A Failed Democracy: Tonga's Watershed Legal Democratic Electoral Reforms
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
$)$,/(''(02&5$&< 721*$¶6 :$7(56+(' /(*$/'(02&5$7,& (/(&725$/ 5()2506/()7+(5:20(1 %(+,1' E\ µ2ID.L/HYXND /RXLVH*XWWHQEHLO/LNLOLNL $WKHVLV VXEPLWWHG LQ IXOILOPHQW RIWKH UHTXLUHPHQWV IRU WKHGHJUHH RI 0DVWHURI /DZV &RS\ULJKW E\µ2ID.L/HYXND /RXLVH *XWWHQEHLO 6FKRRORI/DZ )DFXOW\ RI$UWV /DZDQG(GXFDWLRQ 7KH 8QLYHUVLW\ RIWKH6RXWK 3DFLILF 'HGLFDWLRQ 7KLV WKHVLV LVGHGLFDWHG WRWKH\RXQJ ZRPHQ DQGJLUOV RI7RQJD 7KHUHH[LVWV D7RQJDQ VRFLHWDO YLHZ WKDW SROLWLFV DQGSDUOLDPHQW LV EHVWVXLWHG WRPHQ EHFDXVH RI LWV RIWHQ DJJUHVVLYH DQGFKDOOHQJLQJ QDWXUH 7RWKLV HQG\RXQJ JLUOV DQGZRPHQ DUHRIWHQ QRW HQFRXUDJHG WR SXUVXH LW DVD FDUHHU VLQFH LW LV D PHQ¶V SOD\LQJ ILHOG , SUD\ WKDW WKLV UHVHDUFK ZLOO FRQWULEXWH WRZDUGV WKH VWUXJJOH WR FKDQJH VWHUHRW\SLFDO VRFLHWDO YLHZSRLQWV HVSHFLDOO\ WKRVH WKDW DUHGHHSO\ HPEHGGHGDQGVRFLDOO\ FRQVWUXFWHG 0DQ\ RIWKHVHVWHUHRW\SLFDO YLHZSRLQWV KDYH EHFRPHDFFHSWHGDVVRFLHWDO QRUPV DQGMXVWLILHG µMXVW¶ EHFDXVH RQHLVERUQIHPDOH 7KHUH LVWKH KRSHWKDW RQHGD\ \RXQJ ZRPHQ ZLOO IHHO FRQILGHQW DQGHPSRZHUHG WREUHDNGRZQEDUULHUV DQGDLP KLJKHU DQG HYHQWXDOO\ EUHDNGRZQ DOO WKH JODVV FHLOLQJV LQ 7RQJD 7KLV LQFOXGHV WKH FHLOLQJ WKDW RIWH Q VXSSUHVVHV ZRPHQ DQG JLUOV¶ HQJDJHPHQW LQ SROLWLFDO VSDFHV DQG WKDW VRRQHU UDWKHU WKDQ ODWHU 7RQJD ZLOO VHH WKH ILUVW IHPDOH 3ULPH 0LQLVWHU DQG D&DELQHW PDNLQJ XSDW OHDVW ZRPHQ PLQLV WHU V L $FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV )DNDIHWD¶L NLKH µ(LNL µL KH µHQH IDL µDOR¶RID µRODYD DL NHX IDNDNDNDWR µDHQJDXH QL µ2ID SH µH µL DL KDQR µDRQJD NL KH KRX¶HLNL PR H NDNDL µR H IRQXD µR 7RQJD , DFNQRZOHGJH P\ SRZHURIVWUHQJWK P\ /RUG*RGZKRP ZLWKRXW +LV JXLGDQFH WKLV WKHVLV ZRXOG QRWKDYHEHHQSRVVLEOH .RHµ(LNL SH µ2NXµRDWX KHQL KD IDNDPDOR ORWR KRXQJD µ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µ$ODPLWD /RXLVH 6HLQL DQG 6DPLSROD DOO ZKRP , KDYH KDG LQWHUHVWLQJ GLVFXVVLRQV ZLWK GXULQJ WKH UHVHDUFK SKDVH DQGZULWHXS RI WKLV WKHVLV 7KHLU LQVLJKWV DQG SHUVSHFWLYHV ZHUH LQYDOXDEOH LQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ VRPH RI WKH GD\WRGD\ UHDOLWLHV RI OLYLQJ DQG JURZLQJ XS LQ DSDWULDUFKDO 7RQJDQ VRFLHW\ 7R P\ OLIH SDUWQHU 1DVLOL \RX FRQWLQXH WR EH P\ ELJJHVW VXSSRUWHU QRWMXVW WKURXJK ZRUGV EXWLQ DFWLRQ 7DNLQJ FDUHRIWKHSULPDU\ QHHGVRIWKHFKLOGUHQ ZKLOH ,ZRUNDQGVWXG\ LVQRHDV\IHDW HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ WKH\ DUHDOO YHU\ GHPDQGLQJ ,ORYH\RXDQGWKDQN\RX IRU DOZD\V SXVKLQJ PHWRUHDFKKLJKHU DQGKLJKHU LL $EVWUDFW 7KLV WKHVLV SURSRVHVWKDWWKHZDWHUVKHG OHJDO GHPRFUDWLF UHIRUPV WKDWWRRNSODFHSULRU WRWKH JHQHUDO HOHFWLRQV LQ WKH .LQJGRP RI 7RQJD GLGQRW ORRNGHHSHQRXJK DW WKH UHDOLWLHV DQG WKH SOLJKW RI ZRPHQ LQ 7RQJD¶V SDWULDUFKDO SROLWLFD O KLVWRU\ $V D UHVXOW WKHOHJDO PLOHVWR QHV LQ 7RQJD¶V SROLWLFD O MRXUQH\ WRZDUGV UHDOLVLQJ DPRUH GHPRFUDWLF IUDPHZRUN IDLOHG WRPHDQLQJIXOO\ SURYLGH VROXWLRQV DVWRKRZWRLQFUHDVH ZRPHQ¶V UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQSDUOLDPHQW ,DUJXHWKHUHIRUH WKDW7RQJD¶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µLQWHUQDOLVHG SDWULDUFK\¶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¶V OLYHG UHDOLWLH V DQG WKHLU SOLJKW WR DFKLHYH HTXDO ULJKWV DQG SROLWLFD O SDUWLFLSDWLR Q LQ 7RQJD LLL $EEUHYLDWLRQV $$4 ±$IILUPDWLYH $FWLRQ 4XRWD &('$: ±&RQYHQWLRQ RQWKH(OLPLQDWLRQ RIDOO IRUPV 'LVFULPLQDWLRQ DJDLQVW :RPHQ &(& ±&RQVWLWXWLRQDO DQG(OHFWRUDO &RPPLVV LR Q &62+57) ±&LYLO 6RFLHW\ 2UJDQLVDWLRQV +XPDQ 5LJKWV 7DVN)RUFH )3$ ±)DPLO\ 3URWHFWLRQ $FW *$/34 ±*HQGHU DQG/HDGHUVKLS 3HUFHSWLRQ 4XHVWLRQQDLUH 13*$' ±1DWLRQDO 3ROLF\ RQ*HQGHUDQG'HYHORSPHQW 3,)6 ±3DFLILF ,VODQG )RUXP6HFUHWDULDW 3:63' ±3DFLILF :RPHQ 6KDSLQJ 3DFLILF 'HYHORSPHQW 760 ±7HPSRUDU\ 6SHFLDO 0HDVXUH 81(&262&±8QLWHG 1DWLRQV (FRQRPLF DQG 6RFLDO &RXQFLO 81*$ ±8QLWHG 1DWLRQV *HQHUDO $VVHPEO\ 835 ±8QLYHUVDO 3HULRGLF 5HYLHZ :&&& ±:RPHQ DQG&KLOGUHQ &ULVLV &HQWUH7RQJD LY 7DEOHRI&RQWHQWV 'HGLFDWLRQ L $FNQRZOHGJH PHQWV LL $EVWUDFW LLL $EEUHYLDWLRQV LY /LVWRI7DEOHV L[ &KDSWHU,5DWLRQDOHDQG6LJQLILFDQFHRIWKH5HVHDUFK ,QWURGXFWLRQ 8SGDWHVGXULQJWKHZULWHXSSHULRG %DFNJURXQG +\SRWKHVLVRI7KHVLV 5HOHYDQFHDQG,PSDFWRQ7RQJD7RGD\ 7HPSRUDU\6SHFLDO0HDVXUHVLQ7RQJD :RPHQ¶V7HPSRUDU\6SHFLDO0HDVXUHV&RDOLWLRQ 'HYHORSLQJ D5RDGPDSWR,QFUHDVLQJ :RPHQ¶V 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ 7RQJD¶V 3DUOLDPHQW5RXQGWDEOH0DUFK 7DODQJD )DNDIRQXD µLKH7HPRNDODWL $1DWLRQDO 'LDORJXH RQ'HPRFUDF\ 2FWREHU 6FRSHRI7KHVLV 'HVLJQRI6WXG\ 3DUWLFLSDQWV 0HWKRGRORJ\ 0HWKRGV 5HVHDUFK&RQWULEXWLRQ 3DUWQHUV 2YHUYLHZRI&KDSWHUV &ODULILFDWLRQVDQG&RPPRQO\8VHG7HUPV Y 6XPPDU\ &KDSWHU,,/LWHUDWXUH5HYLHZ ,QWURGXFWLRQ *OREDO6WDWLVWLFV *OREDO%HQFKPDUN /HJDO)UDPHZRUNV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO-XULVGLFWLRQV 3DFLILF-XULVGLFWLRQV 6XPPDU\ &KDSWHU ,,,+LVWRULFDO 2YHUYLHZRI:RPHQ¶V 3ROLWLFDO 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ 6WDWXVLQ 7RQJD ,QWURGXFWLRQ &XOWXUDO3HUVSHFWLYHRID7RQJDQ:RPHQ¶V5ROHLQ6RFLHW\ 6XPPDU\ &KDSWHU ,97KH5HFRPPHQGDWLRQV RIWKH&RQVWLWXWLRQDO DQG(OHFWRUDO &RPPLVVLRQ &(& ,QWURGXFWLRQ .H\5HFRPPHQGDWLRQV /HJDO)UDPHZRUN5HVXOWLQJIURPWKH&(&¶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¶V&RPPLWPHQWVWR*HQGHU(TXDOLW\ 7$%/(&RXQWULHV8VLQJD7HPSRUDU\6SHFLDO0HDVXUHRU$IILUPDWLYH$FWLRQ 7$%/( 3HUFHQWDJH RIWKH 7RWDO 1XPEHU RI:RPHQ ,Q3DFLILF 3DUOLDPHQWV DQG 7$%/( 7RWDO 1XPEHU DQG3HUFHQWDJH RI:RPHQ LQ 3DFLILF 3DUOLDPHQWV IURP 7DEOH7RWDO1XPEHURI)HPDOH03¶VE\&RXQWU\DVRI'HFHPEHU 7$%/(2YHUYLHZRI7606HDWV9DQXDWX DVRI'HFHPEHU 7$%/($IILUPDWLYH$FWLRQ)ORDWLQJ6HDWV6\VWHP6DPRD 7$%/( +LVWRULFDO 2YHUYLHZ RI:RPHQ (OHFWHG RU$SSRLQWHG WR7RQJDQ 3DUOLDPHQW 7$%/(7RQJDQ:RPHQ+HDGVRI6WDWH 7$%/( 7RWDO1XPEHU RI:RPHQ &DQGLGDWHV 9\LQJ LQ *HQHUDO (OHFWLRQV 7RQJD 7$%/(6XPPDULVHG3UHIHUHQFHIRUD760/HJDO)UDPHZRUNLQ7RQJD L[ &KDSWHU,5DWLRQDOHDQG6LJQLILFDQFHRIWKH5HVHDUFK ,QWURGXFWLRQ $W WKH WLPH RI FRPPHQFLQJ WKLV UHVHDUFK WZR JHQHUDO HOHFWLRQV KDGEHHQKHOG VLQFH 7RQJD¶V GHPRFUDWLF UHIRUPV