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Regionalism: Art and of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Lesson: : Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles (North )

Lesson Developer: Anisha Saxena

College/ Department: History , Lady Ram , University of

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Table of Contents

Chapter 19: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Introduction

19.1 Metaphysical origins of a Brahmanical

19.2 Plan and elevation of an early medieval temple

19.3 Schools of North Indian of Architecture

19.3.1 Western Indian School of Architecture

19.3.2 Central Indian School of Architecture ()

19.3.3 Kalinga Style School of Architecture (Orissa)

19.3.4 Architecture of

19.4 Sculpture

19.5 Exercise

19.6 Glossary

19.7 Further Readings

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Introduction

The early medieval period (750-1200 CE) witnessed a remarkable growth in the development of regional art and architecture. Each region developed its own style of architecture and sculpture under patronage of different political in different parts of India. The Chandellas in created their own vocabulary of sculpture and architecture, while a different style of art and architecture flourished in and under the patronage of various . Pallavas, Pandayas and Cholas in the southern India created large edifices that were completely different in style and form the temple architecture of northern India. Regional style of architecture also developed in Orissa, and Kashmir. In the Deccan under the patronage of the Chalukyan rulers a synthesis of both north Indian and south Indian temple styles emerged and hence, art and architecture of this period should be understood in terms of dialogues between different regional styles.

Temples in the early medieval period were not merely places of worship; they were important social, economic and political institutions. R. Champakalakshmi in her Trade, Ideology and Urbanization: 300 BC to AD 1300 while discussing the growth of urbanization in the region of Tamilakam discusses the importance of Brahmanical temple as a ceremonial center and symbol of concentration of social and political power derived from a sacral authority. According to her were royal projects undertaken by the rulers for legitimization of political authority. B.D.Chattopadhyaya in his Studying Early India has suggested that temples acted as social, cultural and political institutions in the early medieval India.

A of architectural texts or vastu texts were also composed during this period. Samaranaganasutradhara was composed in the tenth century CE in central India, Aparajitapriccha was composed in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries in . The period also witnesses growth in temple building activities among the Jains, especially in western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan). From the available architectural texts the style of architecture that prevailed in this period can be divided into three styles- Nagara, Dravida and . Nagara or the North Indian style of architecture flourished from the to Vindhyas. The Dravida architecture essentially refers to the temple built in south of River and Vesara or Karnata-Dravida is the term used to describe temples built in the Deccan and was a of styles of Nagara and Dravida architecture.

19.1 Metaphysical origins of a Brahmanical temple

A Brahmanical temple is conceived as a cosmos in miniature, it brings alive the cosmic man or purusha. The plan of each temple is based on vastupurushamandala. The essential plan of a vastupurushamandala is a square-divided into further smaller squares. Each square in the is reserved for a , a , a or the guardians of the directions. The occupy the periphery squares of the plan and the central space or squares are reserved for the central deity, his/her avataras or form or rupa and . Like the the structure of a Brahmanical temple rises from this square. Largely, a Brahmanical temple faces east- direction of the rising sun, but there are exceptions like vastupurushamandala

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200 temples dedicated to might sometimes face west.

19.2 Plan and Elevation of an Early Medieval Temple

The essential elements of an early medieval temple were-a garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), a pradakshinapath (circumambulatory path) running along the garbhagriha, a mandapa (hall) or a series of mandapas and a . By the early medieval period the temples in India had become grand both, in its elevation and plan, patrons and architects adding several mandapas between the garbhagriha and the porch like the-nrittya mandapa (dancing hall), sabha mandapa (meeting hall), maha-mandapa (the great hall) and ranga- mandap(color hall).

Like in its plan, even in its elevation a temple was conceived as a man, a standing man, the prasada or the main composed of a pada (wall), leading to a (curvilinear superstructure)which stood over the garbhagriha. The shikhara was composed of a griva (neck), and a finial.

Some of the significant stylistic differences that appeared between the Dravida and Nagara style of temple architecture are:

 A Dravida temple is surrounded by a wall (prakara).  Dravida temples are also known for their massive gateways or , missing in the Nagara architecture.  The shikhara of a Dravida temple is of pyramid shaped composed of kuta (square), sala (rectangle) and chandrasalas (arched motif). The Nagara temple shikara is curvilinear in nature.

Temple plan A Source: M.A.Dhaky

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Temple plan B Source: http://www.kamit.jp/02_unesco/08_khajuraho/kha_eng.htm Compare carefully the two temple plans, plan A is a period temple and consists of a sopanam (staircase), a porch, a mandap and a garbhagriha. Plan B is of Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho, the temple was constrcted in tenth century CE and is a mature Nagara style architecture and its plan consists of a staircase, porch, followed by a mandapa and a maha-mandapa, a garbhagriha and a pradakshinapath.

SLIDE MISSING, WILL BE SCANNED FROM M.A.DHAKY’S WORK

Temple Elevation B

Exercise 1. Similar to the two temple plans given above, can you make out the difference between the two types of elevations? Can you point out the Gupta period temple out of the two?

19.3 Schools of North Indian Style of Architecture

19.3.1 Western India school of Architecture

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Grand temples were created in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the early medieval period under the patronage various Rajput dynasties that emerged in the western Indian from the seventh century CE. Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples were constructed under the patronage of the Guhilas of , the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Solanki (Chalukyas of Gujarat). Undertaking projects of temple was not limited to kings, Jaina merchants got several temples constructed in western India. Jaina merchant brothers Tejapala and Vastupala patronized the famous temples of in Rajasthan. Samar , a Jaina merchant from Patan is also credited with construction and repair of several Jaina temples.

Eminent art historian M.A.Dhaky has studied in detail the architectural style of the western Indian temples and have divided them into three-sub categories- the Maha-Maru and Maha- Gurjara style of architecture that existed in western India between the eighth and tenth century CE. The Maha-Maru refers to the architectural style that flourished in the region on and is recognized by their high and moulded or jagati and multi turreted spire and ornamental sculpture (examples can be seen at Chittor, Osia, and ), the Maha-Gurjara style of architecture flourished in Gujarat and was characterized by pyramidal and sparse sculptural ornamentation (examples can be seen at Roda, Kutch and Shamalaji) and lastly the Maru-Gurjara style of architecture that evolved by the eleventh-twelfth century and combined the architectural styles of Maha-Maru and Maha- Gurjara. The rang mandapa of the Luna temple, one of the Jaina marble temples at Dilwara marks the zenith of the Maru-Gurjara style of architecture.

Eleventh century Nagara style temple, Roda (Gujarat) shikhara of Sacchiya Mata temple, Source: http://www.william- Osian. (Jodhpur, Rajasthan) voirol.ch/In/10/10/0/G.html?lng=0 Source: Author

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Shiva temple at Roda is an example of Maha-Gurjara style of architecture, notice the pyramidal roof and amalaka on the top.

The at Modhera was constructed in the eleventh century CE under the patronage of Solanki ruler Bhima I (1022-63). The temple faces east, where lies a large kunda or water tank. On the western end of the tank stands an ornamented freestanding torana, which acts as a transition between the tank and the temple. The temple itself consists of a porch followed by an assembly hall (gudhamandapa), a grabhagriha and a pradakshinapath.

Sun Temple, Modhera (Gujarat) Source:http://www.esamskriti.com/photo-detail/Sun-Temple-Modhera.aspx

9.3.2 central India school of architecture (Khajuraho)

Constructed under the patronage of the Chandella rulers between the tenth and the twelfth century, the temples of Khajuraho represent the epitome of Nagara style of architecture. Chandellas were originally feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers and by the ninth century CE they had established their independent rule in the region. The Chandellas traced their lineage to the god and claimed a Kshatriya-Rajput status. According to the eighty-five temples stood at Khajuraho, but today only twenty-five survive.

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

The Chandella temples stood on large platforms and the school of architecture developed most remarkable style of Nagara composed of several miniature shikharas.

The eleventh century Kandariya Mahadev temple is dedicated to Brahmanical lord Shiva. The temple stands on a high platform and consists of a porch, a mandapa, a Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho (Madhya maha-mandapa, a Pradesh) grabhagriha and a Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandariya_Mahadeva_Temple pradakshinapath. The shikhara of the temple symbolizes , abode of Shiva and consists of eighty-four smaller shikharas.

19.3.3 Kalinga Style of Architecture (Orissa)

The Kalinga school of architecture developed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries in Orissa. The temple construction in Orissa began under the Shailodbhavas, who ruled till the second half of the eighth century, later the patronage was primarily provided by the Somavamsi and the rulers. The early temples of Kalinga style had simple curvilinear tower over a square garbha griha and a mandapa called the jagamohan with flat roof, the best example of early Kalinga style architecture is the seventh century Parashurameshvaram temple in Bhubanshwar (Orissa). Dedicated to Shiva, the temple consists of a mandapa () and a garbhagriha, topped by a curvilinear shikhara (know as rekha deul), with an amlaka on top.

The Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneshwara, constructed in the tenth century under patronage of Somavamshi dynasty marks the transition

Parashurameshvaram temple, Bhubanshwar (Orissa) Source: art-and-archaeology.com/india/bhubaneshwar/pr01.html

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200 between early and late Orissan style architecture and beginning of mature phase of temple architecture in Orissa.

The temple faces west and is enclosed within a short wall. The entrance is through a free standing beautifully carved torana (arched gateway). The plan of the temple consists of a jagmohana with a phamsana roof and a garbhagriha with a rekha deul.

The Mukteshvara temple, Bhubaneshwara (Orissa) Source:http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata 0700_0799/bhubaneshwar//mukteshwar.html

The best-known example of the later style of Kalinga school is the eleventh century at Bhubaneshwara and thirteenth century Sun temple at .

19.3.4 Architecture of Kashmir

Brahmanical temples constructed in Kashmir during the early medieval period were combination of Nagara style of architecture and Buddhist architecture. The best example of architecture from Kashmir is the eighth century , near in and Kashmir. Constructed under the patronage of , today the temple lies in ruins. The temple stands on a high plinth and is placed inside a rectangular column surrounded by series of beautiful Greco-Roman inspired columns.

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Entrance to the Martand Sun temple, Anantnag (Jammu and Kashmir) Source: ignca.nic.in

19.4 Sculpture

Similar to architecture of the period, the sculpture in the early medieval period varied in style from region to region. The sculpture was essentially part of the temple architecture, the exterior of the temple walls were decorated with sculpture both, secular and sacred subjects appeared on walls. The Nagara style of architecture allowed for more projections on the outer walls of the temples and hence more space was available for sculptural decoration. In Dravida temples niches were created on the outer walls where sculptures were placed. Even in Nagara style diversification occurred, for example, the temples of western India and central India were decorated profusely with sculpture, but Orissan and Himalayan architecture was more restrained in matters of sculptural decoration.

Sculptures were largely carved in stone and metal, but few pieces in ivory and wood also survive. One of the most prominent schools of sculpture that developed between the eight and the thirteenth centuries was under the patronage of the Palas and Sens rulers in eastern India (Bengal and ). Palas were patrons of , third Pala ruler Devapala (810-850 CE) is credited with founding the of Vikramshila and Paharpur. The Senas who succeeded the Pala rulers in eastern India were Brahman-Kshatriya rulers.

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

A large number of Buddha and Bodhisattva images were created under the patronage of the Palas, by tenth century Pala Buddhism came under the influence of tantrism, and so did their sculpture. Images of Brhamnanical gods and were carved under the patronage of Sena rulers. Richly ornamented sculpture carved in stone is the primary characteristic of Pala- Sena sculpture; they retained the poise and grace of the Gupta sculpture. The metal images usually had a stele- like format, with the central figure often depicted surrounded by a .

Similar to the building of the temples, patronage and consecration of images became an important social, political and religious activity in the early medieval India. Images were created and installed after wish fuilfilment, celebration of important social, political and religious events. This particularly became an important activity for the Jaina merchants in western India.

Avalokiteshvara, eleventh century, Pala sculpture Source: http://www.trezza.com/exhibi tions/2011-03-16_nancy- wiener--week-2011/

Images of both stone and metal were created by the Jainas of not only of the twenty-four , but also of and minor Jaina gods and , like the goddesses Sarasvati and Lakshmi.

Images of Brahmanical gods and goddesses were also created under the patronage of various Rajput dynasties. The tenth century temple at Jagat, (Rajasthan) boasts on its outer walls some of the finest example of western Indian sculpture.

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Seated Buddha, tenth century, , Pala Nayika, Ambika Mata temple, period Jagat (Rajasthan) Source: Metropolitan of art, New York (USA) Source: Dr. V.S. Chouhan, https://www.panoramio.com

The western Indian sculpture retained the elegance and poise of the Gupta period sculpture, but the outlines of the sculpture were not fluid and smooth, there also appeared excessive ornamentation of the figures. The bodies and other details were carved with great precision and finesse.

A royal court scene, temple, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) Source: Author

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

The Chandella sculptures from central India have more clearly defined outlines, the exterior walls of the temples were decorated with myriad of scenes, among which scenes of dancing and music and nymphs in various sensual poses were particularly common, enhancing the dramatic quality of the sculpture. The images in the principal niches of Brahmanical gods and their appear much larger and receive more detail and attention.

19.5 Exercise/Quiz

1. Out of the following which element does not appear in both Nagara and Dravida style architecture?

a. Garbhagriha b. Shikhara c. d. Mandapa

Ans. Gopuram

2. the following

Shikhara Science of architecture Mandapa Hall Dravida North Indian style architecture Torana Spire Nagara South Indian style architecture Vastu Sashtra Gateway

Ans. Shikhara Spire Mandapa Hall Dravida South Indian style of architecture Torana Gateway Nagara North Indian style of architecture Vastu Shashtra Science of architecture

3. What are the basic components of early medieval Brahmanical temple architecture?

Ans. Mandapa, Grabhagriha, Pradhakshinapath, Shikhara.

4. two architectural texts that were composed in the early medieval India.

Ans. Samaranaganasutradhara and Aparajitapriccha

6. True or False

a. temple, Orissa stood on a large platform. False b. Vesara temple architecture includes architecture styles from both North and South India. True c. The sculpture from Rajasthan had well defined fluid lines. False d. No Buddhist and Jaina sculpture were produced in the early medieval period. False e. Pala rulers of eastern India patronized Buddhism. True

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

7. Mark the following on the diagram below.

a. Amlaka b. Shikhara c. Mandapa d. Garbhagriha

Amalaka

Shikhara Mandapa

Garbhagriha

5. Differentiate between Maha-Maru and Maha-Gurjara style of architecture.

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Ans. The Maha-Maru refers to the architectural style that flourished in the region on Marwar and is recognized by their high and moulded terrace or jagati and multi turreted spire and ornamental sculpture (examples can be seen at Chittor, Osia, Sikar and Mandor), the Maha- Gurjara style of architecture was characterized by pyramidal roof and sparse sculptural ornamentation (examples can be seen at Roda, Kutch and Shamalaji)

19.6 Glossary

Amalaka – “myrobolan fruit”ribbed crowing of Nagara temples Avatara - divine recantation Bhadra - central offset, wall divisions Caitya-gavaksha - dormer window (decorative motif) Candrashala - dormer window (decorative motif) Devakulika - minor shrine Garbhagarha - womb house, sanctum Griva - neck; recess between the shikhara and crowning amalaka Gudhamandapa - a closed hall Jagati - plinth, platform Kuta - square Dravida - North Indian shikhara tyle with curved vertical Mandapa - hall with columns Pradakshina path - circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha Sala - rectangular chamber Sabhamandapa – rectangular hall Shikhara - tower, spire (); crowning (south India) Vastu Sasta - science of architecture Torana - gateway , archiform gateway pattern

19. 7 Further readings

Hardy, Adam. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation, IGNCA, 1995. Huntington, L. Susan and John C. Huntington. Art of Ancient India, University of Michigen, 1985. Kramrisch, Stella. Temple, 2vols., , 1946. Meister, W. Michel, M.A.Dhaky and Krishna Deva. Encyclopedia of Indian temple Architecture (multiple volumes), AIIS, . , Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture Vol I and II, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1986.

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