Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 21 (2018) 107–116

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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Estimating crown ( corona) tissue weight from archaeological shell measurements: An allometric methodology for coastal T historical ecological research ⁎ Kendal Jacksona, , Elizabeth Southarda, Sharlene O'Donnellb, John Arthurc a Department of Anthropology, University of South , Tampa, USA b Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA c Department of Society, Culture, and Language, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Coastal archaeologists and historical ecologists are taking an increasingly robust interest in marine shell as- Experimental zooarchaeology semblages recovered from coastal villages and civic-ceremonial sites. These assemblages must be quantified Florida Gulf Coast before archaeologists can make assessments of biomass flows and subsistence contributions. We present the Invertebrate allometry results of an experimental allometric study on snails collected from the dominated Marine shell shoreline of , Florida, USA. Our analysis produced regression constants for predicting tissue weight estimates from four independent linear shell metrics, including: length, aperture-length, height, and width. This study is unique in its integration of field and laboratory experimentation, and in the large sample size used to develop allometric constants. To exemplify the utility of our regression models, we apply our al- lometric constants to a late-Precolumbian (ca. 895–1268 CE) marine shell assemblage excavated from the Weeden Island site (8PI1), Pinellas County, Florida, USA.

1. Introduction averaged meat weight predictions to reflect variation in sex, age, and size differences (Lyman, 1979; Reed, 1963; Smith, 1975; Ziegler, In recent years, archaeologists have begun to take an increased 1973). However, in utilizing average values and MNI, these attempts interestintheroleofmarineshellfish in the subsistence strategies, share the fundamental flaws inherent in White's (1953) approach – an settlement architecture, and sociopolitical lives of coastal fisher- assumption that the dimensions of the bone or shell element being hunter-gatherer societies (Erlandson et al., 2008; Keegan et al., 2003; measured relate to meat weight at a constant (i.e., linear) ratio (Reitz Lulewicz et al., 2017; Marquardt and Kozuch, 2016; Onat, 1985; et al., 1987:305), and that MNI may not be comparable across taxa or Trubitt, 2005; Walker, 2000). To understand the dietary contributions across depositional contexts (Thomas and Mannino, 2017). Indeed, of particular taxa and map-out energy flows between near-shore linear surface area metrics and volumetric variables such as meat ecosystems and human communities, zooarchaeologists must quantify weight relate to each other in exponential terms and may be described mollusk-shell data via estimates of tissue weight (i.e., “meat weight”), by the equation y = axb where: y is meat weight, x is the linear biomass, and/or kilocalories (Perez, 2010; Reitz et al., 1987; Reitz and measurement, and a and b are constants that define the relationship Wing, 2008). Indeed, research by Thomas and Mannino (2017) has between these variables (Gould, 1966). Our study presents allometric demonstrated that meat weight values may be critical to properly regressions developed from experimental collection and analyses on understanding relative taxonomic abundance for various mollusks in 305 Melongena corona snails collected along a mangrove-dominated archaeological assemblages (also see Claassen, 2000). Early ap- shoreline site in , Florida, USA, between 2011 and 2013. proaches to this problem – based on the work of White (1953) – We report new experimentally derived constants for calculating tissue multiplied average meat weight parameters by minimum number of weight estimates from four archaeological shell metrics: length, individuals (MNI) values to calculate the estimated total meat weight aperture-length, width, and height. We then apply our equations to for a particular taxon in a given assemblage. Subsequently, several zooarchaeological assemblages excavated from the Weeden Island site attempts have sought to improve upon White's method by modifying (8PI1), a large (> 2 km2), multi-component, coastal village and

⁎ Corresponding author at: 4202 E. Fowler Ave. SOC 107, Tampa, Florida 33620, USA. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Jackson). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.07.004 Received 20 March 2018; Received in revised form 5 July 2018; Accepted 6 July 2018 2352-409X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. K. Jackson et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 21 (2018) 107–116

Fig. 1. Location of experimental harvesting site, Weedon Island Preserve, Florida.

ceremonial center on the western shore of Tampa Bay, Florida Further, activity patterns among crown conch are seasonal; in winter (Weisman et al., 2005). they are relatively inactive and remain entirely or partially buried in the sand or mud substrate. In summer they are more active and achieve 2. Background the vast majority of their growth. Fisher-hunter-gatherer communities on Florida's Gulf Coast col- Crown conch snails (Melongena corona) are predatory marine gas- lected M. corona and other estuarine gastropods as an important faunal tropods found in particular abundance on the Gulf Coast of Florida, but resource from onset of highly-productive estuarine conditions during also found on the eastern coast of Alabama, in the Yucatan, and along the Mid-Holocene through the protohistoric era (e.g., Duke, 2015; the Atlantic Coast of Florida and Georgia (Bowling, 1994; Pilsbry and Mikell and Saunders, 2007; Defrance and Walker, 2013). Their shell Vanatta, 1934). They inhabit low-energy intertidal environments (i.e., remains are relatively ubiquitous within invertebrate faunal assem- sand and mud flats, marshes, and oyster bars) with moderate-salinity blages from village and sites along the Gulf Coast where mod- conditions (12–15%) and become inactive at salinities below 9% erate salinities predominate (Vojnovski, 1995; Defrance and Walker, (Hathaway and Woodburn, 1961). Crown conchs range in size generally 2013; Walker, 1992); they are also present within shell-bearing as- between 10 and 110 mm in length; larger individuals more typically semblages along the Atlantic coasts of Florida and Georgia (Claassen, inhabit eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) reefs, while juveniles dis- 1986; Reitz, 1988). In some sub-regions, for instance on Florida's Big proportionately occupy intertidal sand or mud flats and marshes Bend marsh coast, crown conch shells may have been collected prin- (Bowling, 1994). They are most active at high tide during feeding; cipally for tool manufacturing (Blankenship, 2013; Duke, 2015; O'Neal, crown conch are both scavengers and predators, feeding on bivalves, 2016). In other areas, such as Florida's Central Gulf Coast - encom- other gastropods, and various estuarine detritus (see Turner, 1959). passing Tampa and Sarasota Bays - this makes up a substantial

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Fig. 2. Collecting crown conch within the experimental harvesting site, Weedon Island Preserve, Florida. Photo by Elizabeth Southard. portion of the invertebrate faunal count, suggesting that it may have (y = axb)toinfluence regression constants. Results suggested that large been a major subsistence resource comparable to eastern oyster (Cras- sample sizes are important, and that intermediate-sized snails (those sostrea virginica)(Janus Research, 2004; O'Donnell, 2018: in press; approximating average size) are predisposed to introduce much of the Quitmyer, 2002; Vojnovski, 1995, 1998). For example, O'Donnell residual error within allometric regressions, decreasing coefficient of (2018:in press) analyzed zooarchaeological assemblages from a shell determination statistic (R2) values (Reitz et al., 1987:309; also see midden at the Weeden Island site (8PI1) and found that crown conch Peters, 1983:28). We aim to build upon this foundational work by: (n = 1329) makes up nearly 26% of the total invertebrate MNI count collecting experimental specimens across a range of estuary conditions, (n = 5254) and ranks second only to oyster (n = 1846). considering a larger sample size (n = 305), and developing in- We follow Claassen (1998) in taking caution against the normative dependent allometric models for four distinct shell metrics, such that assumption that archaeological shells unequivocally represent food tissue weight may be estimated from incomplete (fragmentary) and/or debris; in her words: “evidence of collection and preparation [of ar- modified shell specimens. chaeological shellfish] does not equal consumption” (Claassen, 1998:285; also see Waselkov, 1987:166). Indeed, work by Onat (1985) on the Northwest Coast and by a growing school of Florida archae- 3. Experimental methods ologists (e.g., Pluckhahn et al., 2016; Schwadron, 2017; Sassaman et al., 2017) has irreparably deconstructed ‘shells-as-garbage’ hypotheses by After recognizing that M. corona shells make-up the majority (some demonstrating that coastal Precolumbian foragers planned and rapidly 55%) of gastropod assemblages within midden excavation blocks at the Weeden Island site (O'Donnell, 2018: in press), we established a small constructed large-scale terraformed landscapes utilizing marine shell 2 within sedimentary matrices. In addition to consumption, tool crafting, (8000 m ) experimental harvesting site on the mangrove-dominated and architectural pursuits, archaeological gastropod shells may also estuary shoreline of Weedon Island Preserve (Fig. 1). Beginning in represent the remnants of ancient chumming or baiting strategies (see December 2011 and ending in September 2013 student researchers met Larson, 1980; Speck, 1946). Further, certain marine gastropods, such as one morning each month to collect crown conch snails from the ex- the Lightning Whelk (Busycon sinistrum), functioned as important perimental shoreline site (Fig. 2). ff symbolic creatures within metaphysical and sociopolitical domains in During each of 10 di erent monthly harvests we retained approxi- southeastern North America throughout the late-Precolumbian era mately 30 specimens for experimental allometric analysis at the (Marquardt and Kozuch, 2016). To put our position simply, we re- University of South Florida, St. Petersburg archaeology laboratory. commend that the regression constants presented here be used to esti- Snails were euthanized in an ice bath before being assigned specimen mate tissue weights and biomass values for M. corona remains within numbers. We took basic measures to void the snails of visceral water, shell assemblages, but also caution that archaeologists must take con- and then measured weight, length, aperture-length, width, and height fi siderable care in proposing what portion of an assemblage's tissue (see Palmer, 1982). Fig. 3 de nes each of these shell metrics as assessed weight was consumed. for this study. Experimental specimens were then placed in a 60 °C Allometric constants for M. corona are currently available for drying oven for 48 h. After drying and recording dry weights, the dried ffl aperture measurements via a seminal 100-specimen study by Reitz et al. snails were placed into a 500 °C mu e furnace for 5 h, after which we (1987) based on collections from the Florida Museum of Natural His- emptied the ash-remains and weighed the shell to yield ash-free dry tory in Gainesville, Florida. Their research explored how sample size, weight values. To calculate tissue weights, we subtracted ash-free dry and snail size-class distribution interact with the allometric formula weights from wet weight remeasurements. All linear shell measure- ments were made to 0.01 mm via digital calipers, and weights were

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these variables (see Table 1). We describe season of harvest following Wolfe (1990) and Palmiotto (2016); colloquial season terms were dis- carded in favor for the following more regionally accurate descriptors: Cool/Dry (October–January), Cool/Wet (February–March), Warm/Dry (April–May), and Warm/Wet (June–September). Tidal and temperature data were measured in the field at the time of collection and were later confirmed with local tide-gauge data available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

4. Results

While R2 values for each shell metric differ, each of the relationships defined here are strong and represent suitable models for estimating tissue weight values from archaeological specimens. Fig. 4 displays the scatter plots, regression lines, and R2 values for length, aperture-length, width, and height measurements. Residuals from each of these regres- sions display random distributions and calculated Cook's Distances for residuals are extremely low (with none remotely approaching 1), sug- gesting that residual error is minimal and has not introduced influential effects. In addition to complete M. corona shells, incomplete shells and shell fragments may contribute to MNI estimates so long as at least one of the measurements described above (i.e., length, aperture-length, width, or height) can be confidently assessed. With our suite of equa- tion constants, estimated meat weights may be derived from damaged or worked shells and shell fragments in addition to whole shells (see Fig. 5). As apparent in Fig. 4 and Table 2, shell length relates most strongly to estimated meat weight in our model (R2 = 0.836) and should be preferentially used when shell columellae are intact. How- ever, columellae are often fragmented and may otherwise exhibit considerable wear given modification for tool use. In these cases, an- other shell metric retained in the specimen may be measured and uti- lized to calculate an estimated tissue weight value. It is our hope that this suite of allometric constants will help researchers increase the sample size utilized for tissue weight and biomass estimations, adding rigor to descriptive and comparative analyses.

5. An archaeological case study from Weeden Island Site (8PI1)

Ancient fisher-hunter-gatherer communities constructed the Weeden Island site (8Pi1) on the western shore of the Tampa Bay es- tuary, west-central Florida. Following excavations into the site's burial mound by the Smithsonian Institution in 1923–1924 and their collec- tion of decorated mortuary assemblages (Fewkes, 1924), Weeden Island became the type-site for a regional (ca. 500 BCE–1000 CE) known for the intensification of mortuary ceremonialism, mound construction, and craft specializa- tion. The Weeden Island archaeological culture is known from sites extending north up the Florida peninsula and into the southeastern coastal plain. In the , Weeden Island sites are best as- Fig. 3. Definitions for crown conch shell metrics used in this study. Illustrations sociated with the time interval ca. 400–1000 CE (Austin et al., 2014). by Kendal Jackson. The site complex is large (> 2 km2) and was occupied over a deep span of time, from ca. 7000 BCE through at least 1400 CE (Arthur et al., measured to 0.01 g. using a digital balance. We organized the data, 2016, 2018; Lambert, 2006; O'Donnell, 2015; Sears, 1971; Weisman conducted regression and regression-residuals analyses, and produced et al., 2005). During the late-Holocene (after ca. 3000 BP), local forager charts via IBM SPSS 24. Due to the exponential (natural log) relation- communities built-up two large arcing shell-ridges on the Weedon Is- ship between linear surface area variables and volumetric variables land peninsula, each atop distinct antecedent parabolic sand dune (i.e., tissue weight) regressions between them must be modeled from ridges (Lambert, 2006). natural log (ln)-transformed variable values. As the main focus of the 2007 University of South Florida, St. To account for potential variation in tissue weight density due to Petersburg, Archaeology Field School, we opened test excavations into seasonality, tidal height, tidal stage, air temperature, and water tem- the southeastern arm of a large parabolic shell midden-ridge at the fi perature, we processed and analyzed snails collected across each of Weeden Island site. We screened all midden matrix in the eld through nested 0.25 in. (0.635 cm) and 0.125 in. (0.318 cm) hardware mesh;

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Table 1 Harvest/collection record for experimental allometry samples.

Experimental harvest/collection record

Date Season Tidal stage Tidal height (m) Water temperature (°C) Air temperature (°C) x ̄length (mm) x ̄wet weight (g)

Dec. 14, 2011 Cool/dry Ebb 0.017 19.4 16.9 62.3 28.9 Sep. 12, 2012 Warm/wet Flow 0.767 30.7 24.1 55.9 25.3 Oct. 29, 2012 Cool/dry Flow 0.099 25.1 17.2 55.2 23.6 Nov. 19, 2012 Cool/dry Ebb 0.301 28.8 13.9 55.9 25.3 Jan. 18, 2013 Cool/dry Ebb −0.098 19.4 14.7 60.9 32.6 Feb. 19, 2013 Cool/wet Flow 0.358 16.6 12.7 59.6 31.9 Mar. 22, 2013 Cool/dry Flow 0.374 18.6 14.5 61.3 31.1 Apr. 19, 2013 Wet/dry Flow 0.637 26 20.7 65.4 34.9 Jul. 22, 2013 Wet/warm Flow 0.732 29.1 28.4 67.9 43.8 Sep. 23, 2013 Wet/warm Ebb 0.318 29 28.3 64.4 38

Fig. 4. Scatter plots, regression lines, and R2 values for estimated meat weight and length, aperture-length, height, and width.

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Fig. 5. Incomplete shell examples suitable for tissue weight estimation via our allometric constants.

Table 2 Experimentally derived constants and correlation coefficients for fits to the allometric expression y = axb or ln(y) = ln(a)+b[ln(x)]. Shell metric R2 ln (a) bF Sig. x ̄(mm) σ (mm) Experimental range (mm)

Length 0.836 −9.73 2.97 1548.1 p < .001 60.8 9.2 33.6–117.3 Aperture-length 0.755 −6.70 2.49 934.7 p < .001 39.9 6.9 20.9–81.5 Height 0.692 −7.38 2.84 680.2 p < .001 32.3 4.7 18.1–60.8 Width 0.770 −7.29 2.69 1012.2 p < .001 37.9 6.1 20.6–75.8

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Table 3 MNI from two one-by-one-meter excavation units (8S9E and 8S10E) Crown conch shell descriptive statistics by excavation level for units 8S9E and were weighed, measured, and assigned a unique specimen number. 8S10E. Using our suite of allometric regressions we calculated estimated tissue weights for all crown conch shells that retained at least one of our four metrics (and thus, contributed to MNI values). Descriptive statistics Excavation level 0–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm results of these calculations, organized by arbitrary 10 cm excavation- levels are presented in Table 3. Dates (cal. AD) 1165–1265 1050–1085 895–1020 Several of our interests at the Weeden Island site shell-midden ridge N= 197 738 114 concern the interaction between late-Precolumbian estuarine har- vesting traditions and late-Holocene environmental flux in the Tampa Length (mm) Mean 59.78 62 54.65 Bay Estuary. Radiocarbon dates from the midden strata present in 8S9E Std. error 1.01 0.42 1.2 % intact 92.9 92.8 87.7 and 8S10E suggest that deposition took place from cal. 895 CE to 1265 Aperture-length (mm) Mean 41.95 42.58 40.01 (two-sigma), a time frame corresponding with a period of warmth, Std. error 0.73 0.31 0.84 frequent precipitation, and (perhaps) elevated sea level known broadly % intact 86.3 92.7 78.9 as the Medieval Climatic Optimum (Crumley, 1987:240; Gunn, Width (mm) Mean 39.83 40.767 37.29 1994:17; Jackson, 2016; Walker, 2013). Recent work with coastal shell- Std. error 0.79 0.3 0.94 % intact 72.1 84.6 72.8 midden assemblages has attempted to assess diachronic patterns in Height (mm) Mean 33.83 34.87 30.87 mean shell size that may serve as proxies for environmental flux, har- Std. error 0.66 0.26 0.71 vesting intensities, and other historical ecological processes (Erlandson % intact 71.6 83.3 72.8 et al., 2008; Harris and Weisler, 2017; Rick et al., 2016; Savarese et al., Est. meat weight (g) Mean 13.12 13.8 9.78 Std. error 0.72 0.32 0.77 2016; also see Crumley, 1987). Tracking this type of change in gas- % intact 100 100 100 tropod assemblages requires the use of standard (i.e., comparable) metrics for assessing snail size. However, utilizing any single linear shell metric is problematic because large portions of archaeological Table 4 gastropod assemblages may be composed of incomplete or fragmented ANOVA results for complete and incomplete shells. shells. Fragmentation (whether ancient or taphonomic) in such as- ANOVA: complete and incomplete shells semblages is not likely to be random; thus, utilizing a linear metric, and omitting fragmentary shells, may introduce serious systematic error Dependent variable: est. meat weight (g) into comparative analyses. In a similar manner, utilizing estimated tissue weight values calculated from a single shell metric also requires Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. omitting shells from analyses, and is predisposed to introduce a similar Between levels 1596.722 2 798.361 9.941 < 0.001 degree of systematic error. Within levels 83,682.769 1042 80.310 In this case study example, we utilize estimated meat weight values Total 85,279.492 1044 to assess stratigraphic-temporal differences in mean crown conch size between three shell-midden strata (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, and 20–30 cm) within our two preliminary test units. These three strata are associated with radiocarbon date ranges (two-sigma) cal. 1165–1265 CE, 1050–1085, and 895–1020, respectively (Arthur et al., 2018; O'Donnell, 2018:in press). After calculating estimated meat weights for each spe- cimen within the crown conch assemblage (complete and incomplete shells) making up MNI (n = 1049) we conducted an analysis of var- iance (ANOVA) that demonstrates statistically significant differences between shell midden levels (F = 9.9, p < .001) (see Table 4 and Fig. 6). Multiple comparisons within the ANOVA via Games-Howell post hoc tests (mitigating unequal sub-sample sizes by level) show that while mean tissue weights between levels 1 (0–10 cm) and 2 (10–20 cm) are not significantly different (−0.6 g, p = .733), sig- nificant differences clearly separate level 1 from level 3 (20–30 cm) (3.42 g, p = .004), and level 2 from level 3 (4.02 g, p < .001) (Table 5). Notably, the direction of significant differences within multiple comparisons show that mean shell size apparently increased over the ca. 895–1268 CE depositional interval – a period encompassing sub- regional intensification of sociopolitical stratification (i.e., the Manasota/Weeden Island-Safety Harbor transition; see Austin et al., Fig. 6. Error bar chart of mean (95% C.I.) complete and incomplete tissue 2014). The increase in shell size noted here may serve as an indicator of weights by level. shifting estuarine conditions (e.g., oyster reef density, paralic wetland composition) in nearshore environments of Tampa Bay as the Medieval Climatic Optimum took hold along Florida's Gulf Coast. Of course, we and all artifacts and ecofacts larger than 0.125 in. (0.318 cm) were must refrain from making more specific interpretations regarding this collected for analysis. pattern until zooarchaeological data from more taxa have been ana- Following taxonomic sorting, M. corona shell specimens comprising lyzed.

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Table 5 ANOVA multiple comparisons for complete and incomplete shells.

Multiple comparisons: complete and incomplete shells

Dependent variable: est. meat weight (g)

(I) Level (J) Level Mean difference (I-J) Std. error Sig. 95% Confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Games-Howell 0–10 cm 10–20 cm −0.604 0.802 0.733 −2.495 1.288 20–30 cm 3.417a 1.061 0.004 0.916 5.917 20–30 cm 0–10 cm 0.604 0.802 0.733 −1.288 2.495 20–30 cm 4.020a 0.830 0.000 2.057 5.984 20–30 cm 0–10 cm −3.417a 1.061 0.004 −5.917 −0.916 10–20 cm −4.020a 0.830 0.000 −5.984 −2.057

a The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 6 To show the value of allometric constants derived from multiple ANOVA Results for Complete Shells Only. shell metrics (above), we ran the same ANOVA utilizing only complete

ANOVA: complete shells only shells (n = 756), representing the likely results if only one regression model were available. The results from this analysis were quite different Dependent variable: est. meat weight (g) and no significant differences were identified between excavation levels (F = 1.97, p = .140) (see Table 6 and Fig. 7). Multiple comparisons via Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Games Howell post hoc tests yielded miniscule and insignificant mean Between levels 262.892 2 131.446 1.974 0.140 differences between levels (Table 7). In this assemblage, omitting in- Within levels 50,148.246 753 66.598 complete crown conch specimens from tissue weight calculations Total 50,411.139 755 clearly obscures otherwise significant stratigraphic variation in mean shell size distribution. The comparison between these two analyses of variance demonstrates the importance of collecting and measuring entire (or at least very large and representative) marine gastropod as- semblages from shell midden matrix, as well as the applicability of multiple allometric regression models available for zooarchaeological analyses.

6. Conclusions

Our allometric regression analysis of 305 experimentally harvested M. corona snails demonstrates that linear shell measurements reliably predict estimated tissue weight values. Regression constants are re- ported here for length, aperture-length, height, and width. Among these shell metrics, length was most strongly correlated with estimated meat weight (R2 = 0.835), followed by aperture-length (R2 = 0.775), height (R2 = 0.770), and width (R2 = 0.692). In a brief case study on zooarchaeological crown conch assemblages from the Weeden Island Site, Florida, we showed that our suite of regression constants sig- nificantly strengthens comparative analyses by enabling the inclusion fi Fig. 7. Error bar chart of mean (95% C.I.) complete-shell tissue weights by of incomplete (i.e., fragmentary or modi ed) crown conch shell that level. would be omitted from consideration without the availability of re- gression models for each major linear shell metric. Our experimental-

Table 7 ANOVA multiple comparisons for complete shells only.

Multiple comparisons: complete shells only

Dependent variable: est. meat weight (g)

(I) Level Mean difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Games-Howell 0–10 cm 10–20 cm −0.389 0.945 0.911 −2.626 1.849 20–30 cm 1.694 1.481 0.489 −1.816 5.204 10–20 cm 0–10 cm 0.389 0.945 0.911 −1.849 2.626 20–30 cm 2.083 1.225 0.212 −0.847 5.013 20–30 cm 0–10 cm −1.694 1.481 0.489 −5.204 1.816 10–20 cm −2.083 1.225 0.212 −5.013 0.847

114 K. Jackson et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 21 (2018) 107–116 archaeological study is well positioned to aid coastal zooarchaeologists County, Florida. Master's Thesis. Department of Anthropology, University of South in producing more complete interpretations of shell midden assem- Florida, Tampa. Janus Research, 2004. Cultural resource assessment survey of the evergreen avenue blages. These analyses, in turn, will be better able to inform research project area, Pinellas County. In: Report Prepared for Pinellas County Department of questions regarding energy flow (e.g., as a proxy for human population Public Works, (Clearwater, Florida). density), environmental flux, and ancient estuarine harvesting beha- Keegan, William F., Portell, Roger W., Slapcinsky, John, 2003. Changes in invertebrate taxa at two pre-Columbian sites in Southwestern Jamaica, AD 800-1500. J. Archaeol. viors. Sci. 30, 1607–1617. Lambert, Jeanne, 2006. Coastal Processes and Anthropogenic Factors Influencing the Declarations of interest Geomorphic Evolution of Weedon Island, Florida. Masters Thesis. Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of South Florida, Tampa. Larson, L., 1980. Aboriginal Subsistence Technology on the Southeastern Coastal Plain None. during the Terminal Late Prehistoric Period. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. Lulewicz, Isabelle H., Thompson, Victor, Cramb, Justin, Tucker, Bryan, 2017. Oyster Acknowledgements paleoecology and native American subsistence practices on Ossabaw Island, Georgia, USA. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 15, 282–289. Lyman, Richard L., 1979. Available meat from faunal remains: a consideration of tech- We acknowledge Dr. Steven J. Harper and Pinellas County Parks niques. Am. Antiq. 44, 536–546. Marquardt, William H., Kozuch, Laura, 2016. The lightning whelk: an enduring icon of and Conservation Resources for granting our collection and excavation – ff southeastern North American spirituality. J. Anthropol. Archaeol. 42, 1 26. permit (permit #67). We thank volunteers and sta of Weedon Island Mikell, Gregory A., Saunders, Rebecca, 2007. Terminal middle to late archaic settlement Preserve for facilitating access to experimental harvesting sites. We also in coastal Northwest Florida: early estuarine exploitation on the Northern Gulf Coast. thank USF St. Petersburg Biological Sciences for providing access to Southeast. Archaeol. 26 (2), 169–195. O'Donnell, Sharlene K., 2015. The Weedon Island Seascape: Zooarchaeological Findings critical laboratory instrumentation. For many early mornings of wade- at Weedon Island Archaeological Site (8PI1). Master's Thesis Paper, on file. harvesting and data collection, we extend our sincerest gratitude to the University of South Florida Archaeology Laboratory, St. Petersburg. student volunteers of the USFSP Archaeology Lab. We thank the O'Donnell, Sharlene K., 2018. Discovering the seascape at Weedon Island during the safety harbor period (CA. A.D. 900 to A.D. 1725): a zooarchaeological analysis at the Alliance for Weedon Island Archaeological Research and Education Weeden Island Site (8PI1). Fla. Anthropol In Press. (AWIARE) for their help in facilitating archaeological fieldwork. We Onat, A.R.B., 1985. The multifunctional use of shellfish remains: from garbage to com- also thank two anonymous reviewers for thoughtful questions and munity engineering. Northw. Anthropol. Res. Notes 19, 201–207. comments that improved this report. O'Neal, Lori, 2016. What's in Your Toolbox? Examining Tool Choices at Two Middle and Late Woodland-Period Sites on Florida's Central Gulf Coast. 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