reputations on the line to counter a American Institute of Professional Geolo­ ,ar- disturbing trend. As their numbers grow and, gists, 38 p. as if you will, as dispassionate logic backed by Dunn, J. R., 1983, The dispersed benefit are verifiable facts once again becomes fashion­ riddle, in Ault, C. H. and Woddard, G. S., our able among intellectuals, they will influence eds., Proceedings of 18th Fbrum on Geology is I,Dsitively the future of the lhited States and of Industrial Minerals: Bloomington, lted the world. Indiana Geological SUrvey occasional Paper Industry has given these people and their 37, p. 1-9. the associations relatively little help. In fact, Editor, 1984, Eying the environmentalists, a nly many people in industry have apparently felt behavioral study: California Mining, jor that they could buy off their domestic detrac­ l'bvember. (unable to confirm reference, able tors. Industrially financed foundations have ed .) out contributed to industry's potential enemies 26 Efron, Edith, 1984, The apocalyptics - Cancer fi­ times more money than to their friends (L. and the big 1 ie: New York, Simon and lly Cordia, Heritage Fbundation). '!he belief that SChuster, 589 p.

7 Inglehart, Ronald, 1977, The silent revolu­ Ehrlich, paul, 1969, Eco-catastrophe: tion: Changing values and political Ramparts, vol. 8, no. 3, sept., p. 24-28. styles among western publics: Princeton, Eisenbud, Merril, 1985, Health risks and en­ Princeton University Press, 482 p. vironmental regulation: A historical per­ IDndon, H. T., 1984, Why are they lying to our spective, in Maxey, M. N. and Kuhn, R. L., children: New York, Stein and Lay, 197 p. OOs., Regulatory reform, new vision or old osterfeld, David, 1984, The increasing abun­ curse: New York, praeger publishers, p. dance of resources: The Freeman, p. 360- 33-52. 377, June. Fife, D. L., and Minch, J. A., 1982, Observa­ Simon, J. L., and Kahn, Herman, eds., 1984, tions on the status and state-of-the-art The resourceful Earth. A response to of the economic geology in the california Global 2000: OKford, Basil Blackwell Tranverse Ranges: in Fife, D. L., and Publisher Ltd, 585 p. Minch, J. A., eds., Geology and mineral Stevenson, William, 1983, Intrepid's last wealth of the california Tranverse Ranges, case: New York, Villard Pooks, 321 p. annual symposium and guidebook no. 10, SOlzhenitsyn, A. I., 1978, A world split october 1982: Santa Ana, CA, South Coast apart: New York, Harper arrl IbW, publish- Geological 8:)ciety, p. 8-12. ers, 61 p. Gramm, W. P., 1978, D3bunking doomsday: Rea- Wattenburg, B. J., 1984, The good news is the son, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 24-25. bad news is wrong: New York, Simon and Gravitz, Norman, 1984, Comment on reply by Schuster, Inc., 431 p. Nicholas A. Ashford, and others, 1984 (in Weinburg, A. M., 1984, Comment on dietary science, vol. 224, no. 4649, p. 554-556, carcinogens and anticarcinogens by Bruce May 11) to comments on Law and science N. Ames, 1983 (in science, vol. 221, no. policy in federal regulation of formalde­ 4617, p. 1256-1264, sept. 23): science, hyde by Nicholas A. Ashford, and others, vol. 224, no. 4650, p. 659, May 18. 1983, (in science, vol. 222, no. 4626, p. WHO Task Group on Environmental Health crite­ 894-900, NOv. 25): science, vol. 226, no. ria for DDT and its D3rivatives, 1979, DDT and its derivatives: Geneva, Vbrld Health 4678, Nov. 30, p. 1022. organization arrl united Nations Environ­ Higginson, John, 1980, Proportion of cancers mental Programme, Environmental Health . due to.occupation: preventive Medicine, Criteria 9, 194 p. vol, 9, no. 2, p. 180-188.

8 u­ al Geologic Setting of Industrial Rocks In, and Minerals in Arizona ur p. Stephen J. ReynOlds and H. Wesley Peirce n­ Arizona Geological SUrvey O- 845 N. Park Ave. Tucson, Arizona 85719 ;4, to 11 ABSTRACT (Figures 1 and 2; Peirce, 1985). The CP of st northeastern Arizona is geologically the Arizona's geologic history is complex, simplest, largely because it escaped severe it resulting in a diversity of rock types and Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonism. At the sur­ :h- earth materials, including those of commercial face, it is largely composed of Paleozoic and interest. Regional variations in geologic Mesozoic Sedimentary rocks that regionally dip he history gave rise to three geologic provinces gently to the northeast (Peirce, 1986). The nd and an inequitable distribution of both underlying Proterozoic crystalline basement is metallic and nonmetallic mineral wealth. '!he exposed only in the bottom of Grand canyon and ry Colorado Plateau is largely composed of flat­ in the Defiance Uplift, but has been pene­ ,ce lying Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks trated in numerous drill holes (Peirce and 10. and late Cenozoic volcanic fields and sedimen­ Scurlock, 1972). Erupted over the Paleozoic ~e , tary deposits. Associated resources include and Mesozoic rocks are Neogene volcanic rocks, gypsum, halite, sylvite, clays, specialty consisting largely of basalt with less abun­ ,e­ sand, flagstone, volcanic products, and aggre­ dant silicic to intermediate flows and tuffs. lDT gate. '!he adjacent Transition Zone features a cenozoic sedimentary deposits are also locally th large expanse of Proterozoic rocks, economi­ present, especially within present valleys and n­ cally important Devonian and Mississippian along the southern edge of the province. '!he th carbonate rocks, and Tertiary volcanic and structure of the CP is dominated by a regional sedimentary materials. NOnmetallic resources northeast dip (due in part to pre-Late Creta­ in this province include facing and dimension ceous tectonism), Late Cretaceous to early stone, aggregate, decomposed granite, chryso­ Tertiary folds, especially monoclines, and tile asbestos, gypsum, clay, barite, Neogene normal faults. fluorspar, zeolites, and limestone used for In the adjacent TZ, uplift and erosional lime, cement, and railroad ballast. The Basin truncation of the northeast-dipping Paleozoic and Range Province has the most complex geo­ section has resulted in widespread exposure of logic history and, therefore, the most diverse the underlying Proterozoic crystalline rocks. assemblage of industrial mineral occurrences. Much of this erosional unroofing occurred in These include halite, gypsum, clay, aggregate, Cretaceous and early Tertiary time, based on decomposed granite, diatomite, zeolites, the presence of detritus shed northeastward perlite, pumice, kyanite, limestone, marble, onto the CP (Peirce, 1986). The unroofed stone, and others. In addition, young stream Proterozoic rocks were locally covered by deposits yield vast quantities of sand and Neogene volcanic and sed imentary rocks. An gravel, Arizona's most economically important episode of mostly middle Miocene to Pliocene nonmetallic mineral commodity. block faulting and basin filling was followed by erosional dissection of the basin fill INTRODUCTION during Pliocene and younger drainage integra­ tion. The geologic history of Arizona is both The BRP is the most geologically complex complex and regionally variable. This is region in Arizona. '!he geologic evolution of reflected by a diverse assemblage of rock the BRP was comparable to that of the other types, structures, and mineral deposits, and two provinces during Proterozoic and Paleozoic by an unequal distribution of industrial rocks time, but diverged by early Mesozoic time when and minerals (Peirce - this volume). This the region became incorporated into the paper summarizes the geologic evolution of Cordilleran orogen. Multiple episodes of Arizona, highlighting the geologic context of Mesozoic to early cenozoic plutonism, metamor­ industrial rocks and minerals. phism, and regional deformation, including thrusting, occurred during eastward subduction GEOLOGIC PROVINCES OF ARIZONA of various Pacific plates beneath southwestern North America. A middle Tertiary episode of Arizona consists of three geologic prov­ crustal extension, accommodated by regional inces - the Colorado Plateau (CP), Transition low-angle normal (detachment) faulting, was Zone (TZ) , and Basin and Range Province (BRP) followed by high-angle normal faulting that

9 PROVINCE QUATERNARY AND UPPER TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS QUATERNARY AND UPPER TERTIARY VOLCANIC ROCKS MIDDLE TERTIARY VOLCANIC AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS MIDDLE TERTIARY MYLONITIC ROCKS

+ + -I- -I- + + + -I- ... MIDDLE TERTIARY TO JURASSIC GRANITIC ROCKS + ... + -I- CRETACEOUS AND LOWER TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY ROCKS MESOZOIC VOLCANIC AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS JURASSIC AND TRIASSIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS UPPER PROTEROZOIC SEDIMENTARY AND IGNEOUS ROCKS PROTEROZOIC METAMORPHIC AND IGNEOUS ROCKS

Figure 1. Generalized geologic map of Arizona.

10 GEOLOGIC ARIZONA PROVINCES TIME Basin B Range Transition Colorado Plateau

. ~<.!) Quaternary Sand and Gravel Sand and Gravel .~d5 E(/) :::l .~ Q....!E: Special clay 0 Peridot Clay (vitrified pipe) .. 0 Pliocene E Q) Special sand .~ :::l .-= a:: (f) - Zeolite c .~ 0. 0 0"- Halite; Perlite; >.Q) Gypsum _oQ)"0 <.!)N oc r Miocene Cinder; Pumice; Rock >0 a: Zeolite; Rock « -I- Oligocene Clay; Gravel Gravel a: w Eocene Gravel I------Formation of Paleocene kyanite etc. and marble by Up Not Clay (vitrified pipe) () Cretaceous mtamorphism -0 Low Lime Not recognized N Kyanite etc. 0 Jurassic Sandstones (J) protolith Present W Gypsum occurrences Rock; Gypsum; Triassic Petrified wood; :E in western Arizona Clay (bentonitic) Flagstone; Gypsum; Gypsum Gypsum Perm'ian Halite; Potash .c +- -0 +- Limestone and Shale Pennsy Ivanian 0 a."- +- Lime c ~ Not generally Q) -c Mississippian E "- Q) 0 Rock; u ~ Cement; Lime Devonian exposed

Quartzite (flux); Local Iy Cambrian Phosphatic (Abrigo)

Quartzite (rock flux) Asbestos (chrysotile) Asbestos (chrysotile) a Quartzite (rock) Silica; Granite; Granite; Pegmatitej Feldspar Stone (schist) Granite (rock)

2. Time and geographic associations of selected industrial minerals in Arizona.

11 helped block out many of the present-day locally quarried for dimension stone and basins and ranges. crushed for use as aggregate. A popular cur­ rent use is in desert landscaping, as around PROTEROZOIC ROCKS AND THEIR USES the State capitol in Phoenix. Screened fines from crushed Proterozoic granite are currently being tested for use in IIc l ay" tennis courts. The oldest rocks in Arizona are Protero­ In the CP, a Proterozoic granite crops zoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks that were out near the southern end of the Defiance mostly deposited between 1.65 and 1.8 b.y. Uplift where it is depositionally overlain by ago. These rocks, which formed in oceanic, Permian strata. '!his very durable rock, rep­ island-arc, and continental-shelf settings, resenting part of the Paleozoic Defiance posi­ consisted largely of an older sequence of tive area (Peirce, 1976a), was recognized as a subaqueous mafic to felsic volcanic and vol­ potentially important source of crushed rock caniclastic rocks with local pelitic units, (Kiersch, 1955, p. 33-35) and SUbsequently and a younger sequence of subaerial rhyolite, used extensively for road building. quartzose clastic rocks, and thick marine '!he youngest Proterozoic rocks in Arizona graywackes (Anderson, 1986). Subsequent to are 1.1- to 1.2-b.y.-old sedimentary and vol­ deposition, both rock sequences were variably canic rocks of the Apache Group and Troy deformed and metamorphosed into schist, Quartzite in east-central Arizona (TZ) and gneiss, mylonite, and other metamorphic litho­ southeastern Arizona (BRP), and the Grand logies. Canyon Supergroup in Grand Canyon (CP). The effects of deformation and metamor­ phism are extremely variable, both within Diabase sills and dikes widely intruded these rocks 1.1 b.y. ago, reSUlting in the formation small areas and between the three geologic of major deposits of chrysotile asbestos in provinces. This results in a wide variation in the physical properties, and therefore the Mescal Limestone of the Apache Group commercial uses, of Proterozoic rocks. Near (Wrucke and others, 1986) and to a lesser extent in the Bass Limestone of the Grand Mayer in the TZ north of Phoenix, decorative facing stone is quarried from metarhyolite canyon Supergroup. The Mescal Limestone was that was first hydrothermally altered and also used as dimension stone for construction mineralized, and then metamorphosed into of the 284-feet-high masonry Ibosevelt D3.m in strongly foliated schist. Near New River, the TZ. Resistant units in the Apache Group Slaty to phyllitic Proterozoic rocks are mined and Troy Quartzite are also locally crushed for use in the manufacture of vitrified clay for aggregate. Additional commercial uses of ~oup pipe (Morris - this volume). rocks in the Apache are possible, since Proterozoic rocks in the BRP in western new scientific discoveries are still being Arizona represent a deeper exposed level of made, such as the recognition of K-metasoma­ the Proterozoic crust and are generally compo­ tized tuffs in the sequence (Wrucke and sitionally banded high-grade gneisses not others, 1986, p. 16). presently exploited for industrial uses. Less deep-seated Proterozoic rocks in southeastern PALEOZOIC ROCKS AND THEIR USES Arizona are dominated by schistose metagray­ wacke that is likewise not extensively utili­ During Paleozoic time, Arizona was part zed. Industrial uses of foliated Proterozoic of the North American craton and received a rocks, such as for facing stone, apparently generally thin (1 to 1.5 km thick) cover of require the spatial ooincidence of a suitable carbonate and clastic rocks (Pe irce, 1976a). protolith and a special history of metamor­ The stable cratonic setting was interrupted ~n phism, deformation, and possibly hydrothermal Pennsylvanian to Early Permian time when alteration. uplifts and basins formed during tectonism in In addition to the metavolcanic and meta­ the ancestral Rocky Mountains. Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, Arizona contains several carbonate rocks, especially those of Missis­ generations of Proterozoic granitic rocks sippian age, are utilized in two cement (Silver, 1978). The oldest generation con­ plants, one in the BRP near Tucson and another sists of dioritic to granitic plutons emplaced in the Verde Valley of the TZ. They are also before, during, and slightly after deformation a source of railroad ballast and lime (near and metamorphism at 1.65 to 1.75 b.y. ago. Nelson) in the TZ and are used in the copper Plutons emplaced before or during deformation industry for lime and flux stone. Other commonly have a variably developed foliation, resources in Paleozoic rocks include (1) mylonitic fabric, or metamorphic layering, potash and salt (sylvite and halite) in the characteristics that limit the strength of the Permian l:blbrook Basin of the CP (Peirce and rocks and their potential uses. A relatively Gerrard, 1966); (2) gypsum in the permian undeformed 1.7-b.y.-old granite located near Kaibab Formation, the youngest Paleozoic unit Payson in the TZ is used as road metal and on the CP; and (3) flagstone from the Permian fill. Plutons emplaced after deformation, Cbconino sandstone (CP). In addition, liqui­ such as a younger generation of undeformed fied petroleum gas is stored in underground 1.45-b.y.-old porphyritic granites, have been solution cavities in evaporite zones in the

12 upper part of Supai Fbrmation, above the Fbrt drill holes in the central Dome Bock Mountains and Apache Member (Peirce, 1981; Peirce and Wilt, of western Arizona (J. Loghry, 1987, personal cur­ 1970, plate 15.). communication). The pyrophyllite occurs in 'ound The thermal history of Paleozoic rocks altered Jurassic volcanic rocks and may be Eines varied significantly from area to area related to either Jurassic or Late Cretaceous mtly (Wardlaw and Harris, 1984; Reynolds and magmatism and alteration. rts. others, in press). This is partly revealed by In contrast to the BRP, the CP region 'rops the color-alteration index (CAI) of conodonts, remained tectonically stable, but received ance a phosphatic microfossil that systematically abundant detritus derived from an orogenic .n by changes color when heated. CAI studies indi­ belt somewhere to the south and west (Peirce, rep­ cate that Paleozoic rocks in the CP and north­ 1986; Stewart and others, 1986). Triassic x:Jsi­ eastern TZ were only raised to temperatures as Moenkopi Formation, the oldest Triassic unit as a high as 50 to 100 °c during post-Paleozoic on the CP, has been used for dimension stone rock thermal events (Wardlaw and Harris, 1984). In and contains interbedded gypsum in north­ ntly contrast, Paleozoic rocks in the BRP widely western Arizona (CP). The overlying Upper reached temperatures of 2500 C and higher. As Triassic Chinle Fbrmation, which records the .zona a result, Paleozoic quartzose clastic rocks in influx of volcanic ash and detritus from the vol­ the BRP tend to be quartzites. Carbonate south and west, has abundant ash-derived clays Troy rocks in the BRP are locally marbles, espe­ and semiprecious petrified wood; the basal and cially near large intrusions or where thrust­ Shinarump Conglomerate Member is used for rand related deformation and metamorphism occurred. aggregate. Overlying the Chinle Fbrmation are CP) • Quartzite is used for aggregate and smelter Jurassic continental and marginal marine sedi­ :hese flux, whereas crushed marble is used for live­ mentary rocks of the Glen Canyon Group, San ltion stock feed additive, white pool sand, and Rafael Group, and Morrison Fbrmation. ,s in various other applications. roup sser CRETACEOUS AND EARLY TERTIARY ROCKS rand TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC ROCKS AND THEIR USES AND THEIR USES was 'tion Triassic history of the BRP is poorly Beginning in the Late Jurassic and con­ m in known because Triassic rocks are not widely tinuing into the Early Cretaceous, faulting in roup preserved or recognized (Peirce, 1986; stewart the BRP created basins in which thick sequen­ shed and others, 1986). Quartzose clastic rocks ces of mostly nonmarine clastic rocks accumu­ s of probably correlative with Triassic Moenkopi lated (Dickinson, 1981). These sequences ince Formation have been recently recognized in include the Bisbee Group in southeastern 9ing west-central Arizona (Reynolds and others, Arizona and the McCby Mountains Fbrmation in :>ma- 1987), and these rocks locally contain gypsi­ west-central Arizona. The Mural Limestone, a and ferous zones. By Early to Middle Jurassic marine limestone in the Bisbee Group, is used time, much of the BRP evolved from a cratonic in the production of lime near Douglas in setting into part of the Cordilleran orogen southeasternmost Arizona. (Coney, 1978; Dickinson, 1981). Jurassic A younger, unrelated sequence of Creta­ rocks of the BRP include widespread silicic to ceous rocks occurs on the CP and includes intermediate ash-flow tuffs, flows, and vol­ nonmarine and marine strata of the Dakota ?art caniclastic rocks, continental sedimentary sandstone, the Upper Cretaceous Mancos Shale, ad a rocks ranging from fine-grained red beds to and the Mesa Verde Group. The latter rocks '" of coarse sedimentary breccia, and several gener­ are mined for coal on Black Mesa and for 6a) • ations of granitic plutons (Tosdal and others, kaolinitic shale near the Mogollon Rim in d in 1987). Jurassic volcanism and magmatism was east-central Arizona (Morris - this volume). vhen locally accompanied by intense hydrothermal In Cretaceous to early Tertiary time, n in alteration and metasomatism that extensively southern and western Arizona was the site of wic leached mobile elements from the affected widespread large-scale folding and thrust ,is­ rocks, leaving high concentrations of less faulting (Drewes, 1981; Haxel and others, lent mobile elements, such as Al, Ti, and P. Meta­ 1984; Reynolds and others, 1986a). Deforma­ ther morphism either during or after metasomatism tion was locally accompanied by metamorphism ilso produced highly aluminous rocks composed of that converted Paleozoic and Mesozoic supra­ lear quartz, kyanite, andalusite, pyrophyllite, crustal rocks to schist, phyllite, marble, )per rutile, dumortierite, tourmaline, and other quartzite, and calc-silicate rocks (Reynolds :her minerals (Reynolds and others, in press). and others, in press). (1) These quartz-kyanite rocks were mined in adja­ Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary (lara­ the cent southeastern California for use as a mide) tectonism was also accompanied by and refractory material and may have further eco­ caldera collapse due to eruption of extensive lian nomic potential because half of the known ash-flow tuffs, by construction of andesitic unit occurrences in Arizona were discovered since stratovolcanos, and by emplacement of plutons lian 1980. Potentially commercial pyrophyllite ranging from subvolcanic porphyries to mid­ =IUi ­ deposits may also exist, based on the presence crustal muscovite-bearing granites. Hydro­ lUnd of over 100 m of pyrophyllite in exploratory thermal alteration and mineralization occurred the

13 near many porphyry intrusions (Titley, 1982) , and Peirce, 1978; Shafiqullah and others, forming large porphyry copper deposits and 1980). Basins that formed over downdropped local higher-level alunite and kaolinitic blocks were filled with detritus eroded from occurrences within wall rocks of the intru­ the flanking upthrown horst blocks. Coarse sions. Altered zones associated with a Late detritus deposited near the mountain fronts Cretaceous granite in the San Tan Mountains graded into finer grained clastic deposits south of Phoenix are used for decorative toward the interior of the basins. Up to 3 km landscaping material. During and subsequent of nonmarine evaporite deposits, mostly halite to laramide tectonism, much of the TZ and BRP and anhydrite, are interpreted to be present was uplifted, resulting in shedding of in certain late Tertiary basins (Peirce, 1974, detritus (Rim gravels) onto the CP and devel­ 1976b, 1981). Salt (halite) in the Illke Basin opment of a widespread erosion surface beneath near Phoenix is utilized for two purposes: middle and upper Tertiary rocks. (1) as a source of salt products produced by solution mining and solar evaporation; and (2) for storage of propane and butane in under­ MIDDLE TERTIARY ROCKS AND THEIR USES ground solution cavities. A similarly thick halite sequence in the Red Lake basin of After an Eocene volcanic quiescence, northwestern Arizona will probably also be volcanism swept westward across the BRP, utilized someday. starting in southeastern Arizona at about 30 Of the approximately 150 basins within to 35 Ma and reaching western Ari:wna by 20 to the BRP and TZ of Arizona, few have been 25 Ma (Coney and Reynolds, 1977; Shafiqullah adequately explored by drilling. The poten­ and others, 1980; Reynolds and others, 1986b). tial for valuable chemical precipitates, such Silicic ash-flow tuffs and flows are ubiqui­ as chlorides, sulfates, and borates, though tous within middle Tertiary volcanic fields, unknown, may be substantial. In addition, the along with locally abundant basaltic and deeper parts of many basins may contain saline andesitic rocks. Vblcanism was accompanied at brines, inasmuch as the salinity of ground­ depth by the emplacement of granitic plutons water commonly increases with depth (Peirce, and extensive dike swarms. 1969 ,1976b). Middle Tertiary tectonism was dominated On the Colorado Plateau, the Basin and by major crustal extension, generally accom­ Range disturbance did not produce major modated by large-scale transport on regional, basins, but did result in substantial late gently dipping normal faults, called detach­ Tertiary to Quaternary offset on faults in ment faults (Davis and others, 1986; Spencer northwestern Arizona. Changing tectonic or and Reynolds, 1987). Gently dipping mylonitic climatic conditions also caused the formation fabrics in the footwall of many detachment of Pl iocene Lake Bidahochi along what is now faults were formed by an earlier phase of the Little Colorado River Valley. Fluvial deep-level ductile shear along the fault sands derived from the adjacent Defiance Up­ :wnes. Rocks above detachment :wnes are com­ lift were deposited in the Bidahochi Fbrmation monly cut by normal faults into numerous and are properly sized and rounded to be used tilted fault blocks that are truncated down­ as hydrofrac sand in petroleum production. ward by the detachment fault. Half-grabens Below the sands are special clays that formed between the crests of adjacent fault blocks by alteration of air-fall tuffs and that have locally received thick accumulations of been mined since 1925 (Eyde and Eyde - this clastic and volcanic rocks. volune) The main industrial mineral commodities sedimentary units (basin fill) deposited in middle Tertiary rocks are (1) perlite in late Tertiary basins and on buried pedi­ associated with silicic flows; (2) clays used ments flanking the range fronts locally con­ in the production of cement and brick, and in tain tuffaceous rocks that have been altered earthen-construction (adobe and rammed earth) to zeolites (Jett, 1978). The BJwie chabazite homes; and (3) minor vein barite. SOme middle deposit in southeastern Arizona, because of Tertiary volcanic fields also contain pumice valuable commercial production, is the best and "Apache Tears ," semiprecious obsidian known occurrence of these (Eyde, 1978; nodules that occur within perlite and devitri­ Sheppard and others, 1978, p. 319-328). Basin fied rhyolite. fill also hosts deposits of gypsum and diato­ mite in the BRP and occurrences of gypsum and UPPER TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY ROCKS zeolites in the TZ. AND THEIR USES Another manifestation of late Cenozoic tectonism was volcanism in all three geologic Middle Tertiary extension along low-angle provinces. Basaltic volcanism became wide­ detachment zones was followed by the Basin and spread 15 m.y. ago (Shafiqullah and others, Range disturbance, a late Tertiary episode of 1980; Reynolds and others, 1986b) and has high-angle normal faultirg that outlined many locally continued into the Holocene. On the of the present-day basin-and-range-type fault CP, basaltic cinders quarried from Quaternary blocks (Eberly and Stanley, 1978; SCarbor01..gh cinder cones in the San Francisco and

14 lers, Springerville volcanic fields are widely used Arizona and the Southwest: Arizona Geo­ pped (WeI ty and Spencer - this volume). logical Ebciety Digest, v. 16, p. 5-11 from In the BRP, basaltic cinders were once COney, P. J., 1978, Plate tectonic setting of arse mined in the san Bernardioo Valley of extreme southeastern Arizona, in Callender, J. F., onts southeastern Arizona. Basaltic rocks are and others, eds., Landof Cochise: New sits locally crushed for road material and are used Mexico Geological Ebciety 29th Field COn­ 3km in the fabrication of glass wool at Casa ference Guidebook, p. 285-290. llite Grande. Basaltic boulders in talus aprons are Coney, P. J., and Reynolds, S. J., 1977, sent harvested for rip-rap, such in the Palo U3rde Cordilleran Benioff zones: Nature, v. L974, Hills west of Phoenix. Also, gem-quality 270, p. 403-406. lasin peridot is recovered from mantle inclusions in Davis, G. A., Lister, G. S., and Reynolds, S. ,ses: a basalt flow on Peridot Mesa in the San J., 1986, Structural evolution of the ,d by carlos Indian Reservation. Whipple and Ebuth Mountains shear zones, :I (2) Although basalt is by far the most abun­ southwestern Uni ted States: Geology, v. der­ dant Upper tertiary to Quaternary volcanic 14, p. 7-10. hick rock, dacitic to rhyolitic flows and tuffs Dickinson, W. R., 1981, Plate tectonic evolu­ 1 of occur in the san Francisco and White Mountains tion of the southern Cordillera, in o be volcanic fields (CP). Pumice from the San Dickinson, W. R., and Payne, W. D., edS:-; Francisco volcanic field was blended with Relations of tectonics to ore deposits in thin cement as a pozzolan during the construction the southern COrdillera: Arizona Geologi­ been of Glen canyon Dam, and material suitable for cal SOciety Digest, v. 14, p. 113-135. ten­ light-weight aggregate is being transported to Drewes, H. D., 1981, 'I8ctonics of southeastern such Phoenix. Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Profes­ ::lUgh As basin-and-range-style faulting de­ sional Paper 1144, 96 p. the creased in intensity during the last 4 m.y., Eberly, L. D., and Stanley, T. B., Jr., 1978, .line internally drained (closed) basins became Cenozoic stratigraphy and geologic history und­ integrated into the regional drainage network of southwestern Arizona: Geological .rce, emptying into the newly opened Gulf of SOciety of America Bulletin, v. 89, p• California. Sand and gravel deposited on 921-940. pediments and along rivers and washes are the and Eyde, T. H., 1978, Bowie zeolite, an Arizona ljor State's most important source of aggregate (Langland - this volume). industrial mineral: Arizona Bureau of late Geology and Mineral 'I8chnology Fieldnotes, :; in vol. 8, no. 4., p. 1-5. cor tion CCNCIDSIONS Jett, J. H., ed., 1978, Arizona zeolites: Arizona D3partment of Mineral Resources now lial The complex geologic history of Arizona Mineral Report no. 1, 40 p. Up­ has resulted in a great diversity of known Haxel, G. B., Tosdal, R. M., May, D. J., and tion industrial rock and mineral deposits. Varia­ Wright, J. E., 1984, Latest Cretaceous and used tions in geologic history between the State's early 'I8rtiary orogenesis in south-central ion. three provinces are reflected in an unequal Arizona; thrust faulting, regional meta­ rmed distribution of geologic materials and morphism, and granitic plutonism: Geo­ have associated nonmetallic products. Much remains logical Society of America Bulletin, v. this unknown about the geology of Arizona, espe­ 95, p. 631-653. cially in the Basin and Range Province -­ Kiersch, G. A., 1955, Mineral resources, major geologic discoveries are still being Navajo-Hopi Reservations, Arizona-Utah, ited made and significant geologic problems remain ~di­ vol. III, construction materials, geology, unresolved. There is, therefore, much poten­ evaluation, and uses, with sections by con­ tial for future discoveries of industrial ~red John C. Haff and H. Wesley Peirce: mineral deposits, both of deposit types zite Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 81 p. already known and of new types not yet widely Peirce, H. W., 1969, Salines, in Mineral and e of anticipated. It is fortunate that most of the )est water resources of Arizona: Arizona State's population growth is in the geologi­ Bureau of Mines Bulletin 180, p. 417-424. l78; cally complex Basin and Range Province, where asin , 1974, Thick evaporites in the industrial minerals production, and future ----~B-a-s~i-n--a-n-d Range Province, Arizona, in ato- opportunities, are greatest. and Coogan, A. H., ed., Fourth symposium on salt, vol. 1: Cleveland, Northern Ohio wic Geological Ebciety, p. 47-55. ogic ------~-, 1976a, Elements of Paleozoic lde­ tectonics in Arizona: Arizona Geological ers, Anderson, Phillip, 1986, Summary of the SOciety Digest, v. 10, p. 37-57.

has Proterozoic plate tectonic evolution of ---~--, 1976b, 'I8ctonic significance of the Arizona from 1900 to 1600 Ma, in Beatty, Basin and Range thick evaporite deposits: nary Barbara, and Wilkinson, P. A:-K., eds., Arizona Geological SOciety Digest, v. 10, and t'rontiers in geology and ore deposits of p. 325-339.

15 , 1981, Major Arizona salt depoe­ Shafiqullah, M., Damon, P. E., Lynch, D. J., --"""'"i-t-s-:-Ar-izona Bureau of Geology and Min- Reynolds, S. J., Rehrig, W. A., and eral Technology Fieldnotes, vol. 11, no. Raymond, R. H., 1980, K-Ar geochronology 4, p. 1-4. and geologic history of southwestern , 1985, Arizona's backbone, the Arizona and adjacent areas, in Jenney, J. ---=Tr-a-n-s-'i'-'t-:i-on ZOne: Arizona Bureau of Geolo- P., and Stone, Claudia, eds., Studies in gy and Mineral 1echnology Fieldnotes, voL western Arizona: Arizona Geological 15, no. 3, p. 1-6. SOciety Digest, v. 12, p. 201-260. , 1986, paleogeographic linkage Sheppard, R. A., Gude, A. J., 3rd, and Edson, ----;be---;tC-w-e-e-n---=-Arizona's physiogeographic prov­ G. M., 1978, Bowie zeolite deposit, inces, in Beatty, Barbara, and Wilkinson, COchise and Graham counties, Arizona in P. A. K:; eds., Frontiers in geology and Sand, L. B., and Mumpton, F. A., eds., ore deposits of Arizona and the southwest: Natural zeolites, occurrence, properties, Arizona Geological society Digest, v. 16, use: New York, Pergamon Press, p. 319­ p. 74-82. 328. Peirce, H. W., and Gerrard, T. A., 1966, Silver, L. T., 1978, Precambrian formations EWaporite deposits of the Permian H:>lbrook and Precambrian history in COchise county, Basin, Arizona in Rau, J. L., ed., Second southeastern Arizona, in Callender, J. F., symposium on salt, vol. 1: Cleveland, and others, eds., Lanctof COchise: New IDrthern Chio Geological SOciety, p. 1-10. Mexico Geological SOciety Guidebook, 29th Peirce, H. ·W., and Scurlock, J. R., 1972, Field COnference, p. 157-163. Arizona well information: Arizona Bureau Spencer, J. E., and Reynolds, S. J., 1987, of Mines Bulletin 185, 195 p. Middle 1ertiary tectonics of Arizona and adjacent areas, in Jenney, J. P., and Peirce, H. W., and Wilt, J. C., 1970, Oil, Reynolds, S. J., eds., Geologic evolution natural gas, and helium, in Peirce, H. W., of Arizona: Arizona Geological SOciety and others, Coal, oil, natural gas, Digest, v. 17 (in press). helium, and uranium in Arizona: Arizona Stewart, J. H., Anderson, T. H., Haxel, G. B., Bureau of Mines Bulletin 182, p. 43-101. Silver, L. T., and Wright, J. E., 1986, Reynolds, S. J., Richard, S. M., Haxel, G. M., Late Triassic paleogeography of the Tosdal, R. M., and Laubach, S. E., in southern COrdillera; the problem of a press, Geologic setting of Mesozoic and source for voluminous volcanic detritus in Cenozoic metamorphism in Arizona, in the Chinle formation of the COlorado Pla­ Ernst, W. G., ed., Metamorphism and teau: Geology, vol. 14, no. 7, p. 567­ crustal evolution of the western United 570. States: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Titley, S. R., ed., 1982, Advances in geology Prentice-Hall. of the porphyry copper deposits, south­ Reynolds, S. J., Spencer, J. E., and D3Witt, western NJrth America: Tucson, University &I, 1987, Stratigraphy and U-Pb geochro­ of Arizona Press, 560 p. nology of Triassic and Jurassic rocks in 'Ibsdal, R. M., Haxel, G. B., and Wright, J. west-central Arizona, in Dickinson, W. Ro, E., 1987, Jurassic geology of the sonoran and Klute, M., eds., Mesozoic rocks of D9sert region, southern Arizona, southeast southern Arizona and adjacent areas: california, and northernmost SOnora: con­ Arizona Geological society Digest, v. 18 struction of a continental-margin magmatic (in press). arc, in Jenny, J. P., and Reynolds, S. J., Reynolds, S. J., Spencer, J. E., Richard, ~. eds.;-Geologic evolution of Arizona: M., and Laubach, S. E., 1986a, MeSOZOIC Arizona Geological SOCiety Digest, v. 17., structures in west-central Arizona, in (in press). Beatty, Barbara, and Wilkinson, P. A. K., Wardlaw, B. R., and Harris, A. G., 1984, eds., Frontiers in geology and ore depos­ COnodont-based thermal maturation of its of Arizona and the SOuthwest: Arizona Paleozoic rocks in Arizona: American Geological SOciety Digest, v. 16, p. 35­ Association of Petroleum Geologists Bul­ 51. letin, v. 68, p. 1101-1106. Reynolds, S. J., Welty, J. W., and Spencer, J. Wrucke, C. T., otton, J. K., and D3sborough, E., 1986b, volcanic history of Arizona: G. A., 1986, Summary and origin of the r'ieldnotes, v. 16, no. 2, p. 1-5. mineral commodities in the middle Protero­ Scarborough, R. S., and Peirce, H. W., 1978, zoic Apache Group in Central Arizona, in Late Cenozoic basins of Arizona, in Beatty, Barbara, and Wilkinson, P. A. K., Callender, J. F., and others, eds., Land eds., Frontiers in geology and ore depos­ of Cochise, southeastern Arizona: New its of Arizona and the SOuthwest: Arizona Mexico Geological society Guidebook, 29th Geological SOciety Digest, v. 16, p. 12­ Field COnference, p. 157-163. 17.

16 J ., and Industrial Minerals and Rocks of Arizona .ogy :ern H. W3s1ey Peirce " J. ; in Arizona Bureau of G:lology and Mineral Technology cal 845 N. Park Ave. ;on, Tucson, AZ 85719 Iit, ~ in ds., ABSTRACT mineral world. They are those naturally­ Les, occurring, inorganic, nonmetallic-appearing 119- Arizona embraces portions of two major rocks and minerals that enter into commerce. western-u.S. physiographic-geologic provinces They include the more mundane, everyday rocks .ons and a smaller, local one. These exert funda­ and minerals of the earth - the sands, rlty, mental control over the geologic framework and gravels, limestones, clays, salts, cinders, F., associated earth-material resources and poten­ etc., that usually do not figure in "get-rich­ New tial. The Mogollon Rim diagonally crosses the quick" schemes. Someone, however, has to 19th State and separates the Colorado plateau Pro­ discover and develop these natural materials vince to the northeast from the Transition if we are to have the conveniences (houses, 187, Zone and Basin and Range Province to the roads, etc.) that are the hallmark of moderrl and southwest. More than 90 percent of the fOpula- civilization. Most of us are users, not pro­ and production of nonfuel minerals, agricul­ ducers, and we know little about the blood, .ion tural land, and water resources are in the sweat, tears, knowledge, imagination, risk, ety Basin and Range part of the State. patience and investment that lie behind the In 1981 Arizona was ranked number one in everyday things that we all use, but take for B., the Nation with respect to the value ($2.56 granted. OVer the long haul it would appear 186, billion) of nonfuel-mineral production. About unwise to lose sight of the basic supfOrts of the 8.2 percent of this amount ($212.9 million) modern life, which include essential indus­ f a can be attributed to nonmetallic (industrial) trial minerals and rocks. ; in Although a diversity of non­ )la- As is often emphasized, Arizona can be substances is produced and some are subdivided into three contrasting geologie­ ,67':" exported, the bulk is utilized within the physiographic provinces or regions. These, and is directly related to market along with some of their associated industrial ogy (Jrl~w·th. Since 1950 there has been a fourfold minerals (1M), are shown in Figure 1. ,th­ in Arizona's population, a concomi- As might be expected, Arizona's industrial lity twelvefold jump in sand-gravel production minerals (1M) industry is strongly influenced tons), and a twentyfold increase in "stone" by population, industrial growth, and the , J. New industries developed during condition of the economy. We are the sixth ran time inclu:1e cement, salt (and storage of largest state in area and have been near the last petroleum gas products in solution top in fOpulation growth over the past decade. :an­ ities in salt), zeolite, hydrofrac sand, At the same time we are the sixth least fOpu­ ttic clay pipe, crushed marble products lated state per square mile. J ., feed additive, pool sand, roofing granules, Figure 2 is an attempt to smw the state's na: .), and "rock" wool. Most of these newer steady popUlation gain for the period 1950­ 17., serve out-of-State as well as in­ 1982 as well as the fluctuating, tmlYJh gener­ markets. In 1981 at least 225 indus­ ally rising, production curve for common 1M 84, mineral or rock deposits were being materials such as sand-gravel, and stone. The of ",n,rk'",rl to produce about 1 0 tons of material production fluctuations, in contrast to the can Arizona resident per year. In 1980 the steadily rising population curve, reflect ul- Ll;;j_Lcn;.lVl;;j values of basic industrial minerals changing economic conditions. The gross value in the state, by major group, were curve, on the other hand, reflects the effects Igh, and lime (51.6 percent)i gravel (26.5 of price inflation, especially since about the pe:r-cl:m1tli sand (l1.8 percent)i stone (4.6 1974. This demonstrates that true growth is iro­ pel~cent)i and others (5.5 percent). better represented by production not value in and Detailed knowledge of the nonmetallic trends. Since 1950 there has been a fourfold K., content of most Arizona increase in Arizona's population, a concomi­ os­ and basins is lacking. Exploration tant twelvefold jump in sand-gravel production :ana oPPJ:r-tlJn:iLLes in this sun-belt growth region (short tons), and a twentyfold jump in "stone" 12- appear encouraging. production. In 1981 Arizona was ranked number one in INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW the nation with respect to the value ($2.56 Industrial minerals and rocks are the billion) of nonfuel-mineral production of life, the bread and butter of the (Burgin, 1983). About 91.8 percent of this

17 :Wi I \ I ~ / I-~ ~ \ i L~I r I 330 ~_J \ .J -- LEGEND OTHER SYMBOLS Plant nearby CJ] Exported BENTONITE Crude source only @ In-State BENTONITE Plant distant EJ Exported and In-State BENTONITE Unuploited CJ Industry Shut Down 0 6 Solution Cavity Storage U Underground Figure 1. Map of Arizona showing geologic provinces, general locations of major industrial minerals operations, and some undeveloped deposits.

18 1950-1982

Average population increase per year =69,134 2.75 100 40 Population in 1985 = 3.0 million Est. population in year 2,000 4.8 million J.... oo••••• 37.5 = 2.5 -ot>. '. 87.5 35 2.25 32.5

(/l "- 75 30 2.0 ell (/l '0 ~ c: 'C 27.5 0 .... o 1.75 - 062.5 25 == (/l E c: E 0 22.5- 1.5 z = (fJ 0 E 50 20 z o 1.25 ~ 17.5 I- ...I w ::::l ITE ::> a. ...I 37.5 15 1.0 0 or:( a. > .75 25 10

7.5 .50

12.5 5 .25

Figure 2. Graph showing growth in Arizona population, production (tons) of sand-gravel and stone, and combined value of these groups, by year, for the period 1950-1982.

value is attributed to metals, especially PRINCIPLES AND HIGHLIGHTS The remaining 8.2 percent ($212.9 ion) is credited to the nonmetallics. It General Statement be pointed out, however, that dollar is not always a valid measure of basic In Arizona, 1M affairs have taken a back­ uS1etlJlrle::,s or need. It is axiomatic that the seat relative to the metals, especially nece,ss:it:iEls of 1 ife tend to be low cost (air, copper. As a consequence, 1M related activi­ , food, construction materials, etc.). ties tend to be carried on quietly and without Figure 3 is an attempt to illustrate both fanfare. With this in mind the remainder of production and value aspects of the major this paper will be devoted to some general groups for the year 1980. As an example, principles and examples regarding the develop­ sand and gravel made up over 81 per­ ment of 1M deposits in Arizona. of the weight and 38 percent of the • On the other hand, the weight of com­ Raw Materials SUpply and Planning only cement and lime was about 6 percent of total whereas this group made up over 51 Supplying the raw-material needs for a percenlt of the value. Also shown are some large and growing community, such as Phoenix, statistics includirYJ a per~year is an orYJoirYJ, dynamic, everyday process that of over eleven tons of 1M per is completely understood by no one person. zona resident. The value assigned to the '!hat there should be a diversity of opportun­ 1M production for 1980 ($192.5 million) ities, misunderstandings, and conflicts in eg:ua,t€!s to about $71.3 per person, or, $6.42 carryirYJ out this complex process seems inevi­ rial. ton. table. While most citizens accept the end-use

19 ·.JIIII

200 192.5

MISC. STATISTICS 175

Population =2.7 million 150 -I/) Total production = 30 million short tons I: 0 I/) I/) 125 I: ­Q) .- o Tons/person = 11.1 E ~ ­Ii;;;;; en o l- -en ~ 100 en Total value= $192.5 million a:: I/) o « a. ...J LLJ ...J Value/person = $ 71.3 0 C 75 o C Z Av. value total production /ton = $ 6.42 50

25

0

Figure 3. Illustration showing production of Arizona nonmetals, by weight and value of major groups, for the year 1980, and miscellaneous information. benefits of mineral and energy resources more diverse the geologic character of a development, they do not, quite naturally, region the more likely will there be occur­ want the in-between procedures to signifi­ rences of useful materials capable of contri­ cantly intrude upon their daily lives. Having buting to the fulfillment of local and/or more one's cake and eating it too seems an apropos distant needs. Where geologic diversity per­ description. It is, however, possible to tains, as it does in Arizona, recognition have it this way as long as we are willing to (discovery) of the existence, nature, or util­ (1) pay the price ($), and (2) allow the raw ity of a naturally occuring substance may be materials to be sought, foun::l, an::l developed. substantially delayed (there is always more to The latter aspect, however, is becoming learn). one reason for delayed recognition is increasingly difficult. Much emphasis is burial. Even surface occurrences can, for being placed on community planning. W}se technical reasons, escape detection, accurate planning, it would seem, should include con­ characterization, and evaluation. There is, sideration of all imj;Drtant aspects of commun­ for instance, an evolutionary aspect to use­ ity life. One of the more difficult tasks is fulness in that needs change or accrue in giving serious, long-range consideration to response to increasing technological variety the ongoing nourishment that is essential to and sophistication. the maintenance and growth of a viable commun­ Subsurface discovery can be either acci­ ity through an uninterrupted flow of essential dental or a consequence of deliberate explora­ raw materials at a reasonable cost. tion for the substance sought. 'Ihe discovery of the Luke Salt Body near Phoenix is an Discovery an::l Recognition example of the latter. In this case a market survey had indicated that salt was being of the earth's crust consists of impo~;'rd into Arizona in quantities that, if and minerals that are nonmetallic in produced locally, could support an operation. Whether any of these earth A search began and, in 1968, a salt body was be subject to eventual exploi­ penetrated at 880 feet below a cotton field .... '-'"...... I.V" of many variables. The west of Phoenix near Luke Air Force Base.

20 This relatively new industry continues to southeast of Tucson (Figure 1). This expand and fluorish (Figure 1, See Grott ­ material, in addition to supplying Tucson, is this volume). trucked to Phoenix where it is blended with An example of a surface occurrence, the material from local deposits to make red characteristics of which went unrecognized brick. It is also a source of alumina in the until 1959, is the Bowie chabazite depcsit in manufacture of portland cement near Tucson. southeastern Arizona (Figure 1). Chabazite is Although it could be said that these are a zeolite mineral that is processed to make a common uses this clay-shale is uncommon in high-value, molecular sieve product. This Arizona. It may prove to be suitable for depcsit had its geological beginnings in a Mt. selected, less common, ceramic uses. Time III ­c:: st. Helens-type ash fall that was subsequently will telL o altered to zeolite by chemical processes attendant to a saline-lake environment. The Locations of Raw Materials E constituent minerals can be identified only in and Processing Plants the laboratory by sophisticated X-ray and SEM -(J) techniques. Prior to the recognition of its Most nonmetallic minerals and rocks under­ «IX: specific mineral content, this material, be­ go some type of processing, somewhere. In ...J cause of its light weight and ease of shaping certain cases the processing is done close to ...Jo had been used as a local building stone. The the deposi t and in others the raw materials o true nature of this depcsit was discovered as are delivered to plants either in or out of a result of an exploration effort to inventory Arizona. One of the newer 1M - based indus­ and characterize natural occurrences of zeo­ tries in the State is the manufacture of lite in the west. This interest in natural vitrified-clay pipe near Phoenix. Although zeolites was stimulated by technological the Phoenix market area is tundamental, pipe developments in the use of molecular sieves. is also shipped into Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Since 1962 the Bowie chabazite deposit has and California. In this case, raw materials yielded the most mined tonnage of any natural from three widely separated sources are zeolite deposit in the united states. About trucked to the Phoenix-area plant (the two 12,000 tons of crude chabazite, valued at vitrified pipe clay sources are shown on about $30 million in its processed form, has Figure 1). Much effort and trial and error been produced. All production of crude is testing were given to the recognition, acqui­ shipped out of state for final processing and sition, and development of natural materials major use. capable of making an acceptable raw-materials mix (Morris - this volume). Relative Value and "Commonness" In 1980 over half of the value of indus­ trial mineral and rock products produced in of a 1M constitute a group of earth materials Arizona is attributed to combined cement and )ccur­ having a wide range in value and use. Sand lime ($100 million). There are two cement ontri­ and gravel, usually considered to be "common", plants and two lime plants making commercial products (Figure 1). In this case, in con­ l:" more might sell for $3.00 per ton whereas less '{ per­ common zeolite, such as the Bowie chabazite, trast to the vitrified-clay pipe plant, each Iition might be worth almost one thousand times as plant is located near large reserves of the util­ much in its processed form. The higher volume principal raw materials requirement, lime­ lay be - lower cost materials tend to be used locally stone. Because no suitable limestone depcsits )re to whereas the lower volume - higher cost prod­ occur in the Phoenix region (Maricopa County), lon is ucts often are expcrted to serve a specialized the products derived therefrom must be trans­ , for market. Whereas the former tend to be sought pcrted from outlying regions if there is to be ~urate after and developed as close to a center of continued maintenance and growth. ~e is, consumption as possible, the search area for I use­ the latter is much less influenced by market Conflicts ue in location. lriety "Commonness" is relative. Sand and Inevitably, in the attempt to supply raw­ gravel, though common around the Phoenix material requirements, there are impacts acci­ region, could not satisfy the rigid specifica­ associated with production, processing, and Ilora­ tions for concrete aggregate at the Palo Verde transportion. These include the unavoidable overy Nuclear generating plant. Gravel for concrete trade-offs that are usually considered to be .s an use was hauled from higher-quality (low environmentally negative. A typical reaction arket volcanic content) deposits near the Colorado is to suggest, as if location were completely )eing River to the west. Clay for brick making is arbitrary, that a particular operation be done t, if usually considered to be common because brick elsewhere. "Why here?" is always a good Ition. is a common product. When used as a building question and "because" is usually an unsatis­ I r was stone, however, the Bowie zeolite was also factory answer. J :ield "common". In terms of its present use, it is One example of a locational conflict 3ase. not. The most impcrtant contributor to brick­ derives from the fact that there are abundant making in Ari zona is the Pantano clay cinder depcsits near Flagstaff (Figure 1) and

21 none in the Phoenix region (See Welty and confirmed by drilling in 1964. This 1964 Spencer-this volume). A variety of construc­ confirmation initiated an intensive search for tion blocks is made in Phoenix for the local economic deposits of potash (Figure 1). More market. one, called cinder block, uses some than 100 holes were drilled, many of which Flagstaff area red cinders. A competitor, encountered potash (Peirce and Scurlock, wanting to develop an alternative cinder block 1972). Potash was found on two sides of the for arahitects, dec ided to use black cinders Park therefore it is believed to be continuous if he could find an available deposit. The beneath it (Peirce, 1969). IEposits judged to search led him to the very fringes of the San be economic have not been outlined therefore Francisco Volcanic Field, 20-25 miles north­ they are classed as potential resources of east of Flagstaff, where he found a deposit of possible future interest. There is no intent black cinders on private land. This parti­ here to in any way downplay the fabulous Park. cular deposit happened to be adjacent to Rather, these comments are presented merely as Merriam Crater, a place where the lunar astro­ a case history that illustrates the difficulty nauts trained. A rumor began to circulate to in knowing, at any given time and place, what the effect that someone was going to mine this secrets the earth holds beneath its surface. very special cinder cone! The subject was placed on the agenda of a regular meeting of Market Stability the Governor's Commission on Arizona Environ­ ment to be held at Flagstaff. Markets for IM vary acco~ding to the com­ The thrust of the presentation was that modity, economic conditions, and competitive something was wrong when a person could just develofIllents. come in and mine "common" cinders anywhere! An example of production longevity is the Why open a new pit when there were so many special bentonite clay that occurs in southern others already in existence? Obviously, there Apache county in the plateau province of had to be some kind of local control to over­ northeastern Arizona (Figure 1). This clay see this type of uncalled-for development. Up has, it is believed, been in continuous prod­ to this point, cinders had been treated uction since 1925. Like the Bowie zeolite, it generically - they were all the same. From is an alteration product of vitric ash. The the floor, a representative of the U.S. Bureau raw clay is stripped of its overburden and of Mines asked if the presenter had talked shipped out of state for processing into des­ with the pit owner to see what he had in mind? iccants, thickeners, and acid-activated clay The answer was negative. The USBM person then products (See Eyde and Eyde - this volume). asked what the cinder color was in all of OVer sixty years ago Arizona led the na­ these existing cinder pits? "Red" was the tion in the production of chrysotile asbestos. response. Well, the interloper from Phoenix Its low iron content made it especially valu­ wanted black cinders. Could the presenter able for certain electrical applications tell us where to find black cinders and (covering cables, etc.). Until recently, it comment on how common they might be? Jlqain, a was in almost continuous production, an esti­ negative response. The point was made that mated 160 deposits supplying the demand the cinder seeker from Phoenix was not as through the years. lbday, for liability (not irresponsible as casual observers and critics scientific) reasons, the industry is inoper­ had made him out to be. ative in Arizona (Peirce, 1983; See Ross ­ Those whose task it is to find mineral and this volume) • energy resources, especially those resources There is a group of IM that have been that are buried and not directly observable, sporadically produced. These include barite, are understandably concerned about land clas­ fluorite, diatomite, feldspar, quartz, mica, sifications that stymie the search. It would etc. For the most part these, in relatively seem as though the ultimate user of materials, small quantities, have been exported for use the general public, also has a vested interest elsewhere as oonditions permitted. in maximizing opportunities for search and discovery. We hear the expression "special THE. FUTURE interests" with regularity. with regard to the seekers of mineral and energy resources, Arizona, like a magnet, attracts people. they could not function if there wasn't a Population growth seems inevitable, as does larger "general interest" to be served. the industrial growth that must occur if An example of the surface-subsurface people are to find employment. Whether or not dichotomy is the position of the earlier esta­ there will be significant expansion in basic blished Petrified Forest National Park with IM industries depends upon growth rate. respect to subsurface resources of potash Arizona has the potential for development of discovered later. The Park is above a portion additional IM deposits through new discoveries of the Holbrook evaporite basin. The initial and changes in circumstances that ·affect Monument was created in 1906, the first salt development of deposits already known. encountered by drilling in about 1920, and the Because of geologic variety and complex­ associated potash (KCL) suspected in 1951, was ity, Arizona's major mineral production and

22 s 1964 development potential seem vested in the ~ch for southwestern half of the state - the Basin and More Range geologic province. Many geologic which mysteries remain and inherent in these are rlock, mineral resource discovery opportunities. 0p­ of the portunities must be identified if the state :inuous and nation are to continue to be supplied with [ged to the basic ingredients that have come to be the ~refore foundation of modern civilization (See ces of Reynolds and Fe irce - this volume). intent 5 Park. REFERENCES CITED :elyas :iculty Burgin, L. B., 1983, The mineral industry of , what Arizona: in u.s. Bureau of Mines, face. Minerals Yearbook, Centennial edition, 1981, voL 2, Area Reports - Domestic, p. 55-73. , T. H., 1978, Bowie zeolite - An indus­ ,e com­ trial mineral: Bureau of Geology and ~titive Mineral Technology Fieldnotes, v. 8, no. 4, 5p. is the irce, H. W., 1969, Salines: in Mineral and >Uthern water resources of Arizona, Arizona Bureau lce of of Mines, bulletin no. 180, p. 417-424. s clay ..._.______1983, Asbestos - Toward a perspec- prod­ tive: Bureau of Geology and Mineral Tech­ ,te, it nology, Fieldnotes, v. 13, no. 1, 8 p. h. The irce, H. W., and Scurlock, J.R., 1972, en and Arizona well information: Arizona Bureau o des­ of Mines, bulletin no. 185, 195 p. j clay ne). he na­ )estos. , valu­ 'ltions ly, it esti­ emand y (not 10per­ ~oss -

~ been arite, mica, cively or use

eople. s does :ur if or not basic rate. ent of veries l.ffect lplex­ )n and

23 er­ 'ley The Geology of Cement Raw Materials: Pacific Southwest of LIe ~at S. A. Kupfennan md senior GeolCX]ist md Kaiser Cement Cbrp. ~ . Pennanente, CA 95014 of ar- ABSTRACT manufacture, is mined solely from Paleozoic LS­ Era deposits in this region. Many of these Lon Cement raw materials used in southern deposits are geolCX]ically complex, having been W., california and Arizona cement plants occur in subjected to Mesozoic deformation, metamorphic LS- a wide variety of geologic environments. and intrusive events, along with Cenozoic ~o­ Limestone, the primary material making up 75­ uplift and deformation. The remaining 20-25 l6, 80% of the raw materials mix used in cement percent of the mix, which consists of addi­ manufacture, is mined solely from Paleozoic tives such as silica, alumina, gypsum, and ~ls Er"a deposits. DJring this time, 570-245 mil­ iron-oxide-containing materials, occurs either Le: lion years ago, vastly more limestone was in the limestone, in separate deposits of 73, formed in California and Arizona than at any diverse ages, or as man-made waste materials. other time (continent was in southern lati­ The information presented here is based tudes) • upon both published and unpublished sources. The general geology of each limestone It is common industry practice to treat de­ of deposit associated with the eight southern tails as proprietary thus this presentation is ley california and two Arizona cement plants will only a general overview of the subject. be reviewed. Many of these deposits are geo­ There are eight cement manufacturing ~st logically complex, having been subjected to facilities in southern California and two in

37 ck. oro Grande and the Black Mountain-Sidewinder Triassic (?) Sidewinder volcanic series. The (2) Mountain areas located 16 miles east-northeast limestone conglomerate, although not a pure ica of victorville. These limestone dep:>sits have limestone, is sufficiently uniform in chemical (1) supplied the IDs An;]eles area market for more composition to be usable in cement manufac­ ~k, than 100 years and presently support two ce­ ture. Silica content is the primary variable 1S­ ment plants, SOuthwestern's Black Mountain and depends upon proportions of chert clasts 1e, plant and Gifford-Hill's Oro Gr"ande plant. and interstitial silicification. te, The limestone deposits occur in large, ~t. moderately to severely metamorphosed roof Riverside-Cblton District ~ed pendants more or less surrounded by granitic md rocks. In the late Paleozoic (?) Oro Grande The limestone dep:>sits closest to the IDs ler series, utilized by Gifford-Hill at ODJ Grande An;]eles market area presently being used for :ed and by s::>uthwestern at Black Mountain, crys­ cement manufacture are those of the eastern Lng talline limestones are interbedded with thick Jurupa Mountains located between the cities of Lng units of quartzite and mica schist. The car­ Riverside and san Bernardino. 'Ihese dep:>sits tc. bonate units are commonly several hundred feet supp:>rt California Portland Cement Company's mt thick and several thousand feet in exposed (a division of Calmat) Colton plant, located Lng lerqth. The limestones are medium to coarse about 5 miles southwest of San Bernardino as lis grained and vary from white to dark blue-gray. well as Gifford Hill's Crestmore plant about 3 ~aw The regional trend of these deposits in the miles northwest of Riverside. The limestone area north of Victorville is northwest and is is exposed in a group of hills and occurs as cut by east-trending cross faults. This roof pendants in granitic rock. Some inter­ northwest trend is further disrupted by bedding with dolomite and mica schist occurs. ,smaller strike and transverse faults and by The Slover Mountain deposit, located Lng tight, usually ruptured minor folds. Granitic adjacent to California Ibrtland's Colton ~rn intrusions cut the metasedimentary section and plant, is part of a roof pendant of Paleozoic ao- increase the complexity. The Oro Grande (?) crystalline limestone in granodiorite. len series has been subjected to at least two The limestone varies from a high grade (99% tly major episodes of deformation that included CaC03 ) coarse crystalline whi te variety to a es. regional metamorphism. In all dep:>sits, lime­ finer grained blue-gray to white variety with ~rn stones have become marbles, pelites mica a lesser percentage of caco3• Small, but as schists, and sandstones and cherts quartzites. minor disseminated flakes of graphite are Cbntact metamp:>rphism has, in some instances, widespread. Small, contorted lenses of mica produced high grade metamorphic mineral assem­ schist also exist throughout. Limestone blages. Recent evidence suggests that this strata are obscure, trending north-northeast sedimentary sequence is part of a strati­ and dipping to the east. The northwestern graphic section that correlates with Paleozoic part of the dep:>sit is cut by dikes of aplite, marine sedimentary rocks of the southern Great pegmatite and granodiorite varying from a few Basin. inches to more than six feet in width. Thought to be a part of the Oro Grande At Gifford-Hill's Crestmore operation, sequence, the Permian Fairview Valley Forma­ limestone is mined underground from two lime­ tion is another source of limestone for cement stone units, a lower 400-foot thick Chino in this district. At SOuthwestern's Black Formation and an upper Sky Blue Formation more Mountain deposit, the area is underlain by a than 500 feet thick. The Crestmore operation 1,350 foot thick limestone corqlomerate member produces~the only whi te cement in the region of this formation. The limestone occupies the and rock from either limestone unit is suit­ > axial part of a tightly folded, symmetrical able for its manufacture. The limestone is northwest trending syncline. Cbbbles, boul­ coarsely crystalline and white to blue-gray. ders and pebbles of dark gray, pinkish gray The limestone units are separated by gneissic and black limestone, with minor white to gray hornfelses and schists that have been largely dolomitic limestone cobbles and pebbles, displaced by a sill-like mass of quartz COmprise more than 95 percent of the clasts in diorite. These deposits, as exposed in the corqlomerate. Clasts of brown chert make original surface quarries, because of the mi. up the remainder of the clastic fraction. The occurrence of a great variety of exotic matrix consists of fine-grained light to dark contact-metamorphic minerals, have received gray limestone with local siliceous and hydro­ much attention in the past. s. thermally altered patches. The clasts are generally subrounded to well-rounded but occa­ 'Iehachapi Mountains, Kern District sionally angular to subangular. Bedding is ill-defined except where the conglomerate This area, approximately 60-70 miles north of los Angeles, supports three cement 90 interfingers with a hornfels unit. The Fair­ pal view Valley Formation lies unconformably on plants: California Portland's Mojave plant, ast massively bedded limestone and quartzites of Monolith' s plant near 'Iehachapi, and General ite the Oro Gr"ande sequence and has been intrlded Ibrtland's Lebec plant. The extensive carbon­ of and overlapped by volcanic rocks of the ate dep:>sits in this district occur either as

39 Tab1.e 1. Cement data (tons) for 1984 ­ clay or intermediate igneous or volcanic rock. southern California and Arizona (sources: Pit A three component mix: (1) limestone, (2) and Quarry; u.s. Bureau of Mines) clay, igneous or volcanic rock, and (3) silica (quartz, sand). A four component mix: (1) PRODUCTION CAPACITY limestone, (2) clay, igneous or volcanic rock, (3) silica, and (4) high-iron ore or indus­ Southern california 8,200,000 trial by-product: or (1) siliceous limestone, (2) clay, (3) high alumina clay or bauxite, Arizona 1,750,000 and (4) iron ore or industrial by-product. The variety of components needed in a raw feed 9,950,000 mix directly relates to the chemistry and geology of a given 1 imestone deposit. Other deposit considerations include costs related CEMENT SHIPMENTS to location, reserves, materials handling characteristics, plant design and operating Southern california 5,552,400 practices of plant operations personnel etc. The use of coal as a primary fuel in cement Arizona 1,821,300 manufacture provides coal ash with varing proportions of Si0 , A1 0 , and Fe203. This 7,373,700 2 2 3 'IOI'AL adds further complexity when evaluating a raw Fbreign share (1,100,000) feed mix.

Ibmestic total 6,273,700 LIMESTONE UTILIZATION

try, the ordinary "commercial" or STM Type I The limestone deposits presently being cement in this region has the followin;J typi­ exploited for cement manufacture in southern California am Arizona occur solely in Paleo­ cal broad composition: CaO (60-67%), Si02 (19-24%), A1 0 (4-9%), Fe203 (1.6-6%), MgO zoic Era formations. During this time, when 2 3 the landmass was in equatorial regions, vastly (not more than 5%), S03 (up to 3%), K20 + Na20 (.65%). Special purpose cements are more more limestone was formed than at other times. stringent in their chemical requirements. The limestone formations in southern Well-known deleterious in;Jredients, when pres­ California used for cement are discussed as districts, and located on Figure 1. ent in excess, include MgO, S03' alkalies (K 20 and Na 0) , and phosphorous. with the advent 2 of the dry process, preheater precalciner cement plant, volatile compounds such as chlorides, fluorides and sulfur also are con­ sidered deleterious to the cement process, thus the existence and/or distribution of MONOLITH these components in the various deposits must A ACAL.PORTLAND- MOJAVE also be determined and evaluated. ~Barstow A GENERAL PDRTLAND­ The raw materials in cement manufacture LEBEC GIFFORD-HILL A ASOUTHWESTERN are combined in the proper proportions, ground ORO GRANDE "* BLACK MTN to a fine powder in the dry process, then Victorville "KAISER _ C~SHENBURY heated, first to calcination, then to fusion, LOB Anoelea san;frnardino HIL~~~;;:~:TLAND in a rotary kiln. The in;Jredients combine to ..z:FtttFFDRD _ - COLTON form desired crystalline or glassy substances CRESTMORE and a "clinker" is produced. Clinker, when fine ground with 3 to 5% gypsum to control settin;J time, is portland cement. The cement company geologist, thus, is concerned with a 1 ime (CaO) source that, in this region, is provided by limestones. The o 20 40mi. aluminum silicates, iron aluminum silicates = and silica, occur as clays or shales, quartz and quartz sands, feldspars, iron oxides and Figure 1. Southern Cal ifornia cement plants. hydroxide, and combinations of these as ig­ neous or metamorphic rocks. The deleterious elements of each is also considered. The Victorville - oro ~ande District simplest raw material feed mix would be a single rock unit such as a shaley limestone The Victorville area is located'about 90 havin;J all of the proper components. This, a miles N.E. of Los Angeles. The principal natural cement rock, is not known to exist in exploited deposits are in the hills just east the region. A two component raw feed mix of the city of Victorville, the Quartzite would be: (1) limestone, and (2) iron-bearing Mountain am Sparkule Hill vicinities east of

38 roof pendants or as elongate layers partly feet apart, in a zone 20 to 40 feet thick. encased in younger intrusives varying from Two other fault systems have been identified, very basic to highly silicic. The limestone high angle, east-west trending reverse faults, deposits occur either alone or interbedded and high angle normal faults with east-west to with mica schist and quartzite in sequences northeast trends. referred to as either the Bean Canyon forma­ tion or the Kernville S3ries. In the absence Arizona of fossils these units are considered to be late Paleozoic or early Mesozoic in age. '!he Two cement plants operate in Arizona: limestone is commonly coarse grained with Arizona Bortland's Rillito plant located about colors ranging from white to blue-gray. D::>lo­ 18 miles northwest of Tucson, and Gifford­ mite and dolomitic limestone is present in the Hill's Clarkdale plant in the central part of form of isolated PJckets and/or massive inter­ the State approximately 95 miles north of beds. smaller granitic intrusions are common Phoenix. These operations are located on within individual limestone bodies and silica Figure 2. Limestones utilized at these plants and silicate minerals produced by contact are from Paleozoic carbonate units containing metamorphism add to the complexity of these limestone, dolomite, and chert along with dePJsits. megafossils indicative of shallow, clear, marine environments of dePJsition. OJshenbury District ARIZONA Limestone dePJsits in this area, located approximately 25 miles southwest of victor­ ville, are utilized at Kaiser Cemen~s Cushen­ CEMENT PLANTS bury plant. '!he OJshenbury limestone dePJsit is part of a large roof pendant of upper Precambrian to upper Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks uplifted and exposed along the north flank of the san Bernardino Mountains during late Cenozoic time. The deposit contains limestone and dolomites of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian ages. The limestone is locally referred to as the Furance formation, however, typical Great-Basin stratigraphic nomenclature is currently being considered for this pre­ ~ Flagstaff Mesozoic carbonate sequence. The carbonate ... rocks have generally been regionally metamor­ GIFFORD- HILL phosed. Moderately high grade metamorphic CLARKDALE facies with local increases in grade and char­ acter of metamorphism occur adjacent to intru­ sive dikes, sills and stocks of aplite, grano­ :ttf: Phoenix diorite and biotite quartz monzonite. The limestone produced from the quarry is typical­ ly recrystallized, medium to coarse grained ARIZONA PORTLAND calcite marbles of varying purity. Even RILLITO though these carbonate rocks have been recrys­ ... tallized from limestones to marbles, the #. Tucson original sedimentary structures have been retained in many of the individual rock units. Surface mapping has resulted in the identifi­ cation of at least 16 different limestone units, with differentiation based upon chemi­ cal composition, color, crystal size and Figure 2. Arizona cement plants. stratigraphic PJsition. '!he effects of meta­ morphism and intrusion on the original chemi­ cal cOInPJsition resulted in the replacement of Arizona Portland's Rillito plant is sup­ original carbonate with varying amounts of plied largely with limestone from their Twin iron, silica, aluminum and alkali-bearing Peaks deposit located about 4 miles southeast minerals. of the plant. Limestone formations utilized '!he dePJsit is located at the junction of . for cement include the Levonian Martin Fbnna­ the northwest trending Helendale right lateral tion, Mississippian Escabrosa Limestone and strike-slip fault, and the east-west trending Pennsylvanian lbrquilla Limestone. Furnace reserve (thrust) fault. The thrust The lbrquilla Limestone typically consists fault zone is exposed as a series of clay of fine grained, light yellowish gray lime­ layers one to two feet thick and two to three stone interbedded with shaley or silty lime-

40 lick. stone. Thin beds of siltstone, shale, and tions used by each producer in southern cali­ Eied, chert are also scattered through the forma­ fornia am Arizona. .1l ts, tion. The Escabrosa Limestone consists of ;t to white to light gray limestone in the upper am ADDITIVES middle parts and light to dark gray dolomite and limestone in the lower section. The No discussion of cement raw materials is Martin Fbrmation consists mostly of very fine complete without mentioning the additives to fine grained, laminated to thin bedded am utilized to provide silica, aluminum am iron :ona: medium dark gray to olive gray, dolomite. to the raw material feed stock, along with mout Samstone and shaley 1 imestone beds, h::>wever, gypsum which is added to the clinker for the ord­ are scattered through the formation. finish grind. The usage of silica, aluminum ·t of Limestone for Gifford-Hill's Clarkdale and iron additives is usually based upon the h of plant comes largely from the Mississippian chemistry of the particular limestone, and d on Redwall Limestone. The Redwall Limestone is a cement specifications. Approximately 3-5% Lants massively bedded, often cherty, gray and gypsum is added in order to control or retard ining coarsely crystalline rock with few impurities. the set time of the final cement product. with A common thread that runs through all of Rather than discuss each additive source for .ear, these deposits is the complexity involved in each producer in the region, only selected canprehending rock canposition such that the deposits will be mentioned. The general types mined rock will (l) meet raw feed specifica­ of additives used by each plant are summariZed tions, (2) be consistent with day to day raw in 'IClble 3. The following is a discussion of feed chemistry and (3) meet long term mine selected deposits with locations shown on needs for the deposit. Variations in Figure 3. deposits result from (1) pri­ variations caused during deposition, Tab~e 3. Raw materials additives utilized by vertically or laterally, (2) secondary cement plants - southern California and chemical changes associated with regional Arizona and/or contact metamorphism, and (3) struc­ tural activity that causes folding and/or SCXJrHERN CALIFORNIA faulting typically resulting in repetition of units, termination of deposits, radical dif­ Plant ferences in dip directions etc. 1. california fbrtland - M:>jave shale - plant silica - gold mine tailir:gs Table 2 summarizes the limestone forma- iron

2. California Eortland - Colton clay 2. Limestone-bearing formations uti­ silica ized by cement plants - southern california iron Arizona 3. General Fbrtland - Lebec unkrown

sourHERN CALIFCRNIA 4. Gifford-Hill - Crest shale clay - Corona iron Plant-Annual cement Stratigraphic Asscx:.., I:epJsit Capacity Type and/or ProvincialLocation 5. Gifford-Hill - oro Graooe shale clay L california lbrtland - M:>jave Eean canyon/Kernville series iron 1,400, 000 tons (roof pendant) 6. Kaiser cement - Cushenbury clay - Fcton 2. california lbrtland - Colton Slover l>buntain iron - Fontana 750, 000 tons (roof pendant) 7. MJnolith - Tehachapi clay - plant

3. General RJrtland - Lebec Bean canyon/Kernville series 8. S::mthwestern - Black rvuntain silica - oro Grande series quartzite 610,000 tons (roof pendant) iron - altered dacite 4. Gifford-Hill - crestmore Chino and Sky B1ue 840,000 ton (roof pendant) (incltrles white canent) ARIZONA 5. Gifford-Hill - oro Grande era Gr"ande 8eries 1,100,000 tons (roof pendant - Basin and Rarge) 1. Arizona Fbrtland - Rillito clay - Vail 6. Kaiser cement - CUshenbury Furnace silica - plant, quartzite 1,600,000 tons (roof pendant - Basin and Rarge) iron - iron ore - California 2. Gifford-Hill - Clarkdale clay - plant 7. r1)nolith - Tehachapi Bean Canyon/Kernville Eeries vole. - plant 500,000 tons (roof pendant)

sup­ 8. S:Juthwestern - Black MJuntain Fairview Valley and era Q:'ande Twin 1,400,000 tons series (roof pendant - Basin and Clay heast Rarge) lized The Alberhill-Corona clay deposits, nma­ located in the western Riverside Cbunty area e and ARIZONA of southern california, about 45 miles south­ east of Los Angeles, have provided silica, sists Arirona fbrtland - Rillito M3.rtin, Escabrosa, and HJrquilla 1,150,000 tons (Fault block - Basin and Farge) aluminum, and iron-bearing clays to the cement .ime­ plants in this region. The clays in this lime- Gifford-Hill - Clarkdale M'>rtin and Redwall 600,000 tons (outcrop belt - Transition ZOne) district are of two origins - resiUual and

41 Gabriel r-buntains approximately 40 miles north of IDs Angeles, near the town of Acton. The red to yellowish-orange clay results from the weathering of a Precambrian pluton of anortho­ site. The anorthosite is an unusual light gray to white, equigranular, medium to coarse grained, brittle rock composed essentially of • CAVE CANYON-IRON the one feldspar mineral, plag ioclase 4= Barstow (andesine). '!he clay deposits occur either as residual or as recent colluvial material ex­ ACTON. T ALUM.-CLAY Victorville posed on upland slopes. A typical analysis of this material is: Si0 46%, Fe 0 11%, A1 0 Los Angel~ Son BernardIno 2 2 3 2 3 FONTANA• .JlI IRON 35%, and total alkalies 1-1.5%. • 1rRiverside In addition to the cited "high" aluminum CORONA- ALUM.-CLAY clays, some producers also use a "common" clay or clay shale, usually located near the cement plant, for a source of silica, alumina and iron. These deposits are either young allu­ FISH• CREEK - GYPSUM vial clays or older clay shales that are associated with the limestone deposits. As an example, Arizona Ibrtland Cement's Rillito operation hauls a clay-shale from the 01 igo­ cene Pantano Fbrmation that crops out about 20

o 20 40mi. miles ooutheast of Tucoon. A typical analysis b3 is: Si02 53.8%, Al203 17.6%, Fe203 4.8%, Na20 .0.3%, K20 3.7%, S03 .48%, etc. (personal ?om­ Figure 3. southern California cement raw­ munication, Jerry Boyett - Plant ChemIst). material additives. '!his source also is widely used in the manu­ facture of red brick in both Tucson and Ehoenix (a haul distance of about 150 miles). sedimentary. The residual types have deVel­ IRON oped in place by subaerial chemical weathering of aluminum-rich rocks includin;} quartz latite a>me of the cement manufacturers prefer to porphyry, quartz diorite, volcanic latite and use iron-rich materials in order to attain the andesite and slates. The sedimentary clays required iron proportion in the raw material and clay shales utilized are locally part of feed mix. By far the purest iron-bearing the Paleocene Silverado Fbrmation. '!he forma­ substance presently being utilized is "man­ tion consists primarily of brown to gray made" mill scale or sinter mix from Kaisser clastics that include cOn;}lomerates, sand­ Steel's (now closed) Fontana Mill near San stones, siltstones, and claystones. Bernardino in southern California. The . The nonmarine lower member contains large material is + 90% Fe203' with the remainder quantities of alumina-rich clay and small bein;} Si02 am A1 203• amounts of bauxitic clay. other clay '!he cave Can:iUn iron ore deposit, owned by materials consist of reddish-brown pisolitic California Ibrtlam Cement co. and located 50 sandy clay, a read mottled clay, and a white miles east of Barstow, is typical of an iron­ to brownish conchoidally-fracturing kaolinite. rich material for cement manufacture. The iron Clay beds are 1-10 feet thick, and generally minerals, magnetite and hematite with subordi­ have little continuity. Thrust faulting and nate limonite, occur in bodies that are multiple episodes of normal and reverse enclosed in a complex of metamorphosed dolo­ faulting resulted in vertical beds and discon­ mites, tactites and granitics. In general, tinuous clay layers. It is necessary to mine the deposits and surrounding units trend east­ selectively and to blend in order to obtain northeast with intricate faulting, breccia­ consistent quality control. tion, and simple to complex folding being In addition to supplying clay to cement. Characteristic. This iron ore deposit is plants in oouthern California, the corona clay considered to be the second largest in oouth­ deposits have principally been a source for ern California (second to Kaiser Steel's Eagle the clay manufacturin;} imustry. The princi­ r-buntain deposit) with proven reserves of more pal reasons for utilizing these deposits for than 10 million tons. Typical ore assays cement have been the relatively high aluminum average 90% Fe203' the remainder being Si02 content and low total alkali values. A typi­ am A1 20 3• cal analysis is: Si02 60-65, Al203 25-30%, Fe 0 5-10% and total alkalies less than 1%. Silica 2 Another3 alumina-rich clay deposit pres­ ently being used in southern California by In Arizona, Arizona Ibrtland Cement uses Kaiser Cement Corp. is located in the San quartzite from the Cambrian Abrigo Fbrmation,

42 lorth from areas close to their limestone defX)sit at influx of sea water. several parties control The TWin Peaks. This formation contains inter­ portions of the defX)sit. U.S. Gypsum Cb. owns the bedded mudstone, siltstone, sandstone and the most significant part and operates the 'tho­ quartzite. Cblors range from reddish brown to gypsum quarry that provides the majority of ight yellowiSh light gray. The quartzite is com­ the Fbrtland Cement gypsum proouction. Cali­ larse rosed of subangular to subrounded quartz plus fornia Fbrtland cement Cb. holds mining claims yof lesser amounts of feldspar. adj acent to U.s.G.' s holdings and intermit­ lase Quartzite from the oro Grande series is tently mines the gypsum for use in their r as utilized by Southwestern Portland at their southern Cal ifornia cement plants. National ex­ Black M:Juntain cement Plant. The quartzite, Gypsum controls a large undeveloped deposit s of quarried from locations close to the limestone south of Cal ifornia Portland's holdings. quarry, is characteristically massive, and ,1 203 Gypsum for the two Arizona plants comes from pinkish whi te to brown in color. Quartzite PIiocene defX)sits located within their respec­ inum units occur as interbeds wi th other units of tive regions. These defX)sits represent condi­ clay the Oro Grande series, such as 1 imestone, tions of evaporation in local, nonmarine ment hornfels and schists. Faults often disrupt basins. and continuity. llu- The use of quartzites is one case where SUMMARY AND ACKNOiVIEIG1ENI'S are the chemistry of a raw materials additive may IS an satisfactory but not useful for physical The geology of limestone defX)sits used for lito Quartzites, for example, are much cement manufacture in southern California and igo­ than limestones. This can result in Arizona is quite complex. The southern Cali­ It 20 different sizing during grinding, or, fornia defX)sits are metasedimentary roof ysis grinding costs during the raw material pendants of Paleozoic limestone-bearing Na20 ing process. A Bond grindability test strata. The Arizona deposits, on the other ~om­ nrr"riilA<: an indication of the fX)wer required hand, are of relatively unaltered Paleozoic .st) • to grind a material to a desired fineness at a formations that contain abundant limestones• anu- capacity. '!his test affords a means by Along with the usual variable nature of flat­ and quartzites can be selected. lying limestone defX)sits resulting from slight as) • lateral changes and layering, the California Gypsum defX)sits have been subjected to Mesozoic de­ formation, intrusion and metamorphism, and The Fish Creek Mountains gypsum defX)sits Cenozoic deformation. The use of specific !r to the largest reserves of this com­ additives depends UfX)n the chemistry of indi­ the in southern California. These defX)sits vidual limestone deposits, cement specifica­ rial located in extreme eastern Imperial Cbunty tions, costs, and the cement plant operation. dng about 70 mils east of San Diego. The gypsum Clays and shales provide the majority of iron, nan­ from these defX)sits is primarily used in silica and aluminum additives to the raw sser the manufacture of gypsum wallboard, I:Dwever, material feedstock. These materials are San about 20% of the production from this area is either located near or actually associated The used in cement manufacture and supplies most with the limestone defX)sits. AluminUIll rich rlder southern California cement plants. The de­ materials are sometimes obtained from clay posit, consisting of up to 200 feet of massive deposits rich in aluminum, while iron-rich d by rock gypsum, 1 iesat the top of the Miocene materials are obtained from steel mill slag d 50 Split Mountain Formation. Anhydrite is pres­ and mill scale stockpiles that are of very ron­ ent as erratic lenses in the gypsum while high purity or lower purity iron ore defX)sits. iron interbedded clay occurs near the top and High purity silica is used from sel~cted Irdi- bottom contacts of the defX)sit. Minor impur­ quartzite defX)sits. are ities in the gypsum include varying and random I thank Doug MacIver with Southwestern 010­ concentrations of chloride salts and fine­ Fbrtland Cement, John Rains with California ral, grained, opaque manganese and iron oxides. Fbrtland Cement and Steve Greenspan with !ast­ The gypsum outcrops as erosional remnants, Pacific Clay Prooucts for providing input and ::ia­ preserved in a shallow synclinal basin with comments. I also acknowledge M. J. Bishop, eing bedding dipping toward the synclinal axis at Manager, Mineral Resources, Kaiser Cement t is 15-30 degrees. The suggested origin is rapid Cbrp. for his comments and allowing publica­ uth­ evafX)ration in seacoast lagcons with periodic tion of this paper. :agle more says Si02

uses :ion,

43 :ure JQi­ Natural Lightweight Aggregates of the Southwest jil­ .ng, , p. Lennis P. Bryan l83, Engineering Testing Associates leIs 737 Glendale Ave. 1ern Sparks, Nevada 89431 s a in j~ Jlts ABSTRACT the current status and use of these materials in the southwest. lIes The southwestern United States has an Lightweight aggregate up to approximately and abundance of natural lightweight aggregate one inch in size are utilized primarily in the (NLA) deposits of volcanic origin that are construction industry for weight reduction and and being used in the construction industry within insulation purposes. Pumice and volcanic .ral the region. New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and cinder have long been utilized for these pur­ ia: California utilize NLA in portland cement poses, whereas pumiceous rhyolite is a rela- ­ cts concrete and concrete masonry units for weight tive newcomer. reduction and related economic reasons. Other lightweight aggregates utilized en­ '!he geological environment of the western throughout the country, but not discussed in nal onited States is amenable to the occurrence of this paper, include the manufactured light­ ern natural lightweight rocks because it contains we ights such as expanded clay or shale and the ica Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic products that ultra lightweights, perlite and vermiculite. include low-density glass and vesicular on, material. There are two major classical types EXpanded clays and shales, utilized mostly in sed of natural lightweight materials of igneous the eastern portion of the country, are manu- ern origin; pumice and cinder. '!hese account for 'factured by heating certain clays or shales md the vast majority of volcanic rocks that are until they become plastic thus allowing the ica presently utilized as NLA. Pumice is an included volatiles to expand. When cooled, the ejecta product generally found as part of result is a frothy, lightweight, ceramic-like tuffaceous units associated with nearby sili­ pellet. Perlite and vermiculite are also ceous volcanic centers. Cinder, also an expanded by heating but generally result in an ejecta product, is associated with mafic vol­ ultra lightweight material having very little canics and is most often found as a cinder structural strength. cone. Poth are highly vesicular. A third type of natural lightweight material, though also ECONC11ICS AND UTILIZATION associated with siliceous volcanics, is less vesicular than pumice. It is best described In analyzing the economics of using NIA as being a slightly pumiceous rhyolite or the prime consideration is transportation rhyolite-tuff breccia that occurs as a sili­ cost. Because they occur in the west, they are ceous dome or tuff unit that is most likely to used in the west. Although the manufactured be glassy. lightweights such as the expandable clays and Uses of these natural lightweight rocks shales are more evenly distributed throughout center on the construction industry where they the United States, because they are energy are utilized in lightweight portland cement intensive, cannot compete in areas where NIA concrete and lightweight concrete masonry is found. Because of fuel costs, many manu­ units. '!he major reason for usage in portland factured-lightweight-aggregate plants closed cement concrete is cost saving effected by following the energy crisis of the seventies. weight reduction in high-rise construction. '!his led to a renewed interest in western NIA. The major usage in concrete masonry units, or NIA deposits that haven't been active in years "block", is for weight reduction that enables are undergoing reevaluation, and previously a mason to lay more lock. unrecognized natural lightweight rocks are being evaluated and developed. The use of NLA can be traced back to the INTRODUCTION days of the lbman Empire when pumice was ex­ tensively used in the Mediterranean region. Natural lightweight aggregates (NLA) de­ Pumice and volcanic cinder have been utilized scribed here are low density, lightweight in construction in the western united States volcanic rocks. '!hey are restricted in their since near the turn of the century and pumice distribution to the geologic environment of from Greece has been imported on the east the western onited States and consist of pum­ coast of the U.S. for some time. ice, volcanic cinder, and pumiceous rhyolite. '!he principal uses of lightweight aggre­ The purpose of this paper is to briefly review gates are in the construction industry, pri-

55 marily in applications for lightweight port­ considerations include shrinkage, durability, land cement concrete and for lightweight con­ thermal properties, color, and placement char­ crete masonry units. acteristics when fresh, such as pumpability. In some instances processing of the aggre­ Portland Qement Cbncrete gate influences its characteristics. Proper screening will determine particle size distri­ In lightweight p:>rtland cement concrete, bution and washing may eliminate undesirable lightweight aggregates are utilized primarily ingredients. In most cases, however, indivi­ for weight reduction in high-rise construc­ dual properties are inherent in the rock, tion. A lightweight concrete will weigh ap­ having been determined by the genetic environ­ proximately 25% less than normal weight con­ ment, melt composition, weathering history, crete utilizing common aggregates such as sand etc. and gravel. This translates into cost savings A more complete discussion of individual as there is a parallel reduction in the mass aggregate properties, etc. is beyom the scope of footings, structural members and reinforce­ of this paper. Testing of lightweight aggre­ ment within the building. A 24-story concrete gate, portland cement concrete and concrete building utilizing lightweight aggregates may masonry units, is outlined in great detail in have the same dead weight as a comparable various American Society for Testing and building 20 stories high utilizing normal Materials (ASTM) specifications that are up­ weight aggregates. dated yearly. The American Cbncrete Institute In addition to weight reduction, light­ (ACI) publishes standards for the design and weight aggregates increase the insulation, evaluation of lightweight portland cement thus fire retardation effect, of concrete. In concrete. Numerous professional and trade some cities in the Ebuthwest local codes allow publications of the eng ineering or construc­ a lightweight aggregate to be utilized not for tion materials professions contain articles its weight reduction but for its effectiveness that deal with imividual properties of both as a fire retarder, thereby reducing floor aggregates and their end products. thickness requirements. GEOr.cx;y AND DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES Cbncrete Masonry Units Figure 1 shows the distribution of Cbncrete masonry units, commonly referred Tertiary, and younger, volcanic rocks of the to as "block" in the building trades, are Ebuthwest. All of the NLA are volcanic in affected by the same properties of lightweight origin and most are Quaternary or late aggregates as is portland cement concrete, Tertiary in age. In general, the younger host namely weight reduction, insulation am fire rocks yield the higher quality lightweight retardation. In the Southwest where NLA is aggregate because the younger volcanics are available at relatively low-cost, the most usually less indurated or weathered. Also, imp:>rtant use is as a weight reducer in the with age comes increasing devitrification of individual masonry units. A mason can lay the glassy phases, which tems to densify the more lightweight blocks during the course of a rock. day than he can heavier blocks made from ordi­ The method of emplacement or formation of nary sand and gravel. This translates into young volcanic rocks suitable for lightweight increased productivity and related cost aggregates must include vesiculation of savings. aphanitic or glassy material. Goaling of the melt must be rapid and accompanied by volatile physical and Chemical Properties expansion. The composition of the melt also influences the end-product rock type, be it As with many imustrial mineral commodi­ pumice, volcanic cinder or a close derivative ties, a thorough evaluation of a p:>tential NIA of either. Silicic lavas give rise to pumice resource entails an evaluation of how its and pumiceous rhyolite, whereas mafic lavas physical and chemical properties affect appli­ yield volcanic cinders. '!he method of emplace­ cation. The imp:>rtant properties of a NIA for ment usually is pyroclastic, which forms use in portland cement concrete or concrete tuffs, breccias or cones. masonry units include unit weight, specific '!he geology of the three most common types gravity, absorption, hardness, durability, of natural lightweight rocks pumice, volcanic chemistry (including reactivity potential), cinder and pumiceous rhyolite is discussed in cleanliness, expansion characteristics, the following paragraphs, along with comments organic impurities and particle size distribu­ on the particular end-product application of tion. each aggregate. The characteristics of the final light­ weight concrete product are highly dependent Pumice on these individual aggregate properties. Most imp:>rtant are the weight am strength charac­ Pumice is a highly vesicular, glassy vol­ teristics of the final product, but other canic material, usually white to yellow in

56 r e

1 e e n d e d t e s h

f e n e t t Figure 1. Distribution of Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks in the Southwest. e

E color. It is generally rhyolitic in composi­ Physical characteristics of pumice units tion with a silica content near 70 percent. that make them desirable for use as light­ Vesicles are very abundant, usually small, and weight aggregate vary greatly from deposit to E may be either spherical or elongated depending deposit and within individual deposits. C on cooling and consolidation history. sili­ Younger units are generally less consolidated E ceous magmas have a higher viscosity than and weathered, and therefore yield easily mafic magmas and solidify quickly, resultinJ mined and processed, stronger, individual in smaller, more abundant vesicles than in clasts. Particle size distribution is impor- ) basaltic volcanic cinder. In general, in c excess of 95 percent of the pumice particles are glass, with crystal phenocrysts makinJ up the balance, most commonly quartz, K-feldspar, s and biotite • Most pumice deposits are formed as tuffa­ s ceous units, as shown in Figure 2, spatially associated with nearby siliceous volcanic s centers. The pumice may be blown many miles by ::: an explosive eruption with coarser particles il settling closer to the source, while fines, S carried by the wind, may sometimes travel vast E distances. Exploitable pumiceous tuff units can attain thicknesses measurable in hundreds of feet and cover hundreds of square miles in come parts of the world. Particle size distri­ bution within most pumiceous tuff units range Figure 2. A pumiceous tuff unit in the Bishop from ash size to a few inches but occasionally Tuff, Mono County, california, that was mined il attain dimensions up to two feet. in th6 early 1950's.

57 tant because a deposit with excessive fines Cinder cones of various ages and degrees may result in excess waste. PrDcessirq of the of weathering can be found in several loca­ material is simple, consisting of screening, tions in the Southwest. Younger cinder and crushirq of the oversize. deposits, which are readily distirquishable as The principal use of pumice in the con­ cones, generally are the better material for struction industry is for weight reduction in use as lightweight aggregate. Older, weath­ the manufacture of concrete masonry units. In ered deposits, may not be easily identifiable this application, the pumice is confined to as cones and often contain punky material and course aggregate fractions in the size range clays. Processing of cinder for use as light­ from 1/2-inch to a i'b.8 sieve si ze. The finer weight aggregate is simple, consistirq primar­ fraction material, sand, is generally not ily of screening and crushing of the oversize. pumice and is usually composed of aggregate of Millions of tons of volcanic cinders are ordinary weight. Coarse pumice, in sizes up mined each year and utilized in the construc­ to approximately 3/4-inch, is sometimes tion industry. Most of the production is utilized in portland cement concrete, but, for directed to road base material or other types the most part, not as the only coarse aggre­ of construction where weight is not a primary gate ingredient. Pumice is the lightest of factor. Cinder produced strictly for its the natural lightweight aggregates. It is, lightweight properties is used principally in mwever, also the weakest. It is, therefore, concrete masonry units. Much of the block usually present as only a fraction of the manufactured in the southwest includes cinder total aggregate required in a concrete mix in as an ingred ienL•• thus the term "cinder order that the end product will have suffi­ block" is truly applicable. It is used in cient strerqth. lightweight portland cement concrete but to a Volcanic Cinder lesser extent. Cinder is a much stronger aggregate than pumice and, as in pumice, the Volcanic cinder, sometimes referred to as finer size fractions are not generally used scoria, lapilli, or just cinder, is a coarsely because as cinder becomes finer it is less vesicular mafic volcanic material of sizes porous, hence the density increases. Also, generally less that a few inches across. It cinder fines tend to discolor concrete and is basaltic in composition and vitric to concrete masonry units, a problem in aes­ aphanitic in texture. Vesicles are abundant thetics. and may also be either spherical or elongated, as in pumice. In general, the vesicles in cinder are larger than tmse in pumice, some­ times attaining dimensions of an inch or more. Like pumice, cinder is a result of rapid cooling of magma containing abundant vola­ tiles, but unlike the siliceous magma that gives rise to pumice, the mafic magma is less viscous. Magma of basaltic composition flows readily and acts more like a typical liquid. Cinder is black to red in color, sometimes acquiring a purplish appearance. Particle size of clasts in a typical cinder deposit ranges from ash size to volcanic bombs, oc­ casionally attaining dimensions of several feet in length. Figure 3. One of the largest volcanic cinder Volcanic cinder is a pyroclastic rock, operations in Arizona produces from a Quater­ erupting from a volcanic vent and, most com­ nary cone near Flagstaff. monly, form ing a cinder cone. Cinder cones range in size from tens of feet to over a thousand feet in height. o::casionally, cinder Pumiceous Rhyolite is found as part of composite cones where it is interlayered with less volatile basic flows The third type of NLA used in the SOuth­ of magma. Well-formed cones are steep sided west is pumiceous rhyolite. This material is and usually reach the angle of repose of the not ·as well known nor as widely distributed as cinder particles. The color of the cinder is pUmice or volcanic cinder and is a more recent related to the oxidation state of the.iron in addition to natural rocks being utilized as the parent magma and both red and b}ack are lightweight aggregate. Pumiceous rhyolite, often found in the same corie. Cinder cones chemically, is nearly identical to pumice in may be found in isolated occurrences or as that it is the product of a siliceous melt part of large volcanic fields, such as the with a silica content in the 70 percent range. hundreds of cones found in the vicinity of the Pumiceous rhyolite is also composed of in San Francisco volcanic field in northern excess of 90 percent glass, is similar in Arizona (see Figure 3). color to pumice, but is much less vesicular.

58 The pumiceous rhyolite tuff-breccia units evidently were more volatile than those of domes, but the individual clasts are very similar in that they exhibit very small vesi­ cles. The breccia deposits display a bedded aspect in that they maintain consistent thick­ e nesses with definite upper and lower bound­ d aries. They are often associated with rhyolite or rhyolite glass flows and ordinary siliceous tuff units. The spatial extent of ,>. the pumiceous rhyolite breccia is more limited e than the associated tuffs and flows, which probably indicates closer proximity to a s parent volcanic vent. s Pumiceous rhyolite is being utilized in Figure 4. The Mono Craters near Mono Lake are y both portland cement concrete and concrete recent rhyolitic domes that contain pumiceous S masonry units and in all size fractions, both rhyolite. r1 coarse and fine. The fine fraction, unlike k cinder, is sim'ilar in density to the coarse t:" Vesicles are much smaller than those of pumice because the tiny vesicles are evenly distrib­ t:" but usually are well distributed throughout uted. In addition, both the coarse and fine r1 the rock. Phenocrysts include quartz, feld­ fractions are relatively stror¥J. Even though :l spars and micas. Pumiceous rhyolite deposits pumiceous rhyolite may be heavier than either r are found as (1) domes, and (2) tuff breccia pumice or cinder, the end product may be units. similar in weight because the pumiceous j Domes, especially those that are young in rhyolite fines can be used. age such as at Mono Craters (Figure 4), are often spatially associated with what would be DISTRIBUTION OF DEPOSITS considered a classic pumiceous tuff unit. A typical young dome, as shown in Figure 5, is Figures 6 throu:Jh 8 show the general dis­ composed of denser rhyolite in the interlOr tribution of known deposits of each of the NIA with progressive envelopes of less dense described. As previously mentioned, young vesicular material surrounding it. pumice volcanics are found only in the western por­ often mantles the surrounding countryside. As tion of the united States where there are with pumice, the melt producir¥J the pumiceous large volcanic fields or individual volcanic rhyolite was highly viscous. Rhyolite domes centers containing suitable glassy, low­ containir¥J pumiceous rhyolite may also contain density rocks. perlite, obsidian or banded rhyolite flows. Although production estimates are given Here again, as in the pumice and volcanic below for each of the three aggregate types, cinder deposits, the amount of vesiculation they should be used with caution. Wide fluc­ and its distribution is governed by the amount tuations in production occur in relation to of volatiles in the parent melt and its dis­ the economic health of the construction indus­ tribution in the eruptive sequence. try. In addition, for various reasons, pro­ Tuff-breccia units consist of individual duction data from federal and state sources pieces up to two feet across set in a matrix often conflict. Available information does of ash. Generally, there are no pumiceous not always reflect the end product application tuff units associated with these deposits. - is the material beir¥J used as a lightweight

pumiceous rhyolite glossy rhyolite

Figure 5. Schematic cross section of a typical Quaternary rhyolite dome.

59 • one or more producers • .. • other deposits • Figure 6. Distribution of pumice deposits in • the Southwest • • tt ~ • . • • •.. • • • • • • • •

•• • ••... ••• • one or more producers • • other deposits • Figure 7. Distribution of volcanic cinder • deposits in the Southwest • • • • • • • • •••••••• •• • • • •• • •

•

60 • present producer.

• other deposita

Figure 8. Distribution of pumiceous rhyolite deposits in the Southwest • •• • • • • • • • • e. • •

a;Jgregate? An example is volcanic cinder; the southern Cbso Range area, at the southern end U.S. Bureau of Mines does not group this com­ of Owens Valley in Inyo Cbooty, is the largest modity separately. In addition, the majority current producer in the state, furnishing of the cinder mined in the Southwest is not lightweight aggregate to the southern califor­ utilized as a lightweight aggregate, but nia market. Chestennan describes these depos­ rather as a substitute for sand and gravel or its as being tuffs of both subaqueous and nuee crushed rock in other applications. ardente origin. In northern california in the Glass Mountain area in eastern siskiyou Funice Cbooty, pumice from a recent, loosely consoli­ dated tuff is produced and shipped as far The distribution of pumice deposits in the south as the San Francisco Bay area. Minor Southwest is shown in Figure 6. lI.ccordin] to amounts of pumice are produced periodically statistics from the U.S. Bureau of Mines, from other localities in california, including about 500,000 tons of pumice per year is pro­ the Bishop and Mom lake region, and the front duced in the United States. '!he states of I:\Iew ranges of the Sierras near Fresno.. '!he major­ Mexico and california in the Southwest are two ity of pumice production in california occur­ of the four major pumice producing states in red prior to the late 19501s. Counties with the country. In 1982 New Mexico production considerable past production include Siskiyou, was approximately 100,000 tons, while califor­ Napa, Mono, Inyo, and Kern. nia1s production was approximately 60,000. The principal pumice producers in New Production in Arizona is less than 30,000 Mexico are mining material from tuffaceous tons, and I:\Ievada currently has no pumice pro­ deposits located near santa Fe on the eastern duction. and southern flanks of a caldera that forms The most comprehensive description of the Jemez Mountains. Here the deposits are pumice in california is by Chestennan (1956). the lower member of the Pleistocene Bandelier Those deposits having a history of utilization Tuff and may attain thicknesses as great as 70 include both subaerial and subaqueous depos­ feet with little or no overburden. Past pro­ its, ranging in size from a few thousand tons duction has also taken place from tuffaceous to many hundredS of thousands of tons. The units near Gr"ants, west of Albuquerque. Minor

61 pumiceous rhyolite are often associated with use in lightweight applications of portland the pum ice deposits of Figure 6. Pumiceous cement concrete and concrete masonry units. rhyolites can be found in all the southwestern Pumice is the lightest of the three natural I states, but the only production currently is lightweights, is very porous and, correspond­ in N3vada and Arizona. ingly, has the lowest physical strength. Vol­ n Nevada, the largest producer, has three canic cinder is intermediate in weight, highly active pumiceous rhyolite deposits. Near " porous, but generally, has good strength. Reno, in northern Nevada, two producers are Pumiceous rhyolite is heavier than pumice, and minin;] from rholitic domes. The Reno area is stronger, and, as a rule, heavier than cinder by far the largest utilizer of pumiceous but has a lower absorption. These basic n rhyolites, the value of these deposits having characteristics of the three materials, as j been recognized over 25 years ago. Some of well as others not discussed, govern the ulti­ r this material is shipped into nearby Sacra­ mate proportions and usage of the aggregates mento, California. A third producer in N3vada in the end product, but all are employed in t is located just south of Las Vegas, where a the manufacture of lightweight construction n tuff breccia unit is being mined. In both Las materials. Vegas and Reno, the material is used in both The outlook for increased usage of these j concrete masonry units and portland cement natural lightweights should continue to im­ 1 concrete. prove as population and the construction in­ n Arizona has one producing pumiceous dustries of the SJuthwest expand. The oppor­ a rhyolite deposit, a tuff breccia unit approx­ tunity exists for some previously exploited imately 60 miles east of Phoenix. Here the resources to regain a market and for hertofore n material is primarily used as a lightweight unrecognized resources, especially the pumi­ r aggregate in concrete masonry units, but has ceous rhyolites, to be developed. Pumiceous n been occasionally utilized in portland cement rhyolites may have the greatest potential for s concrete as well. increased utilization as a lightweight aggre­ s New Mexico contains several young rhyo­ gate as they have been the least recognized e litic domes containing pumiceous rhyolite that for this purpose. have potential for use as a lightweight aggre­ r gate. Some effort has been made to put a s deposit located near a major metropolitan area n into production, but conflicting land usage ) precluded this possibility. California contains abundant pumiceous REFERENCES rhyolite, both in domes and as tuff breccia n units. No significant production has taken Chesterman, C. W., 1956, Pumice, pumicite, and place. There was an effort recently, however, volcanic cinders in California: Califor­ 1 to put a deposit located near a major metro­ nia Division of Mines Bulletin 174, 119 n politan area into production, but conflicting p., 4 plates. n land usage again precluded this possibility. Keith, S. B., 1969, Basalt and related rocks, in Mineral and water rerources of Arizona, Conclusion Arizona Bureau of Mines Bulletin 180, p. 315-320. Natural lightweight volcanic aggregates ______~_' 1969, Pumice and pumicite, in Min­ are attaining greater application in the eral and water resources of Arizona: Southwest primarily due to their recognized Arizona Bureau of Mines Bulletin 180, p. 1 econom ic benefi ts to the construction indus­ 407-412. try, the rise in energy costs over the last Whi tson, D. N., 1982, Geology of the perlite r decade, and the identification of new natural deposit at No Agua Peaks, New Mexico, in lightweight resources. Austin, G. S., ed., Industrial rocks and The geology and physical characteristics minerals of the Southwest: New Mexico of the NLA discussed here impart certain Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, s unique properties that make them suitable for Circular 182, p. 89-95.

63 occurrences of pumice have been reportoo else­ Smaller amounts of cinder have been pro­ where in the state. Pumice is currently being duced from other mafic volcanic fields in produced from a deposi t near Flagstaff in Arizona includirYJ the White Mountains near the Northern Arizon~ where extensive pumiceous eastern border, and the san Bernardino Valley tuff units are a part of the San Francisco in the extreme southeast corner of the state. volcanic field. Production is shipped primar­ Nearly all production of volcanic cinder in ily to the Phoenix area. Minor production Arizona has been from Quaternary cinder cones. also comes from a deposit approximately 25 Further information concerning volcanic cinder miles east of safford and is usoo locally. in Arizona is described by Keith (1969); see Nevada currently has no pumice production. Welty and Spencer - this volume. In the past, minor production came from two California volcanic cinder production tuffaceous deposits near Fallon, in Churchill comes from deposits in both the northern and Cbunty, in the west central part of the state. southern parts of the state. Isolatoo cinder Pumice deposits in Nevada are limited to the cones at Little Lake in southern Inyo Cbunty, western portion of the state and tend to be and at Pisgah Crater in the Mojave Desert very limited in aerial extent and generally of furnish lightweight aggregate for the SOuthern low quality. This is in contrast to the other California market. In Northern California, three SOuthwestern states that have large, cinder comes from the extensive volcanic field high quality pumice reserves. stretchirYJ from near Lassen Volcanic National Park north to the Oregon border, and from isolated cinder cones in the Clear Lake area Volcanic Cinders in lake Cbunty, north of san Francisco. The extensive volcanic field from Lassen Volcanic cinder is prooucoo in all four of north contains considerable reserves of cinder the states in the southwest as shown in Figure in at least a hundred cones. In southern 7. Current production far exceeds that of California additional isolated cinder cones pumice because cinder is utilized in more can be found from Mono Lake south into Owens applications and is more abundant. Volcanic Valley and at Amboy in the central Mojave cinder in many localities is used not only as resert. A small mafic volcanic field at Cima, a 'lightweight aggregate, but also as roadbase close to the Nevada border, has several cinder and fill material where other traditional cones with some material beirYJ shipped to Las sources of construction materials, such as Vegas for use as lightweight aggregate in sand and gravel, are lacking. Cinder occurs concrete masonry units. Chesterman (1956) in great quantities in all four of the states describes in detail many of the cinder depos­ in the southwest. SOme of the larger volcanic its of California. fields contain hundreds of cinder cones while Volcanic cinder in New Mexico has been isolated cones are also found as part of most recently discussed by OSburn (1982). The smaller, widely-distributed mafic eruptions. majority of the production comes from several Tbtal production in the western United cinder cones in an extensive volcanic field in States is probably on the order of many mil­ the northeast corner of the state in union lions of tons. This is difficult to pinpoint, Cbunty. Here the material is mined and ship­ however, because U.S. Bureau of Mines statis­ ped by rail to several nearby states for use tics often includes cinder production, because in lightweight aggregate applications. These of its use, with crushed stone. California are the most easterly exploitable cinder de­ and Arizona are the largest producers of vol­ posits in the country. Other lightweight canic cinders for all applications. Tbtal aggregates are minoo near santa Fe, Albuquer­ production in Arizona of cinder is probably in que, and northwest of EI Paso, Texas. All excess of 500,000 tons per year. California production comes from Quaternary cinder cones. ranks next in production for lightweight The smallest producer of volcanic cinder applications at slightly under the same ton­ in the SOuthwest is Nevada. Only two depos­ nage, followed by New Mexico, with approx­ its, both Quaternary, are currently in produc­ imately 150,000 tons, and lastly, Nevada, with tion; one being near Lathrop Wells in Nye less than 50,000 tons. The number of active Cbunty in southern Nevada, which furnishes operations varies from 15 in California to lightweight aggregate for a concrete block only two in Nevada. plant in Las Vegas, and the other near Carson The principal source of supply of volcanic City in northern Nevada, which occasionally cinder in Arizona is from the San Francisco furnishes material for use in lightweight volcanic field stretching from near Flagstaff, portland cement concrete. Nevada has fewer west to Ash Fbrk. At least seven deposits are cinder deposits than the other southwestern active in this area with most of the material states, and these are found as isolated cones, being produced for lightweight aggregate not large volcanic fields. applications and shipped south to the Phoenix area for use in lightweight concrete masonry Pumiceous Rhyolite units. The san Francisco volcanic field con­ tains literally hundreds of extrusive centers, The distribution of pumiceous rhyolite is many of which are volcanic cinder cones. shown in Figure 8. Rhyolitic domes containing

62 Acquisition of Federally Owned Industrial Minerals

Teny S. Maley U.S. Bureau of Land Management Idaho state Office 3380 Americana Terrace Ebise, ID 83706

ABS1W\Cr Table 1. Methods of acquisition of most federally owned industrial minerals. Federally owned mineral deposits generally fall into one of three categories: (1) minerals locatable under the General Mining

Law of 1872; (2) minerals leasable under the A. All "valuable mineral depJsitsll rot excluied below. Mineral leasing Act of 1920; and (3) minerals B. see V. B. salable under the Materials Act of 1947. c. EXanples: Alunite, Asbestos, Barium minerals, Bauxitic raw minerals, Unlike valuable deposits of gold, silver, Chromite, Diamooos, Diatomite, EXceptional clay, Feldspars, Flwrspar, Glauconite, Gr"aphite, Q1psum and anhydrite, Kyanite copper, iron, lead, etc., which may be locat­ and related minerals, Lithium raw materials, Ma:;lOesite aoo able, industrial minerals are acquired through related minerals, Manganese, Mica, IIepheline Syenite, Olivine, Pyrophyllite, Rare Earths am 'Ihorium, Silica an:j Silioon, a variety of methods depending on use, com­ Staurolite, SUlfur, 'I~l1c, Titanium minerals, Vermiculite, Wollastonite, Zeolites, (dependifX,J on chemistry, sane are position, and date of acquisition. Table 1 leasable) may be used to establish the method of acqui­ sition for most industrial minerals. II. MINERAlS ~ ~ A. Widespread minerals of low unit value aoo used for ordinary purrnses. B. see V. A. 2. REVIEW OF '!HE FEIERAL MINING lAWS C. EXamples:'" crdinary clay; Peat; Material used for fill, levees, am ballast Ebr almost 200 years Cbngress has wrestled

with the problem of mineral disposal. As A. Before leasir-g act, rrost (except coal) were probably locatable. B. After leasil'1g" act, available only thrOl.gh lease, unless valid early as March 3, 1807 (2 stat. 448), a law existif'g rights. was passed that authorized leasing of lead C. EXamples: oil, gas, coal, bituninous materials, berates, mines. Most mineral lands were disposed of by .poosphate, p:Jtash, scx:liun, geothennal rerources a leasing arrangement until the Acts of July 11, 1846 (9 Stat. 37) and March 1, 1847 (9 A. Eefore Materials Pet of July 31, 1947, most defOsits were Stat. 146) authorized the sale of mineral lDlavailable tiOOer any system; after Materials Pet, they could be purchased. lands. B. Materials locatable lDltil July 23, 1955; then salable, unless In 1848 gold deposits were discovered in valid existif'g rights (see V. A. 1.. ). california. '!his stimulated tremendous con­ V. CDMMJN VARIE:rIES Acr MINERAlS (30 USC 611) troversies about how to dispose of Federal Sani, stone, gravel, punrce;-punicTEe,-orciooers A. G::mnon Varieties (row salable): minerals. Most of the controversy was between 1. Locatable until July 23, 1955 (see IV. B.) the Federal government and the State of 2. N=ver locatable (see IV. A.) B. Uncommon Varieties - to qualify, a mineral must satisfy one of California. Both sides proposed several the followil'1g": 1. Special use (because of intrinsic proJ?3rty givil'1g" distinct and schemes, inclu::Hng numerous proposals to tax special value) . 2. Higher price in the market (.because of intrinsic proJ?3rty the mines, lease mineral lands, and sell givirg distinct arx:1 special value) . mining permits. California miners preferred 3. lower prcx:iuction cost, so higher profit (because of intrinsic that the state rather than the Federal govern­ property givif'g distinct anj special value) . ment administer the disposal of minerals. All through this period of controversy, rules and regulations proposed and established by the Q.1ly one location up to 200 feet in length was miners allowed a reasonable amount of stabil­ allowed along each lode or vein. Payment for ity in the mining camps. These ordinances patent of lode claims was $2.50 per acre. established a location system based on speci­ The Act of July 9, 1870 (16 Stat. 217) fying claim size, location procedure, and work amended the Act of July 26, 1866 to include required to hold a claim. placer locations. It limited placer locations The Act of July 26, 1866 (14 Stat. 251) to a maximum of 160 acres and required that was based on the rules and regulations in such locations conform to legal subdivisions common use by the miners. Not only did this on surveyed lands. Valid placer claims could law establish a single set of mining require­ be patented upon payment of $2.50 per acre. ments, but it also provided a means for the The General Mining Law of May 10, 1872, miners to obtain legal title to a mining claim replaced much of the 1866 and 1870 mining upon expenditure of at least $1,000 per claim. acts. Although the 1872 mining law has been The act declared all mineral lands owned by amended many times, it still remains sur­ the public open to exploration and location. prisingly intact after more than 100 years.

64 The 1872 law authorized placer- and lode-­ tical to discuss which minerals are definitely mining claims, mill sites, and tunnel sites of notlocatable. The number of locatable min­ specific dimensions. At least $100 worth of eralsauthorizedby the. 1872 Mining Law has work was annually required on each claim to been substantially reduced by severalsubse­ maintain a possessory title. Placer claims, quent Federal laws. The Mineral Leasing Act lode claims, and mill sites could be patented of 1920, as amended, autlnrized that the fol­ upon expenditure of $500 worth of work, pro­ l~wing deposi~s may be acquired only throU]h a vided the discovery requirements were met. mIneral-leasIng system: oil, gas, coal, The Mineral Leasing Act of February 25, p~tassium, sodium, phosphate, oil shale, na­ 1920 (41 stat. 437) provided that deposits of tIve asphalt, solid and semisolid bitumen and coal, phosphate, oil, oil shale, gas, and bituminous rock including oil-impregnated rock sodium could be acquired only throU]h competi­ or s~nds from which oil is recoverable only by tive and noncompetitive leasing systems. The specIal treatment after the deposit is mined Act of April 17, 1926 (44 Stat. 301) made or quarried, and sulphur deposits in LOuisiana sulphur in public lands in New Mexico and and N3w Mexico. The Materials Act of July 31, Louisiana subject to the 1920 Leasing Act. 1947 (61 Stat. 681), amended by the Act of The Act of February 7, 1927 (44 Stat. 1057) July 23, 1955 (69 Stat. 367), excluded common authorized that chlorides, sulphates, car­ varieties of sand, stone, gravel, pumice, bonates, borates, silicates, or nitrates of pumicite, cinders, and clay; however, uncommon potash be included as leasable minerals. '!he varieties of sand, stone, gravel, pumice, Materials Act of July 31, 1947 (61 stat. 681) pumicite, cinders, and exceptional clay are authorized disposal of sand, stone, gravel, locatable. The Act of September 28, 1962 (76 and common clay throU]h a contract of sale. Stat. 652) removed petrified wood from the locatable-mineral category. Before the Materials Act of 1947 and the Minerals Locatable Under the Mining Laws Act of JUly 23, 1955 were enacted, many min­ eral materials were never locatable even Federal mining laws (30 usc sec. 22) state thoU]h they could be marketed at a profit. In the following: fact, the Materials Act of 1947 was enacted to Except as otherwise provided, all provide a means to dispose of them. Material valuable mineral deposits in lands in the category includes ordinary deposits of belonging to the United States, both clay, limestone, fill material, etc. Non­ surveyed and unsurveyed, shall be locatable minerals generally have a normal free and open to exploration and quality and a value for ordinary uses. In purchase •••• Holman et ale V. State of utah, 41 LD 314 If valuable mineral deposits are locat­ (1912), the question of whether clay was a able, what then is a "valuable mineral depos­ locatable mineral was considered: it"? The Federal regulations 43 CFR 3812.1 It is not the understanding of the define a locatable mineral in this way: Department that Congress has in­ Whatever is recognized as a mineral tended that lands shall be withdrawn by the standard authorities, whether or reserved from general disposi­ metallic or other substance, when tion, or that title thereto may be found in public lands in quantity acquired under the mining laws, and quality sufficient to render the merely because of the occurrence of lands valuable on account thereof, clay or limestone in such land, even is treated as coming within the thoU]h some use may be made commer­ purview of the mining laws. cially of such materials. There are Although this definition of a locatable vast deposits of each of these mineral is somewhat vague, it could undoubted­ materials underlying great portions ly be applied to almost any mineral that has of the arable land of this coun­ sufficient value to be extracted and marketed try•••• at a profit. Because of this value require­ other Federal court and departmental decisions ment, there is no such thing as a list of have found that such minerals as decomposed locatable minerals. For example, some rhyolite, windblown sand, peat moss, and sand deposits of gold, uranium, and gemstones are and gravel, if suitable only as fill, soil valuable, whereas other deposits are not. conditioners, or other low-value purposes, Whether or not a particular mineral deposit is were never locatable. locatable depends, therefore, on such value­ influencing factors as quality, quantity, Lands Open to Exploration minability, demand, marketability, etc. The mining law states that "except as Minerals Nbt Locatable otherwise provided, all valuable mineral de­ posits in lands belonging to the United Rather than attempting to establish which States, both surveyed and unsurveyed, shall be minerals are locatable, it may be more prac- free and open to exploration and purchase, by claims are located on unsurveyed lands. If fore, is more easily and cheaply effected than the claims conform to such legal subdivisions, a lode location and more secure from rival no further surveyor plat is required for claimants. patent. On unsurveyed land and in certain situations, placer claims may be located by Mill Sites metes and bounds. J:ib location for a placer claim may exceed The Federal requirements for mill sites 20 acres for each individual who participates. are set forth in 30 USC Sec. 42 and 43 CFR An association of two locators, however, may 3844. Mill-site locations shall not exceed 5 locate 40 acres; three may locate 60 acres; acres in size. The land under location must and so on. The maximum area that may be be nonrnineral and noncontiguous to the vein or embraced by a single placer claim is 160 acres lode. Although a mill site may adjoin the and such a claim must be located by an associ­ side lines of a lode-mining claim, it is un­ ation of at least eight persons. aorporations likely that lands adjoining the end lines are limited to 20-acre claims. A 20-acre would be either nonrnineral or noncontiguous to placer claim might be described as being in N the vein. 1/2 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 sec. 5, T. 5 N., R. 3 W., The Federal law authorizes three general Eoise Meridian. categories of mill sites: uncommon varieties of building stone may be located with placer-type claims pursuant to 1. A mill may be located if needed by the the Act of August 4, 1892 (27 stat. 348; 30 owner of a lode-mining claim for mining and USC Sec. 161). The law requires that milling purposes. Such a mill site may be building-stone placers may be located only on patented with the associated lode claim and is lands "that are chiefly valuable for building subject to the same survey, notice require­ stone." The Act of July 23, 1955 (69 Stat. ments, and charges that apply to lode claims. 367; 30 USC Sec. 611) withdrew common varie­ 2. The Act of March 18, 1960 authorized the ties of building stone from entry under the location of a mill site if needed by the owner mining laws. of a placer claim for mining, milling, proc­ essing, beneficiation, or other operations in Lode Versus Placer connection with such a claim. Such a mill site may be patented with the aSq

67 citizens of the united states and those who patent or disposal, the reserved minerals are have declared their intention to become such." not open to location of mining claims. For (Act of May 10, 1872; 17 Stat. 91; 30 USC 22.) example, reserved minerals in patents issued Public lands belonging to the United under the Recreation and Public Purposes Act States are open to entry under the General (43 USC 869) are not open to mineral location. Mining Laws .unless particular lands have been The only exception to this rule is where the withdrawn by congressional authority or by an statute authorizing the disposal specifically executive authority either expressed or provides that the reserved minerals are sub­ implied. [Lockhart v. Johnson, 181 us 516 ject to the mining laws, as does the Stock (1901).] - Raising Homestead Act of 1916. [City of Mining claims may be located on unre­ Phoenix v. Reeves, 14 IBLA 315, 327-28 served, unappropriated lands administered by (1974).] the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), U.S. Department of the Interior and or unreserved, Types of Claims and Sites unappropriated public-domain lands in national forests administered by the Forest Service, The mining law authorizes four types of U.S. Department of AJriculture. Mining loca­ appropriations: lode claims, placer claims, tions may be made in the States of Alaska, mill sites, and tunnel sites. Each type has Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, its own method of location and purpose. Florida, Idaho, Louisiana, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, IDrth Lode-Mining Claims Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washing­ ton, and Wyoming. [43 CFR 3811.2-1(a).] Lode-mining claims may be located upon Lands patented under the Stockraising discovery of a vein or lode "of quartz or fbmestead Law or ot~er land-disposal laws that other rock in place bearing gold, silver, reserved locatable minerals to the United cinnabar, lead, tin, copper, or other valuable States are subject to mineral location. The deposits" (30 USC Sec. 23). A lode claim may mineral reservation in the patent separates not exceed 1,500 feet in length along the the land into a surface estate and a subsur­ course of the vein or lode, nor extend more face mineral estate. The mineral estate is than 300 feet at the surface along either of subject to location under the general mining side of the middle of the vein. The dimensions laws in the same manner as are vacant, unap­ of a lode-mining claim, therefore, must not propriated public lands. The surface owner, exceed a parallelogram 1,500 feet in length by however, is entitled to compensation for any 600 feet in width. Federal law also requires damages reSUlting from exploration or mining. that the end lines of each claim be parallel to each other. Lands Closed to IDeation Federal regulations (43 Cr'R 3841-5) speci­ fy that certain information must be contained The national parks and national monuments in the location notice. The course and dis­ are closed to mining location; however, valid tance from the discovery shaft on the claim to mining claims that were in effect when a some permanent, well-known object, such as national park or monument was established are stone monuments, blazed trees, confluence of entitled to certain grandfather rights. streams, intersection of roads and prominent Indian reservations, military reservations, mountains, must be described as accurately as most reclamation projects, Federal wildlife practicable. Survey monuments such as brass­ refuges, and land segregated under the Classi­ cap section corners are excellent markers, fication and MUltiple Use Act are generally especially because the Federal law (30 USC closed to mining location. Sec. 23) requires that the location of the Numerous land withdrawals and land classi­ claims must be designated with reference to fications have served to segregate the public the lines of the public survey if such claims lands from mineral location and entry. Before are on surveyed lands. It is not necessary, a mining claim is located, the pUblic land however, that the claims conform to the records of the Bureau of Land Management public survey. R>st or stone monuments should should be examined to determine if the area of be established at the corners of the claim to interest is available for mineral entry. A mark the claim boundaries. mineral location on lands segregated from mineral entry would not only be a waste of Placer-Mining Claims time and money, but would also be an unautho­ rized trespass. Placer claims may be located for "all forms of deposit, excepting veins of quartz or Reserved Minerals IDt Subject to other rock in place" (30 USC Sec. 35). All Mining Law Without specific Authority placer-mining claims must conform as closely as practicable with the U. S. system of It is well established that where locat­ public-land surveys and the rectangular sub­ able minerals are reserved in a Federal land divisions of such surveys, even though the

66 Statutory Definition of Discovery presently operating at a profi t. In Barrows The Act of May 10, 1872 (30 USC 22) states ~ Hickel, 447 I!'2d 80, 82 (9th Cir. 1971) the that " ••• all valuable mineral deposits in Court said that "actual successful exploita­ lands belonging to the Oni ted States ••• shall tion of a mining claim is not required to be free and open to exploration and pur­ satisfy the 'prudent-man test'~' chase ...." Although the statutes do not prescribe a ~ of Discovery test for determining what constitutes a dis­ covery of a valuable mineral deposit, the Worked-out claims do not qualify as valid department (BLM) and the courts have estab­ mining claims. Although a mining claim may lished a test through almost a century of have been valid in the past because of dis­ decisions. These decisions seem to assume covery of a valuable de[Osit of mineral on the that Cbngress intended that "valuable mineral claim, the claim will lose its validity if the deposits" be valuable in an economic sense or mineral deposit ceases to be valuable because could be worked as a paying mine. A profit­ of the change in economic conditions, or the able mining operation has always been con­ mineral deposit is depleted. sidered as the best evidence of the discovery of a valuable mineral deposit. Discovery in Each Claim

No Discovery If Deposit Warrants In contest proceedings involving more than ­ Additional ExPIoration one claim, the test of discovery is applied to each claim individually, because "( a) discov­ It is a common pitfall for a claimant or ery without the limits of the claim, no matter suffice~ his expert witness to reveal at the hearing what its proximity, does not ~Hammer, that the deposit is mineralized to the extent [Waskey 223 US 85,91 (1912)]. In that it justifies additional exploration or order to be valid each claim in a claim group prospecting to find a commercial deposit. The must have a discovery within its boundaries. hearing officer considers this to be an admis­ Under certain circumstances, however, the sion by the claimant that there is no dis­ government has taken a broad look at this covery,but simply evidence that one may requirement. For example, in the case of exist. This does not meet the present court large, low-grade, prophyry-copper deposits interpretation of discovery that requires that that by necessity require hundreds of claims a valuable mineral deposit has been found and to cover the mineralized area, it is obvious is ready for development and mining. With a that anyone claim could not stand by itself discovery, no more prospecting or exploration as a paying mine. The entire deposit must be work to find the deposit would be necessary. available in order to be economically feasi­ Numerous recent departmental and court ble. In acknowledging this fact, the govern­ decisions have held that in order to qualify ment has issued mining patents on numerous as a discovery it must be established that the such claims. mineral deposit can be mined and sold at a validity at Date of Withdrawal profit and the development and mining opera­ and Date of HearJ:n;j tions may proceed with rearonable confidence. If the deposit requires additional exploration When land is closed to location under the to delineate the ore reserves and determine mining laws subsequent to the location of a grade or quality before development may be mining claim, the claim cannot be recognized confidently started, a discovery has not been as valid unless all requirements of the mining made. laws, including discovery of a valuable min­ eral deposit, were met at the time of the paying-Mine Need To Be Demonstrated withdrawal and at the time of the hearing. [U.s.~Netherlin, 33 IBLA 86 (1977).] Where Although a mining claimant may be required land occupied by a mining claim has been with­ to demonstrate that he has what could be de­ drawn from operation of the mining laws, the veloped into a profitable mine under present validity of the claim must be tested by the economic conditions, it is not required that value of the mineral deposit as of both the he demonstrate a paying mine as an accomplish­ date of the withdrawal, and the hearing. ed fact. In Adams v. U.s., 318 F2d 861 (9th [U.s. ~ Chappell, 42 IBLA 74 (1979).] Even Cir. 1963) the Cburtstated: though there may have been a discovery at the "Discovery of a valuable mineral time of the withdrawal or sane other time in deposit within the limits of each the past, a mining claim cannot be considered claim is essential but value, in the valid unless the claim is at present supported sense of proved ability to mine the by a discovery. A loss of discovery, either deposit at a profit, need not be through exhaustion of minerals, changes in srown." economic conditions, or other circumstances, Undoubtedly though, the most convincing demon­ results in loss of the location. [U.s. v. stration of a valid discovery would be a mine Wichner, 35 IBLA 240 (1978).] -- -

69 parties after the tunnel is started for lodes The Location Notice that are not apparent at the surface but are within the area claimed by the tunnel locator Most States have laws that provide de­ are invalid. The miner is entitled to locate tailed procedures for posting and recording. lode claims to cover the veins intersected by Individual state requirements should be the tunnel; however, if work on the tunnel checked frequently because state law is ceases for 6 months, the tunnel locator amended from time to time. Regardless of abandons all rights to undiscovered veins on whether or not a particular state requires a the line of the tunnel. location notice to be posted and recorded, it A notice of location must be posted on is prudent to do so to make one's interest in the monument at the tunnel entrance and filed the claim a matter of public record. in the county recorder's office of the county Because monuments placed in the field are in which the tunnel is located. The notice of easily lost or destroyed, a copy of the loca­ location should include the following informa­ tion notice should be recorded in the county tion: (1) names of the locators; (2) actual recorder's office of the county in which the or proposed direction of the tunnel, including claim is located as soon as possible, even tunnel height and width, and (3) distance from though individual states may allow up to the entrance to some established survey several months. In Alaska the recording monument or well-known permanent object. office is under the District Magistrate. Location Procedure Although the information that must be included on a location notice varies from Before locating a claim, one should verify State to State, the following are usually that the lands of interest are open to mineral required: (1) date of location; (2) name of location by examining the land-status maps and claim; (3) name of locator(s); (4) type of records at the Bureau of Land Management. claim (placer or lode); (5) mineral or min­ Unpatented claims are recorded in the county erals claimed; (6) distance claimed along recorder's office of the county in which the strike of vein from discovery monument to each claim is located. There are four basic steps end line; (7) direction of vein; (8) length to location procedure: (1) discovery of a and width of claim; (9) portion of section, valuable mineral deposit; (2) marking the township, and range and total acreage (for boundaries of a claim on the ground; (3) placer claims located by legal subdivision), posting and recording the location notice with and (10) give the distance and direction from the county recorder and the BLM; and (4) dis­ discovery or corner monument to a fixed place covery work if required by state law. such as a brass-cap section corner or to a The appropriate state law should be con­ well-known natural object or landmark such as sulted to determine monument specifications, a mountain, road intersection, or stream con­ manner of monumenting, information required in fluence. the location notice, and recording require­ It is extremely important that the record­ ments. ed location notice has an accurate description of the claim location. Many claims have such Marking Claim Boundaries a vague description that they could exist anywhere over a large area. A big problem in Federal law requires that "the location connection with such a claim is that it could must be distinctly marked on the ground so be moved to overlap a subsequent discovery in that its boundaries can be readily traced" (30 the vicinity. Because such claims, often usc Sec. 28). Each State generally has de­ referred to as "floating claims", record an tailed statutory requirements for marking earlier location date, they could present a claim boundaries. Most states require that a serious threat to the locator of a new dis­ monument of specific dimensions and materials covery. be placed at each corner of the claim. Placer Many States provide a procedure to file an claims located by legal subdivision generally amended location notice and still retain the do not require corner monuments. Materials original location date if the earlier location used for monuments include posts, blazed notice contains a minor defect. Such correc­ trees, and piled rocks; however, the most tions generally involve adjustments of the common monument by far is the 4-inch-square claim boundaries or reorientation of the claim post. to align it more with the trend of the vein. It is very important to mark the claim section 314 of the Federal Land :EQlicy and boundaries clearly with durable monuments Management Act requires recordation of the because the position of the monument on the location notice with the State office of the ground will generally prevail over the record­ Bureau of Land Management within 90 days of ed description. The more difficult it is to the date of location. A copy of the same move or destroy a monument, the less likely notice must also be recorded with the appro­ the claim will be overstaked. It is prefer­ priate county recorder's office within 60 to able to overlap claims slightly rather than to 90 days of the date of location. One should omit desired land unintentionally. consult state law for the prescribed period.

68 Exposure of New Reserves or Increase Essentially, in Coleman the Court deter­ in MineraJLPrice after Withdrawal mined that nonmetallic minerals of widespread occurrence must be marketable at a profit. If a discOl1ery did not exist on a claim at Although the Court said the prudent man test the date of withdrawal, a later discovery and the marketability test are complementary, established by subsequent mineral exposures or this is difficult to reconcile because the rise in mineral commodity prices would not prudent man test implies prospective profita­ give a claim validity at the date of a hear­ bility, whereas the marketability test implies ing • present profitability.

The Marketability Test Marketability at ~ Profit

The marketability test has been followed Many recent Department of Interior and by the Department of the Interior since Layman Federal court decisions have required market­ v. Ellis, 52 LD 714 (1929). The application ability at a profit. In U.S. v. Coleman, 390 of the test was expressly upheld in Foster ~ US 599 (1968), the supreurr.e-Court held that Seaton, 271 F2d 836 (DC Cir. 1959). It was "profitability is an important consideration further approved by the Supreme Court as a in applying the prudent man test.•.•" In complement to the prudent person test in u.s. Roberts v. Morton, 549 F2d 158 (lOth Cir. v. Coleman, 390 US 602 (1968), which pointed 1977), theCourt also indicated that market­ out that"profi tabili ty is an important con­ ability at a profit is relevant to a claim for sideration when applying the prudent-man precious metals. test." See also, Converse v. Udall, 399 F2d 6Hj, 621 (9th Cir. 1968), cert."""dei1led, 393 US 1025 (1969), which indicate that the market­ Proof of profitable Market ability test is applicable to all mining Claims, including those containing precious In u.s. v. Gould, A-30990 (May 7, 196~ metals. the Department of Interior held that it ••••does not require a mining claimant to prove a discovery The Foster v. Seaton Case by showing that he is actually en­ gaged in profitable mining opera­ In Foster v. Seaton, supra at 838, the tions or even that profitable opera­ Cburt upheld the-requirement for present mar­ tions are assured, but it does re­ ketability followed by the Interior Department quire a showing of a prospect of since Layman v. Ellis, 52 ill 714 (1929): profit which is sufficient to invite with respect to widespread nonmetal­ reasonable men to expend their means lic minerals such as sand and gra­ in attempting to reap that profit by vel, however, the Department has extracting and marketing the min­ stressed the additional requirement eral, as distinguished from evidence of present marketability in order to of value which will entice men to prevent the misappropriation of invest their money only in gaining lands containing these minerals by control over land and holding it in persons seeking to acquire such the hope or expectation that at a lands for purposes other than min­ future date the land may be found to ing. Thus, such a "mineral locator be valuable for the minerals which or applicant, to justify his posses­ it contains. sion, must show that by reason of In Barrows v. Hickel, 447 F2d 80, 82 (9th accessibility, rona fides in devel­ Cir. 1971), the Court held that "actual suc­ opment, proximity to market, exis­ cessful exploitation of a mining claim is not tence of present demand, and other required to satisfy the prudent man test." factors, the deposit is of such value that it can be mined, removed Amount of Profit and disposed of at a profit." [Layman ~ Ellis, 54 ID 294, 296 One of the most common questions by (1933) .] claimants concerning the profitability re­ quirement is how much profit is necessary to The Coleman Case validate a claim. In several interesting cases the Interior Department addressed the In U.S. v. Coleman, supra, Mr. Justice profitability requirement in terms of the Black, speaking for a unanimous Supreme Cburt, amount of profit necessary to establish a approved the requirement of the secretary that discovery. In U~. v. Barrows, A-31023 "the mineral can be 'extracted, removed and (November 28, 1969), the Board held that a marketed at a profit' - the so-called 'mar­ profit as low as $245 per year would not ketability test'" (390 US at 600, 602-603). satisfy the prudent man test of discovery.

70 In U.s. v. Penrose, 10 IBLA 334 (1973) the the Interior Department's requirement con­ B::>ard indicated that although a sale of $1.00 cerning the presumption of invalidity where could represent a profit to a claimant, it claims were held several years with no devel­ would not meet the prudent-person test. opment. The

Presently Marketable at a In Rodgers v. U.S., 726 F2d 1376, 1379 Profit: New Definition (9th Cir. 1984) ,It was held that "although lack of actual marketing of the mineral by the The Interior Board of Land Appeals has claimant may be relevant to the question of significantly refined the prooent-person test marketability, it is not conclusive proof of by defining "presently marketable at a profit" invalidity of claim. And on the same point, to mean that the claimant "must stow that as a the Court in Barrows v. Hickel, 447 F2d 80, 82 present fact, considering historic price and (9th Cir. 1971) said that "actual successful cost factors and assuming that they will con­ eXploitation of a mining claim is not required tinue, there is a reasonable likelihood of to satisfy the "prudent man test." In Rodgers success that a paying mine can be developed." ~ U.s., supra, the Court apparently accepted [In re Pacific Coast Molybdenum, 78 IBLA 16, a lack of sales because the claimants "needed 29;" 90 I.D. 352 (1983).] This new definition to accumulate an inventory before breaking was made in response to large fluctuations in into foreign market." mineral commodity prices that occurred during the preceding five years. Now a claimant is Proof of Ev idence of Sales Records not stuck with the latest market price of a commodity, but instead may average prices over In a number of Interior Department and an appropriate period of time. The Board, Federal court cases, it has been held that it however, did caution that "situations can is the responsibility of the claimant to main­ occur in which structural economic changes or tain adequate business records relating to technological breakthroughs invalidate his­ both sales of the mineral product and costs of torical conditions as a guide to present mar­ production. ketabil i ty." For example, mineral prices U.S. v. Arbo, 70 IBLA 244 (1983) is an elevated artificially by Government price excellent-example of where a claimant had no supports would not be relevant to the question record of sales. Although the appellant sup­ of present marketability. Also the possibil­ plied a number of receipts in:l icating sales of ity that a future stockpiling program might gold to several different companies, he was someday be initiated would be "essentially not able to show the costs of producing the speculative and could not serve as a predicate gold or even to document that the gold came upon which a prudent man would have proceeded from the contested claim. It is not uncommon to expend time and money with a reasonable for the owner of a placer-gold claim to have a hope of success." [Id at 30.] poor record of receipts in sane cases because Market Too Small for Profitable operation the gold is recovered in a highly marketable condition and there may be a temptation to In U.S. v. Husman, 81 IBLA 271, 278 market the gold in such a manner as to avoid (1984), the B::>ard determined that there was a income taxes. However, as the Board points market for chemical-grade (locatable) lime­ out below, you cannot have it both ways, ie., stone; however, this market could not support get credit for sales in a contest action for an operation of the size necessary to estab­ which there is no income tax record of sales. lish a profitable operation. Marketability Must Not Depend on Value Tenth Circuit Approves Presumption Added by Manufacture of Invalidity Where Lack of Development It is well established that marketability In U.s. v. Zweifel, 508 F2d 1150 (10th of a mineral must be based on the mineral in Cir. 1975), the Tenth Circuit Court approved its raw state rather than depend on value

71 added by manufacture. In U.S. v. Mansfield, as building stone, sand and gravel, bentonite, 35 IBLA 95 (1978), it was held that "any silica sand, pumice, perlite and many other determination of the value of the contestee's construction materials. In Barrows v. Hickel, claims, must rest on the marketability of the 447 F2d 80 (9th Cir. 1971), the court said at obsidian in its rough form and not upon any 83: enhanced value from subsequent processing or The marketability test requires craft work." claimed materials to possess value as of the time of their discovery. Marketing of Cbmparable Material IDeations based on speculation that from other Claims there may at some future date be a market for the discovered material In Melluzzo v. Morton, 534 F2d 860, 863 cannot be sustained. What is re­ (9th Cir. 1976~ the court held that a quired is that there be at the time "claimant need not rely on his own successful of discovery, a market for the dis­ marketing efforts to prov 1" marketability of covered material that is sufficient­ his material. If the successful marketing by ly profitable to attract the efforts others has sufficiently established that the of a person of ordinary prudence. claimant's comparable material is itself mar­ In Baker v. U.s., 613 F2d 224 (9th Cir. ketable, that can suffice." It should be 1980), the Court held that the Board's appli­ pointed out that in this case the Court was cation of the excess reserves rule exceeded making reference as to how sales of material its discretionary and statutory powers, and by one claimant may establish marketability was arbitrary, capricious, and an abuse of for another claimant who has comparable discretion. Thus, the Court held that there material but no record of marketability. can be no such thing as an "excess reserves In Rodgers v. U.s., supra, the Cburt held test" or a "too much test." that the successful marketing by a claimant of In Oneida Perlite, 57 IBLA 167 (1981), the a gem material from one claim in a claim group Board gave a thorough review of the case law could satisfy marketability for the other on the subject of reserves for which there is claims that had comparable material. The no market. The Board defined "reasonable" Court also indicated that this concept of reserves as follows: comparable material would apply even though What amount of reserves is "reason-­ the market was already preempted by the pro­ able" is a determination to be de­ ducing claims and that there is an abundance cided on the basis of the evidence of comparable material from other sources in in each case. The nature of the the area. mineral, its unit value, the extent In Dredge Corp. v. Conn, 733 F2d 704, 707 of the market, and whether it is (9th Cir. 198~ft was held that "the expanding or diminishing, the amount claimant cannot rely solely on the fact that. of similar mineral which can supply comparable material is being marketed. that market from other sources, Rather, 'the claimant must establish that his might all bear on the question of material was of a quality that would have met whether the location of additional the existing demand, and that it was market­ claims for the same mineral was able at a profit.' Melluzzo v. Morton, supra justified as the act of a prudent at 863." Dredge Corp. v. Conn, supra at 707. man in the reasonable belief that by "Proof that neighboring claims are being mar­ the expenditure of his labor and keted is relevant to determining a claim's means a valuable mine might be de­ marketabili ty, but such proof alone does not veloped on each such claim. overcome evidence that the market was well The Board concluded its lengthy decision supplied. ••• Thus, even though comparable by giving the present status of the term claims are being mined, a new claim may be "excess reserve" and stating that the real unprofitable because the market has reached issue is marketability or economics. The such a point of saturation that a new entrant Board said: cannot make a profit." [Id at 707.] As hereinbefore indicated, a refer­ ence to "excess reserves" does not Prospective Market or Reserves describe a new rule of law invented With No Market by this Department, or a super­ imposition of a new test of a In many parts of the west, minerals sub­ claim's validity on the existing ject to the mining law are covered by large law. It is nothing more or less claim groups. Where such minerals are wide­ than a descriptive phrase applicable spread with vast reserves, it is not uncommon to a particular set of circumstan­ for the claims or claim groups to cover sub­ ces. It describes the location of stantially more reserves than the market could claims for far more land and mineral ever absorb. These materials tend to be non­ than reason and prtrlence v.Duld allow metallic minerals without intrinsic value such because there is such a superabun-

72 dance of the material that the mar­ Cbmmon and Uncommon Varieties ket simply cannot accept all of it at a profit. '!herefore , some of the deposits must be regarded as not Statutory Authority for Disposing valuable in an economic sense. '!his Common variety Minerals concern for excess reserves is rooted in the basic statute, 30 USC Section 601 of Title 30 of the United Sec. 22 (1976), and controlled by States Code authorizes the Secretary of the the "prudent man" test of discovery Interior to sell "common varieties" of "sand, as complemented by the requirement stone, gravel, pumice, pumicite, cinders and that the economic value of the clay." On July 23, 1955, Public Law 167 (69 deposit be measured by a determina­ Stat. 368; 30 USC 611) was passed to, among tion of whether it is presently other things, prohibit further location of marketable at a profit. In the common variety minerals. The Act stated in making of this determination, it is part: appropriate to consider the magni­ tude and sources of other supplies No deposit of common varieties of of that mineral to the same market. sand, stone, gravel, pumice, pumi­ cite, or cinders and no deposit of petrified wood shall be deemed a valuable mineral deposit within the Hypothetical Market at a Critical Date meaning of the mining laws of the United States so as to give effec­ tive validity to any mining claim The Act of July 23, 1955, as well as many hereafter located under such mining withdrawal actions have caused certain min­ laws. erals to no longer be open to location under the mining law. However, valid claims for However, the Act went on to provide for an such minerals existing at the date of the exception to "uncommon variety" minerals at 30 withdrawal remain valid so long as a discovery USC 611: existed then and continues to the present. Cbmmon varieties as used in sections When the united States investigates the 601, 603, and 611 to 615 of this validity of such claims, it is necessary to title does not include deposits of apply the marketability test at both the crit­ such materials which are valuable ical date and the present. In cases where because the deposit has some prop­ minerals from a claim were not being mined and erty giving it distinct and special marketed at the critical date, it must be value and does not include so-called determined whether or not the minerals, if "block pumice" which occurs in produced, could've been (theoretically) mar­ nature in pieces having one dimen­ keted • sion of two inches or more. Therefore, the statute clearly implies that "uncommon varieties" of such materials exist Cbntinuous C{)eration is not Required and are still locatable under the mining law. curing Critical Period Uncommon varieties are "valuable because the deposit has some property giving it dis­ In Charlestone Stone products Cb., Inc. v. tinct and special value ••••" Andrus, 553 F2d 1209 (9th Cir. 197~reversed As a basis for determining under what in part on other grounds, 436 US 604 (1978), circumstances a deposit of "sand, stone, gra­ the Court held that failure of a claimant to vel, pumice or cinders" may be located, the maintain continuous operations during a crit­ remainder of this chapter is primarily devoted ical period is not required for proving to what the Federal Cburts and Interior De­ validity of a claim. A "critical period" partment have interpreted too phrase "property refers to that period of time between the date giving it distinct and special value" to mean. of withdrawal and the present time during The Interior Department has attempted, which a showing of marketability must be main­ with little success, to define "common varie­ tained. ties" by regulation (43 CFR 3711.l(b»: In Rawls v. U.S., 566 F2d 1373 (1978), the "Cbmmon varieties" includes deposits Court held that"absence of sales in the which, althm.gh they may have value critical period, though relevant, will not for use in trade, manufacture, the alone support a finding of unmarketability and sciences, or in the mechanical or nondiscovery. When there is little or no ornamental arts, do not posses a evidence of pre-1955 sales, a court should distinct, special econanic value for consider costs of extraction, preparation and such use over and above the normal transport as well as the level of then­ uses of the general run of such existent market demand:' deposits. Mineral materials which

73 occur commonly shall not be deemed Unique Property Gives Special to be "common varieties" if a par­ Use or Higher Price in Market Place ticular deposit has distinct and special properties making it commer­ In U.s. Minerals Development Corp., 75 ID cially valuable for use in a manu­ 127~68), one of the early and important facturing, industrial, or processing common variety cases, the Board held that for operation. In the determination of a deposit to be an uncommon variety, it must commerc ial value, such factors may satisfy the following criteria: (1) The be considered as quality and quant­ deposit must have a unique property, (2) The ity of the deposit, geographical unique property must give the deposit a dis­ location, proximity to market or tinct and special value, (3) The value may be j;Dint of utilization, accessibility for some use to which ordinary varieties of to transportation, requirements for the mineral cannot be put, or (4) The material reasonable reserves consistent with must sell at a higher price than material in usual industry practices to serve other deposits without such property is existing or proposed manufacturing, sold. industrial, or processing facili­ ties, and feasible methods for min­ ing and removal of the material. Guidelines to Distinguish between Limestone suitable for use in the Cc:>rnrron And uncommon varieties production of cement, metallurgical or chern ical grade limestone, gypsum, In MCClarty v. Secretary of the Interior, and the like are not "common vari­ 408 F2d 907, 90S-(9th Cir. 1969~the Court eties." This subsection does not set forth standards to distinguish between relieve a claimant from any require­ common varieties and uncommon varieties of ments of the mining laws. material, thus approving u.s. Mineral Devel­ opment Corp., supra. The Cburt said at 908: Stone Versus Mineral or Element In the u.s. Minerals Development Corpora­ tion case, the Secretary, impelled by the Cbleman decision to breathe some life into the Because common varieties of sand, stone, building-stone statute, has defined guidelines gravel, pumice, pumicite or cinders generally for distinguishing between common varieties consist of an aggregate of two or more ele­ and uncommon varieties of building stone. ments and (or) minerals, the properties of These guidelines, as we discern them, are (1) each are not particularly significant. It is there must be a comparison of the mineral important to note that in this context we are deposit in question with other deposits of talking about minerals in the "scientific" such materials generally; (2) the mineral sense rather than the "legalll or lIeconomicll deposit in question must have a unique proper­ sense. In fact, it is quite uncommon for ty; (3) the unique property must give the minerals to be used in the scientific sense in deposit a distinct and special value; (4) if any Interior or court decision. Ibwever, in the special value is for uses to which ordi­ U.S. v. pier ce, 7 5 I D 27 0 (l 9 68 ); U.S. v. nary varieties of the mineral are put, the 'i3i:inkowski, 79 ID 47 (1972); and U.s. v. Bear; deposit must have some distinct and special 23 IBLA 378 (1976), the Board did use the value for such use; and (5) the distinct and special value must be reflected by the higher term IImineral" as a geOlogist would. price which the material commands in the mar­ As an example of how the Board made a ll ll ket place. distinctionn between "stone and IImineral in pierce, Bunkowski, and Beal, suppose that a mineral such as feldspar is extracted and used Lower Overhead and Greater profits for a particular purpose that requires its physical and (or) chemical properties. This In MCClarty ~ Secretary of the Interior, is not a common-variety situation regardless supra at 909, the Court suggested that the of whether the feldspar is mined as an indivi­ distinct and special value of a stone may not dual mineral or as granite (a stone or rock) be measurable by a comparison with the price containing several minerals such as mica and of other building stones; and that the unique quartz in addition to the mineral feldspar. property of the deposit might allow lower In general, if the rock is valuable for costs of mining and thus greater profits. only an individual mineral or element such as gold, silver, feldspar, mica, etc., it is not Intrinsic Factors Distinguished a common - variety question and 30 USC 611 from Extrinsic Factors does not apply; however, if the entire rock is used and the constituent elements or The Interior Board of Land Appeals had minerals are relatively unimportant, then 30 held in a number of cases that unique proper­ USC 611 may apply. ties that give a deposit a distinct and spe-

74 cial value must be inherently intrinsic to the Cbmparable Deposits Marketed by Others deposit. Extrinsic factors such as scarcity, proximity to market, value added by manufac­ Melluzzo v. Morton, 534 F2d 860 (9th Cir. ture or marketing techniques and other ex­ 1976) gives authority to prove marketability ternal factors unrelated to the deposit itself where successful marketing by others has are not counted towards giving a deposit a established that the claimant's undeveloped distinct and special value. but comparable material is marketable.

Immense Quantities Indicate Common Variety Unique Properties Distinguished from High Quality Material In U.s. v. Coleman, supra at 603-604, the United States Supreme Cburt said "we believe Even though the material on a claim is of that the Secretary of the Interior was••• a better quality than other material found correct in ruling that in view of the immense generally in the area, the IEpartment has held quantities of identical stone found in the in several cases that the fact that deposits area outside the claims, the stone must be may have characteristics superior to those of considered a common variety." other deposits (but do not give it special and distinct value) does not make them an uncommon Stone In Question Must Be Compared variety so long as they are used only for the Wi th COOlmon varietIeS - same purposes as other deposits that are wide­ ly and readily available. [U.S. v. Guzman, 81 ID 685 (1974); U.S. v. Hare""D5er~ 9 IBLA 77 In U.s. v. vaughn, 56 IBLA 247 (1981), the (1973).] ----- Board held that"it is a prerequisite for an adequate comparison that the stone in question Aggregates of Profits from Sales of be compared with deposits of common varieties Common and uncommon varIeties- - in order to determine if it has a distinct and special value reflected by a higher market value." In many cases a claim may contain deposits of both common and uncommon variety minerals. For example, a claim may embrace layers of Comparison Must Be With All Deposits very pure metallurgical-gra:le 1 imestone inter­ Rather ThanlJnCOnuno~rIeties bedded with layers that do not qualify as metallurgical grade. If the claimant should In U.S. v. Kaycee Bentonite Corp., 64 IBLA be necessity mine both grades and sell the 186, 207-209 (1982), the Board reviewed a lower-grade limestone for some common variety number of cases where it was held that the use, he cannot include profits from the sale comparison of a deposit of stone may be with with profits derived from sale of the metal­ all deposits, or limited to similar deposits. lurgical-grade limestone to show marketabil­ The Board held that the comparison should be ity. The common variety limestone must be with all deposits generally if (1) the deposit purchased by contract as required by 30 USC is marketable for purposes that are not typ­ 601. ical of common variety minerals, and (2) the In U.S. v. Lease, 6 IBLA 19, 25-26 (1972), material is not widespread. the Board considered a case involving aggrega­ tion of profits from sales of metallurgical­ grade dolomite and common variety dolomite. Comparison Made with Stone in Immediat'""8"Reg1Oi1--- In U.S. v. Forsesyth, 15 IBLA 43, 59-60 (1974), the Board again said that with dif­ ferent grades of limestone, you cannot aggre­ According to u.s. v. Smith, 66 IBLA 182, gate the profits of the common and uncommon 189 (1982), the Board held that the comparison variety minerals; but instead, you must treat may be made with other stone in the immediate the common variety limestone as waste with no region in active quarries and exposed out­ value, even if it must be mined in order to crops. If stone in exposed outcrops may be extract the uncommon variety deposit. used in the comparison, one is not restricted In U.s. v. Mansfield, 35 IBLA 95 (1978), to only those deposits that are mined and the Board considered a case involving the marketed. aggregation of profits from several grades of obsidian. Cbmparison With other Minerals on Per Unit Basi-s-- Gold or Other Locatable Minerals with COrriiilcmVariety Minerals The Board in u.s. v. MCClarty, 17 IBLA 20, 46 (1974) said that materials must be com­ The question of whether gold can be pared on a "per unit" basis rather than on claimed if it is contained in common variety volume or quantity of material sold. material such as sand and gravel was addressed

75 by section 3 of the Act of July 23, 1955, The McCormick Case: An Uncommon which provides as follows: variety Sand and Gravel That nothing herein shall affect the val idity of any mining location based upon discovery of some other In U.s. ~ McCormick, 27 IBLA 65, 68-69, mineral occurring in or in associa­ 83-84 (1976), the Board held that the sand and tion with such a deposit (of common gravel deposit in question was an uncommon variety sand, stone, etc.) •••• variety. this is one of the very few sand and This provision refers to the discovery of gravel deposits to ever qualify as an uncommon some locatable mineral such as gold occurring variety, and for this reason should be read in a deposit of a common variety sand and carefully to develop an understanding of the gravel. Congress did not intend that the types of properties and/or uses that make such presence of gold within such a deposit would a mineral locatable even after July 23 1955. validate the claim, rather, there must be a It should be noted in reading this case that discovery of gold within the meaning of the the Board applied to sand and gravel many of mining laws. The fact that a mineral like the principles previously established for gold occurred in a nonlocatable deposit of building stone. The Board said: sand and gravel would not invalidate the claim We conclude the merits of the case if it were otherwise valid because of the demand a holding that the material discovery of gold under this standard. How­ is locatable. The evidence estab­ ever, likewise, the value of the sand and lishes the following special charac­ gravel would not be considered in evaluating teristics of the deposit which the value of the gold to determine if there translate directly into special and was a valuable deposit of gold. substantial economic values: (1) No drilling, blasting, or ripping is Sand and Gravel Deposits That required, (2)'No "primary" crushing Have Never Been Locatable-- (to reduce the rock to minus 15 inces) is required, (3) Three of Sand or gravel used as fill, subbase or four purchaseres testified that no ballast has never been locatable. [U.s. v. "secondary" crushing was required, Osborn (Supp on Judicial Remand), 28 IBLA 13 (4) There is little or no over­ (1976) .] burden, (5) The material is natural­ ly sorted by type, no sorting or classification is required beyond Sand and Gravel Deposits Not screening to eliminate oversize, (6) r::ocatable After July 23, 1955 The waste factor is very much lower than at other area pits, (7) The In U.s. v. Henderson, 68 ID 26, 29-30 material is naturally clean, (1961), the Department considered a sand and requiring no washing, (8) No gravel deposit (free of caliche and other blending of fine or coarse aggre­ impurities) in which it was possible to use or gates is necessary to meet specifi­ sell pit-run material meeting construction cations, (9) Because the material is specifications of concrete aggregate. In significantly lighter in weight than Henderson, supra, the Board said: competing aggregates, a ton of the The fact that these sand and gravel subject material will ocver a 20 deposits may have characteristics percent greater area, and (10) The superior to those of other sand and material can be used without the gravel deposits does not make them addition of expensive lime or com­ an uncommon variety of sand and mercial anti-stripping agents. gravel so long as they are used only for the same purposes as other de­ posits which are widely and readily Gem Stones and Gem Minerals available. If, however, such a claim was valid and existing on July 23, 1955 and met the market­ G:lm stone and gem minerals are discussed ability test from then until the present, the together in this section even though many claim would be valid. minerals are elements or minerals as U"'''''-'.L.UJ<:::U The Department has consistently held that in Pierce, supra; and therefore are neither sand and gravel deposits suitable for road common or unccmunon varieties. base, asphalt-mix and ooncrete aggregate with­ G:lm stones and minerals held to be out expensive processing, but which are aused able in early cases include: (1) onyx - only for the same purposes as other widely onyx Development Co., 38 LD 504 (1910); available, but less desirable de];Osits of sand marble - Pacific Coast Marble Co. v. ~~·~~l~a~~ and gravel, are common varieties. [U.S. ~ Pacific R.R. Co.,25LD 233 (1897); Ramsta::l, A-30351 (september 24, 1965).] monds - 14 Gp. Atty, Gen, 115, 1872.

76 Value of Gemstones as Found on eluding marketability at a profit. [U.s. ~ ffilriiS"Rather Than 'Enhanced Value Alaska Limestone Corp., supra at 318.]

In U.S. v. Stevens, 14 IBLA 380 (1974), Cinders and Other Volcanic Products 'the Board determined that even though many stones will take a polish and have an enhanced In U.S. v. Harenberg, 9 IBLA 77 (1973), value because of it, "it is the va1ue of the the Board held that volcanic cinders used in stone deposit as it is found on the claims the manufacture of cement blocks is a common that is the important fact." In other words, variety mineral. if a gemstone such as "chert" or "jasper" is Volcanic rock useful as a filter rock in to be an uncommon variety, it is the value of sewage treatment plants may be an uncommon the stone in its uncut or unpolished state variety mineral. [U.S. v. Clark County that must be compared with other "stone forma­ Gravel, Rock and Concrete COmpany;- A-31025 tions." (March 2~70).]

Obsidian is a Common Variety Mineral Soil Amendments

In U.S. v. Mansfield, 1978, the Ibard In U.S.v.Bunkowski, 79 ID43 (1972), it determined that the ability of obsidian to was held that when a mineral is used as a take polish does not make it an uncommon soil amendment, it must cause a chemical variety. In this case, it was held that change to the soil rather than a physical obsidian was held to be a common variety change. because it exits "in almost limitless quanti­ ties." Introduction to Clay Gemstone Permits Do Not Apply Towards valIdfty"" The most comprehensive decision concerning the locatability of clay is undoubtedly u.s. The mining laws do not authorize the sale v. Peck, 29 IBLA 357, 84 ID 137 (1977).""""()[ of permits to take or enjoy gemstones; and any particular significance in Ieck is the !bard's such sales would not be considered in deter­ distinction between "common" or "ordinary" mining the validity of a claim. [U.S. ~ clay not considered a "valuable mineral Stevens, 14 IBIA 380 (1973).] deposi t" and deposits of clay having excep­ tional qualities useful for purposes for which Geodes Are Uncommon variety Minerals common clay cannot be used.

In U.s. v. Bolinder, 28 IBLA 192 (1976), 1. Comm::m Clay (salable): the Board held that geodes are an uncommon In referring to "common clay" variety mineral and should not be compared not locatable under the mining with other geode deposits but instecd sluuld laws, the precedents demonstrate be compared with "other stone formations:' that clay used only for struc­ tural brick, tile, and other Locatable Grades of Limestone heavy clay products, and pressed or face brick, falls within that In U.S. v. Forsesyth, 15 IBLA 43, 59 classification. They also demon­ (1974), the Board upheld U.S. v. Chas. Pfizer strate that clay deposits useful only for pottery, earthenware, & Co., Inc., 76 ID 331 (1969) in which lime­ stone containing 95 percent or more calcium or stoneware that cannot meet and magnesium carbonates was determined to be the refractory and other quality an uncommon variety. standards for high-grade ceramic products, such as china, come Limestone Used as Concrete Aggregate within that classification. or Soil AdCITITves 2. EXceptional Clay (locatable): In u.s. v. Alaska Limestone Corp., 66 IBLA The exceptional qualities that 316, 324 (1982), the Ibard held that limestone have been recognized as taking a deposits cannot be located after JUly 23, 1955 deposit outside the classifica­ for use as concrete aggregate or soil addi­ tion of a common or ordinary tives. clay within the meaning of the mining laws are, as mentioned, Limestone Used in Manufacture clays having sufficiently high of Cement is Uncommon Variety refractoriness to meet the stan­ dards for products requiring Although limestone used in the manufacture such special qualities. In addi­ of cement is an uncommon variety, it must tion, certain clays with special still meet the requirements of discovery in- characteristics that make them

77 useful for particular uses, as ried) or gas, am lams containing such depos­ in the oil and oil-well-drilling its owned by the United States" may be imustries, outside the manufac­ acquired only through a leasing system. For ture of general clay-products, the most up-to-date and detailed requirements have been considered locatable. concerning Federal leasable minerals one should consult the most recent volume or Title The Kaycee Bentonite Case 43 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Because these regulations are under constant In U.S. v. Kaycee Bentonite Corp., 64 IBLA revision, it is also a good practice to check 186 (1982), the Board upheld a decision of the "CUmulative List of Sections Affected", Administrative Law in which JUdge Mesch which gives a monthly update on new regula­ declared five mining claims null and void and tions, and the "CUmulative List of Parts 125 mining claims valid because the claims Affected", which appears in each issue of the contain deposits of exceptional clay. Judge Federal Register. Federal leasable minerals Mesch held that if a claimant can establish are covered in the following parts of the Cbde that a deposit of bentonite is marketable for of Federal Regulations: Part 3100 - oil and purposes for which common clay cannot be used, Gas Leasing; Part 3200 - Geothermal Resources the deposit is locatable. Bentonite, the Leasing; Part 3300 - OUter Cbntinental Shelf "exceptional clay" in this case, is used as a Minerals; Part 3400 - Coal Management; and binder in pelletizing taconite. Approximately Part 3500 - Leasing of Minerals other than the eighty percent of the steel produced in the above. Uni ted States is made from pellets of taconite. Authority - Public Domain Pertinent points from Kaycee Bentonite are: (1) Even if blending is required, ben­ The basic statute for mineral leasing on tonite is still an exceptional clay (64 IBLA public domain lands is the Mineral LeasingA::t at 217), (2) Bentonite must meet the market­ of February 25, 1920 (41 Stat. 437; 30 USC ability test (64 IBLA at 217), and (3) Wide­ Sec. 181 et seq.), as amended and supple­ spread minerals may be locatable. mented.

Standards to DistiIlJuish Cbmmon Leasable Minerals - Public Domain Varieties and Uhcommon varieties The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, as In Massirio v. Western Hills Mining amended, authorizes that specific minerals Association, 78 IBLA 155 (198~he Board shall be disposed of through a leasing system. stated that the following standards to "dis­ Minerals designated as leasable under this law tinguish between common varieties and uncommon include: 1. Phophate; 2. Native asphalt, varieties of material" were set forth in solid and semisolid bitumen and bituminous McClarty v. Secretary of the Interior, 408 F2d rock including oil-impregnated rock or sands 907, 908-09 (9th Cir.1969): (1) There must from which oil is recoverable only by special be a comparison of the mineral deposit in treatment after the deposit is mined; 3. Sul­ question with the other deI,Dsits of such min­ phur in the states of Louisiana and New erals generally, (2) The mineral deposit in Mexico; and 4. Chlorides, sulfates, carbon­ question must have a uniqrn property, (3) The ates, borates, silicates, or nitrates of unique property must give the deposit a dis­ potassium and sodium. tinct and special value, (4) If the special value is for uses to which ordinary varieties Authority - Acquired Lands of the mineral are put, the deposit must have some distinct and special value for such use, Minerals in acquired lands may be leased and (5) The distinct and special value must be pursuant to the Mineral Leasing Act for reflected by the high price which the material Acquired Lands (61 Stat. 913; 30 USC 351-359). commands in the market place, or by reduced This law was enacted on August 7, 1947, Sec­ cost or overhead so that the profit to the tion 402 of Reorganization Plan NJ. 3 of 1946 claimant would be substantially more. (60 Stat. 1099) transferred the function of leasing and disposal of minerals in certain FEDERAL MINERAL LEASING acquired lands from the secretary of Agricul­ ture to the secretary of the Interior. The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, as amended (30 USC 181 et seq.) provides that Leasable Minerals - Acquired Lands "deposits of coal, phosphate, sodium, I,Dtas­ sium, oil, oil shale, native asphalt, solid All minerals that now qualify as locatable and semisolid bitumen, and bituminous rock minerals in public domain lands may in some (incluHng oil-impregnated rock or sands from cases be obtained through a mineral lease on which oil is recoverable only by special acquired lands. Leasable Minerals in this treatment after the deposit is mined or quar- category would include gold, silver, copper,

78 gems, uranium, etc. Also, all minerals Minerals that are currently locatable designated by the Mineral Leasin;J lICt of 1920 under the ~neral Mining Law of 1872 in public as leasable in public domain lands are leas­ domain lands are available only through a able in acquired lariis. mineral lease in acquired lariis. No person is allowed to hold more than 20,480 acres under Filing Procedure lease and permit in anyone state. A prospec­ ting permit may not exceed 2,560 acres and Application for leases or permits are must fit within an area of six miles square or filed with the appropriate fees in the land within an area not exceeding six surveyed office of the Bureau of Land Management of the sections in length or width. state in which the permits or leases are sought. When an application is received in Term - Leases the land office, it is date-stamped to estab­ lish priority and a serial number is assigned. Leases are issued for a prirnary tenn of 20 The application is then copied and placed on years and are subject to readjustment of terms the public counter for review by interested if the lease is to be renewed. Asphalt leases persons. A serial page is prepared for each are issued for a primary term of 10 years. application and is placed in the serial Regis­ Hardrock mineral leases for acquired lands ter lbok in chronological order. When leases have a term that is established by the BLM but ­ are issued, assigned or terminated, an entry canoot exceed 20 years. describing the action is made on the serial page. A separate use township plat is pre­ pared for each mineral under lease or permit. SAIABIE MINERALS IN BlJRE.llli For example, all oil and gas leases in a OF I1\ND MANAGEMEIiIT-AIlUNISTERED IANIE township are delineated on an oil and gas plat, all ooal leases in the same township are Authority delineated on a coal plat and all geothermal resources leases are delineated on a geother­ The Materials Act of July 31, 1947 (61 mal resource plat. Stat. 681), amended by the Acts of July 23, 1955 (PL-167i 69 stat. 367) and September 28, Prospecting Permit 1962 (PL-87-713), authorized that certain mineral materials be disposed either throUJh a contract-of-sale or a free-use permit. This A prospecting permit allows the permittee group of mineral materials, commonly koown as an exclusive right to prospect and explore "salable minerals" includes, but is not within a permit area to establish the exis­ limited to, petrified woed and oornrnon varie­ tence of valuable minerals. The permittee is ties of sand, stone, gravel, purnicite, cin­ allowed to remove only such deIDsits as neces­ ders, and clay on public lands of the united sary to oonduct experimental studies and must States, 30 usc 601 (1976). keep a record of all minerals removed. A prospecting permit does not authorize mining Effect on Minin;J Claims and in commercial quantities. other SUrface Uses

Term - Prospecting Permits Mineral-material disIDsals are not made where there are valid existing claims. Any prospecting permits are normally issued subsequent mining location or mineral lease for a term of two years. A phosphate permit covering lands under a contract-of-sale for may be extended for a period of four years if mineral materials is subject to the out­ certain oonditions are met. standing oontract-of-sale. The United States reserves the right to continue to use the Preference-Right Lease Applications surface of lands under contract-of-sale for leases, licenses and permits concerning other Applications for a preference-right lease resources i however, these subsequent leases must be filed in the land office not later must not interfere with the extraction or than 30 days after the prospecting permit removal of the mineral material. Removal of expires. mineral materials from the public lariis with­ out authorization is an act of trespass. lICreage Limitations - Acquired Lands Cbrrmunity pits The amount of acquired lands that may be held by a permittee or leasee may not exceed The regulations (4 CFR 3604.1) provide for the amount that may be held on publ ic domain the establishment of oornrnunity pits to be used lands under the mineral leasing laws. Permit by the general public to remove small amounts and lease holdings on publ ic domain lands do of material after obtaining a nonexclusive not count against such holdings on acquired permit from the district manager of the Bureau lands. of Larii ManaJEment. A fee is charged for each

79 cubic yard or ton of gravel removed plus an A free-use permit issued to a ron-profit asso­ amount necessary to reclaim the site upon ciation or corporation must not allow disposal depletion of the pit. of more than 5,000 cubic yards in any period of twelve consecutive months. [43 CFR Corrmon U3e Areas 3621.1.] Common use areas, like community pits, are Mining Claims and Leases are established for nonexclusive disposals of SUbj ect to Cbntracts mineral materials where the removal of Lands covered by material-sale contracts materials would cause only a negligible sur­ or free-use permits are subject to location face disturbance. 43 CFR 3604.1. and entry under the mining and mineral leasing laws. [U.S. v. McClarty, 81 ID 472 (1974).] Appraisal of Mineral Materials IDwever the regulations in 43 CFR 3601.1-2(c) state that "any person that has a subsequent Mineral materials are not sold at less settlement, location, lease, sale or other than the appraised value. Also, a reappraisal appropriation under the general land laws, is necessary every two years. 43 CFR 3610.1­ including the mineral leasing and mining law 2. on lands covered by a material-sale contract Noncompetitive sales or free-use permit, shall be subject to the existing use authorization." Noncompetitive sales may be made where it is impracticable to obtain competition and it SAIABLE MINERAIS IN is in the public interest. Individual sales, U.S. FOREST SERVICE-AI11INISTERED IANffi not to exceed 100,000 cubic yards may be made (36 CFR 251.4) without advertising or calling for bids. '!he total aggregate of sales to an individual must Authority not exceed 200,000 cubic yards in anyone state during a twelve month period. [43 CFR Mineral materials are disposed of from the 3610.2-1.] The term of contract for noncom­ N3.tional Fbrest System under the authority of petitive sales is not to exceed five years, the Act of July 31, 1947 (61 Stat. 681), as excluding extension and removal periods. 43 amended by the Act of August 31, 1950 (64 Stat. 571), and the Act of July 23, 1955 (69 Cr'R 3610.2-4. Stat. 367; 30 USC 601-603) and pursuant to the Act of June 11, 1960 (74 Stat. 205). The Competitive sales Fbrest Ranger may dispose of common varieties All sales are made through competitive of sand, stone, gravel, pumice, pumicite, bidding unless excluded for the reasons above. cinders and clay. Sales are advertised in a newspaper of general Free U3e circulation in the area where the material is located. A notice of sale is published once a All mineral material must be appraised and week for two consecutive weeks giving the sold at not less than the appraised value, location of the lands, the material offered, except material disposed of to Federal or type of materials, quantities, appraised price State agencies, municipalities or non-profit and the procedure for bidding. Written sealed organizations. These agencies and organiza­ bids, oral bids or both may be required, to­ tions may receive the material without charge, gether with a bid deposit of not less than 10 provided the materials are not used for com­ percent of the appraised value of the mineral mercial purposes or resale and provided the materials. The contract is awarded to the site is reclaimed to proouctive use•. highest qualified bidder. The term for com­ If the appraised value of the material petitive contracts is not to exceed 10 years, exceeds $1,000, it must be sold to the highest excluding extension or removal periods. 43­ bidder at public auction. Notice of sale must CFR 3610.3. be published once each week for four consecu­ tive weeks in a newspaper having general cir­ Free-use Permits culation in the county in which the material is located. The competitive sale may be by Free-use permits are issued for a period sealed bid or auction. not to exceed one year; however, a maximum term of 10 years is allowed for government Appraised Value Less than $1,000 agencies and municipalities. Material acquired under a free-use permit must be for the per­ If the appraised value is $1,000 or less, mittee's own use and may not be traded or the material may be sold to a qualified sold. '!here is no limitation on the number of applicant by Special Use Permit; however, no permits or the amount or value of the material more than $1,000 worth of materials may be if the permit is issued to a gooernment agency sold to anyone applicant in anyone area in or municipality for use on a public project. anyone period of 12 consecutive months.

80 Mining Industrial Minerals on Arizona state Trust Land

El:lward C. Spalding Arizona State Land Department 1624 W. Adams Phoenix, NZ 85007

The mineral estate of Arizona's State are geographically distributed as shown in Trust lands, which are administered by the Table 2. State Land Department for the benefi t of the common schools and 14 other beneficiaries, totals more than 10.5 million acres, or almost Tab~e 1. Distribution by county of industrial minerals under state lease, ~isted in decreasing order 15 percent of the State's entire area. Trust of number of leases. lands exist in all 15 of the State's counties, wi th the most and least acreage found in Yava­ (DMM)DITY CDUNTY or COUNTIES pai and Gila Cbunties, respectively. ------Revenues derived from the Trust mineral Limestone/Marble Apache, Cbchise, Gila, Pima, estate include royalties, rentals, and fees. Pinal, Yavapai In Fiscal Year 1983-84, these revenues amount­ Gypsun pinal, ed to $4.2 million, or 13.5 percent of all M::Jhave, Yavapai income received by the '!rust during this peri­ Zeolites Cbchise, Graham od. Industrial minerals, led by sand and gravel, contributed $1.1 million from 82 ac­ Funice Yavapai tive properties. The right to mine and ship minerals from Bentonite Apache State Trust lands is acquired in one of two Building stone Cbconino, M::Jhave ways, by mineral lease or by mineral-materials sales agreement. locatable mineral deposits Mica M::Jhave such as gypsum or zeoli tes are leasable, but common mineral materials such as decomposed Clay Pima granite fall in the sales-agreement category. Magnetite sands Pinal The department has about 650 mineral leases on its active rolls, of which 130 are Feldspar Maricopa for industrial minerals. A breakdown of these 130 leases by commodity is as follows: lime­ Slate Maricopa stone/marble (57), gypsum (21), zeolites (13), pumice (10), bentonite (8), building or decor­ ative stone (6), mica (6), clay (5), magnetite Tab~e 2. Distribution by county of common industrial­ sands (2), feldspar (1), and slate (1). Less mineral materials being mined or quarried from Trust than 28 percent of these leases have ever paid lands by private concerns. production royalties to the Trust. Many of (DMM)DITY the nonproductive leases are being held for CDUNTY or COUNTIES reserve purposes, but others lack development Building Stone Cbconino capital or markets. In Fiscal year 1983-84, leases accounted for only 2.7 percent of total Cinders Apache, Cbconino industrial-mineral income. The department holds 310 mineral-materials Clay Pima sales agreements: 241 with the Arizona De­ IEcOUj;Dsed Granite Maricopa, Pinal partment of Transportation, 30 with other government agencies, and 39 with private con­ sand and Gravel Apache, Cbconioo, Maricopa, cerns. Sand-and-gravel deposits and highway M:>have, Pima, Pinal, Yuma construction materials make up the bulk of the 310 sales agreements: other commodities in­ clude common clays, decomposed granite, cin­ The mechanics of obtaining a mineral lease ders, and building stone. or mineral-materials sales agreement from the Leases for industrial minerals cover 10 of Land Department will not be dealt with here. Arizona's 15 counties. Table 1 shows the SOme comments, however, should be made con­ geographic distribution of these leases by cerning certain aspects of the application ccmnodity. process. Lease- and sales-agreement applica­ Common mineral materials being mined or tions have a number of things in common in­ quarried on Trust lands by private concerns cluding (1) the requirement for archaeological

81 clearance, (2) input from the Game & Fish Increased concern over the impact of Department and other State, county, and occa­ mining and quarrying operations on the envi­ sionally, city agencies, and (3) an approved ronment, plus a desire to increase the per­ plan of operation. Both types of contracts centage of royalty-paying operations, has led require the posting of a restoration and dam­ the Land Department to take a stronger posi­ tion on issuing leases and sales agreements. age bond. There are several major differences be­ Applicants for mineral leases must submit much tween leases and sales agreements. Leases more information than previously required. for industrial minerals are based upon 20-acre Because the department will use this informa­ mineral claims that conform to the public land tion to make a preliminary economic evaluation survey and require proof of discovery of a of a given property, items such as estimated valuable mineral deposit for each claim. A reserves, projected start-up date, production mineral lease extends for up to 20 years, with rate, costs, and marketability should be in­ a preferred right to renewal. unlike a sales cluded. agreement, a lease does not require public The Land Department's files contain a auction. Sales agreements are active for up to considerable amount of information that could 10 years, but are not renewable. Sales agree­ be helpful to anyone searching for industrial­ ments also require a minimum annual guarantee, mineral deposits in Arizona. A visit to the whereas leases do not. By statute, production department's Nonrenewable Resources and Min­ royalties for mineral leases are 5 percent of erals Section, at 1624 W. Adams St., phoenix, the net value of the extracted materials. Ariz., could prove to be worthwhile.

82 Minerals and tIealth: The Asbestos Problem

MalcoJm I«:>ss u.s. Geological Survey, MS 959 Reston, VA 22092

ABSTRACT bestos abatement could in fact produce a health risk to those exposed to dusts during Of the six forms of asbestos, only three and after removal operations. OVerly restric­ have been used to any significant extent in tive controls could force the use of poor or commerce. These are chrysotile, crocidolite, dangerous substitutes, and could greatly and amosite. Between 1870 and 1980, approxi­ affect the hard-rock mining industry. mately 100 million tonnes of asbestos was mined worldwide, of which more than 90 million INTRODUCTION tonnes was the chrysotile variety, about 2.7 million tonnes the crocidolite variety, and In our continuing search for new resources about 2.2 million tonnes the amosite variety. of industrial minerals and efforts for ex­ The three principal diseases related to panding their use, the possible health hazard asbestos exposure are (1) lung cancer, (2) related to exposure to mineral dusts has be­ cancer of the,pleural and peritoneal membranes come an important factor in deciding which (mesothelioma), and (3) asbestosis, a condi­ minerals can be safely mined, processed, and tion in which the lung tissue becomes fibrous incorporated into commercial products. and thus loses its ability to function. These A large number of experiments have been diseases, hoWever, are not equally prevalent performed in which a variety of minerals and in the various groups of asbestos workers that inorganic substances (such as fiber glass) have been studied: the amount and type of have been implanted into the tissues of live disease depend on the duration of exposure, animals. Often these animals developed can­ the intensity of exposure, and particularly, cer. These experiments strongly suggest that the type or types of asbestos to which the if ground up rock were similarly administered, individual has been exposed. a significant number of animals would develop Lung cancer is caused by exposure to tumors. The ability is at hand to "prove" chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite asbestos; that the Earth is a carcinogen! however, increased risk of this disease is The prevailing cancer dogma in the United usually found only in those who also smoke. states espouses the "no threshold" theory for Asbestosis is caused by prolonged exposure to cancer genesis. Influential health special­ all forms of asbestos, whereas mesothelioma is ists have repeatedly said that because no one principally caused by exposure to crocidolite knows the minimum amount of a carcinogen re­ asbestos. There is good evidence that chryso­ quired to initiate the growth of a cancer tile asbestos does not cause any significant tumor, it must be assumed that any amount of amount of mesothelioma mortality, even after any carcinogen is unsafe. The U.S. public has very heavy exposure. The common nonasbes­ been led to believe that exposure to just one tiform amphibole minerals, cummingtonite, molecule of a chemical carcinogen can cause grunerite, tremolite, anthophyllite, and cancer. In regard to exposure to asbestos, actinolite, which are often defined as "asbes­ this belief has become a paradigm to the ef­ tos" for regulatory purposes, have not been fect that "one asbestos fiber can kill you." shown to cause disease in miners. Unless we decide that living on a carcino­ Chrysotile asbestos, which accounts for genic earth is unacceptable and move else­ about 95 percent of the asbestos used in the where, a perception and an observation must be United States, has been shown by extensive reconciled: (1) carcinogens produced by man, Canadian studies to be safe when exposures do even in trace amounts, are responsible for not exceed 1 fiber per cm 3 for the working most human cancer, and (2) carcinogens pro­ lifetime. Chrysotile dust levels found \n duced naturally are ubiquitous in our environ­ buildings rarely exceed 0.001 fibers per cm • ment. The public has not been made aware that Such dust concentrations will have no measur­ a large percentage of the carcinogens taken able health effect on the building occupants. into the human body are naturally occurring Present and future controls of minerals chemicals found in foods, beverages, and to­ defined as "asbestos" and removal of asbestos bacco. Examples of some of these carcinogens from buildings and homes may cost many bil­ are safrole, estragole, and methyleugenol in lions of dollars. Much of this expense is edible plants; piperine in black pepper; hy­ unnecessary and even counterproductive. As- drazines in edible mushrooms; furocoumarins in

83 celery and parsnips; aflatoxins in corn, THE ASBES1DS PROBLEM grain, nuts, cheese, peanut butter, bread and fruit; solanine and chaconine in potatoes; The widespread use of amphibole and ser­ caffeic acid in coffee; theobromine in choco­ pentine asbestos by industrial society for late and tea; acetaldehyde, an oxidation prod­ uses such as brake and clutch facings, elec­ uct of ethyl alcohol, in alcoholic beverages; trical and heat insulation, fireproofing mate­ allyl isothiocyanate in mustard and horserad­ rials, cement water pipe, tiles, filters, ish; and nitrosamines fonned from nitrates and packings, and construction materials has con­ nitrites found in beets, celery, lettuce, tributed greatly to human safety and conve­ spinach, radishes, and rhubarb (Ames, 1983, nience. Yet, while our society was accruing 1984). The amount of these chemicals ingested these very tangible benefi ts, many asbestos by man is not trivial; for example, the com~on workers were dying of asbestosis, lung cancer, commercial mushroom Agaricus bisporus contaIns and mesothelioma. agaritine, a hydroxymethyl phenylhydrazine derivative, in a concentration of 3,000 parts The hazards of certain forms of asbestos per million or 45 mg per mushroom (Ames, 1984, under certain conditions have been so great p. 757) that several countries have taken extraordi­ nary actions to greatly reduce or even ban In contrast to naturally occurring chemi­ their use. Recent experiments with animals cals, man-made chemicals, which sometimes con­ demonstrate that the commercial asbestos min­ taminate foods, air, and water, make up a erals, as well as other fibrous materials, can relatively small portion of the total human cause tumors to form when the fibrous parti­ intake of carcinogens. For example, Ames cles are implanted within the pleural tissue. (1983, p. 1258) estimates that the human in­ These experiments have convinced some health take of naturally occurring pesticides (chemi­ specialists that asbestos-related diseases can cals formed by plants themselves to fight be caused by many types of elongate particles: insects, fungi, etc.) is at least 10,000 times the mineral type, according to these health greater than the human intake of man-made pes­ specialists, is not the important factor in ticides. Doll (1983) estimates that avoidance the etiology of disease, but rather the size of tobacco smoke and alcoholic drinks would and shape of the particles that enter the reduce cancer mortality by 38 percent, whereas human body. avoidance of man-made carcinogens contami­ nating foods, air, and water would reduce At present, the most widely used defini­ cancer mortality by less than 1 percent. tion of asbestos in the United States is taken from the notice of proposed rule-making for The perception that small amounts of man­ "occupational Exposure to Asbestos," published made chemicals are the major cause of human in the Federal Register on oct. 9, 1975 (p. cancer mortality is blatantly false, as proven 47652-47660) by the U.S. occupational Safety by a massive amount of epidemiological data and Health Administration (OSHA). In this and summarized by I:bll and Peto (1981). Yet notice, the naturally occurring amphibole this perception, exemplified by statements minerals amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, such as "one fiber or molecule can kill you," tremolite, and actinolite, and the serpentine is so strong in the minds of the U.S. public mineral chrysotile are classified as asbestos that it will take a massive effort by respon­ if the individual crystallites or crystal sible scientists and journalists to change it. fragments have the following dimensions: a Bruce Ames, Sir Richard I:bll, Richard Peto, length greater than 5 microns, a maximum diam­ John Higginson, John Cairns, Gio Gori, John eter less than 5 microns, and a length-to­ Weisburger, Ernst Wynder, Edith Efron, and diameter ratio of three or greater. Any prod­ Michael Bennett are some who are leading the uct containing any of these minerals in this way in bringing good science and good journal­ size range is also defined as asbestos. ism to the public's attention. The crushing and milling of any rock usu­ In the following sections, I will summa­ ally produces some mineral particles that are rize the specialized topic "asbestos and within the size range specified in the OSHA health", but in context with the broaderbprob- . , rules. Thus, these regulations present a lem of human carcinogenesis and the pu 11C s formidable problem to those analyzing for perception of the causes of cancer. This asbestos minerals in the multitude of mate­ summary is based on a long review paper p~b­ rials and products in which they may be found lished previously (Ross, 1984); for d~talls in some amount. Not only must the size and and reference citations, the reader IS re­ shape of the asbestos particles be determined, ferred to this publication. but also an exact mineral identification must As I will try to show, the asbestos prob­ be made. A wide variety of amphiboles is lem is not restricted to the mining, milling, found in many types of common rocks; many of and use of commercial asbestos; it includes these amphiboles might be considered asbestos much of the mining industry, as well as the depending upon the professional training of greatly expanding fiber and composites indus­ the person involved in their study and the try. methods used in mineral characterization.

84 If the definition of asbestos from the mostly chrysotile point of view of a health hazard does include are small; the most the common nonfibrous forms of amphibole; cated near Globe, Arizona particularly the hornblende and cummingtonite area of the Transvaal Prov varieties, then we must recognize that asbes­ Africa. Type IV deposits are tos is present in significant amounts in many Precambrian banded ironstones types of igneous and metamorphic rocks cover­ Transvaal and Cape Provinces of South Atrica ing perhaps 30 to 40 percent of the united and in Western Australia. Only the South states. Rocks within the serpentine belts; African deposits are still in production. A rocks within the metamorphic belts that are complete review of the geological occurrences higher in grade than the greenschist facies, of commercial asbestos is given by Ross including amphibolites and many gneissic (1981). rocks; and amphibole-bearing igneous rocks Since the first recorded use of asbestos such as diabase, basalt, trap rock, and gran­ by stone Age man, more than 100 million tonnes ite would be considered asbestos bearing. of asbestos have been mined throughout the Many iron formations and copper deposits would world, of which more than 90 percent was be asbestos bearing, including deposits in the chrysotile and more than 5 percent was largest open-pit mine in the world at Bingham, crocidolite and amosite. Nearly 40 million Utah. Asbestos regulations would thus pertain tonnes of this total world production was to many of our country's mining operations, chrysotile mined in Quebec Province near the including much of the construction industry towns of Thetford Mines and Asbestos. The and its quarrying operations for concrete total production of anthophyllite asbestos to aggregate, dimension stone, road metal, rail­ date is probably no more than 400,000 tonnes, road ballast, riprap, and the like. The as­ 350,000 tonnes being produced by Finland bestos regulations would also pertain to the alone. The production of tremolite asbestos ceramic, paint, and cement industries, and to has been sporadic, and it has been mined in many other areas of endeavor where silicate various parts of the world for short periods minerals are used. of time. The total production to date of this form of asbestos is probably no more than a GEOUX;ICAL OCCURRENCE OF COMMERCIAL ASBESTOS few thousand tonnes. Commercial exploitation of actinolite asbestos is practically unknown. Many minerals, including the amphiboles The world asbestos production for 1981 was and some serpentines, are described variously 4.34 million tonnes; the U.S.S.R. led with as fibrous, asbestiform, acicular, filiform, 48.5 percent and Canada was second with 25.9 or prismatic; these terms suggest an elongate percent of the world's output (Clifton, 1983). habit. Although such minerals are extremely Both countries mine mostly chrysotile asbes­ common, only in a relatively few places do tos, and most of this comes from the Ural they have physical and chemical properties Mountains and Quebec Province. that make them valuable as commercial asbes­ tos. IDcally, amphibole minerals may show an THE NATURE OF ASBESTOS RELATED DISEASE asbestiform habit, for example, in vein fil­ lings and in areas of secondary alteration, The three principal diseases related to but usually they do not appear in sufficient asbestos are (1) lung cancer, (2) cancer of quantity to be profitably exploited. the pleural and peritoneal membranes Deposits of commercial asbestos are found (mesothelioma), and (3) asbestosis, a condi­ in four types of rocks: tion in which the lung tissue becomes fibrous and thus loses its ability to function. These (a) Type I- alpine-type ultramafic diseases, however, are not equally prevalent rocks, including ophiolites (chryso­ in the various groups of asbestos workers that tile, anthophyllite, and tremolite); have been studied: the amount and type of (b) Type I! - strati;Eorm ultramafic in­ disease depends on the duration of exposure, trusions (chrysotile and tremolite); the intensity of exposure, and particularly, (c) Type II! -serpentinized limestone the type or types of asbestos to which the (chrysotile); and individual has been exposed. (d) Type IV - banded ironstones (amosite and crocidolite). Chrysotile or "White" Asbestos

Type I deposits are by far the most impor­ Chrysotile asbestos, sometimes referred to tant and probably account for more than 85 in the trade as "white" asbestos, is the form percent of the asbestos ever mined. The most that is usually used in the United States - as important Type I deposits are those in Quebec wall coatings, in brake linings, as pipe insu­ Province, canada and in the Ural Mountains of lation, and in other uses. About 95 percent the Soviet Union. of the asbestos in in-place products in the Type I! deposits are found mostly in South United States is the chrysotile variety, and a Africa, swaziland, and Zimbabwe; these furnish large percentage of this was mined and milled

85 in Quebec Province, Canada. Epidemiological mesothel ioma as a result of exposure to stldies of the chrysotile asbestos miners and crocidolite; 161 of these persons worked in millers of Quebec undertaken by medical re­ the mines and mills and 117 others lived near, searchers in canada show that, for men exposed the mines, but were not employed in the for more than 20 years to chrysotile dust asbestos industry. . averaging 20 fibers/cm3, the total mortality Thirty-one men who had worked in the small (from all causes) was less than expected (620 crocidolite industry (total production: observed deaths, 659 expected deaths). The 155,000 tonnes) at Wittenoom, Western Austra­ risk of lung cancer was slightly increased: lia, have died of mesothelioma. Of these, 13 48 deaths observed, 42 expected. Exposures to had worked for less than 12 months and 9 had 20 fibers/cm3 are an order of magnitude had light to medium exposure to blue asbestos. greater than those experienced now ~which are Sixty miners and millers at Wittenoom have generally less than 2 fibers/em); thus, died of lung cancer; 34 of these men had chrysotile miners working a lifetime under worked in the industry for less than 12 months these present dust levels should not be ex­ and 19 had had light to medium exposure to the pected to suffer any measurable excess cancer. crocidolite dust. In addition to this occupa­ A similar mortality picture is reported for tionally related mortality, 6 others who lived Italian chrysotile miners and millers. near, but did not work in, the mines or mills Mesothelioma incidence among those working have died of mesothelioma. only with chrysotile asbestos is very low. Thus far, about 16 deaths due to this disease .Mlosite or "Brown" Asbestos have been reported among chrysotile asbestos miners and millers and one among chrysotile All amosite asbestos comes from the trades workers. In addition, 6 deaths among Transvaal Province of South Africa, where sons and daughters of chrysotile miners and approximately 2.2 million tonnes were mined millers and 2 among others living in chryso­ between 1917 and 1979. rm[Ortation of amosite tile asbestos-mining localities have been into the United states started in the 1930'S. reported as being due to mesothelioma. Two complete epidemiolog ical studies of Four epidemiological studies of the female asbestos trades workers exposed mainly to residents of the Quebec chrysotile-mining amosite asbestos have been published. The localities show no statistically significant incidence of asbestos-associated disease in evidence that their lifelong exposure to as­ these two groups of men formerly employed at bestos dust from the nearby mines and mills factories in rondon, England and Paterson, ~w has caused excess disease. Jersey was excessive, there being an 18.4 percent lung-cancer mortality (117 cases), 2.8 Crocidolite or "Blue" Asbestos percent mesothelioma mortality (8 cases), and 4.2 percent asbestosis mortality (27 cases). Crocidolite, usually referred to in the Only prevalence studies have been made of trade as "blue" asbestos, was first imported amosite miners and millers; 2 individuals have into the United States in 1911 or 1912. By died of mesothelioma. One resident of an 1930, 35,000 short tons of crude blue fiber amosite-mining district has been reported as had entered the country, and by 1946, an addi­ having died of this disease. tional 21,000 tons had been imported. In The rock-forming amphibole minerals addition to these imports, much crocidolite grunerite and cummingtonite, which are has come into the United states as manufac­ isostructural and chemically similar to tured products, such as yarns, tapes, and pipe amosite, are considered (incorrectly) by some coverings. Almost all of the imported to be forms of asbestos. Health studies of crocidolite has come from SOuth Africa. miners working ores that contain these Epidemiological studies of groups that minerals as gangue, for example, the Ibmestake worked only with crocidolite asbestos show gold mines and the Reserve iron-ore miners, do that rather short periods of exposure, or even not show any indication of asbestos-related relatively light exposure, cause excessive mortality. mortality due to lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis. This is evident not only in Anthophyllite Asbestos those exposed to crocidolite during gas-mask fabrication and building construction, but This form of asbestos has been mined spo­ also in those employed in the crocidolite radically in many localities, but the only mines. major production has been at Paakkila, Fin­ There are only two mining regions in the land, where approximately 350,000 tonnes was world where mesothelioma is a statistically mined between 1918 and 1975. The only health significant cause of death. These are the study of individuals ex[Osed predominantly to crocidolite-mining districts of cape Province, anthophyllite asbestos is that of the Paakkila South Africa and of Wittenoom, Western Austra­ miners. This group showed a 67% excess of lia. Prevalence studies in Cape Province lung cancer and a large mortality due to tu­ report that at least 278 persons have died of berculosis and asbestosis. There were no

86 deaths from mesothelioma. Because ing the United States, to remove asbestos from anthophyllite was and is used so little in sc~ools, public buildings, homes, ships, ap­ commerce, no additional health studies appear plIances, and so forth. This is being done, to be possible except for follow-up studies of even though most asbestos in the united States the Paakkila miners. is of the chrysotile variety and even though asbestos dust levels in schools, public build­ DISCUSSION ings, and city streets are much lower than those found in chrysotile-mining communities, '!he Relative Hazards of the Asbestos Minerals ~here little asbestos-related disease appears In the nonoccupationally exposed residents. Must the use of all commercial asbestos be The impetus for these costly removals and stopped? The answer is an emphatic no, but appliance recalls (hair dryers, for example) with qualifications that are presented here. apparently comes from propagandizing of the Nonoccupational exposure to chrysotile "one-fiber-can-kill-you" concept. lIbt only is asbestos, despite its wide dissemination in this program costly, but it could also be urban environments throughout the world, has dangerous if the removal of blue asbestos is not been shown by epidemiological studies to not accomplished with great care. In most be a significant health hazard. If it were, cases, asbestos coatings and insulation, where the women of Thetford Mines and Asbestos, necessary, can be repaired at no risk and at a Quebec, where more than 40 million tonnes of fraction of the cost of complete removal. chrysotile asbestos has been mined, would be dying of asbestos-related diseases. '!hey are Substitutes for Asbestos not. Health studies accomplished in Canada show that populations can safely breathe air If all use of asbestos were to be d iscon­ and drink water that contains significant tinued, substitutes would have to be developed amounts of chrysotile fiber. These studies to meet many diverse requirements for mater­ also suggest that there is a "threshold" value ials, such as nonflammability, high strength, of chrysotile asbestos exposure below which no flexibility, reasonable cost, and safety. measurable health effects will occur. With respect to safety, the substitutes must '!he same fiber dose-disease response rela­ not induce disease in those exposed to them tionships observed for chrysotile asbestos do and also must not endanger lives in other ways not hold for crocidolite asbestos. Health by having inferior strength or durability, studies of those exposed to crocidolite show increased flammability, or other undesirable it to be much more hazardous than chrysotile. characteristics. A good substitute must not lib study has been reported, comparable to that have so high a cost that it forces the use of made for chrysotile, which would indicate what an inadequate replacement. Fbssible problems a safe level of exposure to crocidolite might can occur with substitutes, for example, with be. The danger of crocidolite dust is partic­ the replacement of chrysotile asbestos in ularly emphasized by the many mesothelioma drum-brake linings. The chance of increased deaths occurring among the residents of the automobile accidents due to a possibly infe­ crocidolite-mining districts of cape Province, rior substitute material must be weighed South Africa whose only exposure was in a against the probability of anyone being harmed nonoccupational setting. Such mortality is by the small amounts of chrysotile asbestos practically unknown among residents of the emitted from drum brakes. The health effects chrysotile-mining localities of Quebec of emissions from substitute brake linings Province. must also be considered. The hazards of amosite asbestos are more The requirements of strength and flexi­ difficult to assess. The amosite factory bility make it necessary that asbestos substi­ employees of rondon, England and Paterson, New tutes be fibrous. Generally, the thinner and Jersey, who generally worked under very dusty longer the fibers, the stronger, more flex­ conditions, have experienced a great deal of ible, and useful they are; however, fibers excess mortality due to lung cancer, asbes­ longer than 4 microns and less than 1.5 tosis, and mesothelioma. In contrast to these microns in diameter are capable of producing factory workers, amosite miners and millers, malignant neoplasms when implanted into the at least wi th regard to mesothelioma, do not pleura of rats. Test fibers used in these appear to be at much risk. studies have included aluminum oxide, fiber­ The fear caused by alarmist statements glass, wollastonite, silicon carbide, such as "one fiber can kill you" and by the dawsonite and potassium octatitanate. much exaggerated predictions of the amount of asbestos-related mortality expected in the Man-made Mineral Fibers next 20 or 30 years has generated great polit­ icar pressure to remove asbestos from our In addition to the very common exposure of environment and to reduce greatly or even stop man to naturally occurring fibrous minerals, its use. An example of this is the concerted he is also exposed to many different types of effort in several industrial nations, includ- synthetically made fibers. More and more of these substances are being developed each year tection lIgency (EPA) sued to prevent the by the greatly expanding fiber and composites Reserve Mining Co. from dumping taconite tail­ industries. Our knowledge of the health ef­ ings into lake SUperior because of the percep­ fects of most of these fibers is minuscule or tion that these tailings contai.n "amosite nonexistent. The health effects of those asbestos" and thus constitute a threat to exposed to man-made vitreous fibers, however, public health. For a complete review of the have been studied intensively and statistical­ case see 514 Federal Reporter, 2nd series, ly significant studies are just now being 492-542, 1975; and 256 Northwestern Reporter, reported. These glassy fibers, usually refer­ 2nd series, 808-852, 1977. red to as man-made mineral fibers (MMMF), in­ The possible health effects of exposure clude slag wool, rock wool, glass wool, fiber­ to rock dust containing one or more of the glass, and continuous-filament products. Two many amphibole minerals is an important issue. separate reports, one of 25,146 workers at 13 Amphiboles are contained within the gangue plants in Europe (Saracci and others, 1984), (waste rock) of many hard-rock mines: gold, and one of 16,730 workers at 17 plants in the vermiculite, talc, iron ore, crushed stone and United states (Enterline and Marsh, 1985), aggregate, copper, etc. Certainly control of have just been published or are about to be most dust, regardless of the mineral content, published. Table 1 gives a summary of the is necessary because past heavy exposure to lung-cancer mortality for male workers in the dusts containing crystalline silica (SiO 2)' European and United States MMMF industries who slate, coal, talc, and radioactive minerals lived at least 30 years since first exposure. have caused significant disease. Unusually A statistically significant excess of lung tight control of amphibole-mineral particles, cancer (52 percent) is seen in these MMMF however, such as that proposed by the National workers. Ex~sure was generally less than 1 Institute for OCcupational safety and Health fiber per cm and most commonly in the range (NIOSH) in 1976 for asbestos fibers (0.1 of 0.01 to 0.1 fibers per cm 3• In contrast, fibers per cm3), could stop major mining in the Quebec chrysotile asbestos miners and the United States. millers with at least 20 years service in the several epidemiological studies have been industry and exposed to between 10 and 21 performed on hard-rock miners who were exposed fibers per em3 showed an excess of lung cancer to noncommercial amphibole dusts. Q1e example of 12 percent. (Ross, 1984, p. 93). is a cohort of gold miners at the Homestake Gold Mine, Lead, South Dakota, who were ex­ Table 1. Lung-cancer mortality, males, at posed to rock dust containing very significant least 30 Years observation since first employ­ amounts of amphibole belonging to the ment in MMMF industry. cummingtonite-grunerite series. The 861 observed deaths included 43 lung-cancer deaths ---ruNG CANCER (43 expected) and no mesothelioma deaths. EUROPE ill ~"AcroRIES) (Observed) (EXpected) (Excess) Nonmalignant respiratory disease due to quartz IbCk \'POl 11 5.7 93% dust, however, was excessive. This cohort thus showed no evidence of mortality that Glass \'POl 4 2.6 54% Continuous filament 2 0.6 233% could be related to amphibole dust (David P. subtotal 17 B:9 9I% Brown and others, International Symposium, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, April 5, 1984, UNITED STATES .Dl. ~"AcroRIES) (Observed) (Expected) (Excess) unpublished preprint). Studies of Reserve taconite (iron-ore) miners who were exposed to Glass wool 47 36.0 31% Slag \'POl 45 28.1 60% cummingtonite amfhibole contained in the mine Ibck \'POl 14 8.1 73% dusts also show no amphibole-related disease. Subtotal 106 7'2.2 47% Of the 298 deaths (344 expected), there were 1UTALS: 123 81.1 52% 15 lung-cancer deaths; 18 were expected. There were three excess deaths due to pneumo­ Nonasbestiform Bock-Forming Amphiboles coniosis, perhaps due to quartz dust (Ross, 1984, p. 75). Despite no indication of Some health and regulatory specialists asbestos-related disease in these miners, the classify the common rock-forming amphiboles Reserve Mining Company was required by the grunerite, cummingtonite, actinolite, U.S. Courts (see above) to spend $300 million tremolite, and anthophyllite as asbestos even to build an inland dump site for waste rock. thoU]h they do not possess the physical prop­ erties requisite to be valuable commercially. CCMMENTARY Such a classification has been made in the case of taconite mining by the courts (U.S. The "no-threshold" cancer dogma that has District Court for Minnesota, 380 F. Supp. 11) been repeatedly foisted upon an unaware and by the U.S. Environmental Protection American public is generating a national lIgency (Reserve Mining vs. EPA, U.S. Court of crisis of such proportions that our economy Appeals Eighth Circuit, March 14, 1975). In could be very adversely affected. The eco­ the latter case, the U.S. Environmental pro- nomic consequences are particularly apparent

88 in regard to the requirement by the Environ­ asbe~toslike: for example, the rock-forming mental Protection Agency that administrators amphIboles that occur in most hard-rock mines? report if asbestos js present in their Will all mine- and mill-wa.ste.I?ileSb~ schools. What is the scmol administrator to c~n~ider:ed toxic dumps? The challengetb the do when he is required by law to post signs in mmmg mdustry is here and it is serious. his school stating that asbestos is present? He has no option: he must have it removed because our cancer dogma translates the words on his building sign to "a little child REFERENCES breathing just one asbestos fiber may get mesothelioma 30 years later." The school Ames, B. N., 1983, Dietary carcinogens and administrator, the teachers, the parents, are anticarcinogens: SCience, v. 221, p. 1256­ in a box. The only way out of the box is to 1264. call for full ripout of the asbestos, even ______~_, 1984, Letters: cancer and diet: though well-informed experts know that many Science, v. 224, p. 656-760. asbestos-removal programs, perhaps most, will Clifton, R. A., 1983, Asbestos: U.S. Bureau put more fiber into the air than if it were of Mines Yearbook, v. 1, Metals and Min­ left in place. Building owners, school erals, p. 113-118. systems, and local and state governments are Ibll, Richard, 1983, Prospects for the preven­ suing many businesses for costs and damages tion of cancer: Clinical Radiology, v. related to asbestos removal, insurance com­ 34, p. 609-623. panies are dropping liability coverage on Ibll, Richard, and Peto, Richard, 1981, The workers removing asbestos, and occupants of cause of cancer - quantitative estimates buildings are suing over health effects or of avoidable risks of cancer in the United potential effects alleged to be caused by states today: Journal of the National exposure to asbestos during renovation. The cancer Institute, v. 66, p. 1193-1308. asbestos-removal workers themselves, I Enterline, P. E., and Marsh, G. M., in press, predict, will soon be suing their contractors Mortality of workers in the MMMF industry: because they too will believe that their V'brld Health organizational, International health is threatened by exposure to asbestos. Agency for Research on cancer Cbnference, What are we to do about asbestos substi­ Cbpenhagen, 1982, proceedings. [summary tutes that may also be carcinogenic in man -­ report published in World Health organiza­ for example, the man-made mineral-fiber prod­ tion, EURO Reports and Studies 81, p. 84­ ucts such as rock wool and fiberglass? since 85.] these products apparently cause excess lung Ross, Malcolm, 1981, The geologic occurrences cancer in long-term production workers, a and health hazards of amphibole and logical and mnest cancer policy would require serpentine asbestos, in Veblen, D. R., that they also be removed from schools. Will ed., Reviews in mineralogy, v. 9A, the whole "asbestos-in-schools" scenario then Amphiboles and other hydrous pyriboles, be replayed, the main actor being fiberglass mineralogy: Mineralogical Society of products rather than asbestos? America, p. 279-323. Fibers are not restricted to the school --"3"T-::--' 1984, A survey of asbestos-related environment: many public and commercial build­ disease in trades and mining occupations ings, churches, and private homes contain and in factory and mining communities as a asbestos and the more modern fiberglass pro­ means of predicting health risks of non­ ducts. Are we to go through the asbestos­ occupational exposure to fibrous minerals, removal program for these structures as well? in Levadie, B, ed., D3finitions for asbes­ Where is the money to come from to cover the tos and other health-related silicates, multibillion-dollar costs? lbw do we insure ASTM STP 834: American Ebciety for 'Iesting the workers? Is there any assurance at all and Materials, p. 51-104. that the occupants of the buildings undergoing Saracci, R., and others, 1984, Mortality and asbestos ripout will not receive more exposure incidence of cancer of workers in the man­ to fibers than if the material were left in made vitreous fibres producing industry ­ place? an international investigation of 13 Lastly, what is to be done to control European plants: British Journal of mineral dusts perceived to be asbestos or Industrial Medicine, v. 41, p. 425-436.

89 Comparison of Selected Zeolite Deposits of Arizona! New Mexico! and Texas

Mark R. B::>wie and James M. Barker N9w Mexico Bureau of Mines am Mineral Resources SOcorro, NM 87801 and Stephen L. Peterson Zeotech Cbrporation 3202 candelaria, NE Albuquerque, NM 87107

Canyon area of the Tertiary Cedar Hills and Seldon Hills volcanic-vent zone in south­ Air-fall tuffs have been altered to zeo­ central N9w Mexico. Fbster canyon tuffs con­ lite via reaction of volcanic glass with local tain up to 60 percent zeolite and average 40 pore solutions at the six localities discussed to 50 percent clinoptilolite. in this paper. These are in the southern '!he dominant mineral in the zeolite tuffs Basin and Range Province of Arizona and New at the six deposits studied is generally Mexico, and in the Trans-Pecos and Coastal microcrystalline and either chabazite or Plain regions of Texas. Zeolitization occur­ clinoptilolite. Lithic fragments, unaltered red in either closed-hydrologic, open-hydro­ volcanic glass, other zeolites, quartz, logic, or hydrothermal groumwater systems. calcite, opal-CT, cristobalite, feldspar, '!he [ripping Spring Valley (DSV) chabazite evaporites, clays, and mafic minerals are also' in Arizona and the Buckhorn clinoptilolite in constituents of the tuffs. N9w Mexico originated in a late cenozoic net­ work of closed-hydrologic, lacustrine basins extending from southeast Arizona into south-­ west New Mexico. At DSV, two potentially Zeolite minerals occur in rocks of diverse commercial chabazite-rich tuffs are inter­ lithology, age, and depositional environment. bedded with lacustine mudstone. The main Zeolites are commonly the product of diage­ zeolite tuff contains up to 90 percent netic reaction between volcanic glass and chabazite. The upper zeolite tuff averages saline, alkaline pore solutions. Several approximately 67 precent chabaziteo At the genetic models of authigenic zeolite formation Buckhorn deposit, two clinoptilolite-rich have been proposed (Hay, 1966, 1978; Sheppard, tuffs are interbedded with lacustrine mLdstone 1971,1973; Munson and Sheppard, 1974). in the upper part of the Gila Conglomerate. Deposit characteristics differ due to varying '!he lower zeolite tuff contains up to 90 per­ depositional and diagenetic conditions during cent clinoptilolite. The upper zeolite tuff zeolitization. We selected six zeolitic tuff contains over 60 percent clinoptilolite. deposits in Arizona, N9w Mexico, and 'Iexas to The Casa piedra clinoptilolite is in the describe and compare their geologic, petro­ Trans-Pecos region of Texas. It formed during logic, and mineralogic characteristics (Figure the Tertiary in a closed basin containing a 1). These deposits formed in either closed­ playa lake. The Casa Piedra tuff averages hydrologic, open-hydrologic, or hydrothermal about 60 percent clinoptilolite. groumwater systems. Air-fall tuffs of the Cuchillo N9gro, N9w '!he [ripping Spring Valley (DSV) chabazite Mexico am Tilden, Texas clinoptilolite depos­ in Arizona and the Buckhorn clinoptilolite in its were zeolitically altered by either perco­ N9w Mexico formed in a late ceno:roic network lating ground waters in open-hydrologic sys­ of northwest-southeast-trending, closed basins tems or locally by ponded, saline, alkaline extending from southeast Arizona into south-­ solutions. Cuchillo Negro tuffs are Tertiary west New Mexico (Scarborough and Peirce, and average approximately 50 percent 1978). Air-fall tuffs at both deposits were clinoptilolite. Clinoptilolite-rich tuffs of zeolitized by reaction of vitric tuff with Ebcene age have been mined from four quarries ponded, saline, alkaline-lake waters. The at the Tilden deposits. Tuffs from the Casa Piedra, Texas clinoptilolite formed Kuykendall and Buck Martin quarries contain during the Tertiary in a closed basin by zeo­ approximately 50 to 60 percent clinoptilolite. lite metasomatism of volcanic glass. '!he air­ low temperature, Si02 - rich, hydrothermal fall tuffs of the Cuchillo Negro (Tertiary), solutions altered air-fall tuff to New Mexico and Tilden (Eocene), Texas clinoptilolite and chabazite in the Foster clinoptilolite deposits were zeolitically

90 ARIZONA NEW MEXICO TEXAS G- Globe p- Phoenix T-Tucson •A

•S P • •G DRIPPING;:" B CKHORN o't:UCHILLO SPRINGS A NEGRO VALLEY SC. T FOSTERD LC • CANYON •

N o MILES 120 I I SCALE I SA•

EXPLANATION TILDEN

;:" CLOSED-HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM o OPEN-HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM o HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM

PARENT ASH COMPOSITION

;:",~ RHYOLITIC RHYODACITIC

91 three ashes may have accumulated between sepa­ rate ash-fall events. More likely, the laminae accumulated continuously and were punctuated by initial ash sedimentation and later reworking of the same ash. The lower ash bed of the zeolite horizon may represent ash initially deposited in the lake. The middle and upper ash beds probably are the same tuff originally deposited around the lake and later washed or blown into it. The main zeolite horizon contains infrequent sedimen­ tary structures. These include ripple marks on laminae surfaces, soft-sediment deforma­ tion, and calcified root impressions. The sedimentary structures indicate partial reworking and disturbance of the lake bottom by currents and bioturbation. Source: Bowie. 1985. zeolitic alteration of the main zeolite tuff is heterogeneous. Sampling in 1960 indi­ Figure 2. SOuthwest view of a prospect pit at cates that the main tuff grades from clean, the DrippiITJ Spring Valley chabazite deposit. unaltered ash at the north end of the deposit The white zeolite ore piled on the pit floor to 90 percent chabazite at the south end aloITJ the south side is from the main zeolite (Eyde, 1982). x-ray diffraction (XRD) analy­ tuff (MT). A red lacustrine claystone (eS) is sis of powder-press mounts of tuff by Anaconda exposed at the base of the pit wall. It is returned from 0 to 69 percent chabazite overlain by the blocky, ledge-forming upper (Bowie, 1985). The inverse relationship be­ zeolite tuff (UT). A 1-foot-thick layer of tween the amount of chabazite and the amount white, reworked zeolitic sandy claystone (RW) of unaltered volcanic glass in the tuff sug­ is interbedded with lacustrine claystone about gests that the glass is altered to zeolite. 1.5 feet above the upper zeolite tuff. Chabazite content generally increases basin­ ward, where more saline, alkaline conditions were conducive to more complete zeolitization of the tuff. The unaltered glass content increases towards the lake margins. Fresh­ water influx is greater here so there is less zeolitization owing to lower pH and salinity. SCanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the main zeolite tuff reveals chabazite and smectite + mixed-layer illite/smectite pseudo­ morphic after volcanic glass (Figure 4).

Source: Bowie. 1985.

Figure 3. View lookiITJ northwest at .the main and upper zeolite tuffs interbedded with la­ custrine claystone in the Dripping spring Valley deposit. Hammer rests on the white, conchoidally fractured main' zeolite tuff. A ledge of grayish-white upper zeolite tuff caps the hill. Blocks of upper zeolite tuff have slid down the hillside. Figure 4. SCanning electron micrograph of the massive bed of the main zeolite tuff from the stratigraphically highest and most massive Anaconda prospect pit. Leafy smectite and bed, 0.30 to 0.67 feet thick, consisting of subhedral to euhedral chabazite cubes or ash altered to zeolite (Eyde, 1982). rhombs form stacked, radial stringers up to 10 The main zeolite horizon was deposited on microns long on the volcanic glass substrate. gently sloping alluvial-fan and playa-lake Chabazite crystals appear also to have grown surfaces. Clay laminae de:fDsited between the on smectite.

92 Chabazite occurs as subhedral to euhedral northwest end of the Bowie depositional basin cubes or rhombs varying from much less than 1 was a calcium-rich, low-salinity environment micron up to 2 microns on a side. The crys­ characterized by calcite concretions within a tals are commonly intergrown forming either high-grade zeolitic tuff. The deeper, south­ clusters or radial, fan-like stringers up to east end of the l:bwie basin was a sodium-rich, about 10 microns long. Smectite and mixed­ high-salinity environment characterized by the layer illite/smectite occur as pore-filling occurrence of high-sodium chabazite and and pore-lining, leaf-like, interconnected thenardite within the same high-grooe zeolitic ridges much less than 1 micron wide and up to tuff (Eyde, 1982). In contrast, at DSV, no about 5 microns long. Chabazite is locally such lateral gradation of cao: Na20 ratios is pseudomorphic after smectite (Figure 4). apparent from chemical analyses of the tuffs. The upper zeolite tuff averages approx­ Significant variation in lake water salinity imately 67 percent chabazite. It is about 5 is not apparent between the shallow, northwest feet stratigraphically above the main zeolite end of the rsv basin and the deeper, southeast tuff (Figures 2 and 3). The upper zeolite end. This relationship suggests that the tuff averages about 1.5 feet thick, ranges up deeper end at DSV was less saline than the to 5.5 feet thick, and underlies over 3 square deeper portion at the Bowie deposit. Lower miles of basin-fill (Bowie, 1985). Three salinity precluded formation of analcine at distinct lithologies with highly variable IBV; higher salinity favored it at l:bwie. thickness and lateral continuity form the SEM of DSV zeolitic tuffs reveals the upper zeolite tuff: 1) a lower thin-bedded to paragenetic sequence of authigenic mineraliza­ platy bed, 2) an overlying massive bed, and 3) tion to be: unaltered volcanic glass ---> an upper thin-bedded to platy bed. smectite+ mixed-layer illite/smectite, all Seven silicic air-fill tuffs, the lowest overlapped by chabazite. Rare late-stage of which lies about 150 feet stratigraphically clinoptilolite and erionite probably crystal­ above the upper zeolite tuff, underlie about 4 lized at the expense of the earlier-formed square miles of basin-fill at the north end of smectite and chabazite. The complete basin­ rsv (l:bwie, 1985). The seven tuffs are inter­ ward paragenetic sequence of una1tered vol­ bedded with lacustrine millstone, crop out over canic glass ---> alkalic, silicic zeolites --­ a vertical distance of about 60 feet, and > analcine ---> potassium feldspar observed average about 1.5 feet thick. The lower two in many closed-hydrologic zeolite deposits are locally altered to chabazite. A (Sheppard and Gude, 1968; Hay, 1977; Surdam, "rhyolitic" tuff (Cbrnwall and Krieger, 1978) 1977) probably did not develop in the DSV approximately 3 feet thick is stratigraph­ tuffs (l:bwie, 1985). This partial development ically the highest tuff exposed in DSV. It of the full paragenetic sequence is due to has been partly reworked and waterlain and is basinwide relatively low salinity and pH which locally altered to chabazite. allowed progression along the sequence only to Fluvial and lacustrine samples from DSV clinoptilolite and erionite. consist of discrete illite, mixed-layer The DSV tuffs were altered mostly to illite/smectite, chlorite, smectite (mainly chabazite. Chabazite precipitated when the sodium montmorillonite), and kaolinite in hydrogen to alkali ion activity ratio de­ decreasing order of abundance (Bowie, 1985). creased below the level for smectite crystal­ These relationships were determined by XRD lization. This precipitation followed dis­ from the <2 microns size fraction. The clay solution of the rhyolitic volcanic glass in minerals are predominantly detrital. Some the tuffs by moderately saline and alkaline illite, smectite, and mixed-layer pore solutions shortly after deposition. illite/smectite formed authigenically via Chabazite authigenesis was favored by the reaction of precursor volcanic glass or clay relatively silica-poor environment in which minerals with the saline, alkaline water in the activity of H20 was high and the K to Na + the lake. Ca+ Mg activity ratio was low (Bowie, 1985). The air-fall tuffs of DSVare rhyolitic Zeolitization of the fresh rhyolitic volcanic (Cornwall and Krieger, 1978; Krieger, 1979). glass in the tuffs produces enrichment of Ca X-ray florescence (XRF) spectrometry of DSV and Mg and loss of K20 am Si02• bulk zeolitie-tuff and unaltered tuff samples indicates that zeolitization of fresh '!HE CLINOP'l'IIDLITE DEPunT rhyolitic ash produces an enrichment in Al203, lIT BOCKHORN, NEW MEXIa> MgO, CaO, and H 20, and a loss of si02 and K20 The Buckhorn clinoptilolite deposit is in (Krieger, 1979; Bowie, 1985). In some tuffs, the Mangas Trench, a northwest-southeast­ trending structural low, bounded by normal Na 20 is enriched but it is depleted in others. Edson (1977) and Eyde (1982) report, for the faults on the east and west. Clinoptilolite Bowie chabazite deposit, a lateral chemical has been mined at Buckhorn from one of two gradation of increasing CaO:Na20 ratios in zeolitic air-fall tuffs. These tuffs are zeolitic tuff. They correlate this with in­ eXIDsed on the west side of DJck Green Valley creasing lake water salinity. The shallow, in secs. 3, 4, and 10, '1'. 15 S., R. 18 W.,

93 about 1 mile south of Buckhorn, Grant Cbunty, A lower layer in this tuff is 0.5 feet thick ~w Mexico. '!he exploited tuff is visible to and contains about 48 percent clinoptilolite the west from U.S. Highway 180. SOme poten­ and about 48 percent chabazite (Eyde, 1982). tially zeolitized tuffs crop out in the cen­ The lower tuff also contains a clinoptilolite­ tral and eastern portions of Duck Green heulandite intermediate phase, heulandite, Valley. analcine, magadiite chert, quartz, calcite, The zeolitized air-fall tuffs of the illite/smectite, plagioclase, flourite, horn­ Buckhorn deposit are interbedded with the blende, and biotite (Olander, 1979; Eyde, Pliocene-Pleistocene Cactus Flat beds of the 1982; Sheppard and Mumpton, 1984). The upper upper part of the Gila Cbnglomerate (Heindl, zeolite tuff is massive, yellowish- to 1958). Olander (1979) recognized four dis­ grayish-white, and is 1 feet thick. It con­ tinct depositional environments in the depos­ tains over 60 percent clinoptilolite and a its: 1) soil which possibly developed along trace of erionite. the edge of an alluvial fan, 2) intermittent Lower tuff SEM reveals clinoptilolite stream-channel and adjacent overbank deposits, pseudomorphic after volcanic glass and 3) interchannel, flood-plain deposits, 4) smectite (Figure 6). Clinoptilolite occurs as lacustrine or ponded deposits. The deposit is bushy clusters of coffin-shaped laths commonly correlative with diatomite deposits, about 3 radiating into voids. The crystals rarely miles north of Buckhorn, that were placed at exceed 3 microns in length and 2 microns in the boundary between early and middle Plio­ width. Smectite coats the volcanic glass cene, an approximate age of 3 m.y. (Olander, shards and appears as wispy, interconnected 1979; Eyde, 1982). The U.S. Bureau of Mines ridges forming a honeycomb texture. explored, sampled, and tested the diatomite in the early 1940's. The results of the testing are unpublished but informal reports indicate the diatomite to be of good quality and at least 25 feet thick (Gillerman, 1964). The two clinoptilolite-rich tuffs at the Buckhorn deposit are traceable for approx­ imately 1 mile along strike. The tuffs are separated by about 20 feet of green and brown mudstone containing abundant smectite, zeo­ lites, quartz, and calcite, and minor to trace illite, plagioclase, and secondary gypsum (Sheppard and Mumpton, 1984). Both zeolitic tuffs were probably originally rhyodacitic with a source in the Iatil-Mogollon volcanic field (Olander, 1979). The yellowish-white, massive, lower zeo­ lite tuff is 3 to 5 feet thick and contains up to 70 to 90 percent clinoptilolite (Figure 5).

Figure 6. Scanning electron micrograph from the lower horizon of the Buckhorn deposit. The paragenetic relationships between the volcanic glass, smectite, and clinoptilolite are clearly shown. Wispy smectite sparingly coats the volcanic glass grain. Cl uste'rs coffin-shaped clinoptilolite laths from the glass into a cavity.

Interstitial solutions passing through Buckhorn tuffs were saline and alKaline. solution composition probably approached of Lake Magadi, a NaHC03-C03 brine (Eugster 1970), based on the occurrence of "'c":lc"..... ~,.~ chert at Buckhorn. The solutions at were hypersaline and probably were basinward (Olander, 1979) during zeol Figure 5. At the Buckhorn clinoptilolite tion. The chert precipitation suggests deposit, a resistant 4-foot-thick section of the brine was unsuitable for the lower zeolite tuff has influenced the with low si to Al ratios, such as L:1JlClL'a~OJ. formation of a 20 foot knickpoint in an Botassium feldspar formation was inhibited ephemeral-stream arroyo. the low. K to Na + Ca + Mg activity

94 Winton 3.01111 Tuff alteration initially formed minor Chlorld.2.8ml smectite with overlapping heulandite-group 101'37'30" mineralization, including clinoptilolite. Erionite and analcine precipitated later HEW through reactions involving localized, highly MEXICO saline, alkaline sOlutions. The two later zeolites locally replaced the earlier high­ silicon zeolites. lnuorite in a zeolitic tuff occurs about i 2.5 miles east of Buckhorn. The fluorite is \ very small « 1 micron) and makes up 20 to 30 ,c}. "'> \~'+ / percent of the tuff. It occurs as pellets and , .. ".. ~ ooids embedded in a matrix consisting predomi­ 'it nantly of micrometer-size mordenite and / ~ 33'17'30" -.oJ smectite (Sheppard and Mumpton, 1984). The ( pellets and ooids probably are products of EXPLANATION primary precipitation of fluorite and magadiite. '!hey formed where dilute, calcium­ bearing water from springs or streams mixed ~ Fault, ehowlng aeparatlon with fluorine-rich, saline, alkaline-lake Fault, approximate water. The pellets are possibly biogenic and / often form the cores of ooids. Both pellets and ooids were transported and reworked into Fault, Interred the tuff prior to zeolitization (Sheppard and 1_- Ephemeral Ilream Mumpton, 1984). CIIl.. .··.. ·· ..·..• ·. Tertiary cllnoptllollte 2.0ml ./ tuff and conglomerllle, 8 ahowlng contachl 'DIE CI.lHJPTIIDLTI'E :DEPCEIT M COCHILW NEGRO, Nm MEXIa>

'!he CUchillo N3gro clinoptilolite deposit is part of a thick, nonmarine Cenozoic sedi­ mentary and volcanic section. This section occupies the southern end of the Winston 33'15' Graben between the Black Range to the west and the Sierra CUchillo to the east. '!he deposit is about 4 miles south of Winston, Sierra 107'37'30" Cbunty, N3w Mexioo. Access to the deposit is via N.M. Highway 52 (paved), which intersects I-25 just north Figure 7. Tertiary cl inoptilol ite tuff and of Truth or Consequences. Follow Highway 52 conglomerate at the Cuchillo Negro deposit. northwest to Winston, then follow Cbunty lbad Starred sampl e local ities contain cl ino­ 6 and USFS 157 (both improved dirt) south ptilolite confirmed by XRD (modified from along the Chloride Creek drainage for approx­ Maxwell and Heyl, 1976). imately 4 miles. The central area of the deposit is at the junction of USFS 157 and the St. Cloud Mining Cbmpany's mill road. '!he st. units vary in form, thickness, lithology, and Cloud Mill is 2 miles northwest of this inter­ stratigraphic relationships. The volcanic sect ion (Figure 7). rocks contain five depositional sequences A Tertiary clinoptilolite tuff and (Jahns and others, 1978): early to middle conglomerate unit occurs within the Winston 7 Tertiary 1) upper andesite sequence, 2) 1/2-minute quadrangle (Maxwell and Heyl, rhyolite-trachyte sequence, 3) lower andesite 1976). This unit is in sees. 34 and 35, T. 11 sequence, 4) dacite-rhyodacite sequence, and S., R. 8 W., and sees. 2, 3, 10, 11, 14, 15, early Tertiary 5) latite-andesite sequence. 21, and 22, T. 12 S., R. 8 W. It is exposed These five depositional sequences together for approximately 5 miles along a north-south contain many members, at least 12 of which are trend (Figures 7 and 8) and crops out west and water-laid tuff. The water-laid tuffs may north of the confluence of S:mth Ebrk Arroyo, have been in part zeolitically altered by Chloride Creek, and CUchillo N3gro Creek. '!he saline and alkaline pore water. Propylitical­ unit is displaced by several north-northwest­ ly altered andesite (unit Tabt of Maxwell and trending normal faults, and dips up to 60 Heyl, 1976) crops out throughout much of the degrees to the west-southwest. central portion of the Winston quadrangle. '!he clinoptilolitic tuff and conglomerate Tabt contains a discontinuous, thick, green, is interbedded in a complex 'Il3rtiary volcanic fine- and coarse-grained, water-laid tuff near and sedimentary section that is at least 2,500 the top. This tuff may be altered in part to feet thick in the Sierra CUchillo. Individual clinoptilolite •

95 texture. Clinoptilolite formed from both volcanic glass and smectite. It occurs as subhedral to euhedral, coffin-shaped, mono­ clinic laths, either isolated or in clusters (Figure 9). The laths are up to 5 microns long and wide and up to 1 micron thick. Second generation smectite locall}' coats clinoptilolite •

Figure 8. Exposure of approximately 60 feet of faulted, steeply dipping, clinoptilolitic tuff along South Fork Arroyo at the Cuchillo Negro zeolite deposit. Telephone poles at base of the hill at far left and right center provide scale.

The Tertiary volcanic rocks are unconfonn­ ably underlain by the Lower Permian Abo and Bursum Fbnnations, and the Upper Pennsylvanian Madera Limestone. The volcanic section is Figure 9. Scanning electron micrograph of overlain by a thick sequence of Tertiary and clinoptilolitic tuff from the Cuchillo Negro Quaternary fine- and coarse-grained basin zeolite deposit. Honeycomb smectite and fill. The basin fill represents erosion of coffin-shaped clinoptilolite laths have grown older rock units exposed in the nearby high­ on a volcanic glass shard. Cl inoptilolite lands. Jahns (1955) refers to the strata has also displacively overgrown smectite. overlying the volcanics as the "Winston beds" and notes that they can be traced southward into the type section of "Palomas gravel". The tuffs in the Cuchillo Negro deposit The sediments have also been divided into the were apparently zeolitically altered by "Rio Grande gravel", Gila Conglomerate, and groundwater in an open-hydrologic system. Santa Fe Formation, but definitive correla­ The groundwater chemistry was modified by tions with other areas and sections have not hydrolysis and dissolution of the vitric tuff. yet been confirmed (Jahns and others, 1978). The zeolitization cuts across stratigraphic Jahns collected early Pleistocene vertebrates boundaries, a characteristic of alteration in and fresh-water mollusks from the upper part open-hydrologic systems. fbwever, local zeo­ of the Winston beds. litization by ponded, saline, alkaline solu­ The clinoptilolitic sequence contains tions cannot be ruled out. numerous zeolitically altered, light-buff to chalk-white tuffs interbedded with silty to 'lHE CLINOPrIIDLITE DEIUHT sandy altered-tuff, sandstone, and conglomer­ AT FOO'lER CANYOO, NEW MEXIOO ate. Limited XRD analysis of powder-press mounts of this unit returned an average of The Foster Canyon clinoptilolite deposit approximately 50 percent clinoptilolite lies primarily in the easternmost half of T. (Figure 7). varying amounts of unaltered 21 S., R. 2 W., and in the westernmost sec­ volcanic glass, quartz, calcite, feldspar, tions of T. 21 S., R. 1 W. It is about 16 cristobalite, smectite, kaolinite, illite, and miles northwest of Las Cruces, and is near mixed-layer clay minerals also occur. Traces Radi um springs, D.:ma Ana County, New Mexico. of chabazite, dolomite, pyrite, magnetite, Several zeolitically altered air-fall tuffs biotite, and manganese minerals are present. are exposed in the Fbster canyon collapse area The paragenetic sequence of authigenic of the Tertiary Cedar Hills and selden HillS mineralization, based on SEM, is unaltered volcanic-vent zone (seager and Clemons, 1975). volcanic glass ---) early smectite ---) The deposit can be reached by taking Exit cristobalite(?) ---) clinoptilolite ---) late 19 (Interstate 25), proceeding west to U.S. smectite (Figure 9). Smectite is pseu:1omor­ Highway 85, and turning right (north). Con­ phic after the glass and occurs as leafy, tinue through Radium springs and turn left interconnected ridges forming a honeycomb (west) onto the upper dirt road just south of

96 mile marker 17. Drive 3.3 miles west then turn right (north) off the ridge onto a jeep trail and proceed 2.6 miles until reaching the (Seager and Leonard Minerals Cbmpany prospect pit, located either formed in the SEI/4 SWI/4 NWI/4 sec. 14, T. 21 S., R. member or formed 2 W. The deposit is in the Cbrralitos Ranch 7 '!he Tertiary 1/2-minute quadrangle mapped by Clemons is separated from the (1976) . the overlying Rincon In the Cedar Hills and Selden Hills vent angular unconformity. An angular zone, the Tertiary section includes the Ebcene also separates the Rincon Valley Palm Park Formation, the Oligocene Bell 'Ibp from the overlying piedmont-slope facies of Formation, and the Miocene to Pliocene(?) the Pleistocene Camp Rice Formation. Late Rincon Valley Formation (Seager and others, Pleistocene to fblocene arroyo, fan, and the 1971; Seager and Clemons, 1975). The palm terrace, as well as minor playa deposits and Park Fbrmation consists of about 2,000 feet of eolian sand, unconformably overlie the Camp epiclastic, laharic, andesitic detritus. Rice. other facies present in the Palm Park include The dominant structural feature of the fluvial, basin-floor, and piedmont-slope Fbster canyon deposit is the north-northeast­ (toe), and subvolcanic sills, dikes, and minor trending, late Tertiary Cedar Hills normal flows (Seager and Clemons, 1975). The Palm fault. This and subsidiary late Tertiary Park Formation is unconformably overlain by high-angle normal faults are superimposed the Bell TOp Formation. The Bell TOp in the across the GbOdsight-Cedar Hills depression, a vent zone can be subdivided into four units: broad, shallow, volcano-tectonic sag of Oligo­ 1) lower tuffs and breccia, 2) ash-flow tuff, cene age (Seager, 1973). uplift and erosion 3) upper air-fall and epiclastic deposits, and along these faults exposed the volcanic-fill 4) flowbanded rhyolite domes and flows (seager of the depression, as well as the strata and and Clemons, 1975). Ibrous to dense crystal­ structure of the Cedar Hills vent zone along vitric ash-flow tuff and muddy to sandy con­ the eastern margin of the depression (Seager glomerate interfinger with tuffaceous sedimen­ and Clemons, 1975). These volcano-tectonic tary members. features are precursors to the Rio Grande In Foster Canyon, up to 800 feet of white rifting (seager and Clemons, 1975). to tan, rhyolitic air-fall tuff, breccia, and '!he upper tuffaceous sedimentary member is interbedded epiclastic pebbly sandstone were extensively zeolitized and locally opalized. deposited as moat-fill after vent-clearing, several siliceous or fused-tuff structures are explosive eruptions (Figure 10). Clemons conspicuous at the surface as resistant, (1976) refers to these deposits as the upper sinuous, crosscutting ridges with up to 3 feet tuffaceous sedimentary member. The lower of relief above the surrounding surface. '!he parts of the member contain clasts of Paleo­ fused-tuffs are cemented by opal-CT, sug­ zoic limestone, Palm Park Fbrmation, ash-flow gesting a relatively low-temperature «65 tuff, and vesicular andesite. Ash, cross- degrees C) alteration event (McGrath, 1985). The tuffs were probably silicified as siO ­ rich hydrothermal solutions moved up along fractures. They are now prominent owing to differential erosion. McGrath (1985) collected samples at I-foot intervals for 20 feet along a traverse of three fused-tuff ridges in the upper tuffa­ ceous sedimentary member. In addition to opal-CT, XRD analysis detected smectite and clinoptilolite. The relative abundances of smectite and clinoptilolite are inversely proportional to their distance from the fused­ tuff ridges. Clinoptilolite is more concen­ trated at the ridges and smectite is more ooncentrated away from them. This relation­ ship supports a hydrothermal origin for at least some of the zeoli te. Other zeoli te may be post hydrothermal. The clinoptilolite is Figure 10. Bedded, reworked air-fall tuff in unstable in the modern soil (McGrath, 1985). I the Cedar Hills and Selden Hills vent zone Clinoptilolite was detected in secs. 14 1 exposed at the Foster Canyon clinoptilolite and 25, T. 21 S., R. 2 W., and along the deposit. It contains approximately 50 percent boundary of secs. 19 and 30, T. 21 S., R. 1 W. clinoptilolite with subordinate lithic frag­ Chabazite was found to be the dominant zeolite ments, unaltered volcanic glass, smectite, and in several samples from the west-central part feldspar. Hammer is for scale. of sec. 14, T. 21 S., R. 2 W., but is gener-

97 ------"--~-

ally much less abundant then clinoptiloliteo and clinoptilolite is unclear, but they ap­ Analcime occurs rarely in the west-central parently coexist. Clinoptilolite occurs as part of section 14 (McGrath, 1985). Zeotech subhedral to euhedral, coffin-shaped laths Corporation analyzed several samples by XRD that are commonly intergrown and chaotically from sec. 2, T. 20 S., R. 2 W., secs. 11, 13, arranged. The laths are abou arranged. The 14, and 25, T. 21 S., R. 2 W., and sec. 19, T. laths are about 20 to 30 microns long, up to 21 S., R. 1 W.; all are nonzeolitic. 10 microns wide, and up to 5 microns thick. Zeotech Corporation augered over 300 holes into the Foster Canyon deposit and analyzed mE CLIlO?'.ITWLI'I'E DEPOOIT tuffaceous samples by XRD. The tuffs contain M CASA PIEDRA, "mXAS up to 60 percent zeolite, am average 40 to 50 percent clinoptilolite. Reserves are tenta­ '!he casa piedra clinoptilolite deposit is tively estimated at 200,000 to 300,000 short in Presidio Co., 'Iexas, about 1 mile northeast tons of 50 percent clinoptilolite. Exact of Casa Piedra and about 40 miles south of reserve calculations are difficult to make Marfa. A clinoptilolite-rich tuff crops out because of the irregular gradation between in the lower part of the Tertiary Tascotal zeolitized and nonzeolitized tuff and the Formation. The Tascotal crops out almost intermixing of siliceous, fused-tuff zones continuously from approximately 6 miles south with zeolitic tuff. of Marfa to nearly the Rio Grande south of the In addition to zeolites, opal-CT and Bofecillos Mountains. North of Casa Piedra, smectite, the tuffs contain lithic fragments the Tascotal crops out in low hills and ranging in composition from basalt to cuestas. Clinoptilolite is a minor constit­ rhyolite, varying amounts of unaltered vol­ uent in the matrix of high-energy fluvial canic glass, and minor quartz, calcite, sandstones along this outcrop line but is biotite, kaolinite, sanidine, K-feldspar, and locally concentrated in an air-fall tuff albite. The zeolitic tuff is generally mas­ interbedded with .low-energy lacustrine rocks. sive and structureless. Local cross-bedding Walton and Groat (1972) collected nearly pure is present probably due to the tuffs having clinoptilolite samples just north and north­ been reworked by fluvial processes (Figure east of casa piedra. 10) • '!he casa piedra deposit contains a white, The paragenetic sequence of authigenic air-fall tuff 1 to 5 feet thick am averaging mineralization, determined with SEM and in about 60 percent clinoptilolite (Figure 12). thin section, is unaltered volcanic glass ---> early smectite --> clinoptilolite, opal-cr --­ > late smectite (Figure 11). Honeycomb smectite coats glass and clinoptilolite. Opal-CT occurs as clusters or stringers of subrounded balls up to 5 microns in diameter. The paragenetic relationship between opal-CT

Figure 12. Clinoptilolite-rich tuff overlying lacustrine mudstone in the Tertiary Tascotal Formation at the Casa Piedra zeolite deposit. This tuff is 1 to 5 feet thick and contains approximately 60 percent clinoptilolite and minor unaltered volcanic glass, cristobalite, feldspar, and biotite.

The tuff also contains unaltered volcanic Figure 11. Scanning electron micrograph of glass, and minor biotite, smectite, feldspar, zeolitic tuff at the Foster Canyon clinoptilcr and cristobalite. '!he paragenetic sequence of lite deposit. Chaotic and commonly inter­ authigenic mineralization, based on SEM, is grown, coffin-shaped clinoptilolite laths are unaltered volcanic glass---> early smectite intermixed with clusters or stringers of sub­ ---> clinoptilolite ---> late smectite (Figure rounded balls of opal-CT. 13) • Fuzzy, honeycomb smectite has grown from

98 8 miles west, the Dilworth quarry about 8 miles southwest, and the Henry Martin quarry about 1 mile southeast of Tilden. '!he depos­ its occur in the Eocene Manning Fbrmation of the Jackson Group within Gulf Coast strati­ graphy. "The Jackson Group is an extensive series of strike-oriented sand units which comprise the south Texas strandplain-barrier bar system. '!he sands grade updip and downdip into predominantly mud systems, the south Texas lagoonal-coastal plain and the shelf systems, respectively" (Walton and Groat, 1972) • The zeolitized air-fall tuffs were originally deposited in quiet lagoons behind barrier islands, and/or in associated coastal­ fluvial and washover- fan environments (Walton and Groat, 1972). The zeolitized air-fall tuffs were Figure 13. Scanning electron micrograph of originally deposited in quiet lagoons behind clinoptilolite-rich tuff from the Casa Piedra barrier islands, and/or in associated coastal zeolite deposit. The etched volcanic glass fluvial and washover fan enviromnents (Walton shard (right center) is coated with honeycomb and Groat, 1972). The source of the tuff may smectite. Patches of coffin-shaped clino­ have been northern Mexico (B. Ibnegan, pers. ptilolite laths have grown from the smectite comm., 1984). zeolitization probably occurred and volcanic glass. in open-hydrologic systems where meteoric waters reacted with vitric tuff. Local alter­ an etched volcanic-glass substance and locally ation in ponded saline, alkaline waters coats clinoptilolite. Clinoptilolite crystal­ (closed-hydrologic) is also possible. lized from a volcanic-glass precursor and from The clinoptilolite-rich tuffs are white, smectite. It occurs as isolated laths or as gray, or various pastel shades and are more clusters of subhedral to euhedral, coffin­ resistant to erosion than adjacent beds. '!hey shaped laths often lining vugs and radiating form massive, blocky, or flaggy ledges with into voids. The clinoptilolite laths are up subconchoidal to conchoidal fracture. They to 7 microns long, 5 microns wide, am up to 3 are up to 3 feet thick (Walton and Groat, microns thick. 1972) and each ledge consists of individual The tuff was altered to zeolite by reac­ beds ranging in thickness from 1 to 3 inches. tion of volcanic glass with saline, alkaline­ ledges are laterally persistent except where pore solutions in a closed-hydrologic system, erosion, dominantly in paleo-channels, has probably a playa lake and peripheral environ­ removed the tuffs. SOme tuffs are structure­ ment. '!he tuff overlies brown, sandy mldstone less, some are laminated, and some display and has worm and clam burrows at the base. It small-scale foreset or trough crossbeds. crops out in circular fashiop over approx­ Climbing ripples characterize some highly imately 1 square mile. '!he deposit also con­ zeolitized units (Walton and Groat, 1972). tains tuffaceous sandstones laid down in high­ XRD analyses indicate that in addition to energy fluvial systems. The central portion abundant clinoptilolite, the tuffs contain of the deposit was largely eroded prior to varying amounts of unaltered volcanic glass, paleochannel formation. Reserves are about montmorillonite, opal-CT, sodic plagioclase, 100,000 short tons of material averaging 60 and quartz (Walton and Gr'oat, 1972). percent clinoptilolite. Kuykendall pits 'lHE CLINOPTIIDLITE DEPa3ITS AT TILDEN, '.lEXAS '!he three Kuykendall pits trend northeast­ southwest over approximately 10 acres. They The Tilden clinoptilolite deposits are contain clinoptilolite-rich tuffs 6 to 12 feet near the town of Tilden, McMullen County, thick (Figure 14). "The tuffs are thickest in Texas; approximately 80 miles south of San the center of the trend, grade laterally into Antonio and 100 miles northwest of Corpus muddy, tuffaceous units to the west, and dis­ Christi. Tb date, clinoptilolite is the only appear into the subsurface to the north and potentially commercial zeolite found in south east" (Walton am Gr'oat, 1972). Texas. Clinoptilolite-bearing tuffs have been The Kuykendall tuffs overlie a buff to mined from four quarries, named after the blue-green, well indurated, silicified sand­ property owners: 1) Kuykendall, 2) Buck stone with local clay-size detrital matrix or Martin, 3) Henry Martin, and 4) Dilworth. '!he clay interbeds. A light-gray to reddish­ Kuykendall and Buck Martin quarries are about brown, locally tuffaceous clay with silty and

99 Figure 14. Drill rig at the end of one of the Figure 15. stratified and cross-bedded clino­ three Kuykendall pits near Tilden, Texas. ptilolite-rich tuff at one of the Kuykendall Note the blocky nature of the zeolite ore. pits. Manganese and iron oxides define The McMullen Co. Highway Dept. hauled rock bedding planes. Dark iron oxide blebs are from this and other nearby zeolite quarries pseudomorphic after pyrite. for road-fill. The streets of Tilden and many county roads are constructed from this material. The zeolite ore compacts well, does not get slippery when wet, and is hard enough to resist breakdown under heavy traffic. sandy interbeds, overlies the tuffs. uncon­ solidated sand and gravel locally overlie or truncate this sequence. A black to reddish­ brown soil, generally less than 3 feet thick, caps the whole sequence. A unifonnly thick (4 feet) lignite bed underlies the sedimentary sequence and is an excellent basal marker horizon throughout the deposit. Tuffs at Kuykendall are white, gray, or pale yellow above the groundwater table (GWT) and are reduced and bluish-gray below it. '!he tuffs are locally very hard and, in places, are clayey, silty, and sandy. Climbing rip­ ples and small-scale festoon and trough cross­ beds are common, but locally the beds are Figure 16. Scanning electron micrograph of thin-bedded (l to 5 inches) and structureless. clinoptilolite-rich tuff from one of the Manganese and iron oxide staining defines some Kuykendall pits. Wispy, pore-lining smectite bedding planes (Figure 15). coats volcanic glass. Coffin-shaped clino­ Analysis by XRD indicates that the Kuyken­ ptilolite laths have grown from the volcanic dall tuffs contain approximately 50 to 60 glass and smectite into the void. The clino­ percent clinoptilolite, 30 percent montmoril­ ptilolite has been partially etched and is lonite, and up to 20 percent opal-CT. Minor locall y replaced by smectite. unaltered volcanic glass and iron and manga­ nese oxides are also present. zeotech Cbrpor­ 3 microns wide ranging locally up to 17 mic­ ation estimates reserves at over 700,000 short rons long and up to 10 microns wide. Pore tons of adsorbent clinoptilolite (50 to 60 percent) on its leases covering over 2,300 solutions have partially dissolved some cline­ ptilolite and have induced a second generation acres. of smectite precipitation. The paragenetic sequence of authigenic mineralization, from SEM, is unaltered vol­ canic glass---> early smectite ---> clino­ Buck Martin Q.1arry ptilolite ---> late smectite (Figure 16). smectite occurs as porelining , honeycomb The Buck Martin quarry is nearly circular masses coating volcanic glass and clinoptilo­ and covers about 8 acres. Q.1arry faces expose lite. Clinoptilolite occurs as vug-filling, up to 8 feet of clinoptilolite-rich tuffs subhedral to euhedral, coffin-shaped laths. the northeast walll they disappear in IYPical crystals are about 5 microns long and southeast portion of the quarry (Figure 17).

100 MINERAIDGIC

101 T.ab~e 1. Genetic classification and some mineralogic characteristics of the six zeolite deposits discussed in this paper. Grain size was determined by SEM and refer.s to the dominant zeolite phase.

Parent-ash Dominant Dominant and Typical Paragenesis of Deposit composition genetic system (suoordinate) zeolite phases1 grain size authigenic mineralization1 ,2

Dripping springs Valley rhyolitic closed-hydrologic Cb (Cl, Er) ~ 111 square Gl -> Srn(I/Srn), Cb

Buckhorn rhyodacitic closed-hydrologic Cl (He, Cb, Er, An, Mo) ~3lJ long G1 -> 8m --> CI, He --) Er, An -> Mag -> An

Cuchillo Negro unkn= open-hydrologic Cl (Cb) ~511 long G1 -> 8m -> Cb, crist, Cl-> Sm

Foster Canyon rhyolitic hydrothermal Cl (Cb, An) ~15 ~ long G1 -> 8m --> el, Opal-cr --> 8m

casa piedra unkn= closed-hydrologic Cl ~7~ long G1 -> 8m -> Cl -> 8m

Tilden intermediate open-hydrologic Cl ~5f1 long G1 -> 8m -> Cl --> 8m

1 Cb = chabazite, Cl = clinoptilolite, Er = erionite, He = heulandite, An = analcime, Mo = nordenite 2 G1 = unaltered volcanic glass, 8m = smectite, r/8m = mixed-layer illite/smectite, Mag = rragadiite, crist = cristo1:::alite deposits. IDeal, differing diagenetic condi­ above. '!he assemblages probably formed under tions proouced slight variations in progres­ similar conditions of parent-ash composition, sion along the sequence, such as chabazite pore- solution chemistry, and diagenesis. precipitation at Cuchillo Negro and Foster In addition to zeolite, the tuffs analyzed Canyon and opal-CT cementation at Foster contain varying amounts of impurities, in­ Canyon and Tilden. The possible paragenetic cluding unaltered volcanic glass, clay min­ sequences of authigenic mineralization of erals, quartz, opal-CT, calcite, feldspar, and closed-hydrologie, open-hydrologie, and hydro­ biotite. Althotgh these analyses may resemble thermal systems are quite diverse (Surdam, analyses of the constituent zeolites, they are 1977: Hay and Sheppard, 1977: Boles, 1977). in fact analyses of rocks. Several composi­ Only slight variations in mineral assemblages tional characteristics of the zeolitic tuffs occur amongst the four zeolite deposits listed are apparent.

TabLe 2. Major-oxide chemical analyses as determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of bulk zeolitic tuff samples from each of the zeolite deposits discussed in this report. Results reported in weight percent oxide. Lor determined at 9000 C (3) and 10000 C (1), others unknown.

Deposit LSV L6V L6V DSV Buckhorn Buckhorn Cuchillo Negro Foster Canyon Casa Piedra Casa Piedra Tilden Tilden Ore Cb Cb Cb Cb CIt Cl Cl CIt Cl CIt Cit Cl Oxide tuff main u rrain ? lcwer lcwer 7 7 ? ?

56.6 63.40 Si02 54.17 53.2 54.10 53.1 64.72 -68 67.70 68.0 68.4 73.90

Al203 15.29 14.8 15.04 14.7 12.1 12.20 12.65 12.3 13.10 12.3 12.1 11.50 Fe203 (FeQx) 2.09 1.6 1.57 1.88 (1.3) 1.33 <3.72** (1.5) 1.63 (1.5) (0.8) 0.92

MgC 2.80 2.8 2.12 2.70 1.4 1.70 1.04 0.8 0.60 0.5 0.7 0.84

cao 2.50 2.40 3.40 2.7 3.37 3.32 1.0 1.69 2.7 2.4 1.52

2.18 4.4 3.48 3.50 0.8 1.40 0.88 2.0 3.70 2.1 0.6 1.30

1.96 1.2 1.89 1.50 1.1 1.12 3.31 3.7 2.04 3.0 1.7 0.59

0.37 0.06 0.33 0.32 0.13 0.24 0.26 0.22

0.06 0.08 0.05 <0.10 <0.10 0.04 0.10 <0.10

0.02 0.03 0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.05 <0.02 <0.02

9.4 3-5 (b) 3-6 (b) 3-5 (b) 4-7 (b) 5-10 (fl 4-10 (f) 5-10 (f)

0.91 9.6 0.02 2.81

18.79 9.47 18.44 18.40 15.06 8.77 8.89 8.84

101.14 99.34 99.46 99.50 99.71 99.71 99.63

3.54 3.59 3.60 3.61 4.68 5.20 5.12 -5.53 5.17 5.53 5.65 6.43

Impurities glass, trace glass, rno., trace trace glass, glass, minor opal-cr, quartz, quartz, quartz, trace clays clays vrf biotite, glass, clays calcite, feld., calcite, quartz, feld. smectite, feld., clay feld., trace opal-cr clays clays clays

Reference 4 1

References: 1) BOo'Iie (1985), 2) Zeotech Corp. files (unpub1.): 3) Sheppard and Gude (1982), 4) Krieger (1979). Note: DSV Dripping Springs Valley; Cb chabazite, Cl cliroptilolite; mOo mordenite; vrf volcanic rock fragments; *WI H 0+ +~; ** includes ======2 1.84% Fe203 and <1.88% Feox~ b = bound H20+; f = free H20+; t = Analyses of zeolite products--Turflite (Tilden), Clinolite 10 (Foster Canyon), Clinolite 15 (Casa Piedra), and Clinolite 20 (Buckhorn) as marketed by Zeotech Corp., Albuquerque, NM.

102 Ideal chabazite has a si:Al ratio of 2.0; by ponded, saline, alkaline solutions. chabazite from sedimentary environments is The tuffs at Tilden were deposited in more silicon-rich and has a Si:AI ratio quiet lagoons behind barrier islands, ranging from 3.0-4.1 (Sheppard and Gude, and/or in associated coastal fluvial 1975). The Si02 :Al203 ratio of the four DSV and washover fan environments. chabazite-rich tuff samples ranges from 3.54 3. Air-fall tuff was zeolitically altered to 3.61. Two of the four DSV samples show a by low-temperature, Sio2-rich, hydro­ predominance of alkaline-earths; the other two thermal solutions in the Fbster canyon are alkali-rich and sadic (Table 2). area of the Tertiary Cedar Hills and The composition of natural clinoptilolite Selden Hills volcanic-vent zone in is extremely variable. Clinoptilolite is more south-central Kew Mexico. silicon-rich and has a higher Si:Al ratio than 4. The dominant mineral of the zeolitic chabazite. The Si:Al ratio of clinoptilolite tuffs at the six deposits is generally ranges from 2.7 to 5.0 and clinoptilolite microcrystalline chabazite or clino­ ranges from completely calcic to dominantly ptilolite. Typical impurities or alkalic (Hay, 1966). There is a general in­ associated minerals inclu:1e: lithic crease in the Si02:Al203 ratio of the clino­ fragments, unaltered volcanic glass, ptilolite-rich tuffs analyzed eastward from other zeolites, quartz, calcite, opal­ the low of 4.68 at Buckhorn. The ratio is CT, cristobalite, feldspar, evapo­ 5.12 at Cuchillo Negro, 5.53 at Fbster canyon, rites, clays, and mafic minerals. The 5.17 and 5.53 at casa Piedra, and reaches deposits exhibit varying stages of highs of 5.65 and 6.43 at Tilden (Table 2). authigenic mineralization. A general The increase in the ratio from New Mexico to paragenetic sequence of unaltered vol­ Texas is probably coincidental when all vari­ canic glass ---> early smectite and/or ables, such as regional tectonics, parent-ash mixed layer illite/smectite ---> cha­ composition, and local pore-solution chemistry bazite or clinoptilolite ---> are considered. analcine, erionite ---> late-stage Sheppard and Gude (1982) report major­ smectite is indicated by SEM and thin oxide chemical analyses for 16 clinoptilolite­ section analyses. Variations in this rich tuffs of the western united States, in­ sequence were dictated by local diage­ cluding samples from Buckhorn, casa Piedra, netic conditions, pore-solution chem­ and Tilden (Table 2). CXlly two of 16 samples, istry, and parent-ash composition. including Buckhorn, show a predominance of alkaline-earth elements; the remainder show a 5. There are two potentially commercial, predominance of alkalis. Three of the five chabazite-rich tuffs in ffiV. The main clinoptilolite-rich tuffs we analyzed show,a zeolite tuff underlies about 1 square predominance of alkaline-earths and are calcIc mile of basin fill, is 0.25 to 1.74 (Table 2). The Foster Canyon and Casa Piedra feet thick, and contains up to 90 tuffs are alkalic. The Foster Canyon sample percent chabazite. The upper zeolite and one of the Casa piedra samples is potas­ tuff underlies over 3 square miles of sic. The other casa Piedra sample is sodic. basin fill, averages 1.5 feet thick, and contains approximately 67 percent chabazite. CONCWSIONS 6. At the Buckhorn deposit, two clino­ ptilolite-rich tuffs, separated by Geologic, petrologic, and mineralogic about 20 feet of lacustrine mu:1stone, characteristics of zeolitic tuffs were com­ crop out for about 1 mile along strike pared between six zeolite deposits in Arizona, on the west side of D.lck Creek Valley. Kew Mexico, and 'Iexas. The major conclusions The lower zeolite tuff is 3 to 5 feet reached in this stu:1y are: thick and contains up to 90 percent clinoptilolite. The upper zeolite tuff 1. The IXipping Spring Valley (DSV) cha­ is I-foot thick and contains over 60 bazite and Buckhorn clinoptilolite percent clinoptilolite. The potential deposits are two of several late ceno­ zoic zeolite deposits formed in for commercial development is cur­ closed-hyd rologic, lacustrine basins rently being assessed. in southeast Arizona and southwest Kew 7. Cuchillo Negro tuffs average approx­ Mexico. The casa Piedra, 'Iexas clino­ imately 50 percent clinoptilolite. ptilolite also formed during the The potential reserve base appears to Tertiary in a closed basin containing be large but is untested. a playa lake. 8. Foster Canyon tuffs contain up to 60 2. Air-fall tuffs of the Cuchillo Kegro, percent zeolite and average 40 to 50 New Mexico and Tilden, Texas clino­ percent clinoptilolite. Reserves are ptilolite deposits were zeolitically tentatively estimated at 200,000 to altered by either percolating ground­ 300,000 short tons of material aver­ waters in open-hydrologic systems or aging 50 percent clinoptilolite.

103 9. The Casa Piedra tuff is 1 to 5 feet Corralitos Ranch Quadrangle, New Mexico: thick and averages about 60 percent New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral clinoptilolite. Reserves are esti­ Resources Geologic Map 36, scale 1:24,000. mated at 100,000 short tons of mate­ Cornwall, H. R., and Krieger, M. H., 1978, rial averaging 60 percent clinoptilo­ Geologic map of the El Capitan Mountain lite. No commercial development has Quadrangle, Gila and Pinal Counties, occurred. Arizona: u.S. Geological Survey Geologic 10. Clinoptilolite-rich tuffs have been <)..ladrangle Map GQ-1442, scale 1:24,000. mined from four quarries at the Tilden Edson, G. M., 1977, SOme bedded zeolites, San deposits. The three Kuykendall pits Simon Basin, southeastern Arizona: cover approximately 10 acres. They Tucson, university of Ari zona, M.S. contain zeolitic tuffs 6 to 12 feet thesis, 65 p. thick containing approximately 50 to Eugster, H. P., 1970, Chemistry and origin of 60 percent clinoptilolite, 30 percent the brines of Lake Magadi, Kenya in montmorillonite, and up to 20 percent Morgan, B. A., ed., Fiftieth anniversary opal-CT. The Buck Martin quarry symposia: Mineralogy and petrology of the covers about 8 acres. Quarry faces upper mantle. Sulfides, mineralogy and expose up to 8 feet of zeolitic tuffs geochemistry of non-marine evaporites: with composition similar to those in Mineralogical society of America Special the Kuykendall pits. 'Ihe H3nry Martin Paper I'b. 3, p. 215-235. quarry is 5 feet deep and covers about Eyde, T. H., 1982, Zeolite deposits in the 1 acre. The Di 1 worth quarry is up to Gila and san Simon Valleys of Arizona and 6 feet deep and covers about 4.5 New Mexico, in Austin, G. S., comp., In­ acres. The lateral extent of clino­ dustrial rockS-and minerals of the SOuth­ ptilolite-rich tuffs exposed in latter west: New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Min­ two quarries is unknown. eral Resources Circular 182, p. 65-71. 11. The Si02:Al20 3 ratio of four DSV cha­ Feth, J. H., 1964, Review and annotated bib­ bazite-rich tuff samples ranges from liography of ancient lake deposits (Pre­ 3.54 to 3.61. A general increase cambrian to Pleistocene) in the western occurs in the Si02 :Al20 3 ratio of states: u.S. Geological Survey Bulletin clinoptilolite-rich tuffs eastward 1080, 119 p., 4 plates, scale 1: 2,500,000. from the low of 4.68 at the Buckhorn Gillerman, E., 1964, Mineral deposits of deposit to the high of 6.43 at the western Grant County, New Mexico: New Tilden deposit; the Si02:A1 20 3 trend Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Re­ is probably coincidentaL The sources Bulletin 83, 213 p., 11 plates. Si02:Al203 ratio of the tuffs is prob­ H:ty, R. L., 1966, Zeolites and zeolitic reac­ ably dictated more by local diagenetic tions in sedimentary rocks: Geological conditions, pore-solution chemistry, Society of America Special Paper 85, JJ3:o and parent-ash composition than by a p. west-to-east change in magma source ____~' 1977, Geology of zeolites in sedimen­ composition or tectonic influence. tary rocks, in Mumpton, F. A., ed., Min­ eralogy and geology of natural zeolites: Mineralogical SOciety of America Short Course I'btes, v. 4, p. 53-64. __~~' 1978, Geologic occurrences of zeo­ Arizona r::.epartment of Mineral ReSJurces, 1978, lites, in Sand, L. B., and Mumpton, F. A., Arizona zeolites: Mineral Report No.1, eds., Natural zeolites: occurrence, prop­ 40 p. erties, use: OXford, Pergamon Press, p. Banks, N. G., and Krieger, M. H., 1977, Geo­ 135-143. logic map of the Hayden Quadrangle, pinal Hay, R. L., and Sheppard, R. A., 1977, Zeo­ and Gila Counties, Arizona: u.s. Geolog­ 1 i tes in open hydrolog ic systems, in ical Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ­ Mumpton, F. A., Mineralogy and geology of 1391, scale 1:24,000. natural zeolites: Mineralogical SOciety of Boles, J. R., 1977, Zeolites in low-grade America Short Course I'btes, v. 4, p. 93­ metamorphic grades in Mumpton, F. A., ed., 102. Mineralogy and geology of natural zeo­ Heindl, L. A., 1958, Cenozoic alluvial depos­ lites: Mineralogical SOciety of America its of the upper Gila River area, New Short Course Notes, v. 4, p. 103-135. Mexico and Arizona: Tucson, University of Bowie, M. R., 1985, Geology of the Drip­ Arizona, Ph.D. dissertation, 249 p., 2 ping Spring Valley chabazite and related plates, scale 1:500,000. zeolite deposits in southeast Arizona and Jahns, R. H., 1955, Second day road log in southwest New Mexico: SOcorro, New Mexico Sierra Cuchillo and neighboring areas in Institute of Mining and Technology, M.S. Guidebook of south-central New Mexico: thesis, 139 p., 2 plates. New Mexico Geological SOciety, 6th Field Clemons, R. E., 1976, Geology of east half Conference, p. 25-46.

104 F

Jahns, R. H., and others, 1978, Geologic sec­ Seager, W. R., Hawley, J. W., and Clemons, R. tion in the Sierra Cuchillo and flanking E., 1971, Geology of the San Diego Moun­ areas, Sierra and Socorro Counties, New tain area, IDna Ana County, New Mexico: Mex ico in James, H. L., and others, eds., New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Field guide to selected cauldrons and Resources Bulletin 97, 36 p. mining districts of the Datil-Mogollon Sheppard, R. A., 1971, Clinoptilolite of volcanic field, New Mexico: New Mexico possible economic value in sedimentary Geological Society Special Publication N::>. deposits of the conterminous United 7, p. 131-138. States: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin Krieger, M. H., 1979, Zeolitization of Ter­ 1332-B, 15 p. tiary tuffs in lacustrine and alluvial , 1973, Zeolites in sedimentary rocks, deposits in the Fay-San Manuel area, Pinal --l"-"n- Lefond, S. J., ed., Industrial Minerals and Gila Counties, Arizona: U.S. Geolog­ and Rocks: New York, American Institute ical SUrvey Professional Paper 1124-D, 11 of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, p. p. 1257-1270. Maxwell, C. H., and Heyl, A. V., 1976, Pre­ Sheppard, R. A., and Gude, A. J., 1968, Dis­ liminary geologic map of the Winston Quad­ tributions and genesis of authigenic sili­ rangle, Sierra County, New Mexico: U.S. cate minerals in tuffs of Pleistocene lake Geological survey Open-File Report 76-858, Tecopa, Inyo County, California: U.S. scale· 1: 24,000. Geological Survey Professional Paper 597, MCGrath, D. A., 1985 (in press), Zeolites in a 38 p. Sheppard, R. A., and Gude, A. J., 3rd, 1975, hydrothermal system, Foster Canyon, IDna occurrence, properties, and utilization of Ana County, New Mexico: Socorro, New chabazite from sedimentary deposits in the Mexioo Institute of Mining and Technology. United States, in Bailey, S. W., Proceed­ Munson, R. A., and Sheppard, R. A., 1974, ings of the International Clay Conference: Natural zeolites: their properties, Wilmette, Illinois, Applied Publishing occurrences, and uses: Minerals, SCience Ltd., p. 565. and Engineering, v.6, p. 19-34. Sheppard, R. A., and Gude, A. J., 3rd, 1982, Olander, P. A., 1979, Authigenic mineral reac­ Mineralogy, chemistry, gas adsorption, and tions in tuffaceous sedimentary rocks, NH + --exchange capacity for selected 4 Buckhorn, New Mexico: laramie, University zeolite tuffs from the western United of Wyoming, M.S. thesis, 82 p. States: U.S. Geological Survey q;>en-File Scarborough, R. B., and Peirce, H. W., 1978, Report 82-969, 16 p. Late Cenozoic basins of Arizona in Sheppard, R. A., and Mumpton, F. A., 1984, Callender, J. F., and others, ed., Land of Sedimentary fluorite in a lacustrine zeo­ Cochise southeastern Arizona: New Mexico litic tuff of the Gila Conglomerate near Geological Society Guidebook, 29th Field Buckhorn, Grant County, New Mexioo: Jour­ Conference, p. 253-259. nal of sedimentary Petrology, v. 54, n. 3, Seager, W. R., 1973, Resurgent volcano-tec­ p. 853-860. tonic depression of Oligocene age, south­ Surdam, R. C., 1977, zeolites in closed hydro­ central New Mexico: Geological 8Jciety of logic systems, in Mumpton, F. A., ed., America Bulletin, v. 84, # 11, p. 3611­ Mineralogy and geology of natural zeo­ 3626. lites: Mineralogical Society of America Seager, W. R., and Clemons, R. E., 1975, Mid­ Short Course N::>tes, v. 4, p. 65-91. dle to late Tertiary geology of Cedar Walton, A., and Groat, C. G., 1972, Zeolites Hills-Seldon Hills area, New Mexico: New in Texas: Texas Bureau of Economic Geolo­ Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resour­ gy Open-file Report, university of Texas ces Circular 133, 23 p. at Austin, 46 p.

105 ..._------_.- Geology and Industrial Uses of Arizonas Volcanic Rocks

John W. welty and Jon E. Spencer Arizona Bureau of Geology and Mineral Technology 845 N. Park Ave. Tucson, M. 85719

ABSTRACT Arizona's volcanic-rock sequences are still incompletely known, particularly in central and western Arizona. The potential Volcanic activity occurred during six for recognition and exploitation of important periods of Arizona's geologic history. Pre­ new deposits of useful volcanic materials is cambrian volcanism occurred in two pulses at high. 1.8-1.6 billion years (b.y.) ago and at 1.2- ·1.1 b.y. ago. Volcanism occurred again in mid-Jurassic and Laramide (Late Cretaceous­ INTROCUCTION early Tertiary) time. Volcanic rocks from these times are not used commercially in any Six episodes of volcanism are recogniZed significant quantity. Middle and late ceno­ in the geologic history of Arizona. These zoic magmatic activity covered large areas of episodes have unequally affected all three of Arizona with voluminous volcanic rocks. Dur­ Arizona's geologic-physiographic provinces: ing the mid-Tertiary magmatic pulse, explosive Colorado Plateau, Transition Zone, and Basin silicic magmatism, with eruption of areally and Fange Province (Peirce, 1984). \blcanism· extensive ash-flow tuffs, covered large areas in these terranes has produced a diversity of in the Basin and Range Province, while the volcanic rocks some of which have utilitarian Cblorado Plateau remained largely unaffected. uses. In many cases geographic distribution Basalt eruption also occurred during and imme­ has determined their usefulness. diately after silicic volcanism, leading to The earliest volcanic episode in Arizona compositionally diverse suites of volcanic occurred during the Proterozoic between 1.8 rocks. Late Cenozoic volcanism occurred and 1.6 b.y. ago, and was one of the processes throughout Arizona and was dominated by wide­ that resulted in formation of the continental spread eruption of basalt flows with local crust that underlies the State. Volcanic cinder-cone clusters and siliceous volcanic rocks formed during this time are most widely deposits. exposed in the Transition Zone and parts of Perlite deposits near Picketpost Mountain the Basin and Range Province (Figure 1). in northeastern pinal County account for the Proterozoic volcanic rocks are products of two bulk of the industrial uses of mid-Cenozoic distinct generations of volcanism that togeth­ volcanic rocks. Other perlites of presumed er are characteristic of Precambrian "green­ middle Tertiary age are present in central, stone belts" in many other parts of the world. southeastern, and western Arizona, but to date The older part involves a primitive bimodal remain unexploited. Arizona Fire Agate is a suite of tholeiitic basalt and rhyodacite that valuable gem material and is associated with was built upon a mafic basement of oceanic volcanic rocks of middle Tertiary age. Basal­ character (Anderson, 1986). '!his activity ·was tic rock of this age also is utilized in the followed by a period of submarine calc-alka­ manufacture of rock wool for inSUlation. line mafic volcanism, which was succeeded by late cenozoic volcanism produced most of submarine to subaerial alkali-calcic felsic the industrial-quality volcanic rocks. Ba­ volcanism (Anderson, 1986). A second episode salt, cinder cones, and materials of rhyolitic of Proterozoic volcanism occurred about 1.2 to composition are commercially exploited by 1.1 b.y. ago, but was more areally restricted municipal and Federal agencies and private and less voluminous than the previous episode. industry for aggregates, road conditioners and This younger period of volcanism is represent­ maintenance materialS, asphaltic concretes, ed by basalt flows and rhyol i te tuff cinder block construction, pozzolans, and interbedded with sedimentary rocks of the· landscaping. These deposits are generally Apache Group near Globe and the Unkar Group of confined to the Flagstaff and Springerville the Grand canyon (Figure 1). areas. A famous peridot gem locality is asso­ In the early Mesozoic, volcanic activity ciated with late Tertiary basalts at Peridot is first evidenced by volcanic ash and detri­ Mesa on the San Carlos Indian Reservation. tus deposited in the Upper Triassic Chinle Important products derived from altered vol­ Formation (Colorado Plateau) from eruptive canic materials of late cenozoic age include centers to the south and west (Peirce, 1986). clay and zeolite. By Jurassic time, volcanism was widespread in

106 Figure 1. outcrops of metamorphosed Precam­ brian volcanic rocks formed during the first (1.8-1.6 b.y.) episode are shown in black. Outcrops of rocks formed during the second episode (1.2-1.1 b.y.) are too small to show individually, but occur in the Unkar Group in the Grand Canyon area (GC) and the Apache Group near Globe (AG) as interbeds. Geology from Anderson (1986).

Figure 2. outcrops of Jurassic volcanic rocks. Modified from S. J. Reynolds (written communication, 1986).

a northwest-trending belt that traversed Ari­ zona from Ibuglas to Parker (Figure 2). Ju­ rassic volcanic rocks are composed of dacitic to rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs, air-fall tuffs, flows, and flow breccias; andesitic volcanics are less common. Illring laramide (Late cretaceous to early 'Iertiary) time another belt of magmatism ap­ peared and migrated eastward across Arizona. Volcanic rocks of this age are most widely preserved in southeastern Arizona (Figure 3). This volcanic episode resulted in the con­ struction of andesitic stratavolcanoes and andesitic to rhyolitic caldera complexes. Remnants of these calderas are present in the Figure 3. outcrops of Late Cretaceous to Silver Bell, 'Dlcson, am santa Rita Mountains early Tertiary (Laramide) volcanic rocks. outside 'Dlcson (Lipman and sawyer, 1985). Modified from Keith (1984).

107 Middle and late Cenozoic magmatic activi­ made this material attractive are the result ty occurred over large areas of Arizona and of metamorphism rather than original volcanic produced voluminous quantities of volcanic processes. Jurassic and Laramide volcanic rocks. DJring the mid-Tertiary magmatic pulse rocks also have commonly undergone consider­ (Figure 4) explosive silicic magmatism pro­ able hydrothermal alteration and structural duced extensive ash-flow tuffs that covered deformation. As a result volcanic rocks from large portions of the Basin and Range Province these time periods are generally too unlike while the Colorado Plateau remained largely their volcanic protoliths to have been quar­ unaffected. Volcanic flows and volcaniclastic ried for industrial uses. Cbnversely, because sediments and areally restricted lahars and of their widespread distribution and generally air-fall tuffs were also produced. Some of fresh to slightly altered condition, middle these rock types are associated with vent Tertiary and late Cenozoic volcanic rocks are areas that locally include shallow-level in­ used by industry where properties unique to trusives that might have been situated beneath volcanic rocks are required. volcanoes. A variety of middle Tertiary volcanic Unlike many other areas of the world rocks are used commercially, with those of where this type of silicic volcanism is occur­ silicic composition being the most important. ring today, such as the Andes of South Ameri­ Perlite, a rhyolitic glass that contains a ca, the Basin and Range Province of Arizona concentric "onion-skin" structure caused by and the Southwest underwent major crustal cooling and hydration, is present in many extension and normal faulting during vol­ parts of the Basin and Range Province. The canism. As a result, mid-Tertiary volcanic term "perlite" has been used traditionally to fields in Arizona were slightly to severely describe any naturally occurring volcanic broken by faults and dismembered during or glass that expands when heated to yield a shortly after volcanism. Basalt eruption also frothy, lightweight cellular substance similar occurred during and immediately after silicic in some aspects to popcorn. Perlite with volcanism, which produced compositionally di­ excellent expansion (popping) capabilities verse suites of volcanic rocks. In addition commonly has the following properties: (1) to structural and geochemical diversity and shiny luster; (2) onion-skin texture; (3) few complexity, variable and locally intense hy­ visible crystals; (4) presence of marekanites; drothermal alteration characterizes Arizona's (5) specific gravity of approximately 2.4 middle Ceno3Jic volcanic rocks. g/cc; and (6) 3 to 4 percent water by weight Late Cenozoic volcanism in Arizona is (Wilson and Roseveare, 1945). Marekanites, dominated by areally extensive basalt flows obsidian nodules known locally as "Apache that are most widely exposed in the Transition tears," are small areas of the rhyolitic glass ZOne and along the southwestern margin of the that lack the onion-skin texture (Figure 6). Colorado Plateau, but includes cinder cones In 1984 U.S. production of both processed and local siliceous volcanic deposits (Figure and expanded perlite increased to reverse a 6­ 5). siliceous volcanic rocks of this age are year decline. Nationwide, 653,000 tons of almost entirely restricted to the san Francis­ perlite was mined in 1984 with New Mexico co volcanic field in the vicinity of Flag­ accounting for 87% of the total; of the six staff. The most recent basaltic volcanism states mining perlite, Arizona ranked third (less than 1-2 m.y. old) has been largely after ~w Mexico and california (Burgin, 1985; restricted to the San Francisco, Springer­ Meisinger, 1985). We estimate that Arizona ville, and Uinkaret volcanic fields of the accounted for 6% of the Nation's total perlite Cblorado Plateau and the sentinel, san Bernar­ production. Nationwide, processed (not ex­ dino, and San Carlos volcanic fields of the panded) perlite sold and used amounted to Basin and Range Province. structural disrup­ 498,000 tons valued at slightly more than tion of these rocks is minor to non-existent, $16.6 million ($33.41/ton) while sales of and evidence of hydrothermal alteration is expanded perlite totaled 404,000 tons with a sparse • value of $69.5 million ($ 172/ton) (Meisinger, 1985). The perlites of Arizona have been INOOSTRIAL USES OF' VOLCANIC ROCKS historically and are currently used for light­ weight and high-strength aggregate, agricul­ Of the six volcanic episodes, only the tural fertilizer carrier, fire-retardant insu­ mid-Tertiary and late Cenozoic events produced lation, acoustical and perlite-gypsum plaster, rocks that are substantially exploited today. filtering in the beverage, chemical, pharma­ \blcanic rocks of Precambrian and Jurassic age ceutical and sugar industries, soil condi­ have been so metamorphosed that they have lost tioner, chicken 1i tter, molding for foundry most of the unique properties possessed by sands, and filler for paints and plastics. volcanic rocks and are best considered meta­ EXtensive deposits of perlite are exposed morphic rocks. SChist derived from metamor­ at many places within a northwest-trending phosed rhyolite near Mayer is mined for dimen­ belt approximately 15 km long by 4 km wide sion stone and used in the construction indus­ located adjacent to picketpost Mountain south­ try as building facade. The qualities that west of Superior in Pinal County. These de-

108 I I 1-350 I I I I I :."" -340 ~.\

MI 0 50 100

1-1.."~'i-1j'c-",r-"r-,--"--'-'-,-,__---I' KM 0 50 100

DISTRIBUTION OF MID-TERTIARY (40-15 m.y.) VOLCANIC ROCKS

Silicic volcanics (rhyolites, Basalt or basaltic andesite flows. dacites, minor andesites. Dominant Iy andesitic volcanic rocks. Volcanic rocks, undivided.

Figure 4. outcrops of middle Tertiary volcanic rocks. Modified from SCarborough (1986).

109 DISTRIBUTION OF UPPER CENOZOIC (0-15 m.y.) VOLCANIC ROCKS AND VOLCANIC FIELDS

Basaltic volcanics (0 - 4 m.y.) Basaltic volcanics (2-10 m.y.)

Silicic volcanics (0-4 m.y.) Basaltic volcanics (4 -15 m.y.)

Figure 5. Outcrops of late Cenozoic volcanic rocks. Modified from Scarborough (1985).

110 ',!I Although other occurrences of potentially expandable volcanic glass in middle Tertiary volcanic rocks of Arizona (see Elevatorski, 1978; Jaster, 1956) offer opportunities for further development, Peirce (1969) suggests that the Superior area is best suited for future growth in the Arizona perlite industry because of its developed infrastructure and access to major transportation corridors. Reserves, however, appear to be limited. Other uses of middle Tertiary volcanic rocks include the following: (1) pumice mined by the Gila Valley Block Cbmpany northeast of Safford for the fabrication of lightweight concrete block; (2) similar deposits near Kirkland in central Arizona that were crushed and sized for the production of cat litter; (3) an opaque opal known as Fire Agate in rhyolitic tuff near Klondyke, Graham Cbunty; Figure 6. Marekanites (black spots) or and (4) basalt southwest of Casa Grande that "Apache Tears" in a gray matrix of perlite is used in the manufacture of rock-wool insu­ from the Sil-Flo perlite pit southwest of lation products. Superior. Photo by John W. Welty. Upper Cenozoic volcanism resulted in the development of numerous cinder cones, particu­ larly on the Cblorado Plateau. The san Fran­ posi ts are of importance because of present cisco volcanic field contains at least 200 commercial development and potential reserves cinder cones, many with one or more associated (Peirce, 1969). '!he geology of the Picketpost lava flows and, one important center of silic­ Mountain area is described by Iamb (1962) and ic volcanism (Figure 7). Flows and cones have Peterson (1966). been divided on the basis of stratigraphic and Middle Tertiary rhyolite lava flows cover physiographic relationships, degree of weath­ the low-lying hills from the northern to ering and erosion, K-Ar ages, and chemical and southeastern side of picketpost Mountain. '!he petrographic data into five groups ranging in rhyolite is underlain by Precambrian pinal age from Holocene (A.D. 1064) to Pliocene (6 SChist and Apache Gtoup metasedimentary rocks, m.y. ago) (Damon and others, 1974; Moore and middle Tertiary tuff with local basalt flows, others, 1976; smiley, 1958). and a volcanic breccia composed of angular '!he flows and cones are mostly nepheline­ fragments of both Precambrian and middle Ter­ normative alkali olivine basalts that, with tiary lithologies in a pyroclastic matrix. decreasing olivine content, grade into alkali­ within the flow-banded rhyolites is a 2-15 m rich high alumina basalts. With relative thick layer of perlite that locally exceeds enrichment of potassium and silica, alkali 200 m in total thickness. CNerlying the per­ olivine basalts also grade into basaltic ande­ lite is a similar thickness of non-perlitic sites. Silicic volcanic rocks consist largely glassy rhyolite, tuff, and quartz latite of rhyodacite domes, flows and minor pyro­ flows. This package of volcanic rocks is clastic deposits. Basaltic and silicic erup­ largely flat-lying. The perlite appears to tions were closely associated in space and thin westward and northward. '!he commercially time. Chemical data from both mafic and si­ exploited perlite is light gray to milky white licic rocks suggest that all volcanic rocks with strongly developed spheroidal perlitic were erupted from the same magma source that structure and a vitreous luster. Spheroidal has experienced a complex evolutionary histo­ marekanites are scattered through the perlite ry. strontium isotope ratios are generally and collecting them is a local tourist attrac­ low «0.7050), implying that the lavas were tion. generated in the mantle and were not signifi­ Anderson and others (1956) describe the cantly contaminated by crustal material (Moore perlite as containing 90% glass with plagio­ and others, 1976). clase, k-feldspar, magnetite and quartz cut by The major center of commercial production veinlets of cristobalite and pyrolusite. of cinders has been from the cinder cones of Chemically the perlite ore is high in silica the San Francisco volcanic field. Superlite (>70 weight percent), low in iron and alkaline Builders Supply obtains cinders from a. pit elements, and contains less than 10 weight­ near Winona; Flagstaff Cinder sales.froffi.a percent total alkali elements (Anderson and quarry in East Flagstaff; Olson Brothers from others, 1956). The perlite contains 3.8­ a quarry in Williams; the Coconino> County weight-percent water, whereas the marekanites Highway D3partment from several pits; the U.S. have a very low water content (Keller and Forest Service from many quarries; and the Pickett, 1954). Arizona Department of Transportation from

111 R.-IO- E.

Qsv Int .~ 40 Flagstaff Cinder Sales Pk

111°30'

5"====="",,,==<:====~0~======~5======,,;.10, miles 5"""=>==="",,,0~====~5======ia10. ki lometers EXPLANATION

Quaternary alluvium.

Quaternary (Holocene - Pleistocene) mafic volcan ics. Quaternary (Pleistocene) silicic volcanics. 1 N Tertiary (Pliocene) mafic volcanics.

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, undivided.

Kaibab Fm. (Lower Permian).

* Cinder Cones. Fault, bar and ball on downthrown side.

Quarry.

Figure 7. Geologic map of the San Francisco volcanic field near Flagstaff showing the location of cinder cones and major cinde~producing facilities. Modified from Ulrich and others (1984). several pits. These companies and agencies vice produce cinders for industrial use from account for the bulk of commercial and non­ the Springerville volcanic field (Figure 5). commercial production of cinders from the san Past production has come from several small Francisco volcanic field (Figure 7). Perkins quarries in the san Bernardino volcanic field Cinders, the Apache County and Navajo County in southeastern Arizona (Figure 5). We esti­ Highway D3partments, and the u.s. rarest ser- mate that in 1983 cinder production in Arizona

112 amounted to approximately 600,000 tons. In of water, it is subject to alteration to po­ all of these areas, the cinders display a wide tentially useful products. Two of these prod­ variety of colors from black to magenta. 'Ibe ucts, bentonite clay and the zeolite mineral distribution of and differences among the chabazite, are mined in Arizona and exported color tyPes are not well understood, although for use elsewhere (See Eyde and Eyde, this the color variation is thought to reflect volume; Ibwie, this volume). The Ibwie chaba­ differences in the oxidation state of iron in zite deposit of southeastern Arizona, also of the magmas from which cinder cones are pro­ late Cenozoic age, is mined for use as an duced. Peirce (this volume) cites an example activated molecular-sieve material (Eyde, where cinder color was of practical impor­ 1978) • tance. Arizona cinders are mined for use as rip-rap, cinder block, aggregate for road base CONCWSION and asphaltic concretes, drilling-moo condi­ tioners, drainage fields for septic systems, Arizona has experienced a complex vol­ winter traction on icy roads, and landscaping. canic history that has intermittently spanned In the san Francisco volcanic field, the 1.8 b.y. of geologic time. Volcanic rocks of Sugarloaf Mountain rhyolite dome erupted ap­ Precambrian to Laramide age have not been proximately 210,000 years ago (D:unon and oth­ significantly used in commerce as their physi­ ers, 1974). 'Ibis eruption produced a layer of cochemical characteristics are not yet known rhyolitic tuff that yielded over 200,000 tons to meet the specifications required for spe­ of pumice used as pozzolan in the construction cial use. Widespread and voluminous volcanic of Glen Canyon Dam. Currently the material rocks and related products of middle and late (different locality) is sold as lightweight Cenozoic age are used by industry in Arizona aggregate and for landscaping, and Arizona and outside the State. 'Ibe variety of commer­ Tufflite, Inc. (Figure 7) is marketing it for cial products includes perlite, pumice, ba­ use as a pozzolan. Pozzolans are siliceous salt, basaltic cinders, pozzolan, semi-pre­ materials that, when finely ground (to -325 cious gem stones, clays, and zeolites. The mesh), will form a "natural" cement in the total value of these products in 1984 is esti­ presence of water and lime. Other pozzolans mated to have been in excess of $3 million. are found near Williams in upper Cenozoic Although the use of Arizona's volcanic rocks rocks and near Bouse and Safford in mid-Ter­ is currently limited, volcanic-rock sequences tiary rocks (Williams, 1966). in Arizona are still incompletely known and Basalt on Peridot Mesa in the san carlos the potential for recognition and exploitation volcanic field (Figure 5) also contains pe­ of important new deposits of useful volcanic­ ridot (gem-quality olivine) that is intermit­ related commodities is high. tently sold to rock collectors and stone cut­ ters for mineral specimens and jewelry (Moore ACKNCWLEDSMENTS and VUich, 1977). Peridot Mesa, approximately 14 km 2 in area, is capped by a Pleistocene We thank H. Wesley Peirce of the Arizona basalt flow that is 3 to more than 30 m thick Bureau of Geology and Mineral Technology and is underlain by flat-lying tuff, silt­ (ABGMT) for his guidance and encouragement to stones, and gravels of Plio-Pleistocene age venture into the world of industrial minerals (Bromfield and Shride, 1956; Lausen, 1927). and rocks, and for the opportunity to take The peridot occurs as aggregated inclusions in part in the Forum. Steve Reynolds, ABGMT, a basalt flow that erupted from a dike source provided helpful advice about the volcanic at the southwest corner of Peridot Mesa. history of Arizona, and John Challinor pro­ Bromfield and Shride (1956) report that an vided information on the Arizona Tufflite, exposure of basalt in Peridot canyon contains Inc. operations. a layer ranging from 2-4 m thick that contains an unusually high concentration of peridot. Peridot occurs in aggregates or masses that comprise 25-40 percent of the rock volume and average from 7-20 em in maximum diameter. REFERENCES Peridot also occurs in Buell Park on the Navajo Indian Reservation north of Ft. Allen, J. E., and Balk, Defiance (Figure 4; Allen and Balk, 1954). In resources of Fort U::::J.. .1. euII.."" 1984 Arizona led the Nation in gem-stone pro­ duction with total production valued at $2.7 Mexico Bu,reau m million; turquoise and peridot, respectively, sources J:$1,;1.L.L.t:!l::.UI I. were the most important contributors (Burgin, I 1985). TOtal peridot production has been Anderson d declining for several years (pressler, 1985). Many volcanic eruptions are accompanied by explosive outpourings of volcanic ash., When ash is deposited in a lake or other body

113 II d

Anderson, Phillip, 1986, Summary of the Pro­ Lipman, P. W., and Sawyer, D. A., 1985, Meso­ terozoic plate tectonic evolution of Ari­ zoic ash-flow caldera fragments in south­ zona from 1900 to 1600 Ma, in Beatty, eastern Arizona and their relationship to Barbara, and Wilkinson, P. A:-K., eds., porphyry copper deposits: Geology, v. 13, r'rontiers in geology and ore deposits of p. 652-656. Arizona and the SOuthwest: Arizona GeOlo­ gical SOciety Digest, v. 16, p. 5-11. Meisinger, A. C., 1985, Perlite, in Minerals Yearbook 1984: v. I, Metals andminerals: Bromfield, C. S., and Shride, A. F., 1956, U.S. Bureau of Mines, p. 701-703. Mineral resources of the san carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona: U.S. Geological Moore, R. B., Wolfe, E. W., and Ulrich, G. E., Survey Bulletin 1027-N, p. 613-689, scale 1976, Volcanic rocks of the eastern and 1:250,000. northern parts of the San Francisco vol­ canic field, Arizona: Journal of Research Burgin, L. B., 1985, The mineral industry of of the U.S. Geological Survey, v. 4, no. Arizona, in Minerals Yearbook 1984: v. II, 5, p. 549-560. Area reports, domestic: U.S Bureau of Mines, p. 65-85. Moore, R. T., and Vuich, J. S., 1977, An evaluation of the olivine resources of the Damon, P. E., Shafiqullah, M., and Leventhal, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation and 1974, K-Ar chronology for the San Francis­ recommendation for potential development: co volcanic field and rate of erosion of Arizona Bureau of Mines unpublished re­ the Little Colorado River, in Karlstrom, port, 27 p. T. N. V., and others, eds:;- Geology of northern Arizona, with notes on archaeolo­ Peirce, H. W., 1969, Perlite, in Mi~eral and gy and paleoclimate: pt. 1, regional stu­ water resources of Arizona: Arlzona Bu­ dies: Geological SOciety of America, reau of Mines Bulletin 180, p. 403-407. RJcky Mountain section Meeting, Flagstaff, Ariz., 1974, p. 221-235. 1984, '!he Mogollon escarpment: Arizona --- Elevatorski, E. A., 1978, Arizona Industrial Bureau of Geology and Mineral Technology Minerals: Arizona ])apartment of Mineral Fieldnotes, v. 14, no. 2, p. 8-11. Resources Mineral Report ID. 2, 70 p. _---::--,1986, Paleogeographic linkage between Eyde, T. H., 1978, Bowie Zeolite: an Arizona Arizona's physiographic provinces, in industrial mineral: Arizona Bureau of Beatty, Barbara, and Wilkinson, P. A. K., GeOlogy and Mineral Technology Fieldnotes, eds., Frontiers in geology and ore depos­ v. 8, no. 4, p. 1-5. its of Arizona and the SOuthwest: Arizona Geological SOciety Digest, v. 16, p. 74­ Jaster, M. C., 1956, Perlite resources of the 82. United States: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1027-1, p. 375-403. Peterson, D. W., 1966, The geology of Picket­ post Mountain, northeast Pinal County, Keith, S. B., 1984, Map of outcrops of Lara­ Arizona: Arizona Geological Society Di­ mide (Cretaceous-Tertiary) rocks in Arizo­ gest, v. 8, p. 159-176. na and adjacent regions: Arizona Bureau of GeOlogy and Mineral Technology Map 19, Pressler, J. W., 1985, Gem Stones, in Minerals scale 1:1,000,000. Yearbook 1984, v. I, Metals and minerals: U.S. Bureau of Mines, p. 391-404. Keller, W. D., and Pickett, E. E., 1954, Hy­ droxyl and water in perlite from Superior, Scarborough, R. B., 1985, Map of post-15-m.y. Arizona: American Journal of SCience, v. volcanic outcrops in Arizona: Arizona 252, no. 2, p. 87-98. Bureau of GeOlogy and Mineral Technology Map 21, scale 1:1,000,000. Lamb, D. C., 1962, Tertiary rocks south and west of Superior, Arizona,in Weber, R. H., 1986, Map of mid-Tertiary volcanic, --...."...... and Peirce, H. W., eds., Guidebook of the plutonic, and sedimentary rock outcrops in Mogollon Rim Region, east-central Arizona: Arizona: Arizona Bureau of Geology and New Mexico Geological SOciety Guidebook, Mineral Technology Map 20, scale 13th Field Q:>nference, p. 149-150. 1: 1,000,000.

Lausen, Carl, 1927, OCcurrence of olivine smiley, T. L., 1958, '!he geology and dating of bombs near Globe, Arizona: American Jour­ Sunset Crater, Flagstaff, Arizona: New nal of Science, 5th ser., v. 14, p. 292­ Mexico Geological SOciety Guidebook, 9th 306. Field Conference, p. 186-190.

114 ..,------~~~=

Ulrich, G. E., Billingsley, G. H., Hereford, williams, F. S., 1966, Potential pozzolan Richard, Wolfe, E. W., Nealey, L. D., and deposits in Arizona: Tucson, University sutton, R. L., 1984, Map showing geology, of Arizona, M.S. Thesis, 93 p. structure, and uranium deposits of the Flagstaff 10 x 20 quadrangle, Arizona: U.s. Geological Survey Miscellaneous In­ Wilson, E. D., and Roseveare, G. H., 1945, vestigations Series Map 1-1446, scale Arizona perlite: Arizona Bureau of Mines 1:250,000. Circular 12, 10 p.

115

IIIIIIIIIIIId..' _ Locating l Sampling l and Evaluating Potential Aggregate Deposits

Leo Langland Arizona Department of Transportation AOOT, 206 S. 17th Ave., Mail rrop 127A Phoenix, AZ 85007

ABSTRACT fields surrounding the towns of Flagstaff and springerville. Except for exposures in the One of the primary functions of the Geo­ Grand Canyon and along the Mogollon Rim es­ technical Services-Materials/Section of the carpment, most of the exposed sedimentary Arizona Department of Transportation (AIXJr) is formations are Permian or younger in age. locating, sampling, and evaluating potential Unfortunately, most of these younger forma­ aggregate deposits thrOl..ghout the state. This tions consist of soft shales, siltstones and information is essential in designing, esti­ sandstones, and are not conducive to the mating, and bidding highway construction development of either durable gravels or projects. crushed rock. As a consequence, most of the The nature of materials used for aggregate aggregates from the CP are quarried from varies greatly within Arizona. The north­ selected rock types such as basalts, felsites, eastern or plateau section is famous for its limestones, sandstones, and cinders. scenic sedimentary formations that are, how­ Hard durable basalt is considered an ac­ ever, too soft to make suitable aggregate. ceptable aggregate. The only exceptions are Volcanic materials are widely used in place of when it contains basaltic natural glass, more conventional geologic units. In con­ nodules of tridymite or cristobalite silica, trast, the southwestern, or Basin-and-Range or clays that are reactive with the alkalies section, contains a relative abundance of good in Portland cement. Also, a blend sand is aggregate, especially a diversity of gravels. usually required because the crushed and shot The paper will review the office, field, fines often are too plastic. ,Basalt has a and laboratory methods used by the AOOr Mate­ high affinity for bitumen therefore is excel­ rials Section in satisfying its needs for lent in preventing the stripping of asphaltic aggregate information in Arizona. concrete pavements. Light-colored, fine-grained igneous rocks INTRODUCTION are collectively known as felsites. The felsite group includes andesite, rhyolite, A primary function of ADOT, Materials dacite, and trachyte. Although usually hard Section, Geotechnical Services, is locating, and durable, they commonly contain silica sampling and evaluating potential mineral glass, opal, and chalcedony, all of which are aggregate deposits so that the information is reactive to Portland cement. Also, they are available for use in designing, estimating, commonly hydrophilic (high water absorption and bidding future highway construction pro­ ability) and have low bitumen absorption prop­ jects in Arizona. The purpose of this paper erties. Another problem is flow structure, is to review some of the methods used in which causes felsites to fracture in the accomplishing this function. crusher into elongated flat plates that are GEOLOGIC SETTING or' AGGREGATES hard to work and require more cement and sand than an ideal, blocky-shaped aggregate. Many Geologically, the State of Arizona is of the darker felsites are mistaken for ba­ composed primarily of two major structural salt, but unlike basalt, this aggregate has provinces: (1) the Cblorado Plateau Province more deleterious features to watch for. in the north and northeast portion, and (2) SOme types of limestone, mainly from the the Basin and Range Province in the south and Permian Kaibab Formation (caps the western west portion. In general, the type of aggre­ half of the plateau), contain enough calcium gate found and util ized within the State and magnesium carbonates (70%) to be an varies with the province. acceptable aggregate. However, because of poor frictional qualities as a consequence of Cblorado Plateau province polishing, it is not considered desirable to use limestone aggregate in the surface of a The Colorado Plateau (CP) Province, in roadway. Again, a blend sand is sometimes general, consists of gently dipping sedimen­ needed. tary formations that have been intruded and Most sandstones in Arizona, because of covered by igneous rocks in the volcanic inferior abrasion qualities, are not used as

116 an aggregate with asphaltic concrete. SOme sources, however, have been used as a base material, and as a subgrade seal. In some parts of the plateau province cinders are the only known aggregate available over large distances. Cinders are used by the building block industry in Arizona for aggre­ gate. Ibwever, cinders are not considered as desirable as other aggregates for road build­ ing because of problems with porosity and open grading. These properties not only cause excess asphalt to be used, but the percent of voids filled varies with the temperature when mixed, giving mix-design problems. In cool weather the mix has stability but lacks cohesion, which would cause cracking of the pavement. In hot weather the mix has cohesion but lacks stability, which causes rutting in the pavement. Also, many cinders have a high abrasion value and break down into a plastic material. Cinders, though generally unsuit­ able for aggregate, are still used in winter by ADJT to spread on icy roads.

Basin arxl Range Province

This region constitutes the Arizona desert as most people think of it. Although the annual precipitation indicates an arid desert, much of the rain comes in a few violent storms of short duration causing flash floods. Moreover, the larger rivers that cross the province have tributaries that reach into the higher country along the southern Figure 1. Aerial view of the Sierra Estrella margin of the CP Province, thus contributing mountains near Phoenix showing a narrow pied­ to rapid runoff. While this province is topo­ mont slope at the mountain base. piedmonts graphically lower than the CP, parts of it are are often a source of gravel aggregate. Look­ structurally higher, which causes the older ing southerly. crystalline rocks to be exposed. 'The land, in general, is characterized by over one hundred lOCATION individual mountain ranges that alternate with basins filled with materials eroded from the The main purpose of any prospecting developing mountains. Al though these fault­ program is, of course, locating a deposit. block mountains vary in rock types and struc­ This is done in two steps (a) office review, ture, a pattern repeated over and over is a and (b) initial field review. sloping surface (piedmont) of varying width between range front and basin center. The Office Review ranges, several million years old, have been wasting throughout their existence. 'The sedi­ A comprehensive office review is the mentary deposits on the piedmonts constitute a first step in locating an aggregate source. complex of interbedded lensing materials that The initial sources of information are the include some of the best gravel aggregate in Materials Inventory Fblios, maintained by the Arizona (Figure 1). Coating and cementation Materials Section since 1958. These folios of older alluvial deposits (often called have four principal parts (1) pit location and "fanglomerates") with clay, caliche (ca C03), air-photo coverage map, (2) geologic informa­ or silica, renders the gravels undesirable for tion including a photogeologic map, (3) land most construction purposes. Too, a wide status map or land ownership map, (4) pit data variety of parent materials, both "good" and sheets with test results of material found at "bad", have contributed to the gravels from each pit, and past-use record. The base map place to place. Slates, schists, and gneisses used for the folios is a county-map series are inferior to quartzites, limestones, and published by the Photogrammetry and Mapping marbles. Many of the volcanics are of the services units of ADOT. 'These include drain­ felsite group and have the same negative age patterns, section, range and township aspects as they do on the plateau. lines, and major utilities.

117 ...... _------_.- A preliminary list of promising pits is If there is more than one type of material compiled from the folios, and the information each should be represented by a 60 pound is updated from our active-pit files and topo­ sample. The words "Quarry Crush" should appear graphic, geologic, and land status maps. In on all identifying tags. Also, two samples of addition, a check is made with Fhotogrammetry each of the usable strata should be taken and and Mapping Services for new aerial photos. marked "Fbr Abrasion", with a minimum of three After a review of all information, a final samples for the entire pit. list of potential sites is compiled. An additional sample should be taken of the fines generated from the blasting opera­ Initial Field Review tion and combined with an equal amount of fines extracted from seams, fractures, or The initial field review is made to eval­ bedding planes eXPJsed in the test hole. This uate the information developed in the office sample should be marked "Fbr Information Pur­ review. Existing pit sites are visited and an poses", and will be tested to determine the attempt is made to determine if these sites need for wasting of natural and shot fines. can be enlarged either in depth or in area. Fossible new sites, noted on aerial photos or Sampling sand and Gravel geologic maps, are also visited. Preliminary sampling and land-survey-monument location may For sand and gravel a backhoe is used to also be done at this time. Unsuitable pit determine depths and areal limits. Although a sites are eliminated and sampling is begun on drill rig is often used for this purpose, a those remaining. The criteria used for deter­ backhoe is considered preferable because the mining the most appropriate sites are dis­ material can be observed in place. In addi­ cussed under "Preliminary Evaluation". tion, it is nearly imPJssible to obtain repre­ sentative samples of sand and gravel deposits SAMPLING wi th a drill rig. Unless uniformity of mate­ rial allows fewer holes tests are spaced 100 Natural deposits of aggregate seldom feet apart. A summary of the size and number exist in conveniently graded conditions and of samples required is listed in Table I. without overburden. The methoQs of sampling, Immediately after the test hole has been exca­ therefore, are very imPJrtant. Without repre­ vated and is ascertained to be safe for entry, sentative samples, accurate evaluation of the the field man proceeds with a prescribed quality and quantity of aggregate in a deposit sampling procedure. is impossible. sampling ~ersize Aggregate Sampling Quarry SOurces The percentage of materials retained on In sampling quarry-rock sources, a rotary the 3-inch and 6-inch sieves in aggregate pits drill rig is used to determine depth and areal is important because, from a cost point of limits. Useful information can be obtained view, it indicates the amount of crushing from observation of the drill cores or cut­ required; it determines too ultimate coeffi­ tings, the rate of penetration, and the sound. cient assigned to aggregate in the pavement­ Diamond core, tricone, drag, down hole hammer, design procedure, and it influences the job­ and jackhammer bits are used. Both air and mix formula in asphaltic concrete-mix designs. water are available for circulation. Fbr these reasons, it is important to make an At least one test hole is shot. If the effort to determine as closely as possible the material appears suitable, samples are ob­ amount of oversize rock. The steps involved tained for testing and evaluation. The test include selection of holes to be sampled, hole is logged for record and changes noted. sampling, and weighing.

Table 1. Aggregate tests and sampling requirements. Type of Test Number of Samples -----Size of Each Sample 1. Sieve Analysis and P. I. 1 for each stratum of each 25-30 lbs. test hole

2. Density Minimum of 3 for each pit. 75-100 lbs.

3. pH and Resistivity Minimum of 3 for each pit. 25-30 lbs.

4. Abrasion Minimum of 3 for each pit. 60-75 lbs.

5. Job Mix Minimum of 12 for each job mix. 25-50 lbs.

6. Oversize Minimum of 1 for each job mix. 75-100 lbs.

118 q

PRELIMINARY EVALUATION

D..1ring or after the sampling process, and before the holes are backfilled, a ma terials engineer or geologist reviews the proposed pit and decides if the quality of the material is high enough to use as aggregate alone, or as an asphaltic concrete aggregate. Other fac­ tors considered are quantity, quality, unifor­ mity, geologic origin, and numerous develop­ ment questions. r:evelopnent questions include flooding, position relative to water table, response to erosion, zoning or governmental regulations, slope stability, vegetative removal, road requirements, haulage require­ ments, and environmental parameters. The latter, in turn, include visibility, noise, surface drainage, land-use effect, flora and fauna, blasting effects, etc. If, after con­ sidering these factors a pit appears suitable, then the material samples are sent to the laboratory.

IABORAIDRY TESTING AND FINAL EVALUATION

The principal aggregate tests include gradation (sieving), hydrometer testing for sizing material below 200 mesh, ph and resis­ tivity test for corrosive or reactive salts, abrasion, compressive strength of concrete specimens, and petrographic analysis. The latter is useful in evaluating various quality aspects of rocks proposed for aggregate use (Figure 2). Additional tests are run when the routine aggregate testing indicates that the quality may be high enough for use in asphaltic con­ crete. Many of these tests are run on the Figure 2. A microscopic view of a fresh, anticipated mixture of aggregate and asphalt. durable basaltic volcanic rock suitable for These include stability under traffic, immer­ making crushed aggregate. Crystals are ran­ sion compression (reaction to water), voids domly oriented plagioclase feldspar in a fine­ analysis (porosity), cohesion (tested under textured matrix. tension), absorption, specific gravity, etc. neers, and field and laboratory technicians. Sources of quality aggregates are being CONCWSION depleted in many areas. ZOning, right-of-way, environmental and other considerations are In order for the design engineer to have a reducing or eliminating many existing and dependable basis for making final plans and potential sources. Consequently, it is becom­ specifications, the process of locating, sam­ ing increasingly difficult to develop new pling, and evaluating potential aggregate sites. This often necessitates the use of sources must be carried out early in a highway aggregates having marginal quality. The project investigation. Solving the problems ability to establish criteria for accepting or will invoke the skills and methods of various rejecting such materials, which usually have people. Such work involves the close coopera­ no known service record, cannot be overempha­ tion of a team of geologists, material engi- sized •

119 Solar Salt in Arizona

Jerry Grott 811 E. Riley Dr. - suite 55 Avondale, AZ 85323

ABSTRACT minor interbeds of insolubles (shales, etc.) were cut. It is this section that is being SJuthwest Salt Company is solution mining exploited for salt by solution mining and in the Luke Salt Body of probable late Miocene which subsurface storage cavities were engi­ age. '!he discovery hole, from which too first neered by an adjoining operation. core was recovered, was drilled in 1968. '!he deposit was encountered at a depth of 880 feet, and the bit was still in salt at the bottom-hole depth of 4,500 feet. The solar ponds, developed on land for­ merly dedicated to agriculture, have an annual capacity of about 90,000 tons. Because land values are very high, mining rates and proce­ dures are governed by the need for near-satu­ rated brine to minimize land requirements. Because of the frequency of dust storms, the salt operation uses a unique wet-harvest­ ing method. Most inventory is kept in the c,o,,"",. ponds under brine and harvested only a few days before shipIllent. Studies of the nature of crystal growth and the distribution of windblown and brine impurities led to the development of procedures for processing salt of high chemical purity and low insolubles content. Chemical purity exceeds that of most salt produced in fuel-fired evaporators. Salt is shipped from Phoenix as far east as west Texas and as far west as central California. OCcasional shipments have been made to Hawaii and Alaska. Figure 1. Map of portion of Bouguer gravity DISCOVERY-GEOLCGY-PRODUCTICN map showing location of the sal t works with respect to the gravity-negative center of the My interest in developing a salt industry Luke Basin. From Peterson, D. L., 1968, u.s. in Arizona was first stimulated by Dr. H. Geological SUrvey map GP-615. Wesley Peirce of the Arizona Q:lological SUr­ vey. After reviewing all acquired informa­ tion, I made arrangements to drill an explora­ Eaton and others (1972) named the salt tion hole in the bull's-eye of a gravity low mass the Luke salt Ibdy and generated a multi­ in sec. 2, T. 2 N., R. 1 W., Maricopa County ple-hypothesis approach to its origin. (Figure 1). In November 1968, the explora­ Petroleum geologists, always on the alert for tion-drilling venture entered solid rock salt new frontiers, were intrigued by a diapirism­ at a depth of 880 feet beneath a cotton field. doming model and the related implications. Available funds supported additional drilling Peirce (1974, 1976) refers to the mass as the to 2,800 feet, still in salt. At this time El Luke Salt and suggests that it, though slight­ Paso Natural

120 ..

west used the brine. Southwest Salt has its own brine wells independent of the adj acent liquid petroleum gas (LPG-butane, propane) storage caverns project. A search for a precedent operation in a strict desert environment found none that produced salt low in insolubles. Desert storms load the solar ponds with debris and in operations such as this, sand and dust are usually not removed. Although winds carry dirt almost daily in the Phoenix area, dust storms occur primarily during July and August and occasionally during April and November. Such storms often deposit enough material to cover the salt completely. Studies showed that the ponds annually collected between 1/8 and 1/4 inch of windblown dirt. Because the total salt crop averaged 12 inches per year, 1 Figure 2. Photograph of salt-harvesting de­ to 2 percent of annual production consisted of vice in brine covered salt evaporation pond. dirt • . Equipment was developed to harvest the salt without draining the ponds. '!his allows harvesting at intervals regulated to minimize entrapment of dirt in the salt crystals. It also eliminates the difficulty that a dust storm might cause to a drained pond, in which dust could dry on the salt and make separation very difficult. '!he final-harvest flowsheet features one man operating a wheeled dredge pulled by a crawler tractor, which in turn is driven by an electric-motor hydraulic system (Figure 2). Power is supplied by a trailing mine cable encased in a high-density polyeth­ ylene pipe with floats as necessary. '!he dredge pipeline is also made of high­ density polyethylene. This line carries a brine-salt slurry to a wash plant where dewa­ tering, screening, and screw-type washing equipment separates salt from brine. After Figure 3. Photograph of wash plant, stacking being washed, the salt is stockpiled by stack­ conveyor, and stock pile. ing conveyor (Figure 3). Only the wheeled dredge and crawler is custom-built. '!he sepa­ ration and washing plant is an assembly of can be assigned that is high enough to cover standard equiflllent that removes almost all of shipment costs to destinations such as San the windblown dust and dirt. Antonio, Texas and sacramento, california. Insolubles typically range from 0.01 to '!his Arizona operation has introduced new 0.02 percent (100 to 200 parts-per-million). technology to one of the oldest process indus­ In one full production test to determine the tries. The substitution of solar energy for ultimate performance capabilities, insolubles the four million BTU/ton used in vacuum-pan were reduced to 40 PJ;Jll, calcium plus magnesium evaporators comes at an appropriate time. to 12 ppm, and soluble impurities to less than salt operators from several foreign countries 100 pJ;Jll. have visited the operation, seeking new tech­ Although the plant has not been built to nology. '!he harvesting method is adaptable to FDA specifications, the salt is considerably any size of operation for which slurry pumps purer than most salt produced in vacuum pan are made. '!his method, plus the one-man oper­ evaporators for use in foods. '!he low calcium ation, allows low entry investment and low content is useful in curing sausage and in operating costs that make small-tonnage oper­ similar applications in which phosphates are ations competitive with customary megaton used instead of nitrates. Calcium ties up operations. phosphates and changes the taste of cured '!his new method of producing high-quality foods. salt at costs competitive with larger opera­ Cbntracts are routinely made for produc­ tions serves to decentralize the salt industry tion of salt with the calcium-pIus-magnesium where the climate allows solar ponds and a content at 35 ppm typically and 50 ppm maxi­ salt source is available. SOlar-salt produc­ mum. At this degree and purity, a sales price tion is important to developing countries

121 where markets are smaller, transportation is less available, and energy costs are higher than in the industrialized nations.

REFERENCES

Eaton, G. P., Peterson, D. L., and Schumann, H. H., 1972, Geophysical, geohydrological, and geochemical reconnaissance of the Illke Salt Body, central Arizona: u.S. Geolog­ ical survey Professional Paper 753, 28 p. Peirce, H. W., 1974, Thick evaporites in the Basin and Range Province, Arizona, in Coogan, A. H., ed., Fourth symposium on salt: Northern Ohio Geological society, p. 47-55. ---"7"""":: 1976, Tectonic significance of Basin and Range thick evaporite deposits, in wilt, J. C., and Jenney, J. P., ed5:"; Tectonic digest: Arizona Geological soci­ ety Digest, v. 10, p. 325-339.

122 1 Bentonite and Specialty Sand Deposits in the Bidahochi formation, Apache Count~ Arizona

Ted H. Eyde and Dan T. Eyde GSA Resources Inc. P.O. Box 16509 Cortaro, AZ 85230

ABSTRACT IN'IRODUCTION

Specialty sand and bentonite are produced Specialty sand and bentonite are produced in the plateau province from the Bidahochi in the plateau province from the Bidahochi Formation near Sanders, Apache County, Fbrmation near sanders, Apache County, Arizona Arizona. It appears that deposits of both (Figure 1). Bentonite from the Bidahochi sand and bentonite formed during the Pliocene in fluvial and lacustrine environments, respectively, along the west side of the r:efi­ ance Uplift. The bentonite is an alteration product of airborne vitric ash that fell or was washed' into lakes. In the Cheto district, the indi­ vidual bentonite horizons, which range from less than a foot to more than 10 feet thick, are restricted to the position of the medial volcanic member. Bentonite production began at the Allentown mine in 1924 and the Chambers mine in 1926. In 1933 strip mining of the extensive deposits in the Cheto district co~ menced. Production increased each year to a peak oiE 270,000 tons in 1957. As a result of the introduction of synthetic zeolites into petroleum refining, production declined. About 40,000 tons of bentonite are currently produced from the district each year. Benton­ ite is shipped out of State for processing into desiccants, thickeners, and acid-acti­ vated clay products. The specialty sand was derived from Permian sandstones and deposited by streams draining the r:efiance t.plift. Although stream channels are usually restricted to the upper member of the Bidahochi, stratigraphically above the bentonite horizon, a few actually cut through the bentonite. The well-sorted Figure 1. Map of Arizona showing location of sand, suitable for use as a proppant in hy­ Cheto bentonite and sand deposits. draulically fractured oil and gas wells, is localized in elongate lenses along the margins of the channels. These lenses range from 5 to Formation was used in the original cracking 50 feet in thickness and often extend thou­ catalysts at oil refineries. This application sands of feet in both width and length. The was quickly displaced, however, when synthetic sand is about 97 percent silica, has a yield zeolites with their smaller cavities and supe­ of 40 percent in the minus 20 plus 40 mesh rior properties became commercially available. size fraction, and has a roundness of 0.6 to Bentonite is currently used in acid-activated 0.7 on the Krumbein scale. Production of this and desiccant applications. sand began about 1961. All of the current The crude bentonites now being mined are production, which amounts to about 40,000 tons processed at plants in ~w Mexico, California, per year, is sold in the petroleum-producing and Mississippi. The products and their per­ area near Farmington, ~w Mexico. pound values include high value-added desic-

123 cants ($0.36 - $0.50), acid-activated benton­ mines, the bentonite bed averages 5 feet in i tes ($0.10 - $0.20), and thickeners and gel­ thickness. lants (more than $1.00). Bentonite from the Filtrol mine is shipped The Cheto bentonite deposits in the to Jackson, Mississippi for processing into Bidahochi Formation formed during the pliocene bleaching clays used as desiccants and to in a series of interconnected lakes on the clarify edible oils. In the past, virtually west side of the D3fiance uplift. '!he benton­ all of the bentonite from the United catalyst ite is the alteration product of vitric ash mine was sold to Culligan USA for processing deposited in the lakes in at least two hori­ into desiccants at their plant in san Bernar­ zons. '!hese horizons now range from less than dino, California. In october 1983, United a foot to more than 13 feet in thickness. '!he Catalysts opened its processing plant at bentonite is a remarkably pure dioctahedral Belen, New Mexico, about 50 miles south of calcium montmorillonite member of the smectite Albuquerque. At that time, Culligan was noti­ group of clay minerals. It is the nearly fied that United catalysts would supply only monomineralic composition, a high crystallin­ processed bentonite. As a result, Culligan is ity, and the large surface area that produce now purchasing crude bentonite from a somewhat the extraordinary sorptive properties. lower quality deposit in SOnora, Mexico. '!he most serious problem facing the opera­ tors in the district is the increasing over­ location and Land Status burden thickness, which now averages nearly 100 feet. In certain areas, a thick bed of The more recent drilling data are from hydrofrac sand occurs in the overburden and Arizona State Mineral Leases controlled by may offer opportunities to produce an addi­ Engelhard aorporation in sec. 16 and 36, T. 21 tional salable product, thus reducing overall N., R. 29 E., Apache county, Arizona. When stripping costs. the State of Arizona issued the mineral leases Proppant sand production from the upper to Engelhard COrporation, the surface and member of the Bidahochi Formation began in mineral estate of these sections belonged to 1961 from deposits in the Houck area, Navajo the State. In 1985, however, surface rights Indian Reservation. '!hough sand is a mineral were transferred to the Bureau of Land Manage­ resource believed to occur almost everywhere, ment (BLM) to hold in trust for the Navajo deposits of sand suitable for use as a prop­ Tribe as part of the Navajo and Hopi Indian pant in hydraulically fractured oil and gas Relocation Amendment Act of 1980. The BLM wells are uncommon. neposits of these spe­ also acquired the Wallace and Ibberts ranches, cialty sands were derived from uplifted and which owned surface rights to sections sur­ reworked R:lrmian sandstones and deposited in a rounding State sections 16 and 36. The min­ fluvial environment near the southwest part of eral estate of these lands was not acquired. the ·D3fiance Uplift. '!he santa Fe Railroad aompany, which owns the The hydrofrac-sand products are the minus mineral estate under 140,000 of the 250,000 10 plus 20 and the minus 20 plUS 40 mesh acres being acquired by the BLM for the Navajo fractions. '!he products are about 97 percent Indians, has filed a ~200-million lawsuit silica, have a roundness of 0.6 to 0.7 on the requesting compensation for their mineral Krumbein scale, and have a low acid solubil­ properties. Because of the transfer of sur­ ity. oil-well service companies have been face rights to the Navajo Tribe, Santa Fe using about 80,000 to 100,000 tons per year to believes that access to any fuel- or nonfuel­ complete oil and gas wells in the Farmington, mineral deposits discovered on the split­ New Mexico area. The Arizona Silica Sand estate lands may be denied by the Tribe. The Company has been supplying about 40 to 50 State of Arizona retained the mineral estate percent of this market. on sections 16 and 36. It is the State's Hydrofrac sand is a high value-added spe­ position that the leases the State issued on cialty sand product that sells for more than these lands remain in full force and effect. $25 per ton foOb. the plant. Production from An agreement, however, must be negotiated with the Arizona Silica Sand deposit at Houck is the Navajo Tribe to ensure unrestricted access restricted because homes have been constructed to the Indian lands. on the westward extension of the deposit. It is still unknown when or if the BLM Nearly identical deposits of sand overlie will transfer titIe of the surface estate of parts of the nearby Cheto bentonite deposit these trust lands to the Navajo Tribe. Re­ just off the Navajo Reservation. portedly, the Navajos must take possession of Both Filtrol aorporation and united catal­ these lands by July 1986. Complicating this ysts Incorporated operate surface bentonite transition is a lawsuit filed by the Navajo mines in the Cheto bentonite district. The Tribe to block implementation of the Joint Use Filtrol operation is now stripping about 90 Relocation .Act. '!his could result in the BLM feet of overburden to mine about 25,000 tons retaining the lands now held in trust for the of bentonite per year. United Catalysts Navajos. If this were to happen, the land strips 85 feet of overburden to mine about would probably be managed under multiple-use 12,000 tons of bentonite per year. At both guidelines. In any case, this is an example

124 ------~~

of an important and valuable natural resource appears that a considerable part of the ash potentially made worthless by a poorly Con­ was vitric and that this material was further ceived and implemented Federal program. concentrated in permanent streams, small lakes, and ponds by current flow. The source GEOLOGY of the ash is speculative, but several possi­ ble volcanic centers were active near the Kiersch and Keller (1955), while investi­ boundary of the Bidahochi basin. The lakes gatirq the mineral rerource potential of the contained fresh water that had a greater con­ Navajo Indian Reservation, described the geo­ centration of calcium and magnesium than sodi­ logy of the nearby Cheto clay deposits in um, the bentonite being a calcium montmoril­ detail. '!heir work is summarized and upjated lonite. by exploration drilling completed between 1978 Between 1978 and 1983, 37 rotary-core and 1983. holes were drilled to explore the bentonite The bentonite deposits originated from the deposit in sec. 36, T. 21 N., R. 29 E. in the alteration of a vitric ash approximating Tolopai Spring 7.5- minute quadrangle. quartz latite in composition. D3position was Thirty-six of these intersected bentonite. approximately contemporaneous with that of the This widely spaced drilling program defined medial or volcanic member of the Bidahochi the size of the bentonite deposit and the Ebrmation. Bentonite deposits occur in chan­ overburden depth. In 1981 the exploration nels and basins above the lower member and may drilling discovered a second bentonite bed extend a few feet into the upper member. The about 30 feet below the main bed. Analytical clay outline does not conform to the ash con­ results showed that both the upper and lower tact in all places. '!hese depositional traps beds were similar mineralogically and could be contain most, if not all, of the known benton­ used to make desiccants that meet military ite deposits. Although related rhyolitic to specifications. '!his lower horizon has yet to basaltic ash beds are common elsewhere in the be exploited. Earlier drilling in nearby Bidahochi, the particular environment of this section 16 intersected a deposit of hydrofrac area and the latitic composition of the vitric sand overlying the bentonite. Cuttirqs from ash seem to have controlled the alteration to the drill holes in section 36 were therefore bentonite. routinely logged for sand attributes. '!he bentonite is invariably overlain, and Based on the samplirq and analytical work, in some cases underlain, by reddish or tan a hydrofrac-sand deposit overlying the benton­ silt. !:'brmally both the upper and lower con­ ite was identified in the northeast quarter of tacts with silt are sharp. Where the silt is section 36. The potential yield is higher admixed with clay, however, usually near the than that from other deposits, incltdirq those margins of basins and channels, the sand con­ mined by Arizona silica Sand Company on the tent of the clay may increase to 4 to 6 per­ Navajo Indian Reservation. Between 1983 and cent, a prohibitive concentration for commer­ 1985 sand from section 16, off the reserva­ cial use. tion, supplemented the feed to the company's The bleaching-clay deposits predate the plant in Houck. Tests by Arizona Testing first coarse sand lenses or lenticular beds of L:iboratories in phoenix am Core L:iboratories, the upper member of the Bidahochi Ebrmation. Inc. in Corpus Christi, Texas, determined that Deposits of bentonite rarely occur directly the roundness and sphericity, size distribu­ beneath an outcrop of these sands or immedi­ tion, and composition equaled or exceeded that ately adjacent to sand pinchouts. Instead, of the hydraulic-fracturing sand produced by high-purity bentonite deposits occur at some Texas Mining Company and Pennsylvania Glass distance from pinchouts and at stratigraph­ Sand Company from the Brady deposit at Voca, ically lower horizons within siltier strata. Texas. Although high-grade bentonite deposits Hydraulic-fracturing sands are used as average from 3 to 5 feet in thickness, a 13­ proppants after a well is hydraUlically frac­ foot bed was sampled in drill holes southeast tured to stimulate oil and gas production. of the Cheto pits. This variation in thick­ Arizona Silica Sand Company's production of ness may be due to an undulatirq depositional 40,000 tons per year supplies about 40 percent floor, irregular erosion of the deposit, or of the hydraulic-fracturing sands consumed by lateral position in the deposit with respect oil and gas wells in the Farmirqton, New Mex­ to its margins. ico area. The sand product sells for $25 to The Bidahochi Formation was deposited $28 per ton Lo.b. the plant at Houck, primarily on an irregularly eroded surface of Arizona. older rocks. '!he pre-Bidahochi surface, simi­ lar to that which exists today, consisted of PROIXJCTION AND MARKETS stream channels, lake basins, and other sur­ face irregularities. Volcanic ash falls oc­ calcium Bentonite curred during medial Bidahochi time and cov­ ered most of the landscape. The latitic ash Bentonite production began in 1924 when 30 filled stream channels and depressions. It tons of nonswelling calcium montmorillonite

125 was shipped from the Allentown mine. Filtrol sold crude clay to CUlligan Corporation for Corporation contracted for the production from processing into desiccants. But on completion the Chambers underground mine in 1926. Dlring of the Belen plant, only processed clays were the 1930's, both the Filtrol Corporation ex­ sold. ploration department and C. A. Mccarrell began Acid-activated clays are calcium mont­ exploration programs to locate other bentonite morillonites that have been treated with acid deposits in the district. As a result of to improve their physical properties. The these efforts, the Cheto mine, a surface oper­ chemical and physical properties of the final ation, began production in 1933. product are dependent on the source clays, the '!he underground operation at the Chambers feed-clay particle size, and the specific mine closed in 1938, leaving the Cheto surface activation process used. In the United States mine as the only producer in the district. and Canada, the Harshaw-Filtrol partnership 111e Cheto mine yielded 11,616 tons of benton­ dominates the industry with an estimated ite during its first year of operation. Pro­ 100,000 tons per year of capacity, or nearly duction increased to 144,000 tons in 1949, 20 percent of the world total. American 250,000 tons in 1954, and a peak of 270,000 Colloid Corporation has entered the u.s. mar­ tons in 1957. Production then steadily ket with a plant in Aberdeen, Mississippi and declined for many years. In 1961 production began production in NJvember 1985. 111e capa­ was 50,000 tons, and according to the Arizona city of this operation is reported to be D3partment of Mineral Resources, production in 12,000 tons per year. 1975 reached a low of about 20,000 tons from Producing clay desiccants adds value to the Filtrol mine. The other operation in the the clay through packaging rather than pro­ district, the Glrley bentonite mines, produced cessing•. 111e processing is relatively simple. about 5,000 tons during 1975. District pro­ The crude clay is dried, crushed to minus 3 duction since 1975 has doubled to about 40,000 mesh, and heated to remove the water. Once tons per year. All of the clay produced is the clay has been activated, it must be pack­ used in high value-added markets including aged. The packaging process puts a measured clay desiccants, specialty clay gellants, and portion of clay into permeable paper or other acid-activated bentonites. These products containers, ranging in size from 1 gram to sell for $0.10 - 2.00 per pound. The largest more than a kilogram, which readily allows producer in the district is the Harshaw­ water to be absorbed by the desiccant. Filtrol partnership, which is managed by Kai­ In summary, 40,000 tons per year of clay ser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation. Cur­ mined at the Cheto bentonite deposit generate rently 25,000 to 30,000 tons of calcium mont­ or contribute to products that have total morillonite are mined from the Harshaw-Filtrol revenues estimated at $42 million per year. properties and shipped to Jackson, Mississippi No other deposit presently in production in by rail for processing into desiccants and the United States can match the unique physi­ acid-activated clay. '!he Jackson, Mississippi cal and chemical properties of the Cheto ben­ acid-activation plant has a reported capacity tonite. of 80,000 tons per year of product. Up to 20,000 tons of Cheto clay are blended with Proppant sands Mississippi and louisiana calcium bentonites to produce several grades of acid-activated Hydraulic-fracturing sand is a specialty clay products, which sell for $300 to $400 per sand used by oil-field service companies as a ton and are sold under the Filtrol trade propping agent in the stimulation of both old names. Harshaw-Filtrol is also a major produ­ and newly completed oil or gas wells. When a cer of clay desiccants. Filtrol annually used well is treated, fractures in the producing as many as 10,000 tons of Cheto bentonite in strata are opened by pumping a sand-bearing this application. In July 1984, Filtrol an­ fluid down the well bore and into the reser­ nounced that the clay-products plant in voir under extremely high pressures. When the Jackson, Mississippi would double its pressure is released, the sand grains prop the desiccant-production capaci ty. fractures open so that- the oil and gas can The other major producer at the Cheto flow more freely into the well. bentonite deposit is United D3siccant Corpora­ Because of the high compressive pressures tion, a subsidiary of Sud-Chemie AG, a major. and corrosive environment in oil wells, hy­ West German clay company. United D3siccant draulic-fracturing sands must meet rigid phys­ controls a bentonite resource at Cheto esti­ ical and chemical specifications. The sand mated at about 1.5 million tons. The canpany must have a high SiO~ content, preferably purchased the reserve from C. E. Gurley for a above 97 percent. The Individual sand grains reported $3.5 million in 1980. '!he clay from should be well rounded to allow free movement this operation is shipped by truck to Belen, of the sands into the fractures. Contami­ ~w Mexico for processing into desiccants and nants, such as calcite or feldspar, are unde­ to louisville, Kentucky for processing into sirable. specialty clay gellants sold under the Tixogel Grain size is especially important. The trade name. Originally, United D3siccants oil field service canpanies, such as Hallibur-

126 •

ton and Dowell prefer the minus 20 plus 40 consumption of proppant sands totaled 2 to 2.1 mesh size, although sometimes a coarser sand, million tons in 1985. The price of this ma­ minus 10 plus 20 mesh, is used. When evalu­ terial ranges from $22 to $28 per ton f.o.b. ating sands in Texas, Oglebay Norton deter­ the Arizona plant. mined that the deposits must have at least 40 The proppant-sand deposits at Cheto are percent plus 40 mesh and 25 to 30 percent the westernmost in the United States. Arizona minus 20 plus 40 mesh to be economic. Lesser Silica Sand supplies about 40 percent of the amounts of coarse sand and finer sand are hydraulic-fracturing sand used in the oil tolerated because they can be sold for filter, fields near Farmington, New Mexico. Arizona blast, and foundry sand. About 50 percent of Silica Sand's closest competitors are Texas the total crude sand mined is screened and Mining Company, a subsidiary of Oglebay washed; the remainder returns to the pits as IDrton, and Pennsylvania Glass Sand Company, tailings. now a subsidiary of U.S. Borax. Both produce The sand or sandstone deposits must be hydraulic-fracturing sands from a deposit near amenable to open-pit mining. In Texas, Brady, 'Iexas. The Arizona Silica sand Company Oglebay Norton (Texas Mining Company) and product enjoys a significant price advantage Pennsylvania Glass Sand Cbmpany mine a friable over the Texas producers, based on freight sandstone that has to be drilled and blasted. rates. Furthermore, because Arizona Silica This sandstone is so friable that little wear sand Company mines an unconsolidated sand in is produced on the crusher jaws. The sand an arid area, it does not have to blast or grains are cemented by a thin clay coating pump water from the pit, as do both of the that washes off easily in the wash plant. At Texas producers. As a result, its mining Cheto, the sand is unconsolidated and is mined costs are lower. with a front-end loader. All of the sands must be washed, screened, and dried. FUTURE There are very few sand or sandstone depo­ sits in the United states capable of producing Known geologic reserves of bentonite in proppant sand. ottawa Silica produces frac­ the Cheto district are under lease. At the turing sands from the st. Peter Sandstone in present rate of removal, these reserves seem Illinois, plus an array of other silica prod­ adequate for the forseeable future. Less is ucts. Oglebay Norton and Pennsylvania Glass known about the overall distribution of Sand Company produce from the lower Hickory reserves of specialty sand. Much of the re­ Sandstone of Upper Cambrian age in central maining resource potential, however, appears Texas. This is the only formation known to to be spacially similar to the clay distribu­ contain fracturing-sand deposits in Texas. tion. Although the geologic factors appear Arizona Silica sand produces from a deposit at favorable, pending political factors cloud the H:>uck. sand deposits near Fbuntain, Colorado future of these relatively scarce nonmetallic produce a poor-quality fracturing sand. materials. The use of sand as a proppant in the hydraulic fracturing of hydrocarbon producing formations began in 1949. The markets for REFERENCES hydrofrac sand grew rapidly through the 1970's at 10 to 20 percent annually, along with the Clark, G. M., 1985, Special clays: Industrial rapidly increasing oil and natural gas prices. Minerals Magazine, v. 216, p. 25-51. In 1980-81, the growth in consumption slowed Dickson, E. M., 1984, North America silica with the decline in energy prices. Consump­ sand: Industrial Minerals Magazine, v. tion remained stable at between 1.5 and 1.8 197, p. 39-45. million tons annually through 1983. Falling Kiersch, G. A., and Keller W. D., 1955, oil prices appear to have stimulated the mar­ Bleaching clay deposits, in Mineral re­ kets for proppant sands in 1984 and 1985 as a sources, Navajo-Hopi Indian-Reservations, result of the increased emphasis on shallow, Arizona-utah, v. 2, nonmetallic minerals, low-cost production wells. Based on prelim­ geology, evaluation, and uses: university inary data from the u. S. Bureau of Mines, of Arizona Press, 105 p.

127 Mexico's Industrial Minerals

Joaquin Ruiz IEpartment of Geosciences and Edmundo Berlanga IEpartment of Mineral Economics University of Arizona 'Dlcson, 'NZ 85721

Alth)lIJh Mexico is known for its imrortant ronds in Baja California acoount for 6 percent base-and precious-metal derosits, and lately of the total shares: phosphate from Baj a oil, some industrial minerals play an imror­ California also accounts for 6 percent. tant role in the Mexican economy. SUlfur, the Barite from manto derosits in rower cretaceous most imrortant industrial mineral produced, limestone in Cbahuila and exhalative derosits accounts for approximately 7.5 percent of the in the Paleozoic section of SJnora account for total value of mineral production. This com­ 1.0 percent. In addition, Mexico is an imror­ modity is followed by fluorspar, which tant producer of gypsum, graphite, and acoounts for 6.4 percent. Predominantly, the celestite. Although graphite and celestite fluorspar deposits are very high grade (75 are not large-scale operations and thus do not percent CaF) and are oontained in lower creta­ contribute much to the Mexican economy, the ceous limestone in the states of Cbahuila and Mexican graphite and celestite derosits are San Luis Potosi. Base-metal derosits in the among the most imrortant in the world: Mexico area of Parral (notably San Francisco del is one of the world's few sources of Oro), however, have become imrortant fluorite celestite. The celestite is in the form of prodocers in their own right. (San Francisco large, high-grade mantas in cretaceous lime­ del oro has 12 percent fluorite gangue.) Salt stones in northern Mexioo. from the Guerrero Negro solar-evaporation

128 Approach to Locating High-Quality Aggregates in the Basin - Range Province

James R. Miller, G. Ramanjaneya, and Gerald Allen The Earth Technology Corporation 3777 Ion;] Beach Blvd. Ion;] Beach, CA 90807

Recent experience over extensive areas of potential of very large areas. Favorable the Basin and Range Province has demonstrated areas can be further tested. This phased the importance of the basin's (valley's) geol­ approach has proven to be cost effective. ogy and geomorphology in locating large quan­ The methodology used in mapping and char­ tities of gocd-quality aggregate. acterizing basinfill deposits is applicable First, a geologic map depicting basic over much of the western United States. Map geomorphic-geologic tmits in a valley is made units were developed by focus ing on the pre­ in the office from aerial photography. t\Ext, dominate geomorphic process, grain size, derivative maps are made from geologic maps cementation, and relative age. The resultin;] and field-derived information such as parent functional map units are of use to eng ineers rock type, source area and depositional en­ and planners. vironment, relationship to adjacent deposits, and Quaternary geologic history. This study led to many conclusions, in­ Studying the derivative maps leads to clu::Hng the fact that the best quality basin­ selection of test sites for potential deposits fill aggregates are fotmd in selected alluvial of high-quality aggregates. Subsequent field fan deposits and Pleistocene lakeshore depo­ studies provide more detailed information sits. The best quality aggregates are derived about geologic processes and samples for from Paleoroic carbonate and quartzitic parent laboratory testin;]. Combinin;] all information materials that can also provide high-quality allows the characterization of aggregate crushed-rock aggregates.

129 Geologic Evaluation of the Southern Portion

of the Searles Lakel California Brine-Saturated Evaporite Deposits: An Update

K. N. santini Fbnnerly with Anaconda Minerals Obmpany D,mver, CO 80202

The evaporite deposit at Searles Lake Cb., the southern portion of searles Lake from consists of alternating brine-saturated saline o::cidental Ietroleum Cbrp. beds and saline-bearing mm beds. '!hree major Since mid-1983, Anaconda has been comuct­ subsurface brine-saturated saline horizons ing a small exploration-drilling program at have been identified by private companies and the property. The initial core holes were the U.S. Geolog ical Survey. They have been drilled along and adjacent to the existing termed, from bottom to top, the Mixed Layer, access road. In 1984 we used an all-terrain Lower Salt, am Upper Salt. drill rig to gain access to drill sites on the The important water-soluble components playa where no roads exist. The use of this ~03' (t:Ja, K, ,Mg, HC03 , S04' Cl, and 8 4°7) are equipment proved to be highly successful. eIther m brmes or have combined to form the The drill pregram consists of oaring to an following minerals: halite, hanksite, trona, average depth of 450 feet and collecting brine nahcolite, burkeite, borax, thenardite, samples from potentially commercial horizons. northupite, sulfohalite, glaserite, etc. The brine samples are collected by setting a Kerr-McGee Chemical Cbrp., the current opera­ packer and swabbing the hole. The core is tor at the lake, selectively pumps intersti­ legged and split lengthwise; one-half is sub­ tial brines from each of the major rnrizons to mitted to our Tucson Geoanalytical Laboratory feed its three chemical plants. As the ptmp­ for semi-quantitative mineralogy by X-ray ing continues, brines are continuously diffraction and the following suite of chem­ replenished within the deposit by dissolution ical analyses: Na, K, Mg, C03, HC03, S04' Cl, of the minerals through natural recharge or 8 °7' Ii, H 0 insolubles, am acid msolUbles. 4 2 artificial fluid injection (solution mining). Additional test work for selected core '!he brines are processed to produce a variety samples will include effective porosity and of chemical products, which include sodium horizontal permeability determinations. '!he carbonate and sulfate, potassium chloride and brine samples are subjected to the same suite sulfate, sodium borate, and boric acid. of chemical analyses (minus insolubles) as the '!he Anaconda Minerals Cb. has been evalua­ core samples. In addition, specific gravity ting potential domestic trona acquisition is also determined. since 1981. We have evaluated various proper­ ties in the Green River, Wyoming trona dis­ , Both cross sections and isopach maps are trict, and OWens Lake and Searles Lake in beIng constructed. The hydrological charac­ southern California. In 1983, we purchased teristics of the potentially commercial rnri­ with our joint-venture partner, Leslie Salt zons are also being investigated.

130 -

Raw Materials and the Manufacture of Vitrified Clay Pipe in Arizona

Ibn M:>rris Building Products Company 4850 W. Buckeye R:1. Phoenix, AZ 85043

The Building Products Company is Ehoenix broken pipe) and barium carbonate that ties up based and owned by Mission Clay products of what gypsum there is. Calcium magnesium California. Building Products is the only carbonates are deleterious ccmponents that are manufacturer of vitrified clay pipe in minimized by careful selection of the mined Arizona. 'The marketing area incl1..des Arizona, products. Nevada, Utah, J:\ew Mexico, am California. The raw materials are blended and mixed, Building Products, promoted by Arizona ground to 12 mesh, mixed in a pug mill, Public Service, was formed in 1970. Raw­ depleted of air, extruded into pipe ranging materials prospecting was undertaken for 2 from 6 inches to 42 inches in diameter, years, after which a $5-million plant was transported to a hot-air drying room, fork­ built. Initially, a satisfactory vitrified lifted to an appropriate kiln, and fired at a product could not be made with the raw 1900-20000 F range. materials then in hand. Subsequent prospec­ ting and testing led to an acceptable raw­ The "Rim" kaolinitic shales, being the materials mix. Testing to upgrade the final most refractory ingredient, stabilize the pipe product is a continuing process. during the firing process. They are very The basic raw-materials supply must be plastic, and therefore facilitate extrusion. adequate, secure, and capable of sustaining 'The rewey clay fuses at a low temperature and close tolerances in the final product. 'These fonns an impervious glasslike binder. It also needs are met by mining four geologic is plastic. 'The "slate" forms platy particles materials at three different localities: (1) that tend to orient themselves during laminar refractory aluminous shales (two horizons-one flow. This provides strength for both the pit) Cblorado Plateau Province (Mogollon Rim) i green and dried product. It doesn't absorb (2) less refractory aluminous materials from water, which helps the drying process. Grog late cenozoic lacustrine materials near rewey remains stable during firing, and therefore in the Transition Zone (TZ)i and (3) Precam­ helps to control shrinkage. brian "slate" from near New River along the The development of appropriate raw routhern edge of the TZ. materials and proper mixtures has been done other additives include grog (ground-Up, Empirically.

Vitrified clay pipe in storage at Building Products COmpany facility near Phoenix.

13J ------~~~~~~~~------~-

SOurce of refractory aluminous shales of Cretaceous age on the southern edge of the Colorado Plateau near pinedale.

Source of less refractory aluminous materials from late Cenozoic lacustrine materials in the Transition Zone near Dewey. The Bowie Chabazite Deposit

Ted H. Eyde and Dan T. Eyde GSA Resources Inc. 1235 E. Mxmridge Ri. Tucson, AZ 85718

The Bowie chabazite deposit has yielded exploration drilling. By 1980 all of the the most mined tonnage of any natural zeolite known chabazite reserves had been acquired by deposit in the United states. Since 1962 the five companies and two individuals. deposit has yielded about 12,000 tons of crude The more than 3, 000 holes drilled to ex­ chabazite, with an estimated market value of plore the deposit and the excellent exposures $30 million when sold as an activated molec­ provided by the strip-mined areas indicate ular -sieve product. that the chabazite-bearing horizon (known as Between 1,000 and 1,500 tons of high­ the marker tuff) is confined to a flat-lying purity crude lump chabazite is now produced lacustrine section known to the operators as annually by stripping and selectively mining the Green Lake Beds. The deposition of the the lower, massive, half-foot-thick, "high­ parent airborne vitric ash and subsequent grade" bed. All of the chabazite is still zeolitic alteration was controlled by many shipped out of State for grinding prior to factors, inclu:ling the lake-bottom topography, extrusion and activation. depth and cation content of the saline­ Zeolite minerals were discovered at the alkaline lake water, and proximity to post­ Bowie deposit in 1875, when OScar Lowe ident­ depositional erosion surfaces. ifieda hydrous silicate related to chabazite Zeolitic alteration was complete when an or stilbite from a tuff bed that cropped out extensive system of younger paleochannels in the San Simon Valley. It was not until deeply eroded the Green Lake Beds. '!his left 1959, however, that chabzite, erionite, and only a few erosional remnants of the marker clinoptilolite were positively identified as tuff and the lower "high-grade-bed" that con­ the principal constituents of an altered stitute the present deposit. Both the channel vitric-tuff horizon that crops out in the area gravels and the Green Lake Beds are overlain originally described by Lowe. by a section of halite-bearing brown mud­ Shortly after the rediscovery of zeolite stones, known as the Brown Lake Beds. The minerals in the San Simon Valley, several of Bowie chabazite deposit can be used as a model the major producers of synthetic zeolites to guide the exploration and development of acquired land positions covering the outcrops, other zeolite deposits that fonned in saline­ including projected extensions, and began alkaline lacustrine environments.

133 Arizona Portland Cement Compants Rillito Operations

J. W. Pains I) California Portland Cement oampany P. O. Ibx 947 Colton, CA 92324

Arizona Portland Cement Company's lime­ Mississippian Escabrosa Limestone, and Penn­ stone deposit (called Twin Peaks) is approx­ sylvanian Naco Fbrmation. C?enerally, the Escabrosa, Naco, and Martin imately 4 miles southeast of the cement plant. The pant is adjacent to both the SO,uthern Fbrmation are the primary sources of limestone Pacific Railroad and Interstate 10, about 17 for manufacturing cement. '!he Martin Fbrma­ tion is basically a dolomite with bands of miles northwest of TUcson. Placer claims were filed on the Twin Peaks limestone, quartzite, and siltstone. These limestones are blended with outside source deposits in 1923. From that time until the materials (clay and iron ore) to make a raw present, geologic data have been accumulated mix that will make specification cements. and evaluated to define more closely the Several drilling programs were initiated quantity and quality of the limestones. between June 1946 and March 1982. Information The cement plant at Rillito was originally derived from these programs provided the means constructed as a one-kiln plant in 1949. to develop cross sections, geologic blocks, Capacity was increased in 1952 and 1956, and grade blocks. The configurations of the bringing the plant to an annual capacity of geologic and grade blocks are the same. Block 44,000 tons of cement. In 1972 another expan­ boundaries delineate the various formations on sion program was completed, bringing annual any particular level. cement capacity to 1.1 million tons. Cursory inspection of the structure would Geolog ically, the Twin Peaks contain indicate a broad syncline elevated on the west formations ran:Jing from the Precambrian pinal side. A more detailed examination shows that SChist to the Pennsylvanian Naco Formation. the structure has been complicated by several Within this sequence, other exposed formations periods of faulting and intrusion of igneous include the Cambrian Balsa Quartzite and Abrigo Fbrmation, Devonian Martin Limestone, rocks.

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