UNHCR Handbook for Emergencies Emergencies

Handbook for

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Case postale 2500 CH-1211 Genève 2 Dépôt Third Edition Comments on the Handbook for Emergencies and requests for additional Copies should be addressed to:

The Emergency Preparedness and Response Section UNHCR Headquarters Case Postale 2500 CH – 1211 Genève 2 Dépôt Switzerland Téléphone: + 41 22 739 83 01 Fax: + 41 22 739 73 01 Email: [email protected] Handbook for Emergencies

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This document is issued by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees for general distribution. All rights are reserved. Reproduction is authorized, except for commercial purposes, provided UNHCR is acknowledged. Using the Handbook

II Chapters may be located quickly by using the key on the contents page. Particular subjects may be located by using the index. The handbook is structured as follows: Section One summarizes UNHCR’s mandate of international protecdtion and the aim and principles of emergency response;

Section Two deals with emergency management;

Section Three covers the vital sectors and problem areas in refugee emergencies, including health, food, sanitation and water, as well as key field activities underpinning the operations such as logistics, community services and registration. The chapters in this section start with a summary so that readers, who might not need the full level of detail in each of these chapters, can understand the basic principles of the subject quickly; Section Four gives guidance on the support to field operations, primarily administration and staffing; The Appendices include a “Toolbox” which gathers, in one location, the standards, indicators and useful references used throughout the handbook;

Key companion references for this handbook include: • Catalogue of Emergency Response Resources which sets out what resources can be immediately deployed to UNHCR emergency operations; • Checklist for the Emergency Administrator which includes many of the essential UNHCR forms, policy documents and guidelines referred to in this handbook; • UNHCR Manual, and in particular its Chapter 4 dealing with Operations Management

III IV Handbook for Emergencies

Table of Contents

Page Section Chapter Number I Using the handbook III II Table of contents V III Introduction VI IV UNHCR mission statement X I. UNHCR principles 1 Aim and principles of response 2 2 Protection 14 II. Emergency management 3 Emergency Management 56 4 Contingency Planning 66 5 Initial Participatory Assessment: immediate response 76 6 Operations Planning 92 7 Coordination and site level organization 100 8 Implementing arrangements 114 9 External relations 138 III. Operations 10 Population estimation and registration 154 11 Community Based Approach and Community Services 180 12 Site selection, planning and shelter 204 13 Commodity distribution 226 14 Water 236 15 Sanitation 260 16 Food and nutrition 284 17 Health 336 18 SGBV 376 19 HIV / AIDS 390 20 Education 412 21 Supplies and transport 422 22 Voluntary repatriation 450 IV. Support to operations 23 Administration staffing and finance 466 24 Communications 492 25 Coping with stress 210 26 Staff safety 520 27 Working with the military 532 V. Appendices 1 Toolbox 544 2 Memorandum of understanding with WFP 554 3 Glossary 568 4 Index 570

Introduction

VI Answering people’s urgent need for protection and humanitarian assistance anywhere in the world has been an essential part of UNHCR’s work for the past three decades. Refugees and others fleeing conflict need help as quickly as possible, requiring a strong institutional commitment to emergency preparedness and response. The international community and public opinion expect aid workers to be on the scene and take action – and to do so swiftly.

Since 1998, when the second edition of UNHCR’s Emergency Handbook appeared, the Office has been involved in large-scale humanitarian operations in the Great Lakes region of Africa, Timor-Leste, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Pakistan, to name just a few. We have been called on also in many smaller crises where our capacity for timely deployment of staff and aid has saved lives, answered sudden operational shifts and ensured that refugees at risk have received legal and physical protection. This year alone, UNHCR dispatched over 200 emergency staff to 27 countries on four continents.

Developing the mechanisms to reinforce a quick, agile and flexible emergency response capacity is one of our operational priorities for the coming years. We have established an Early Warning system, linking key preparedness measures at country, regional and headquarters levels. Events in Lebanon demonstrated the importance of a robust logistics capacity and, as a result, we have revamped our supply and management service and integrated it in the Division of Operational Services where it will be closely associated with our emergency service. We have increased the number of staff available at any time for immediate deployment. With the collaboration of other humanitarian actors, our target is to be able to respond to unexpected refugee crises involving up to 500,000 people.

In addition to traditional emergency skills, evolving situations increasingly demand specific protection and coordination experience. UNHCR is asked to help identify genuine asylum-seekers among the growing groups of new arrivals mixed in with migrants, putting a premium on our ability to deploy qualified staff for protection screening and refugee status determination. As part of the collective response by the United Nations and the humanitarian community to situations of internal displacement, UNHCR has assumed leading responsibility for the protection, emergency shelter and camp coordination and management clusters, necessitating coordination and emergency management expertise.

As a reference tool which serves also to reinforce a common understanding among the many key actors in emergency situations, the third edition of UNHCR’s Emergency Handbook reflects these latest developments.

This version includes a number of important revisions based on valuable inputs from the non- governmental organizations and other partners who are an integral part of our standby capacity. Updates include an emphasis on security awareness as an integral part of daily life and work in operations, along with important information on UNHCR and the military; a new chapter on combating HIV/AIDS in refugee situations; and how to prevent and respond to sexual and gender-based violence in emergencies. The revised Handbook underscores the need to understand, from the very outset of an emergency, the protection risks facing different members of a community and describes how to conduct participatory assessments with women, girls, boys and men to ensure adequate assistance and protection for all.

I am pleased to introduce the updated version of the Emergency Handbook and hope that you will find it helpful in every phase of an emergency operation.

António Guterres

VII VIII ABBREVIATIONS

Organizations DPKO Department of Peace-keeping Operations FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations IASC United Nations Inter-Agency Standing Committee ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IFRCS International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ILO International Labour Organization MCDU Military and Civil Defence Unit of OCHA OAU Organization of African Unity OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNDSS United Nations Department of Safety and Security WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization

Other Abbreviations DO Designated Official ABOD Administrative Budget and Obligation Document DSA Daily Subsistence Allowance ERC Emergency Relief Coordinator GIS Geographical Information Systems IDP Internally Displaced Persons IOM/FOM Inter-Office Memorandum/Field Office Memorandum NGO Non-governmental Organization MT Metric tonne SITREP Situation Report

IX UNHCR’ Mission Statement

UNHCR, The United Nations refugee organization, is mandated by the United Nations to lead and coordinate international action for the world-wide protection of refugees and the resolution of refugee problems.

UNHCR’s primary purpose is to safeguard the right and well-being of refugee. UNHCR Strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe refuge in another state, and to return home voluntarily. By assisting refugees to return to their own country or to settle in another country, UNHCR also seeks lasting solutions to their plight.

UNHCR’s efforts are mandated by the organization’s Statute and guided by the 1951 United Nations Convention relating the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. International refugee law provides an essential framework of principles for UNHCR’s humanitarian activities.

UNHCR’s Executive Committee and the UN General Assembly have also authorized the organization’s involvement with other groups. These include people who are stateless or whose nationality is disputed and, in certain circumstances, internally displaced persons.

UNHCR seeks to reduce situations of forced displacement by encouraging states and other institutions to create conditions which are conducive to the protection of human rights and the peaceful resolution of disputes. In pursuit of the same objective, UNHCR actively seeks to consolidate the reintegration of returning refugees in their country of origin, thereby averting the recur- rence of refugee-producing situations.

UNHCR offer protection and assistance to refugees and other in an impartial manner, on the basis of their need and irrespective of their race, religion, political opinion or gender. In all of its activities, UNHCR pays particular attention to the needs of children and seeks to promote the equal right of women and girls.

In its efforts to protect refugees and the promote solutions to their problems, UNHCR works in partnership with governments, regional organizations, international and non governmental organization. UNHCR is committed to the principle of participation by consulting refugees on decisions that affect their lives.

By virtue of its activities on behalf of refugees and displaces people, UN- HCR also promotes the purposes and principles of Unites Nations Charter: maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. XI 1 Aim and Principles of Response

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CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Definition and aim 1-5 4 Aim and Principles of Response Definition of a refugee emergency 2 4 Aim 5 4 1

Responsibilities 6-16 4 Governments and UNHCR 6 4 UN organizations 8 5 Non-Governmental Organizations 10 5 Other organizations 11 5 The refugees 14 6 Defining responsibilities 16 6

Principles of response 17-29 6 Introduction 17 6 A rights and community-based approach 19 6 Get the right people, to the right place, at the right time 20 7 A multi-functional team approach 21 7 Work with refugees through a community-based approach and promote self-reliance 24 8 Be aware of social and economic roles and identify groups at specific risk 28 8

Ensure the measures are appropriate 30-37 9 Age, gender and diversity mainstreaming (AGDM) in emergencies 30 9 Identify protection risks and needs from an age, gender and diversity perspective 32 9 Be flexible and respond to changing needs 34 10 Identify standards 35 10

Do not treat issues in isolation 38-47 10 Ensure environment is considered at an early stage 39 10 Work for durable solutions 43 11 Food and non-food items distribution 46 11 Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of response 47 12

Definition and aim 4. What is important is the ability to rec- 1. The majority of UNHCR’s operations ognize, in time, the development of situa- begin as a result of an emergency caused tions in which an extraordinary response by a sudden influx of refugees1 and IDPs. will be required of UNHCR in order to The organization and procedures of safeguard the life and well-being of refu- UNHCR reflect this. Much of UNHCR’s gees. normal work is, in effect, built upon emer- 5. Much of the handbook is concerned gency interventions and responses. There with guidelines on the protection and hu- are, however, situations that are clearly manitarian assistance likely to be needed exceptional. This handbook addresses the when large numbers of refugees cross needs and requirements for a comprehen- frontiers to seek asylum; and also for in- sive response to such situations. ternally displaced persons (IDPs) as a result of conflict or natural disasters i.e. an Definition of a refugee emergency emergency caused by a sudden influx of 2. The definition of a refugee emergen- refugees or IDPs. cy for the purposes of UNHCR and this handbook might be: Aim The aim of UNHCR’s emergency re- any situation in which the life or well-be- sponse is to provide protection to all per- ing of refugees will be threatened unless immediate and appropriate action is tak- sons of concern to UNHCR and ensure en, and which demands an extraordinary that the necessary assistance reaches them response and exceptional measures. in time.

3. Sudeen refugee inluxes are, of course, Responsibilities not the only situations which demand an extraordinary response from UNHCR. Governments and UNHCR Equally swift action will be required in 6. Host governments are responsible for other types of emergency. For example, the security and safety of, assistance to, an emergency can develop in an existing and law and order among refugees and in- operation, such as when events suddenly ternally displaced persons (IDPs) on their place in danger refugees who had previ- territory. Governments often rely on the ously enjoyed asylum in safety (discussed international community to help share the in chapter 2 on Protection). It can also burden, and UNHCR provides assistance erupt during the final phase of an opera- at the request of governments or the UN tion as in the case of a large-scale repatria- Secretary General. tion (discussed in chapter 19 on Voluntary Repatriation). In addition there are com- The statutory function of providing in- plex emergencies, which are humanitarian ternational protection to refugees and crises involving the competence of more seeking permanent solutions for their than one UN agency (see chapter 7 on Co- problems is however, always UNHCR’s responsibility. ordination for a full definition). The general guidance provided in this handbook 7. The role of UNHCR in emergency will be useful to these types of emergen- operations is primarily to protect refu- cies as well. gees. UNHCR assists and complements the work of the government by acting as 1 1 For convenience, “refugee” is used in this a channel for assistance from the inter- handbook to refer to all persons of concern to national community, and by coordinating UNHCR. The different categories of persons of and monitoring implementation of the concern, including refugees, are defined in chapter 2 on Protection. assistance. Whatever the organizational manner in which UNHCR provides emer- Responsibility for coordinating the re- gency assistance in response to a govern- sponse of the UN system to a refugee ment request, UNHCR is responsible for emergency normally rests with UNHCR. ensuring that the protection and immediate Complex emergencies involving IDPs material needs of the refugees are met ef- are dealt within the UN collaborative re- fectively and appropriately. This requires sponse described under Chapter 7 “Co- a good understanding of the community ordination and site level organisation”. and analyzing the situation of the diverse 9. The UN body charged with strength- groups from an age and gender perspec- ening the coordination of humanitarian Aim and Principles of Response tive together with planning protection and assistance of the UN to complex emergen- 1 assistance responses with the community. cies is the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), through UN organizations coordination, policy development and ad- 8. The material needs of refugees are vocacy. likely to be covered by sectors for which other organizations in the UN system Non-Governmental Organizations have special competence. In particular the 10. A large number of non-governmental World Food Program (WFP), with which organizations (NGOs) provide assistance UNHCR has established a close partner- to refugees in emergencies. These organi- ship, and who provides the major part of zations often act as UNHCR’s operational the emergency food needs of refugees. In partners. The division of responsibilities is recognition of each organization’s com- determined by the implementing arrange- parative advantages and skills, and with ments agreed between them, the govern- the aim of giving consistency and predict- ment and UNHCR regardless of whether ability to the relationships between them, funding is from UNHCR or elsewhere. UNHCR has concluded Memoranda of This is discussed in more detail in chap- Understanding (MOUs) with a number of ters 7 and 8 on coordination and imple- UN organizations. These MOUs also cover menting arrangements issues related to emergency preparedness and response, such as joint contingency Other organizations planning, joint assessments and develop- 11. A number of other organizations also ment of standards and guidelines, as well act as operational partners in the provision as programme implementation. Notable of assistance to refugees in emergencies. among these are the MOUs with World In particular, the International Committee Food Programme (WFP), the United Na- of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International tions Development Programme (UNDP) Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent and the United Nations Children’s Fund Societies (IFRCS) with the National Red (UNICEF). UNHCR has also signed Cross and Red Crescent Societies, have MOUs with the United Nations Population long provided such assistance. The ICRC Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations Devel- mandate requires a high degree of opera- opment Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and tional neutrality and independence, which the World Health Organization (WHO) sometimes limits their participation in co- (see Appendix 3 for additional MOUs). ordination mechanisms and the exchange of information between them and other organizations.

12. Other operational partners could in- 15. Refugees and displaced persons also clude inter-governmental organizations, have, of course, responsibilities towards for example the International Organiza- the country where they have sought ref- tion for Migration (IOM). The objective uge. These are set out in Article 2 of the of IOM is to ensure the orderly migration 1951 Convention: ”Every refugee has of persons who are in need of international duties to the country in which he finds migration assistance. IOM works subject himself, which require in particular that to the agreement of both (or all) the states he conform to its laws and regulations as concerned with the migration. IOM has well as to measures taken for the mainte- worked closely with UNHCR, notably by nance of public order.” The civilian nature assisting with voluntary repatriation. of refugee status must be respected. 13. In order to enhance strategic part- Defining responsibilities nerships and complement UNHCR’s emergency preparedness and response 16. All those involved both inside and capacity, EPRS concluded agreements outside the UN system, should have clear- with Governmental and Non-Governmen- ly defined responsibilities within a single tal partners since 1992. MOUs covering overall operation. This can be achieved emergency staffing, support to emergency through the establishment of an appropri- teams and operational capability mecha- ate coordinating structure at various lev- nisms were signed with the Danish and els to ensure that duplication of effort and Norwegian Refugee Councils, Swedish gaps are avoided. Incertain situations, the Rescue Services Agency, AUSTCARE, coordinating role of UNHCR may need EMERCOM, Norwegian Civil Defence, to be more direct and operational, both in Red R Australia, Swiss Development co- planning and executing the emergency re- operation, Save the Children, Center for sponse, and in providing expertise in spe- Diseases Control and Oxfam. Evaluations cific sectors. of these MOU are done following utiliza- Principles of response tion in emergencies to determine how they improve UNHCR’s capacities to deliver. Introduction 17. Whatever the framework of responsi- The refugees bility for a particular refugee emergency, 14. Beyond the right to international certain principles of response are likely protection under the Statute of UNHCR to be valid. Many of these are common and under the 1951 Refugee Convention themes in the chapters that follow. and 1967 Protocol, all refugees, as indeed all persons, have human rights. These are 18. By definition, the needs of a refugee enshrined in the Charter of the United Na- emergency must be given priority over tions and in the Universal Declaration of other work of UNHCR. This is essen- Human Rights: the fundamental right to tial if the aim of ensuring protection and life, liberty and security of person; pro- timely assistance to refugees is to be met. tection of the law; freedom of thought, Leadership and flexibility are required of conscience and religion; and the right to UNHCR in an emergency. own property. Refugees have the right to freedom of movement. However, it is rec- A rights and community-based approach ognized that, particularly in cases of mass influx, security considerations and the 19. The following summarises how a rights of the local population may dictate rights and community based approach restrictions. should permeate all UNHCR emergency operations: i. All of UNHCR’s programmes, poli- being, violated are protected. Internation- cies, and operations should further the al legal standards should guide our work realization of the equal rights of women, in this respect. men, girls, and boys of concern, of diverse vii. It is crucial that UNHCR work backgrounds, as set out in international le- closely with individual community mem- gal instruments. bers and different groups within the com- ii. International legal standards should munity in order to prevent and eliminate form the framework for UNHCR’s pro- traditional, cultural or religious practices tection strategies and programme as- that violate the rights of women and girls. Aim and Principles of Response sessments, analyses, planning, design 1 (including setting goals, objectives and Get the right people to the right place at strategies), implementation, monitor- the right time ing and evaluation. Protection objectives 20. The single most important factor in de- should be at the forefront of programme termining whether or not sufficient emer- planning (see chapter 2 on Protection for gency assistance reaches the refugees in more details). time, and in an appropriate manner, will iii. Our work should help to develop probably be the people involved in organ- the capacity of States, as duty-bearers, to izing and implementing the operation. meet their obligations, and the capacity of Sufficient UNHCR and implementing women, men, girls, and boys of concern, partner staff of the right calibre, expe- as rights-holders, to claim their rights. rience and gender balance must be de- iv. We must work in partnership with ployed in the right places and equipped with the authority, funds, material and persons of concern of all ages and diverse logistical support needed. They must backgrounds in order to understand the be committed to a multi-functional team community’s priorities, capacities and re- approach in all aspects of their work. sources, and to build on them in order to ensure that all members of the community A multi-functional team approach are protected. 21. Multi-functional teams are responsi- v. Women, men, girls, and boys should ble for undertaking participatory assess- be engaged as partners in protection and ment in UNHCR’s emergency operations. programming activities. Our work should A multi-functional team is, at a minimum, reinforce the dignity and self-esteem of composed of protection, programme, and the members of the community. It should community-service staff. Ideally, it should help to empower the community as a include female and male staff, both na- whole, and individuals within the com- tional and international and of different munity, particularly women and girls, to levels. access and enjoy their rights. 22. A successful multi-functional team ap- vi. Practices within a community, in- proach requires the involvement and com- cluding traditional, cultural or religious mitment of the emergency team leader practices that violate the rights of women who should ensure the engagement of all and girls, should not be tolerated or over- members of the team. Offices should en- looked. UNHCR has a responsibility to sure that multi-functional teams include work towards the prevention and elimi- the wider circle of actors on the ground, nation of such practices at the individual such as partners, government counter- and community levels, and to take action parts, NGOs, other UN agencies, and do- to ensure that individual women and girls nors, as appropriate. whose rights have been, or are at risk of 23. No amount of expertise and experi- It is important to ensure refugee par- ence can substitute for organizing ability, ticipation; women, men, adolescents, flexibility, a readiness to improvise, abil- boys and girls at all stages of planning, ity to get on with others, ability to work implementation and monitoring. under pressure no matter how difficult the conditions. An aptitude to promote a rights 26. Refugees are often most able to help and community-based approach, capacity themselves, and thus be least reliant on to recognize age and gender considera- outside assistance, if they are not grouped tions, tact, sensitivity to other cultures and together in highly organized camps, but particularly to the plight of refugees, a rather reside in small, less formal groups. readiness to listen, and, not least, a sense 27. The interests of refugees with specif- of humour, are essential. ic needs, such as persons with disabilities are better cared for and such efforts are Work with refugees through a commu- more sustainable if community support nity-based approach and promote self- and involvement is harnessed right from reliance the start. In addition, refugee involvement 24. In order to ensure that the assistance helps ensure that the emergency response provided to refugees is appropriate, the addresses social, human and emotional refugees must be involved from the outset needs, and goes beyond the provision of in the measures taken to meet their pro- material relief. tection and assistance needs. In addition, all components of the operation must be Be aware of social and economic roles planned in such a way as to promote their and identify groups at specific risk. self-reliance. Obvious as this principle is, It is crucial to plan and manage an the pressures of an emergency often make emergency response effectively by it easier to organize an operation from the undertaking participatory assessment outside for, rather than with, those whom with groups of affected population to it is to benefit. identify and analyse the changing social and economic (gender) roles of women, 25. If the emergency operation involves men, boys and girls. This will enable the refugees in this way from the start, its emergency interventions to meet as- effectiveness will be greatly enhanced. sistance standards and promote gender Furthermore, such an approach will allow equality1. the refugees to maintain their sense of dig- 28. It is essential to understand socio- nity and purpose, encourage self-reliance economic factors, including gender rela- and help avoid dependency. In emergen- tions, when planning and implementing cies, refugees are often regarded as help- the emergency response to avoid uninten- less and passive recipients of external as- tionally depriving some refugees of the sistance. In the long term this approach by benefits of assistance and inadvertently humanitarian workers sets a pattern of de- exposing them to protection risks. This pendency. Refugees must be encouraged is often true for women, children, older to help themselves by using their own persons and the disabled. UNHCR pays skills and resources from the beginning of particular attention to the needs of these an emergency. Community services staff groups, especially in emergencies. It is are essential actors in supporting the mo- important that groups with specific needs bilization of the community and facilitate are identified at the outset and that meet- a participatory process. ings are held with them to determine

1 The UNHCR Tool For Participatory Assessment in Operations, 2005 needs and responses. Thus, in the plan- integral to the design, implementation, ning and implementation of an emergency monitoring, and evaluation of UNHCR’s response, groups with specific needs must emergency protection strategies and pro- be monitored systematically to ensure that grammes. Through dialogue with women, they are not further disadvantaged and tar- men, girls, and boys of diverse back- geted measures should be taken to meet grounds and ages, facilitated by multi- their particular needs. In an emergency, functional teams, a proper analysis of the health staff should spend time with wom- protection problems they face as well as en, girls, boys and men to identify patterns their proposed solutions can be under- Aim and Principles of Response

of SGBV and establishing prevention and taken. 1 response mechanisms (see chapter on Pre- 31. The findings from participatory vention and Response to SGBV in Emer- assessments and all other information gencies). should be analysed from an age, gender 29. Even in an emergency, refugees are and diversity perspective. This analysis likely to have some form of representa- provides the basis for emergency plan- tion, through a community or group or- ning and responses designed to ensure the ganization. effective protection of all members of the community. There needs to be a continu- It is important to find out exactly what ous exchange of information with the dif- kind of leadership structure exists and ferent members of the community to en- what measures are taken to ensure sure that responses are regularly evaluated the views and voices of women and children are represented in the forum. and adapted according to feedback from Specific measures must be instituted the people of concern. to ensure equal participation of women and men in decision-making processes. Identify protection risks and needs from an age, gender and diversity perspective It is also through an effective use of their 32. An appropriate response in the proactive participation and equal representa- vision of protection and material assist- tion (women, men, girls and boys of dif- ance requires participatory assessment of ferent backgrounds) that refugees’ rights the protection risks facing refugees and can be better promoted. However, be their needs. This should take into account aware that leaders may sometimes not be not only their specific protection needs, representational, or may have an agenda material state, the resources available as or objectives which could have adverse well as their capacities, but also their cul- consequences on other refugees, hence, ture, age, gender and background includ- the importance of meeting with different ing those of the nationals in whose coun- members of the community and working try they are granted asylum. The provision with the leadership to promote effective of protection and of essential goods and communication with the whole commu- services must be provided to refugees in nity. ways which actually meet their needs. Ensure the measures are appropriate 33. In collaboration with other agencies, promote and ensure collection of sex and Age, gender, and diversity mainstream- age disaggregated data and information ing (AGDM) in emergencies on groups with specific needs, such as 30. UNHCR’s AGDM strategy aims to persons with disabilities, unaccompanied ensure that the meaningful participation and separated children. of all persons of concern to the office is

Be flexible and respond to changing Do not treat issues in isolation needs 38. In all stages of an emergency, the 34. What is appropriate will vary with problems and needs of refugees must be time. In the early stages of a major emer- seen comprehensively, and sector-specific gency, special measures that rely heavily tasks should be set within a multi-secto- on outside assistance may be necessary. ral framework, since action in one area However, as a general principle, the re- is likely to affect others. For example the sponse should draw on refugee capacities, real solution to a health problem might local resources, materials and methods, be found in improving the water supply. to the extent possible and should, for ex- Ensure the correct balance in resource al- ample, avoid regimented refugee camps. location between the different sectors. Solutions that can be readily implemented with existing resources and simple tech- A multi-functional team approach, that nologies should be sought. promotes a community-based response and meets the standards of assistance are important criteria of an emergency Identify standards response. 35. It is an important responsibility of UNHCR to determine with the govern- Ensure environment is considered at an ment and operational partners the stand- early stage ards of assistance that are appropriate. This requires expertise in a number of The emergency phase is the critical mo- disciplines. The guidelines in Section III ment at which environmental degrada- of this handbook suggest general consid- tion may be confined or limited. erations, to be modified in light of the cir- 39. There are a number of strong argu- cumstances of each emergency. Appendix ments for making environmental interven- 1 (Toolbox) also contains standards. Each tions as soon as possible during the emer- sector would then need to decide and be gency phase of a response, such as: accountable for the correct level of overall  Unnecessary damage to the environ- assistance from all sources. ment is most effectively prevented or 36. As a general principle, the stand- mitigated during this phase. ards of assistance must reflect the specific  Activities undertaken at an earlier stage needs of the refugees based on their age, of an operation are far more cost-effec- sex, physical and psychological condition, tive than those taken later. situation and experiences. At the same time account must be taken of the stand-  The potential for promoting environ- ards planned for and actually enjoyed by mental awareness among the refugee the local population. population is greater if activities begin at an early stage. 37. If the standards have been correctly determined, they cannot later be lowered  Minimization of refugee-related envi- without harm to the refugees. The refu- ronmental impacts will reduce the bur- gees must, for example, receive a mini- den placed on the local population and mum basic food ration. Outside contribu- may have the added benefit of decreas- tions required to reach the standards will, ing friction between the local popula- however, naturally be reduced as the refu- tion and refugees. gees become more self-reliant. 40. Similarly, issues which are cross- cutting in nature should not be neglected.

10 This is often the case with issues concern- ages the self-reliance of the refugees and ing age and gender groups, and the envi- reduces prolonged dependency on outside ronment. relief, without preventing the promotion of a long-term solution as soon as possi- 41. Strengthening institutional capabil- ble. ity to deal with environmental matters in the field is essential. The provision of 45. As a general principle, the best so- clear guidance to UNHCR and imple- lution is voluntary repatriation. Where menting partner field staff on how envi- this is not possible, assimilation within ronmental matters should be treated within the country of asylum (local settlement) Aim and Principles of Response UNHCR’s operational framework is paris in most circumstances preferable to as- 1 ticularly important (see chapter 4 on Con- similation within another country (reset- tingency Planning). tlement). This is particularly true for large groups and in cases where resettlement 42. Although our aim is to minimize would take place in a cultural environment environmental impacts caused by refu- alien to the refugees. There may, however, gees, it is relevant to note that, in certain be situations in which resettlement is the locations, the presence of environmental only way to ensure protection. hazards may also occasionally pose a risk to the health of refugees. This may arise Food and non-food items distribution from features such as the presence of endemic diseases, high levels of air or water 46. The distribution of food and non food pollution, and toxic or radioactive chemi- items cannot be predetermined by hand- cals in the soil. books and rules, these can only provide guidance. Once emergency team mem- Work for durable solutions bers arrive on the ground, they will find many unforeseen situations and a wide Always Remember the Longer Term variety of needs. The important rule is to Objectives remember to pay close attention to the dif- 43. A general principle in considering ferent requirements people may have and the appropriateness of measures is that, to respond in a reasonable manner to situ- from the start, resources must be divided ations, such as the needs of older persons between immediate needs and actions in a cold climate if you only give them one aimed at longer-term improvements and blanket and remember they will be differ- the prevention of problems. For example, ent to those of young people. Think about resources must be devoted to general pub- the implications of forcing people to share lic health measures as well as to the treat- blankets and plastic sheeting, will you be ment of individual diseases, which will mixing young male and female adoles- include many that could be prevented by cents, will you be forcing different fami- better water and sanitation. Emergency as- lies from different ethnic groups to mix, sistance is to be allocated to the maximum will you be putting single women at risk, extent possible to activities which will be and will people be able to eat the food you of lasting benefit, thus keeping any relief are requesting, did you check with them phase as short as possible. if it was appropriate. Be flexible and ex- 44. From the beginning of an emergen- plain the situation to people. Get them to cy, and even during preparations for an help you prioritise if there is not enough to emergency, planning must take into ac- go round. Try and be as generous as possi- count the post emergency phase as well ble when allocating assistance rather than as the envisaged durable solutions. This “protecting” it. Keep an open mind and try requires that the response both encour- to understand people’s urgent needs, think

11 age, gender and diversity and make sure cators, to detect deterioration or change. you keep double checking if the assistance Also, a continuous review of the aims of reached the right people. UNHCR’s assistance, both in terms of bringing the emergency to an early end Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness and for the promotion of a durable solu- of response tion, is necessary. 47. Whatever the nature of the emer- 48. Such monitoring must also ensure gency, the action required of UNHCR is that the funds provided voluntarily to likely to vary with time and as circum- UNHCR by governments and others are stances change. being used to the best advantage. This It is essential that the effectiveness of is inherent in the principle of appropri- the response be kept constantly under ate response. It should be borne in mind review through continued participatory that whatever funds may be available in assessment and action adjusted as the early stages of an acute humanitarian necessary and in time. emergency, the passage of time will produce financial constraints. Thus it is im- This will require sound monitoring, re- portant that actual and potential donors porting and evaluation systems, including see that the action proposed is indeed es- sex and age disaggregated data and indi- sential, and that its impact is effective.

12 Aim and Principles of Response 1

13 2 Protection

14 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1-16 17 UNHCR’s mandate 1 17 International protection 2 17 ‘Persons of concern’ to UNHCR 5 17 Protection

The legal basis 7 18 2 UNHCR in emergencies 14 19

Securing access to safety 17-47 21 Admission and non-refoulement 18 21 Registration and documentation 28 23 Refugee status determination 34 24 Exclusion from international refugee protection 37 24 Complementary and temporary protection 39 25 Combatants at the border 42 25

Specific protection issues 48-139 26 Understanding the concerns of uprooted people 49 27 Analysing, monitoring, reporting and intervening 54 27 Protection through assistance 58 28 Children 61 29 Protection of women and girls 63 29 Physical safety of refugees 71 32 Location of refugees 74 32 Camp security 77 32 Judicial systems and detention 80 33 Physical safety in areas of conflict 83 34 Operations in areas controlled by non-state entities 86 34 Forced recruitment 89 35 Combatants in camps 93 36 Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) 97 36 Humanitarian evacuation and ‘safe havens’ 100 37 Unaccompanied and separated children 104 38 Child soldiers 106 38 Single parent households 109 39 Older persons 110 39 Persons with physical and mental disabilities 111 39 Victims of violence, torture and trauma 112 40 Partnership in emergencies 113 40 Working with host governments (including the military) 113 40 Working with other humanitarian agencies 121 41 Public relations and working with the media 123 41 Specific issues in relation to the internally displaced 126 42 Emergencies as a result of changes in government policy 135 43 cont. 15 CONTENTS cont. Paragraph Page

Durable solutions 140-156 44 Voluntary repatriation 141 44 Local integration 145 45 Resettlement 146 45 Emergency resettlement 148 45 Urgent cases 151 46 Emergency resettlement procedures 152 46

Key references

Annexes Annex 1: International instruments and legal texts concerning refugees and others of concern to UNHCR 50 Refugees and others of concern to UNHCR 50 International human rights 51 International humanitarian law and the law of neutrality 52 International criminal law 52 Miscellaneous 52 Annex 2: Physical security of refugees and others of concern 53 Checklist for addressing the physical protection and security of refugees 53 Activities to maintain security in camps 54

16 Introduction ‘Persons of concern’ to UNHCR The first step in any emergency is to es- UNHCR’s mandate tablish whether individuals or groups UNHCR’s primary responsibilities are: are of concern to UNHCR and therefore entitled to international protection. • to ensure that all persons of concern to the office receive international pro- 5. In an emergency, UNHCR and its tection; and partners can expect to encounter the fol- • to seek permanent (durable) solutions lowing persons of concern to UNHCR: for their situation.

 Asylum-seekers: When civilians seek Protection safety in countries other than their own,

1. Ensuring that UNHCR meets these 2 responsibilities is not the sole responsibil- they are said to be seeking asylum and ity of the “protection officer” in an emer- are known as asylum-seekers. This is gency but a collective responsibility of all the first step towards being formally UNHCR staff. recognized as refugees. Very often, people do not formally register as asy- International protection lum-seekers. However, they may still be in need of international protection. International protection includes a range of concrete activities that ensure that all  Refugees: According to UNHCR’s women, men, girls and boys of concern mandate, a refugee is any person who to UNHCR have equal access to and en- is outside his or her country of origin or joyment of their rights in accordance habitual residence and who is unwilling with international law. The ultimate goal or unable to return there owing to: of these activities is to help them in permanently rebuilding their lives within a i. a well-founded fear of persecution for reasonable amount of time. reasons of race, religion, nationality, 2. The need for international protection membership of a particular social group arises when States are unable or unwilling or political opinion (this is similar to the to protect their nationals. In such circum- definition provided in the1951 Conven- stances, these people need the protection tion); or and support of other governments and ii. serious and indiscriminate threats to humanitarian agencies such as UNHCR. life, physical integrity or freedom re- International protection is a temporary sulting from generalised violence or substitute for the protection normally pro- events seriously disturbing public or- vided by States to their nationals. der. 3. States are responsible for protecting  The internally displaced: The inter- people who seek safety in their territory. nally displaced are those who have been UNHCR works closely with these States forced to flee their homes as a result of and other authorities to ensure that such armed conflict, situations of generalised persons are able to exercise their basic violence, violations of human rights, or human rights and live securely and with natural or human-made disasters. Un- dignity. UNHCR is not a substitute for like refugees who have crossed an inter- State responsibility. national border, the internally displaced 4. Understanding who is entitled to in- remain uprooted within their own coun- ternational protection, the legal basis for try. As citizens within their own coun- securing this protection, the purpose and try, they are entitled to enjoy, in full means to provide international protection equality, the same rights and freedoms is essential. This chapter addresses these under international and domestic law as issues. do other persons in their country. They 17 shall not be discriminated against in the 6. On occasion UNHCR has, for hu- enjoyment of any rights and freedoms manitarian reasons and on the basis of its on the ground that they are internally mandate (including upon the specific re- displaced. Sometimes, unfortunately, quest of the General Assembly or Security refugees who return to their countries Council), become involved with individu- remain internally displaced until they als other than the categories mentioned are able to return to their areas of origin above such as local populations at risk within the country. UNHCR is com- who may not have fled their homes. mitted to engaging with the internally displaced affected by armed conflict, The legal basis generalised violence or violations of For protection activities human rights. Only exceptionally and on a good offices basis, does UNHCR 7. Humanitarian workers must be familiar assist persons who are internally dis- with legal principles that form the basis placed for other reasons such as natural for all protection activities that UNHCR disasters. and its partners undertake in an emergency. These principles can be found in:  Returnees: Returnees are refugees and the internally displaced who return to i. International refugee law: Including their country/area of origin or habitual the 1951 Convention Relating to the residence (and chapter 22 on voluntary Status of Refugees and its 1967 Proto- repatriation). UNHCR has a legitimate col; The 1969 Convention Governing interest in the consequences of return, the Specific Aspects of Refugee Prob- not least to ensure that further displace- lems in Africa of the Organization of ment does not take place. African Unity (OAU) (for operations in Africa only) the 1984 Cartagena  Stateless persons: A stateless person Declaration on Refugees, and the is one who is not considered to be a 1994 San Jose Declaration (for opera- national by any state under its laws. A tions in Latin America only). stateless person can also be a refugee when, for example, s/he is forced to ii. International human rights law: In- leave her/his country of habitual resi- cluding the International Covenant on dence because of persecution. Howev- Economic, Social and Cultural Rights er, not all stateless persons are refugees, of 16 December 1966; the Interna- and not all refugees are stateless. The tional Covenant on Civil and Political UN General Assembly has mandated Rights of 16 December 1966 and its UNHCR to work to prevent stateless- two optional protocols; the Conven- ness and to act on behalf of stateless tion against Torture and Other Cruel, persons. UNHCR assists stateless per- Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or sons in resolving their legal problems, Punishment of 10 December 1984 and obtaining documentation, and eventu- its optional protocol; the Convention ally restarting their lives as citizens of a on the Rights of the Child of 20 No- country. UNHCR also provides techni- vember 1989 and its two optional pro- cal and legal advice to governments on tocols; the International Convention nationality issues, including assistance on the Elimination of All Forms of in drafting and implementing national- Racial Discrimination of 21 Decem- ity legislation designed to prevent and ber 1965; and the Convention on the resolve situations of statelessness. The Elimination of All Forms of Discrimi- main international instruments dealing nation against Women of 18 Decem- with statelessness are listed in Annex ber 1979 and its optional protocol. 1. 18 iii. International humanitarian law and 10. Understanding the relevant national the law of neutrality: Including the laws of the country in which persons of four Geneva Conventions of 12 Au- concern are residing in is also essential gust 1949 and the two protocols of 8 in ensuring their protection. On occa- June 1977. The law of neutrality es- sion, the standards established by national pecially the 1907 Hague Convention legislation may be far below those estab- Respecting the Rights and Duties of lished by international law. In such cases, Neutral Powers and Persons in Case UNHCR must promote and uphold princi- of War on Land is also useful in coun- ples of international law. tries neighbouring armed conflict. Protection For UNHCR’s involvement iv. International criminal law: Includ- 2 ing the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress 11. UNHCR’s protection responsibilities and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Es- have been established by the General As- pecially Women and Children, and the sembly (through the Statute of the Office Protocol against the Smuggling of Mi- of the United Nations High Commissioner grants by Land, Sea and Air, both of for Refugees complemented by General which supplement the United Nations Assembly and ECOSOC resolutions). Convention Against Transnational Or- The Statute has universal applicability. ganized Crime of 15 November 2000. 12. In addition, UNHCR’s protection func- 8. Annex 1 lists these and other relevant tion is facilitated by the 1951 Convention international instruments and their main that obliges States which are parties to the purpose(s). The UN Security Council and Convention to cooperate with UNHCR in General Assembly Resolutions and non- the exercise of its functions and facilitate binding legal texts such as the Guiding UNHCR’s responsibility of monitoring Principles on Internal Displacement are the application of the Convention’s provi- also essential in the protection of refugees sions (Article 35). The 1969 OAU Con- and other uprooted people. vention contains a similar clause. 9. Even when an emergency occurs in a 13. UNHCR is also guided (and bound country not party to the relevant interna- by) international law and ExCom Conclu- tional and regional instruments, some of sions mentioned above as well as UNHCR’s the principles embodied in the 1951 Con- own policies and guidelines. vention are considered customary international law and hence are binding on all UNHCR in emergencies states. Foremost amongst them is the prin- 14. The legal basis on which UNHCR in- ciple of non-refoulement. The prohibi- tervenes to secure the protection of refu- tion of torture as well as violence against gees is contained in the instruments men- women, that are both enumerated in hu- tioned in paragraphs 7-13. However, it man rights instruments, are also norms of is the practical course of action adopted customary international law. In addition, in emergencies that really determines the the moral strength and standard setting quality of protection offered to persons of value of the conclusions on international concern to the agency. protection of UNHCR’s Executive Com- mittee (ExCom) is not limited to states Protection in emergencies frequently depends less on the fine print of a law which are members of the Executive and more on swift, appropriate action by Committee (see chapter 9 for more details UNHCR staff in the field. on EXCOM members).

19 15. In order for UNHCR to effectively necessary. During this time, UNHCR discharge its mandate in an emergency, should work closely with refugees and it is often essential, among other things others of concern using participatory that: assessment to identify protection risks; find and implement solutions together i. A multi-functional team comprised with them and evaluate the results of of staff - both women and men - with these solutions jointly. protection, community services, programme, logistics, security and other vii. UNHCR and its partners apply a expertise are rapidly deployed to ad- rights- and community-based ap- dress the emergency. proach in their work. ii. UNHCR constantly updates itself with the rapidly developing and chang- 16. During an emergency, some immedi- ing situation it is confronted with. ate protection goals that need to be met This includes the humanitarian, po- together with States and other partners litical, economic, social, security and often include: other aspects of the situation.  Ensuring that asylum-seekers, refugees iii. UNHCR establishes and maintains and the internally displaced are able to strong working relations with its access safety (access to safe territory; partners, in particular local and na- ensuring that borders are open to asy- tional authorities, the local military lum-seekers and refugees); and international peacekeepers, other  UN agencies, NGOs, other members Ensuring that they are not refouled of civil society and the persons of con- (forcibly sent back to a place where cern to UNHCR themselves that are their life, liberty and security would present during the emergency. It may be at risk). be necessary, due to lack of resources  Registering and documenting persons or expertise, to divide responsibilities (on an individual basis as soon as pos- among UNHCR and its partners. sible) and determining whether they are of concern to the agency and enti- iv. Partners understand UNHCR’s tled to international protection. concern and involvement in practical terms. Local officials may not  Ensuring that the human rights -- know of UNHCR’s mandate, or of the including the right to life, liberty, pro- humanitarian aid which UNHCR may tection against arbitrary detention and already be giving elsewhere in the physical violence such as rape and country. The approach should stress other forms of SGBV -- of persons of that the work of the High Commis- concern are respected and upheld. sioner is of an entirely non-political  In ensuring that some of these rights -- character and is strictly humanitarian. such as the right to food, potable water, v. UNHCR has free and unhindered adequate shelter, education and health access to all persons of concern ir- -- are accorded, provide humanitarian respective of their location (including assistance if necessary. It is important border points, detention centres and to ensure that everyone has equal access camps). to these amenities and that persons with specific needs, such as single-parents, vi. UNHCR maintains a continuing separated children, the disabled and presence in the affected areas - in- older persons are not excluded from cluding border, camps, settlements receiving such support. This means and other locations - for as long as 20 that humanitarian assistance must be Admission and non-refoulement planned from a protection perspective. 18. In an emergency involving asylum-  Ensuring that the civilian and humani- seekers and refugees, often the first and tarian character of asylum is main- most urgent priority is to ensure that their tained (ensure combatants are not al- right to seek asylum is respected and to lowed in camps, that they do not recruit ensure they are not forcibly returned (re- people – especially children -- to fight fouled). There are a number of physical with them). barriers that prevent refugees from accessing safety – land mines, borders mon-  Identifying and addressing the specific

itored by the military and closed borders Protection protection needs of individual women, are some of them. There may also be le- 2 men, girls and boys, older persons, per- gal barriers such as visa restrictions that sons with disabilities and others. prevent refugees from accessing safety.  Working with countries to identify and 19. In an emergency involving internally provide durable solutions for refugees displaced persons, it would be necessary and others of concern to the agency. to ensure that they have access to safety These issues are discussed in the follow- and are not at risk of being forcibly sent ing pages in more detail. back to a part of their country where their life or liberty would be threatened. Action taken at the outset of an emergency may have significant long-term Admission consequences in ensuring that refugees 20. Asylum-seekers must be admitted to and others of concern benefit from qual- the State in which they seek refuge with- ity protection. out discrimination on the basis of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or Securing access to safety physical incapacity. This is in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Often in emergencies, international pro- Rights that states that “Everyone has the tection requires that UNHCR and other right to seek and to enjoy in other coun- humanitarian agencies first ensure that: tries asylum from persecution”. Further, i. asylum-seekers, refugees and the in- the UN General Assembly, on adopting the ternally displaced are admitted to safe UNHCR Statute, called on governments territory; to cooperate with the High Commissioner ii. that they are able to enjoy asylum/ in the performance of his/her functions by, safety from violence and persecution; among other things, admitting refugees iii. that they are not forcibly returned (“re- to their territories. fouled”) to territory where their life or 21. Similarly, the Guiding Principles on liberty would be threatened; and Internal Displacement states that internal- iv. that they are treated in accordance ly displaced persons have the right to seek with human rights standards. safety in another part of the country, the 17. Establishing and maintaining a pres- right to leave their country and the right to ence in the area where these uprooted seek asylum in another country. people are and taking prompt action are 22. Refugees often do not have proper often essential in ensuring that persons of identification or travel documents because concern to UNHCR are protected in emer- they leave their homes at short notice or gencies. because they are escaping from the very authorities that issue these documents in their country. Therefore, they may not 21 fulfil the immigration requirements of the fundamental and universally accepted country of asylum. Article 31 of the 1951 character, the principle of non-refoule- Convention obliges States not to penalize ment has been recognized as a principle of refugees on account of their illegal entry customary international law. or presence so long as they make their presence known as soon as possible. The principle of non-refoulement is binding on all States irrespective of whether Non-refoulement or not they are party to the 1951 Conven- tion or other international or regional in- 23. Of cardinal importance is the princi- strument. ple of non-refoulement which includes: 26. In any emergency, UNHCR must  not denying access to their territory to take all measures to ensure that refugees asylum-seekers who have arrived at and the internally displaced have access their border (access to asylum); to safety and that they are not refouled.  not intercepting asylum-seekers or ref- Some ways to ensure this include: ugees outside the territory of any coun- i. Developing good working relation- try (e.g. the high seas) with a view to ships with the local authorities, army prevent them from seeking safety; personnel and border officials. In some  not expelling or returning asylum-seek- situations, it may also be necessary to ers or refugees in any manner whatso- develop their operational capacity as ever to the frontiers of territories where they may not even have some basic his/her life or freedom would be threat- tools to do their work (such as writ- ened on account of his race, religion, ing paper, pens and flashlights). En- nationality, membership of a particular sure that adequate arrangements are in social group or political opinion (Arti- place to receive single women and uncle 33 of the 1951 Convention). accompanied and separated children. ii. Creating awareness among these au- In the case of the internally displaced, the Guiding Principles on Internal Dis- thorities. While it may not be possi- placement prohibits their forcible return ble to provide formal training during to or relocation to any place where their an emergency, UNHCR may promote life, safety, liberty and/or health would be principles of access to safety and non- at risk. This is supported by internation- refoulement through daily contacts al human rights law and international hu- with them. Give concrete examples to manitarian law. the authorities of what can happen to 24. The 1951 Convention provides for a refugee who is returned: it can mean very limited exceptions to the principle of that s/he is detained for long periods, non-refoulement of refugees, namely, for tortured and raped or even killed. whom there are reasonable grounds for iii. Maintaining a permanent presence being regarded as a danger to the security at the border. If it is not possible for of the country where they are, or for those UNHCR and its partners to be present who, having been convicted by a final at all border crossing points on a per- judgement of a particularly serious crime, manent basis, each crossing point constitute a danger to the community of should be visited frequently. This that country. also helps in maintaining direct con- 25. The principle of non-refoulement is tact with the refugees, and helps in un- recognized by a number of international derstanding what is happening in the and regional instruments. Because of its country of origin as well as the problems on both sides of the border. 22 iv. Awareness may also need to be raised 30. Similarly, while it would be difficult in the local population and civil soci- to provide individual identity documents ety – the media may provide a forum during the first phases of an emergency, it – and public opinion can be an impor- is important to work towards a system by tant influence. which this is possible in order to protect them more effectively (see chapter 10 for 27. Any issue relating to the admission more details on documentation). or treatment of refugees at the border, (or the internally displaced who are prevented 31. Over time, governments should, with from accessing safety) should be brought the support of UNHCR and its partners, immediately to the attention of the com- ensure that the births, deaths and mar- Protection

petent authorities in the host country and riages of people of concern to UNHCR 2 any other country involved for urgent re- are also registered and documented by the medial action. government. This assists, among other things, in ensuring that people can exer- Registration and documentation cise their rights in accordance with the 28. Registration and the provision of in- relevant laws, that they do not face prob- dividual identity documents are important lems when finding a permanent solution protection tools that assists in ensuring, (resettlement, for instance) and that situ- among other things, that the situation of ations of statelessness are avoided in the persons of concern is properly monitored, future. that their human rights are protected, that 32. Women and children who are not reg- they have access to assistance, that family istered or provided with documents may reunification is facilitated and that adu- be denied access to fundamental human rable solution is found for them. Proper rights. Refugee women, particularly those allocation of resources and programme who were separated from their husbands, planning is also dependent on proper may not be able to access food or essential registration, especially in the long-run. services, seek support for their children, While registration and documentation is or claim or inherit property on return. normally a State responsibility, UNHCR Women and children may be more prone supports States in this area and even un- to sexual exploitation, early and forced dertakes registration on behalf of govern- marriage, slavery, trafficking, permanent ments at times. separation from families, and unauthor- 29. Normally, upon accessing safety, ized and illicit adoption. asylum-seekers, refugees and the inter- 33. Efforts must be taken to ensure that nally displaced should be registered in- the registration and documentation proc- dividually as soon as possible. However, ess does not directly or indirectly dis- in emergencies when they arrive in large criminate against women and girls, and numbers, it is often impractical to register that all women and girls, regardless of age them individually or in detail at the outset. and background, are able to fully partici- Therefore, it may be necessary to begin by pate. Parents or caregivers may not want conducting ‘population estimates’ and un- to register girls for a number of reasons. dertaking brief forms of registration until They may also not want to declare sepa- the situation is safe and stable enough to rated children living with them and who register them individually (see chapter 10 are working as unpaid servants. When for more details on registration). None- registration is undertaken by the State, theless, persons with specific needs must especially with the internally displaced, be identified by the community and staff UNHCR must ensure that these minimum to ensure adequate protection from the standards are met. In some locations sex- outset. 23 ual exploitation has been linked to the reg- Exclusion from international refugee istration process. protection 37. Certain persons do not fall under Refugee status determination UNHCR’s competence and are excluded 34. States recognize refugees on their ter- from international refugee protection. ritory based on the definition provided in These include: the 1951 Convention. UNHCR recogniz- i. Persons who are not entitled to the es refugees in accordance with its man- benefits of international refugee date (see section ‘Persons of concern’ of protection because they are receiving this chapter for the mandate definition of a protection or assistance from a UN refugee). This normally happens in coun- agency other than UNHCR. In today’s tries that have not established a procedure context, this applies to certain groups to determine refugee status or in countries of Palestinian refugees who are inside where the asylum procedures are not func- the area of operations of the United tioning properly. Refugees recognized by Nations Relief and Works Agency for States as well as by UNHCR are of con- Palestinian Refugees in the Near East cern to UNHCR. A person does not be- (UNRWA). come a refugee because s/he is recognized as such by a State or by UNHCR, but is ii. Persons who are not in need of in- recognized because s/he is a refugee. ternational refugee protection be- Recognition of his/her refugee status does cause they have taken up regular or not therefore make him/her a refugee, but permanent residence in a country that declares him to be one. has given them a status whereby they effectively enjoy the same rights and 35. Refugees may be recognized by have the same obligations as nationals States (based on the 1951 Convention) of that country. or by UNHCR (in accordance with its mandate) either on an individual or on a iii. Persons who are considered unde- group basis. If large numbers of people serving of international refugee pro- have fled persecution or conflict, they tection on account of them having are often recognized as a group on a committed certain serious crimes or prima facie basis. heinous acts. This applies to persons This means that based on the objec- who are responsible for war crimes tive conditions in the country of origin, (i.e. serious violations of the laws UNHCR and/or States can consider every or customs of war), crimes against member of the group as a refugee in the humanity (i.e. inhumane acts when absence of evidence to the contrary. This committed as part of a widespread or is a practical measure to allow refugees to systematic attack directed against the receive international protection without civilian population) or crimes against the formality of undergoing individual peace (i.e. planning, preparation, ini- refugee status determination. tiation, or waging of a war that is in violation of international treaties). 36. In the case of mass influx, the aim is Similarly, those who have commit- to secure treatment in accordance with ted serious non-political crimes (e.g. universally recognized humanitarian murder, rape) prior to entering the principles not necessarily directly linked country of asylum or acted against the to the legal status of those in need. The speed and quality of intervention to se- purposes and principles of the United cure protection is the first priority. Nations cannot benefit from refugee status.

24 38. Exclusion assessments should be car- ples of non-refoulement, the ‘best inter- ried out by persons qualified and trained ests’ of the child and family unity. to do so. Any recommendation to exclude an asylum-seeker in an emergency should Temporary protection be reviewed and endorsed by a Regional 41. Temporary protection is a specific Legal Adviser at Headquarters. People provisional protection response to situa- can be recognized as refugees on a pri- tions of mass influx, providing immediate ma facie basis as a group, but can only emergency protection from refoulement, be excluded from refugee protection and postponing formal refugee status de- on an individual basis. Once excluded, termination until it is practically feasible. Protection they would not be of concern to UNHCR. Often this response is provided in situa- However, human rights NGOs and the tions where there are good prospects of 2 High Commissioner for Human Rights voluntary repatriation in the near future. would advocate for the State to respect UNHCR does not encourage States to their human rights, including the right not resort to this measure when it is feasible to be refouled to a territory where their life to recognize them on a prima facie basis. or liberty would be at risk. The rights of persons granted temporary protection are similar to those of recog- Complementary and temporary nized refugees. In any case, these shall protection include: Complementary protection i. admission to the country of refuge; 39. Some countries adopt a narrow definition of the term “refugee” which does ii. respect for human rights, with treat- not encompass those persons who are ment in accordance with internation- fleeing from armed conflict or general- ally recognized humanitarian stand- ised violence. Instead, they often estab- ards; and lish ‘complementary forms of protection’ iii. protection against refoulement. as a pragmatic response for individuals in need of international protection but do Combatants at the border not meet the refugee definition under the 42. When people flee areas affected by 1951 Convention or the 1967 Protocol. armed conflict or political unrest marked These countries are bound by relevant in- by serious human-rights offences, it may ternational treaty obligations prohibiting happen that combatants arrive in the coun- refoulement, such as those deriving from try of asylum (or the safe areas or camps in Article 3 of the Convention against Tor- the case of the internally displaced) along ture or Article 7 of the International Cov- with the civilian population. A combat- enant on Civil and Political Rights as well ant is a member of regular or irregular as in regional human rights instruments. forces, who has or is taking an active part, 40. Although persons granted comple- directly or indirectly, in an armed conflict. mentary protection do not have access to The presumption of refugee status, includ- the full range of benefits given to refu- ing recognition on a prima facie basis, (or gees, UNHCR encourages States to pro- recognition as an internally displaced per- vide for the highest degree of stability and son of concern to UNHCR) does not ap- certainty to them (almost the same rights ply to combatants, as this would threaten as refugees). Those with complementary the civilian and humanitarian character of protection should enjoy, without discrimi- camps, settlements and asylum. nation, the human rights and fundamental 43. International Humanitarian Law freedoms laid down in relevant interna- would govern the treatment of combat- tional instruments, including the princi- 25 ants arriving in a country that is party a risk of being refouled prior or during to the conflict and ICRC would be best their internment period. In such situa- placed to monitor and advise in such situ- tions, UNHCR should advocate for States ations. The law of neutrality, in particular not to refoule them and if necessary, on an the 1907 Hague Convention Respecting urgent basis, determine whether they have the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers genuinely given up their combatant status and Persons in Case of War on Land and and whether they are refugees or not. Hu- Executive Committee Conclusion 94 (of man rights NGOs and the Office of the 2002) relating to the Civilian and Human- High Commissioner for Human Rights, itarian Character of Asylum would gov- if present, would also normally advocate ern the treatment of combatants arriving at against their refoulement. in country neutral to the conflict. Child soldiers, on the other hand, need 44. In a neutral country, combatants to be disarmed and assisted in reinte- should be, as far as possible, identified grating within the civilian refugee com- at the border. They should be disarmed, munity as far as possible separated and held in an internment facility. ICRC is mandated to visit and monitor 47. The State is responsible for dealing these internment facilities. An influx may with combatants who arrive at their bor- also contain armed elements who are not der or who enter their territory. UNHCR combatants, but civilians carrying weap- should only support the government by ons for reasons of self-defence or hunting providing advice, by helping the authori- purposes. While such persons must be dis- ties in establishing systems by which com- armed, they would not need to be sepa- batants can be identified, disarmed, separated or interned. rated and interned. UNHCR does not have 45. Combatants should not be considered the mandate or the expertise to actively as asylum-seekers (or ‘persons of con- identify, disarm or intern any combatant. cern’) until it has been established, within a reasonable time frame – often after a period of internment -- that they have genu- Specific protection issues inely and permanently renounced military 48. UNHCR, governments and other part- activities (in practice, this has ranged ners should ensure that persons that have from between three months up to a year access to safe territory (the country of asy- or more). They may thereafter be admit- lum in the case of refugees; other safe ar- ted into asylum procedures. The asylum eas in the case of the internally displaced) applications of former combatants should continue to remain protected and that their be examined through individual refugee human rights are respected. They should status determination procedures, which be able to live in an environment that pro- should provide for a thorough examina- motes safety, dignity, and self-sufficiency tion of the possible application of the ex- when they are uprooted. Below are some clusion clauses. They can then be allowed specific issues that often arise during to integrate with a civilian population as emergencies. long as they are not at risk of facing protection problems from the community. There may be situations where internment may not be necessary or feasible. 46. Persons who claim to have given up their combatant status and who have requested for asylum may sometimes be at 26 UNHCR is quickly informed of any new Refugee protection encompasses measures to ensure that people of concern influx or protection problem. This infor- enjoy, on an equal basis, legal security mation should be systemized and used (that they are not discriminated against; for defining protection strategies and the that they have a legal status and docu- emergency assistance response. Such open mentation) physical security (that they lines of communication, including those are protected against physical harm) and with local authorities are important in par- material security (that they have equal ticular for border regions which are remote access to basic goods and services). from the capital, and where UNHCR may not yet have a local presence. Understanding the concerns of uprooted Protection

people 52. Sources of information in addition to 2 49. To be able to provide the right protec- refugees and others of concern include: tion response in an emergency there is a i. Local or central government authori- need to understand the people who we are ties (including military officials) working for and what their concerns are. ii. Community and religious leaders Involving women, men, girls and boys iii. Host community of all ages and different ethnic and religious groups of concern to UNHCR from iv. National and international NGOs the start will ensure better understanding v. ICRC of their problems and also build trust be- vi. Other UN and international organiza- tween UNHCR and the people of concern. tions (read more on Community-Based Ap- vii. National (particularly local language) proach in chapter 11) and international news media 50. By undertaking an initial participa- 53. If possible the central authorities tory assessment (see chapter 5 for more should participate in fact-finding mis- information on Initial Participatory As- sions, as this reduces the risk of misunder- sessment), UNHCR and its partners can, standing between UNHCR and the central in systematic and rigorous way, collect authorities and between the central and lo- information with the active participation cal authorities. of the community and thereby gain a better understanding of issues concerning Analysing, monitoring, reporting and intervening their protection and well-being. This is a crucial step in understanding, developing UNHCR’s Statute and Article 35 of the and implementing any protection strat- 1951 Convention provides UNHCR with egy – including on issues such as access the authority to monitor and assist to asylum, camp planning, distribution of States in their fulfilling obligation to pro- assistance, provision of services including tect refugees and others of concern to the agency. education and health, physical security including SGBV and even durable solu- 54. UNHCR and its partners must moni- tions. Participatory assessment should be tor any emergency situation at all times an activity jointly undertaken by multi- – often by being physically present at bor- functional teams comprised of staff from ders, camps and other affected areas - not UNHCR and other UN agencies, NGOs least to ensure that the rights of asylum- and the government. seekers, refugees, the internally displaced are respected. 51. Sources of information must be developed and direct communication with 55. Immediate, clear and regular reports refugees through participatory approach- of developments, action taken and intend- es established in the field to ensure that ed to be taken are important, whether from 27 the Field Officer to the Head of Office or structure such as schools for refugees, from the latter to Headquarters. Guid- providing furniture and stationary to ance must be requested as necessary and authorities etc). When providing ma- Headquarters level interventions recom- terial support during an emergency, mended as appropriate. See chapter 8 on not only does UNHCR require the ap- implementing arrangements, for a stand- propriate funding, but should provide ard situation report. this support only if it is essential and if no other responsible agency is able to Unless information gathered locally is do so (for instance, UN development done systematically, and unless it is agencies) and ensure that States do not shared appropriately, its usefulness is become dependent on this support in limited. the medium and long-term. 56. Intervention with governments, part- iii. Providing services (food, clothing, ners and other stakeholders can take many shelter material, education and health forms and depends on the specific situa- services, for example) to persons of tion at hand. Prerequisites for interven- concern that States would normally be tion with government authorities, partners obliged to provide. or other stakeholders are accurate and regular situational analysis, reporting to 57. Situational analysis can be undertaken the appropriate channels and if necessary, using a variety of tools, not least using the seeking advice from UNHCR colleagues results of a participatory assessment proc- in the country, region or headquarters. ess (see chapter 5 on initial participatory Among other options, UNHCR can inter- assessment) as well as using the Protec- vene by: tion Gaps Framework of Analysis Tool developed by UNHCR that can be adapted i. Advocating for and promoting prin- to an emergency situation. ciples of international protection and UNHCR’s mandate through meetings, Protection through assistance trainings and correspondence, not least to ensure that States apply these 58. Ensuring protection and providing hu- principles in protecting persons of manitarian assistance are not two separate concern to UNHCR. Individual cases issues. Rather, humanitarian assistance is may also be raised as part of UNHCR’s an integral part of protection and should advocacy role. UNHCR may advocate be planned to ensure that the rights of ref- for refugees and others of concern in ugees and others of concern are respected a public forum. However, before do- (right to life, right to adequate living con- ing so, staff should be aware of any ditions, protection of specific categories potential negative consequences (see of people such as older persons, unaccom- chapter 9 on working with the media panied and separated children, single par- for further information). ents, survivors of SGBV etc.) and as part of a single emergency operation. ii. Building the short, medium and long- term capacity of States and partners 59. Women, men, girls and boys of con- to offer protection. This may include cern must be consulted and involved in enhancing the knowledge, skills and planning humanitarian interventions as attitudes of governments through dia- soon and as frequently as possible from logue and training, assisting them in the very beginning of the emergency. developing their legislation, providing Their roles in the community should also them with material support (includ- be understood. Often, especially at the ing, if necessary, building basic infra- beginning of an emergency, older persons, persons with disabilities, unaccompanied 28 and separated children, and some single Children parents are less able to access food, shelter Child: a person below the age of 18 years, material, health care and other humanitar- unless, under the law applicable to the ian assistance with ease. Specific efforts child, majority is attained earlier (cited must be made to identify the obstacles as from The Convention on the Rights of early as possible and ensure that the groups the Child, article 1). have equal access and are being supported by the community. Furthermore, sexual 61. Girls and boys often constitute 50% exploitation by aid workers and other or more of the population in an emergen- refugees has, sometimes, been linked to cy operation. It is essential to work with Protection the provision of humanitarian assistance. them separately and with their parents/ Women, girls and boys of concern espe- guardians to understand and address their 2 cially have been exploited by aid workers specific needs at all times. Children, ado- or other refugees who are in a position to lescent girls and boys in particular should provide them with essential items such as be consulted at all times, even when plan- food, shelter, education and medical care ning the camp structure such as schools, or by persons in positions of authority, latrines and other facilities, and when im- such as border guards. In accordance with plementing, monitoring and evaluating the UNHCR Code of Conduct, UNHCR programmes that affect them. and its partners should ensure that mecha- 62. UNHCR’s publication Refugee Chil- nisms are in place from the very outset to dren: Guidelines on Protection and Care prevent exploitation from occurring dur- (see key references) is essential reading ing and after emergencies. (Please refer for those designing a protection interven- to the IASC gender mainstreaming hand- tion in emergencies. Particular attention book for further guidance and the SG bul- must be placed on the risks faced by ado- letin on on Special measures for protec- lescent girls, such as lack of access to edu- tion from sexual exploitation and sexual cation, forced labour, early marriage and abuse 9 October 2003). prostitution. 60. In most emergencies in develop- Protection of women and girls 1 ing countries, it is necessary to indicate that the granting of asylum and meeting 63. Women do have specific needs which, of immediate needs will not be a signifi- if not met, can put them at risk, such as cant financial burden on local authorities. exposure to exploitation and sexual abuse, UNHCR staff must receive early guid- sexual discrimination and restricted ac- ance on the extent to which commitments cess to humanitarian assistance. Not in- on humanitarian assistance may be given cluding refugee women in planning, deci- by UNHCR and its partners, in order to sion-making, implementing or evaluating communicate this information with local projects that affect them may put them at authorities (see chapter 6 on Operations). further risk. In addition, the effectiveness If the influx consists of additional asy- of the assistance programme may be re- lum-seekers clearly belonging to a group duced because the problems and needs of already assisted by UNHCR, a firm assur- all the beneficiaries have not been prop- ance of humanitarian assistance, within erly identified. the means available, is usually given.

1 Please also see UNHCR handbook on the Protec- tion of Women and Girls, 2006. 29 64. However, when seeking women’s par- and power relations; changes in gender ticipation in decision-making, measures roles; continuing harmful practices; the which challenge the status quo may be breakdown of family, community struc- threatening to traditional leaders. Special tures, and values; efforts may be needed to overcome resist- • legal systems that do not adequately ance to change (see chapter 11 for more uphold their rights, including justice information on women’s participation and systems that do not fully address harm- empowerment in emergencies) ful traditional practices or domestic vio- 65. Identifying women and girls at risk lence or that restrict their rights to mar- in any given situation requires identifying riage and divorce and to property and the “risk factors” that threaten their rights. inheritance; traditional justice systems These factors can be present in the wider that do not respect international norms; protection environment and/or result from national registration systems that do the individual’s particular circumstances. not provide refugee or asylum-seeking women with individual documentation; Among the risk factors in the wider pro- asylum systems that are not sensitive to tection environment that can arise as a the needs and claims of female asylum- result of, and after, women and girls flee seekers; their homes are: • protection systems that do not up- • security problems threatening or ex- hold their rights, because refugee posing them to SGBV or other forms and asylum-seeking women and girls of violence, particularly when such are not individually registered; disag- dangers arise from inadequate housing, gregated data on displaced women and the need to collect fuel and water and to girls are not available; systems to iden- tend to crops/animals, or, in urban set- tify, monitor, and support women and tings as a result of isolation, problems girls at risk are inadequate and slow to with housing/landlords, or because respond; there are insufficient numbers displaced children are living on the of female and international staff or fe- streets; male law enforcement officers present; • problems accessing and enjoying as- a lack of awareness about women’s and sistance and services, resulting from girls’ rights; reporting systems are not inadequate food and/or material as- clear; relations between staff and dis- sistance; inadequate access to health placed communities need strengthen- care, especially given their sexual and ing; monitoring of unaccompanied and reproductive roles and disproportionate separated girls and other women with vulnerability to HIV/AIDS; lack of ac- specific needs is weak. cess to, or unsafe or poor educational 66. These more general factors may be opportunities; child labour; abuse by combined with individual risk factors. those in positions of authority control- They can be grouped as relating to: ling access to assistance and services; lack of livelihood or income-generating • their status or situation in society, in- opportunities; cluding as women who are alone, are single heads-of-household including • the position of women and girls in grandmothers, in mixed and/or polyga- society, which results in discrimina- mous marriages, or are without docu- tion against them; marginalization; mentation; as widows without family camp management, community, and support; as girls, including adolescents, leadership structures that do not suf- who are unaccompanied or separated, ficiently include them; unequal gender heads–of-household or out of school; as 30 women and girls who challenge social 69. Strategies to prevent protection risks norms, are stateless, are without access from arising in the wider environment to assistance or in detention; include actions to identify, assess, and monitor the wider protection environ- • their exposure, or risk of exposure, ment, establish and strengthen secure en- to SGBV or other forms of violence, vironments, and empower displaced and including rape, torture, other serious returnee women and girls. physical harm, domestic violence, abduction, trafficking, female genital mu- 70. Responses to individual women and tilation, early or forced marriage, forced girls at risk can be grouped under three

contraception, abortion or sterilization, themes, which are listed non-exhaustively Protection

maltreatment by foster families or rela- below. 2 tives, forced recruitment by armed fac- Identification and immediate response tions, whether as (child) combatants or involves: sex and labour slaves; • working in partnership with states and • additional health care or other sup- partners to establish mechanisms, based port, because they are physically or on the wider protection environment mentally disabled, traumatized, preg- and individual risk factors outlined nant or teenage mothers, affected by above, to identify individual women HIV/AIDS or suffering from medical and girls at risk, determine and imple- conditions particular to their sex or ment appropriate immediate responses gender. and subsequent solutions; 67. In certain cases, the presence of one • providing women and girls at risk with factor alone may be sufficient to require information, counselling, and medical an urgent protection intervention. In oth- and psychosocial care; ers, the presence of a combination of individual and wider-environment factors will • providing women and girls facing do- result in heightened protection risks for mestic violence and abuse or attack displaced and returnee women and girls. by other members of the community In still other cases, if women and girls with access to safe houses, especially have been subjected to SGBV in the place if there are no mechanisms to remove of origin or during flight, they may be at perpetrators; offering them emergency heightened risk in the area of displace- voluntary relocation to another town or ment. Finally, threat levels may change camp, or emergency resettlement; and may thereby expose women and girls • determining the best interests of girls at to heightened (or reduced) risk, for exam- risk and providing alternative accom- ple during the crisis or emergency phase modation, physical protection, and in- or if the situation becomes protracted. terim foster care, as required; 68. Responding more effectively to these • initiating family tracing and ensuring protection problems requires a holistic ap- family reunification for separated and proach that combines preventive strate- unaccompanied girls so that they can gies and individual responses. It involves rejoin their families wherever possible collaboration among, and the involvement and in their best interests. of, all relevant actors, and should include working with men and boys to understand • ensuring that refugee status determina- and promote respect for the rights of dis- tion procedures, whether carried out by placed and returnee women and girls. States or, if necessary, by UNHCR provide female asylum-seekers with access to gender-sensitive procedures, and that 31 decisions recognize gender-related 75. Camps for refugees and the internally forms of persecution in the context of displaced are often established for secu- the refugee definition as constituting rity reasons and to ensure that humanitar- grounds for refugee status. ian agencies can easily monitor the situation and deliver humanitarian assistance. Physical safety of refugees However, camps may not always offer 71. Ensuring the physical security of ref- better protection to refugees and the in- ugees is an essential part of all emergency ternally displaced – they can often be det- operations. Uprooted people must be al- rimental for their security. Sometimes, it lowed to live in an environment that en- may be more effective and safe if they are sures their human right to life, liberty and allowed to live with local communities in security. Under refugee and human rights villages and semi-urban areas that share law, a host state is obliged to ensure the cultural and other ties with them. This physical protection of those who reside would also promote self-reliance within within its borders, including refugees and the uprooted community. However such others of concern to UNHCR. measures require the willingness and consent of the host government and the host 72. Once they have gained access to safe communities themselves. territory (a country of asylum for instance), ensuring the physical security of refugees 76. In either situation, the environment and others of concern entails securing where the refugees or the internally dis- their areas of residence and taking steps to placed live should ensure that they are prevent their safety from being compro- able to exercise their human rights to the mised. It also requires that the living en- greatest possible extent. As the internally vironment of refugees should be peaceful, displaced are citizens in their own coun- humanitarian and civilian, free of violence try, they should not be forcibly restricted and criminal activity, and conducive to the to ‘camps’ and they should have the free- realization of human dignity. dom to move in and out of camps if such camps are established for their benefit. 73. Threats to the physical security of refugees may stem from a variety of Camp security causes, including organized armed crimi- 77. The closed environment of camps is nals, errant military and police, non-state particularly conducive to exploitative and armed actors, anxious local populations manipulative activities by people who and other refugees themselves. Women, seek to gain from the vulnerable nature of men, girls and boys often have different the residents – especially during an emer- security concerns, including in relation to gency. The specific nature of threats to SGBV, that need to be identified and ad- the security of refugees and the internally dressed accordingly. displaced in camps may take a number Location of refugees of forms such as theft, assault, domestic violence, forced marriage, cattle rustling, 74. Asylum-seekers and refugees should vandalism and civil disputes; child abuse, be located at a reasonable distance from rape and other sexual forms of sexual and the frontier of their country of origin to gender-based violence, robbery (armed ensure their safety and well-being. The and otherwise); arson, fraud, forgery, ag- internally displaced should be located in gravated assault, murder, forced prosti- safe areas and a safe distance away from tution, kidnapping, human trafficking, conflict areas. smuggling of people and arms, forcible recruitment into armed forces, extortion,

32 enslavement, torture, war crimes, and Ladder of options withholding humanitarian assistance. • Soft approach: involves preventative 78. All efforts must be made by the host measures, where international organiza- country to maintain law and order within tions provide support to the host state to the camp including the prevention of sex- maintain security within refugee-popu- ual and gender-based violence, curtail the lated areas. flow of arms into refugee camps, prevent • Medium approach: involves the use of the forcible recruitment of refugees into international civilian or police monitors armed groups as well as disarming armed who provide technical expertise and elements and identifying, separating and support for local authorities, through Protection training, mentoring and monitoring. interning combatants. Often, however, 2 States need considerable support and tech- • Hard approach: involves the direct use nical assistance, not least by humanitarian of international military forces, whether agencies, to successfully undertake these peace-keeping or peace-building, to activities. maintain security in refugee populated areas. This last resort is exceptional in nature, requires UN Security Council au- The security aspect of camps should thorization, and can compromise the hu- be considered during the initial stages manitarian nature of assistance work. of site selection and physical planning; the neutrality of camps should never be taken for granted (see chapter 12 on site selection and planning). Judicial systems and detention 80. Even during an emergency, UNHCR 79. In situations where a host state is un- and its partners should work towards enable or unwilling to ensure the physical suring that the national legal system -- security of refugees the international com- including law enforcement and courts of munity may be obliged to step in. The law -- cater to the needs of refugees and ‘Ladder of Options’ concept provides a other persons of concern. Complaints matrix of refugee insecurity and proposes by refugees should be registered by the responses through the use of soft, medium police, proper investigations should be and hard approaches (or options) to refu- conducted and principles of due proc- gee security. Depending on the security ess should be followed. It may be nec- situation and the extent to which the gov- essary to ensure that refugees and others ernment is unwilling or unable to involve of concern have physical access to these itself in providing safe asylum. mechanisms, so that they are aware of how to use these systems and sensitize the police and judiciary in responding to cases brought by or brought against refugees and the internally displaced. It may even be necessary to provide some basic support to the courts and police so that they can function effectively and promote gender balance. However, it is important to ensure that in all cases, the victims of these offences (such as survivors of rape) are not ‘forced’ to use these systems, but rather provided with the information and access to these systems so that they can make an informed choice.

33 81. Refugees and others of concern often Physical safety in areas of conflict resort to using traditional mechanisms of 83. International humanitarian law pro- ‘justice’ (traditional courts for instance) vides protection to civilians including that are run by their community to ad- refugees in situations of armed conflict. dress a range of issues from petty theft to In non-international conflicts (i.e. inter- physical assault rape and murder. While nal armed conflict but not police opera- sometimes these mechanisms may be ef- tion), all parties to the conflict are bound fective (even more effective than national by common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva legal systems), they often do not follow Conventions and the Second Additional principles of due process often resulting Protocol to respect all persons not taking in violations of human rights of refugees an active part in the hostilities, and in par- and others of concern. Issues relating to ticular: women and children (such as rape) are often not represented or addressed properly i. to treat them humanely and without (the woman or girl can be forced to marry distinction as to race, religion, sex, her rapist for instance). Furthermore, the birth, wealth or any other similar cri- adjudicators may often only be men or not teria; truly representational of the community. ii. to refrain from violence to life and For this reason, among others, it is impor- person; tant that traditional mechanisms do not iii. not to take hostages; deal with serious offences (such as rape, iv. to respect personal dignity; murder, physical assault) but refer such v. not to pass sentences or carry out ex- cases to more formal systems of justice. ecutions without due process of law; While it is important to work with the and community and traditional mechanisms, vi. to collect and care for the wounded it is also essential to agree on what issues and sick. they can and cannot address through these 84. The International Committee of the mechanisms to ensure individual human Red Cross (ICRC) is the agency charged rights are respected. A person should not with supervising the implementation of be prevented from accessing the formal international humanitarian law in situa- national legal system either before, during tions of armed conflict. In most situations or after the matter is heard by the tradi- of armed conflict or civil strife, the ICRC tional court. offers its services to all parties to assist 82. Asylum-seekers, refugees and the in- victims and ensure the protection of civil- ternally displaced are often detained for a ian populations – including, where appli- number of reasons. UNHCR should work cable, refugees and other displaced popu- to ensure that they are not detained for en- lations – as well as detained combatants. tering the country illegally (pursuant to Ar- 85. UNHCR staff should seek the cooper- ticle 31 of the 1951 Convention). UNHCR ation of the ICRC, wherever it is present, should also sensitize the authorities not to and benefit from its expertise in dealing prosecute or convict refugees if they vio- with state and non-state parties alike in late rules that place unreasonable restric- situations of armed conflict. tions on their freedom of movement, right to work and other human rights. Further, Operations in areas controlled by non- refugees or the internally displaced that state entities are convicted and imprisoned for criminal 86. In situations of civil strife or internal offences remain of concern to UNHCR armed conflict, particular difficulties may and their conditions should be monitored arise from the fact that UNHCR’s inter- regularly. locutors are not States or regular armed 34 forces answerable to States, but insurgent cleaning. Women and girls may even be groups and other non-state entities. UN- abducted and forced into sexual slavery HCR may have no choice but to deal with by these armed groups. these groups as they exercise de facto 90. Forcible recruitment can take place control over a refugee population or the anywhere and anytime – especially in internally displaced. Such non-state enti- schools, marketplaces, youth and commu- ties might be very organized to the point nity centres and the homes of refugee fam- of having established various ‘ministries’, ilies. Children living near areas of armed ‘administrative departments’ and even conflict, those not attending schools, ‘courts of law’. In an emergency, UNH- particularly adolescents; unaccompanied Protection CR should respect these systems to ensure

or separated children and children from 2 the protection of refugees, the internally disadvantaged or marginalized parts of displaced and the humanitarian workers society are more susceptible to being for- themselves. cibly recruited. While refugees and the 87. In other situations, non-state actors internally displaced are often coerced into may be less organized, in which case it joining armed forces, sometimes, fami- may be necessary for UNHCR to build lies and leaders have been known to will- and maintain working relations with spe- ingly ‘volunteer’ their children and other cific individuals or groups who can ensure members of the community to join these the protection of persons of concern to forces. Specific measures must be taken UNHCR. to monitor them and ensure that they are not forcibly recruited, including sensitiz- 88. In all situations, it is important to ing women, men girls and boys of this highlight the impartial, non-political and risk, monitoring areas where recruitment humanitarian role of UNHCR and to ex- can take place, establishing community- ercise public pressure in order to convince based mechanisms in schools to prevent these groups of the importance of adhering recruitment from occurring and even en- to international humanitarian and refugee suring a police presence if necessary. law. Similar to building the capacity of States, it may be necessary to build the ca- 91. In confronting this issue, UNHCR pacity of the non-state actors so that they staff must remember – and remind the au- respect international protection standards, thorities – that: in particular the rights of women and chil- i. The civilian and humanitarian charac- dren; training, awareness raising and other ter of refugee camps and settlements activities could help in this regard. Yet, must be preserved and respected in all when dealing with these groups, UNHCR circumstances. Therefore recruitment should not imply, through any of its ac- of any age group for military and par- tions or correspondence, a formal recog- amilitary purposes is unacceptable. nition of these non-state entities by the United Nations. ii. Recruitment by force may amount to cruel, inhuman or degrading treat- Forced recruitment ment, which is prohibited in all circumstances. 89. Refugees and the internally displaced that live in or near a conflict zone are of- iii. Recruitment and direct participation ten at risk of forcible recruitment by one in hostilities of children less than 15 or more parties (State or non-state) to the years old is considered a war crime. conflict. Men, boys and girls may be for- Children under 18 should not be in- cibly recruited to take up arms or under- volved in hostilities. take jobs such as portering, cooking and iv. Where refugees are forced or coerced to return to their country of origin to 35 fight, this is tantamount to refoule- 95. Continuous efforts need to be made ment, which is prohibited in all cir- by State authorities to monitor camps and cumstances. settlements to determine if combatants are 92. Annex 2 provides some activities and residing in the camp. These efforts should measures that can be taken by govern- not place other refugees or the internally ments with the support of UNHCR and displaced at risk (i.e. by getting camp other humanitarian agencies to ensure the residents, especially children, to identify physical protection of camps. Particular others who may be combatants). Humani- attention must be given to the possibility tarian workers should also not place them- of young men, girls and boys – especially selves at risk by actively identifying com- those with little parental guidance or su- batants. Information received by UNHCR pervision -- who are more susceptible to should be passed on to the relevant State forcible recruitment during emergencies. authorities for appropriate action. 96. Similar to combatants identified at Combatants in camps the border, combatants who are residing 93. The presence of combatants in refugee in the host country need to be identified, camps or settlements can lead to a general disarmed, separated, and interned with breakdown in law and order, forced mili- separate arrangements for women and tary recruitment, an increase in rape and men. Their treatment in the internment other forms of physical and sexual abuse, facility and their status will be similar to human trafficking, political manipulation, combatants identified at the border. Child and the diversion of humanitarian assist- soldiers also need to be treated differently. ance for non-humanitarian activities. It The primary responsibility for this lies can also make refugees vulnerable to at- with the host country, while international tacks from across the border. Host gov- agencies such as UNHCR may offer sup- ernment may even adopt a more hostile port and advice. position towards refugees as it may affect the national security and even regional Sexual and gender-based violence stability, as well as threaten inter-state re- (SGBV) 2 lations. As a result, refugees may be even be subject to refoulement. Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) refers to a range of actions by 94. Combatants placed hors de combat which an individual is exploited because (sick, wounded, shipwrecked and pris- of her/his sex or gender. This includes oners of war) residing in a country that physical, emotional, psychological and is party to the conflict are primarily pro- socio-economic abuse such as rape, female genital mutilation, domestic vio- tected by international humanitarian law, lence, forced marriage, exploitation, and fall under the competence of the State threats, confiscation of money or -iden and the ICRC. Combatants who are re- tity cards, and restrictions on freedom of siding in a neutral country are protected movement and liberty. by the law of neutrality in particular, the 97. SGBV often occurs in situations 1907 Hague Convention Respecting the where people can abuse the power they Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and exercise over others, such as: Persons in Case of War on Land. Execu- tive Committee Conclusion 94 (of 2002)  When people are caught in armed con- relating to the Civilian and Humanitarian flict: rape and other forms of sexual Character of Asylum provides guidance abuse are widely used as weapons of in such situations and emphasizes the re- war to humiliate the enemy. sponsibility of States in this matter. 2 Please see chapter 18 for more guidance on how to deal with SGBV in an emergency. 36  When people flee persecution and armed iv. Physical security: Survivors may be conflict: refugees and the internally dis- threatened with retaliation for report- placed are at risk of sexual abuse or rape ing cases and therefore need a safe during flight when they are smuggled place to stay. In some situations, re- or trafficked. Because uprooted people settling them to another country is one often do not have identity documents, way of protecting them. money, or access to justice, those with 99. Whenever assisting survivors of authority may take advantage of the SGBV, always respect the confidentiality situation and exploit them. of the survivor. Furthermore, provide all

 In the family and the community: rape, the relevant information to the individual Protection so that s/he can decide what s/he wishes including within marriage (marital 2 3 rape), forced early marriage, sexu- to do . al abuse, female genital mutilation (FGM), sexual harassment, trafficking Humanitarian evacuation and ‘safe of women, and forced prostitution are havens’ some types of SGBV that can occur in a 100. In extreme situations, refugees and family or in the community. others of concern to UNHCR may no longer be able to find safety either in the  In the daily lives of asylum-seekers, country of asylum or, in the case of the in- refugees, the internally displaced and ternally displaced, in the country of origin. returnees: SGBV can occur in the For instance, the country of asylum may workplace, at border check-points, in be involved in a conflict itself because of detention centres and prisons, in edu- which it is no longer able to protect refu- cational institutions, classrooms, health gees. Armed groups may resort to ethnic centres, places where assistance and/or cleansing or genocide that target persons documentation is provided, areas for of concern to UNHCR including the inter- firewood or water collection outside a nally displaced. camp, and at latrines located in poorly designed camp settings. 101. In such situations, the possibility of evacuating refugees and the internally dis- 98. Survivors of SGBV usually need one placed to another safer country (or coun- or more of the following responses: tries) may be the only way to ensure their i. Medical attention: A survivor of rape protection (as a measure of last resort). needs to see a doctor within 72 hours Such moves are quite different from large- to receive treatment, which may in- scale resettlement as a durable solution. clude prevention of unwanted preg- Immediate approaches to potential coun- nancy and HIV infection. tries of asylum must be made at local, em- ii. Psycho-social support: A survivor bassy, and Headquarters levels. Receipt of may be traumatized and will require resettlement offers may have an important emotional and social support, which influence on the government’s attitude to- includes a non-blaming and support- wards the refugees. Operational partners ive attitude from the immediate fam- must be identified. In addition to locally- ily. based NGOs, the assistance of the ICRC iii. Legal counselling: Most forms of (for example, with travel documents) and SGBV are punishable crimes under the International Organization for Migra- relevant national law. If a survivors tion (IOM) may be sought. wishes, s/he should be supported in 3 Please refer to UNHCR’s Sexual and Gender- reporting the case to the police and based Violence against Refugees, Returnees, and prosecuting the perpetrator(s). Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response. 37 102. UNHCR must advocate that these iii. information that will help to meet the safe countries are able to ensure the pro- specific needs of the child, including tection of these uprooted people (for in- tracing, and to make plans for the fu- stance, they must have a legal identity, ture is recorded; their physical protection, including protec- iv. family members should be traced as tion against refoulement must be ensured soon as possible; and and that they have access to proper living v. effective monitoring of all unaccom- conditions. Chapter xx discusses the im- panied and separated children takes portance of the family unity and evacua- place. tion of children on their own. 105. During the time they remain separat- 103. In extreme and tense situations ed from their families, including the initial where the lives of refugees and the inter- stages of an emergency, children must be nally displaced were threatened, “safe ha- able to live in a safe environment where vens” were established in the country for they are properly cared for and protected. them. However, UNHCR’s experience Children may need counselling to deal with “safe havens” demonstrated that with the trauma that they have faced. It refugees often could not be provided with is important that siblings remain together. adequate protection and continued to be Specific attention is given to child-head- exposed to high risks. It is therefore not ed households. UNHCR and its partners recommended to formally establish “safe should carefully and continuously monitor havens”. these care arrangements to ensure that the best interests of the child are respected. Groups with specific needs4 (See chapter 11 for more information on Unaccompanied and separated children protecting unaccompanied and separated Families are easily and often separated children in an emergency operation). when fleeing war, violence and persecu- Child soldiers tion. Girls and boys who have been separated from their parents are at risk of being ‘Child soldier’ refers to any person under abused and exploited and even their very 18 years old who is part of any kind of survival may be threatened. They can also regular or irregular armed force or armed face serious challenges in accessing qual- group in any capacity, including but not ity care and assistance. This is why unac- limited to cooks, porters, messengers, and those accompanying such groups, companied and separated children need to other than purely as family members. It be given special attention. includes girls recruited for sexual pur- 104. At all times, UNHCR and its part- poses and forced marriage. It does not, therefore, only refer to a child who is car- ners should ensure that: rying or has carried arms.5 i. unaccompanied and separated chil- Child recruitment encompasses compul- dren are identified as early as possible sory, forced and ‘voluntary’ recruitment – when they enter the country or even of children into any kind of regular or ir- when they are in the camps; regular armed force or armed group. ii. all children should be individually reg- Demobilisation means the formal and istered and provided with individual controlled discharge of child soldiers documentation as soon as possible; from the army or from an armed group.

5 Cape Town Principles and Best Practices on the Recruitment of Children into the Armed Forces 4 Please see chapter 11 for more information on and on Demobilization and Social Reintegration of groups/persons with specific needs. Child Soldiers in Africa, 1997. 38 106. Governments and humanitarian and may be at risk as they are exposed to agencies should take all measures to en- exploitation and harassment, especially if sure that forced recruitment, especially in they are young. Their children too could emergencies located close to armed con- be at risk of abuse and exploitation as flict, are prevented. these parents may not be able to supervise the children constantly. (Grandparent- 107. During emergencies, child soldiers headed households have particular prob- or former child soldiers may also enter lems as they often become dependent on the country of asylum with refugees or very young children for their survival). reside in camps with the civilian population. They may have escaped from or 110. Older persons: can constitute a sig- Protection

been abandoned by the armed force or nificant proportion of the refugee popula- 2 group, or may have been sent back by the tion although they are often overlooked. armed group. Upon their return, they may Older persons, who often have been im- be ostracized by the community for hav- mersed in their own culture and practices ing participated in armed activities. They for many years, may find it particularly may also be at risk from the armed forces hard to adjust to a changing environment. or groups themselves, who sometimes for- With displacement, older persons’ sources cibly recruit them again. of power -- such as control of land, resolution of disputes, systems of respect are 108. Unlike adult combatants, they should likely to be fundamentally undermined not be separated and interned. Rather, leading to risk of exclusion from participa- after they are disarmed, they should be tion and decision-making. Also, physical enrolled into programmes that will reha- deterioration may limit their mobility and bilitate and reintegrate them back into so- hence their access to basic services. Par- ciety. They may also need specific medi- ticular attention should be given to older cal care as well as psycho-social support persons who are caregivers or are living and counselling. Often, teenage girls may alone. Assistance criteria must consider return pregnant or with young children and their specific requirements. will require specific support and longer- term solutions. Education and vocational 111. Persons with physical and mental training, reunification with family - mem disabilities bers, and the children’s own participation Persons with disabilities might have prob- in decisions that affect them would all lems in accessing humanitarian assistance contribute towards this effort. The com- that is made available to refugees. Steps munity must be sensitized and involved must be taken to ensure this access, in- in this process. These rehabilitation and cluding that of children with disabilities, reintegration programmes – which should to whatever schooling is available. In be part of wider effort to support the war some refugee situations, but more often affected communities – may be necessary in returnee situations, additional dangers at the very beginning of emergencies es- of land-mines mean that an information pecially when there are a number of child campaign must be started immediately soldiers who arrive at the border or who to prevent further disability. Their physi- are residing in camps. cal protection is also a cause for concern 109. Single parent households: Emer- and they can be at risk of SGBV and re- gencies may see a large number of single- quire careful monitoring (see chapter 11 parent households – while most of them for more information on the protection of are female-headed, there can also be male- disabled persons in emergencies). headed households. These parents have to manage the family needs on their own 39 112. Victims of violence, torture and security of operations (see chapter 27 on trauma: Men and women of all ages flee- working with the military). ing conflict areas often include victims 116. Any temporary or ad hoc agreements of violence or torture – including deten- with the authorities should be formalized, tion, severe beatings, rape and mutila- such as agreements relating to UNHCR tion of the body. Specific attention must presence in the local areas. Reference be given to ensure that their physical and should be made to protection and durable psychological needs are addressed during solutions in any formal exchanges govern- an emergency, possibly by the community ing the provision of material assistance. itself. They must have access to humanitarian assistance and counselling from an 117. As a general rule, a written demarche early stage and in mass influx situations should be made as soon as possible to the community-based response mechanisms, central authorities at the highest appropri- which respect individual rights, should ate level. This level, and the form of the be supported (see chapter 18 for more in- demarche, will be determined by the na- formation on the protection of victims of ture of UNHCR’s presence in the country. violence in emergencies). A demarche by a newly arrived mission would normally be addressed to the Min- Partnership in emergencies ister of Foreign Affairs (or perhaps Interi- Working with host governments or; the advice of UNDP and/or embassies (including the military) should be sought). The communication 113. At both the local and central level, might: UNHCR must ensure that it has access i. Refer to the information available to at all times to those officials whose deci- UNHCR on the influx or problem sions will affect the refugees’ situation. (qualifying it as necessary: the gov- Establish who they are, contact them and ernment will often know more than if possible request home telephone num- UNHCR). bers and other means of communication ii. State UNHCR’s view that persons in- so that if a protection problem arises it can volved are or may (as applicable) be of be brought to the right official’s attention concern to the High Commissioner. at once. Refoulement and other protection problems can often take place very rap- iii. Refer to the government’s protection idly. responsibilities; including in particular the obligation not to refoule any- 114. Local authorities should be kept in- one to persecution. formed of demarches UNHCR has made iv. Request (confirm understanding, - ex or intends to make in the capital – these press gratitude for, etc.) assurances should not only be the demarches of a po- that persons will be admitted if seek- litical or formal nature, but also those cov- ing protection, be granted (at least ering practical aspects of the programme. temporary) asylum (if appropriate: 115. Often, it may be necessary to ap- pending determination of status and proach the most senior local official direct- longer-term arrangements). ly responsible for the situation. In some v. Request that the authorities ensure cases this may be the local military com- UNHCR access to persons of concern mander for a region. The military (both (as provided in UNHCR’s statue and national and international forces) can the 1951 Convention). be an important partner in, among other vi. Offer, where persons are found to be things, providing information, delivering of concern to UNHCR, commitment humanitarian assistance and ensuring the in principle to provide material assist-

40 ance (for example, «every effort» for- particular, similar to UNHCR, many UN mula). and NGO agencies deploy ‘protection of- 118. The text of representative level de- ficers’. UNHCR should work closely with marches should be communicated to these colleagues rather than duplicate Headquarters at once both for information work that may do more harm than good, and in order that they may be shared with especially from the perspective of persons the permanent mission and/or referred to of concern to UNHCR. in any subsequent Headquarters level de- 122. Some UN agencies that are often marches. Likewise, the texts of the latter present in emergencies include the Unit- should of course be shared at once with ed Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Protection the field. the World Food Programme (WFP), the 2 119. Representatives should immediately United Nations Office of the High Com- recommend action at the Headquarters missioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), level if they are in doubt that their inter- and the Office of the Co-ordinator for ventions alone will secure protection. Humanitarian Affairs (OHCA). The In- ternational Committee of the Red Cross 120. New oral and written demarches (ICRC), the International Federation of must be made if there are any grounds the Red Cross (IFRC) as well as national for concern that protection is still not ad- and international NGOs such as the Inter- equately assured (refoulement, abduction, national Rescue Committee (IRC), Dan- arbitrary detention, mistreatment, abuse of ish Refugee Council (DRC), Norwegian women and children etc.). Complemen- Refugee Council (NRC), Save the Chil- tary action at the local level should both dren (STC), Médecins Sans Frontières closely monitor developments affecting (MSF), Oxfam and national red cross so- protection, and concentrate as far as pos- cieties also have established a significant sible on assisting the authorities to meet capacity to work in emergency situations the practical problems of the influx. ( see Appedix 1 on the MoUs established with some of these agencies). Internation- Working with other humanitarian al Human Rights NGOs such as Human agencies Rights Watch, Amnesty International and 121. Implementing and operational part- Refugees International are also important ners have specific expertise that is essen- partners in advocating for better standards tial in ensuring the protection of refugees of protection in operations (see paragraph and others of concern to UNHCR. Often 124 on partnership in emergencies relating other humanitarian agencies (UN and to internal displacement). National NGOs NGOs) who have worked in the affected often have excellent information about the area for some time are more aware of the local conditions and good relationships local situation, have good working rela- with the local authorities as well as com- tions with the government and other au- munities and local women’s associations thorities and are present in locations that can be important partners in working on UNHCR may not be. Their expertise – on gender issues and women’s rights. essential matters such as medical care, water and sanitation, logistics, community Public relations and working with the services, education and protection – must media be relied upon. Various agencies will 123. In certain circumstances tensions in need to coordinate between themselves relations between neighbouring countries to ensure that there is no unnecessary du- may make it necessary to stress even at plication of services and that all possible the local level that the granting of asylum sectors are covered simultaneously. In is a purely humanitarian act. 41 human rights law, international humani- Emphasize that the granting of asylum is purely humanitarian and therefore not a tarian law and international refugee law hostile act, and that UNHCR’s presence should also be used to guide UNHCR’s and involvement may help reduce ten- actions towards the internally displaced. sion. 127. The Guiding Principles address 124. Often in an emergency, UNHCR may the specific needs of internally displaced require the support of other agencies and persons worldwide. They identify rights governments in urgently influencing the and guarantees relevant to the protection host countries policies such as access to of persons from forced displacement and asylum, non-refoulement and security of to their protection and assistance during refugees and others of concern. Further- displacement as well as during return and more, a number of governments and other reintegration. UN agencies may also assist in funding 128. Generally, UNHCR is committed or supporting UNHCR’s operations. This to engaging with the internally displaced is why briefing other UN organizations only when they are fleeing armed conflict, and the diplomatic community, especially generalized violence or violations of hu- governments whose influence may be able man rights. Only exceptionally and on a to facilitate protection is vital. good offices basis, does UNHCR assist 125. Visits by national and internation- persons who are internally displaced for al media and the diplomatic corps may other reasons. help achieve a broader appreciation of 129. Since 2006, with a view to ensuring UNHCR’s protection function. The posi- a more predictable response, UNHCR ad- tion to be taken with regard to the me- dresses all emergencies in relation to the dia will depend very much on the cir- internally displaced within the context of cumstances and whether or not publicity a broader UN-wide collaborative response would help protect persons of concern to (an inter-agency response). UNHCR is UNHCR. It is important that the confiden- responsible for ensuring (as the ‘cluster tiality and privacy of persons of concern lead’) that the internally displaced are is being protected, especially children and adequately protected (including issues survivors of SGBV. Close coordination in relation to their return) and that the within the various levels of UNHCR is emergency shelter and camp manage- necessary. Where UNHCR is already rep- ment ‘clusters’ are properly managed resented, previously established good con- and addressed, either by UNHCR or by tacts with the locally based (and especially other competent agencies. Other agencies local language) media may prove a valu- will be responsible for ensuring that other able source of information and is useful in ‘clusters’ are properly addressed. advancing an understanding of UNHCR’s role (See Chapter 9 on media relations). 130. As a cluster lead for these three areas, UNHCR is responsible as ‘the first Specific issues in relation to the inter- port of call’ and the ‘provider of last re- nally displaced sort’. This means that UNHCR may not 126. While measures to assist the inter- necessarily be the agency funding, or car- nally displaced are broadly similar to those rying out all the field activities. Rather, as used for refugees, more reliance is placed cluster lead UNHCR must ensure that it, on national authorities, national laws and as well as other actors, assume their own human rights instruments to protect them. allocated responsibility to the best of their The Guiding Principles on Internal Dis- capacities and that additional funding is placement that are based on international secured.

42 131. In emergencies, UNHCR should be also, as part of the Country Team efforts, ready from the outset to provide the Hu- be proactive in all other relevant clusters manitarian Coordinator with needs and by lending its support, expertise and re- capacity assessments on the ground and sources where required. advocate for the resources needed. These 134. In relation to emergencies in coun- assessments should indicate which orga- tries where UNHCR has been protect- nizations will address which aspects of ing the internally displaced even prior to an adequate response in protection, camp 2006, the existing arrangements can be coordination and shelter. Where capacity reviewed in light of the ‘cluster’ approach gaps exist in the cluster as a whole and and if there are gaps in leadership or co- Protection where no other actors can realistically re-

ordination that need to be addressed, the 2 spond, UNHCR must be prepared to act cluster approach should provide a useful as a provider of last resort and to plan to framework to discuss and clarify roles and carry out priority activities, seeking funds to draw more support from cluster leads, accordingly. thus strengthening the overall response. 132. In such emergencies, UNHCR must build effective partnerships, with govern- Editors Note: Staff being deployed to ments, with UN agencies, inter-govern- emergency operations involving the in- mental organizations, NGOs and affected ternally displaced should first check for any updates on UNHCR’s policy on this populations. These agencies and others matter. can significantly multiply response capacity and mobilize additional resources Emergencies as a result of changes in within the clusters. Relationships with government policy agencies and NGOs working in the three 135. A special type of protection emer- UNHCR-led clusters require particular gency can occur as the result of a sudden effort and attention and co-coordinating change, for whatever reason, in govern- all activities under these clusters requires ment policy towards persons of concern specific attention. to UNHCR already on its territory. Those 133. Humanitarian Coordinators in each affected may include both persons known country are responsible for, among other to UNHCR and recognized as refugees, things, establishing appropriate cluster ar- and others who have hitherto neither for- rangements in close consultation with the mally requested asylum nor made them- Country Team, taking into consideration selves known to UNHCR, but who may the capacities of agencies specific to the nevertheless fall within the High Com- situation. While the cluster approach can missioner’s competence. be flexibly applied and may not exactly 136. The action to take in protection replicate arrangements at the global lev- emergencies of this type will vary greatly el, the aim is to leave no major sectoral in each case and only very general guid- gaps in leadership and response. UNHCR ance can be given. Accurate information, should ensure that age, gender and diver- a UNHCR presence where needed, and a sity are mainstreamed in all cluster activi- clear and consistent policy in defence of ties. Needs assessments at the field level the rights of the refugees will always be should include the participation of the af- required. The guidelines that follow must fected populations - women, men, girls be modified as necessary in light of the ac- and boys of diverse backgrounds - using tual situation. Some of the considerations UNHCR’s Tool for Participatory Assess- discussed in the previous sections may ment. While UNHCR has accepted to be also be relevant. the cluster lead in three areas, it should

43 137. UNHCR should immediately try Durable solutions to identify and if possible establish a list of persons who are, or may be at risk but The three traditional durable solutions were not previously known to UNHCR i. Voluntary repatriation occurs when staff. This list must be constantly updated. uprooted people return to their homes Sources of information include the diplo- after making a free and informed decision to do so. matic community (some persons may approach or even seek asylum in embassies), ii. Resettlement occurs when refugees the ICRC, the national Red Cross or Red are offered and take up permanent Crescent society, churches and NGOs. admission in a third safe country to rebuild their lives. Care should be taken to ensure the confidentiality of individual cases when es- iii. Local integration occurs when refu- tablishing contacts with embassies. Early gees rebuild their lives in the country identification, and, if possible registration where they have found safety. of, these new cases by UNHCR can often 140. From the outset of an emergency, be a very important source of protection. UNHCR and its partners must bear in 138. UNHCR must maintain (or in the mind the ultimate goal of international case of a new regime, establish) close protection: to help uprooted people over- and continuing cooperation with the au- come displacement and achieve a solution thorities. If the country has acceded to the whereby national protection of a State relevant international instruments, these is effectively and permanently re-estab- obligations remain binding, whatever new lished. Achieving self-reliance through policies may be adopted. If the country a community-based approach at an early is not a party to any of the refugee instru- stage during displacement is essential in ments, the Statute and universal instru- enhancing the sustainability of any future ments must be invoked. durable solution. 139. The government is, of course, re- Whenever feasible, integrate voluntary sponsible for the physical security of the repatriation, local integration and re- refugees. Every effort must be made to settlement into one comprehensive ap- encourage the government to protect refu- proach. These three solutions must gees, particularly during any periods of be implemented in close cooperation among countries of origin, host States, civil tension. The immediate aim is that UNHCR and its partners as well as the refugees should be able to remain in safe- people of concern themselves. ty in their present country of asylum. Re- spect of the principle of non-refoulement Voluntary repatriation is of paramount importance. 141. Most large scale refugee emergencies are eventually resolved through the voluntary repatriation of refugees and the internally displaced once the danger they have fled from has been removed or significantly reduced. In the past decade, many of UNHCR’s larger operations involve the large-scale repatriation of refugees and the internally displaced. 142. The return of such uprooted people must be voluntary -- free of physical, psychological or material coercion to return. It must also take place in conditions 44 of safety and with dignity. Each indi- refugees are able to, at least de facto, in- vidual, man and woman – even individual tegrate into the host society, especially in members of a family -- should be allowed situations where they are not forced to re- to make this choice. Refugees and the inside in camps and can become more self- ternally displaced must be provided with reliant over time. accurate information about the prevailing situation in their home country/regions of Resettlement origin so that they can make an informed 146. Resettlement (the process of selection decision about if and when to return. This and transfer of refugees from a country of information should be provided in a man- asylum to a third state that has agreed to Protection ner that will make it easier for them to admit them on a permanent basis) should make a decision and reach all members be considered when refugees are at risk in 2 of the community. Specific needs of indi- their country of refuge or have particular vidual persons – such as unaccompanied needs during an emergency. The absence and separated children, the disabled, sin- of (prospects for) another durable solution gle parents or survivors of SGBV, torture is also relevant for determining whether and trauma – in the context of repatriation resettlement should be pursued. Before should be carefully considered and ad- a decision is taken to pursue the resettle- dressed. ment of a refugee, every effort should be 143. To ensure that uprooted people can made to fully explore the possibility of lo- return home and live in safety and in dig- cal solutions. At the same time, the possi- nity, UNHCR and its partners monitor the bility of voluntary repatriation in the fore- repatriation and reintegration processes seeable future (within an acceptable time to the greatest extent possible using inter- frame) should also be evaluated. national human rights standards to guide 147. During an emergency, it is particular- their work. Returnee monitoring is a cru- ly challenging to identify all persons who cial activity that assists in ensuring the may be in need of urgent or emergency re- long-term sustainability of return. settlement (i.e. provide equal access to all 144. UNHCR, its partners and develop- persons of concern to resettlement). Simi- ment agencies assist countries in ensuring lar to accessing humanitarian assistance, that returning refugees have equal access it may be difficult for women (including to resources. These include food, land, married women), children, older persons and housing, and such services as educa- or the disabled, and persons from minor- tion, health care, potable water and sanita- ity ethnic or religions groups and who are tion. Over time, returnees should become facing severe protection problems from self-reliant. Successful repatriation fos- accessing resettlement. To address this ters economic, cultural, and social stabil- issue during an emergency, it would be ity and reduces the risk of new conflicts necessary for UNHCR and its partners to erupting. (see chapter 22 for more infor- work closely with individuals and groups mation on voluntary repatriation). to identify their needs and find solutions for them. Local integration Emergency resettlement 145. Local integration in the country of asylum is a complex and gradual process, 148. Emergency resettlement must be comprising three distinct but inter-related used selectively and on the basis of a thor- legal, economic, and social and cultural ough and objective assessment of both dimensions. Over a long period of time, refugee status and urgency of removal.

45 can sometimes remain pending for many Emergency resettlement should be considered where the security and/or months. Field Offices may request Head- medical threat faced by the refugee ne- quarters’ support, in such cases. Note that cessitates his or her removal from the the abuse of the emergency category will threatening conditions within a very few erode the credibility of UNHCR’s judg- days, if not within hours. For the sake ment concerning such submissions, thereof clarity, a notional limit of a maximum by reducing the effectiveness of these of five days during which the person is channels. resettled is considered. 149. Emergency resettlement can be con- Emergency resettlement procedures sidered where there is: 152. When faced with an emergency re- i. an immediate threat of refoulement to settlement requirement, time available for the country of origin; investigation of a refugee’s statement may be severely limited. Nevertheless, such ii. an immediate threat of expulsion to time that may be available before depar- another country from where the refu- ture must be used to the maximum with a gee may be refouled or where his/her view of checking the veracity of the story life or liberty would be at risk of being and its consistency. threatened; iii. a threat of arbitrary arrest, detention or 153. The following information should be imprisonment in the country of asy- conveyed to Headquarters immediately: lum; • full name, date of birth, place of birth, iv. a threat to physical safety or human sex, nationality and ethnic origin; rights in the country of refuge analo- • details on status determination (Con- gous to that under the refugee defini- vention or mandate); tion and rendering asylum untenable. • whether accompanied by family (if so, 150. Categories of refugees who can be size); considered for emergency resettlement • details of each dependent to accom- include refugees with legal and physical pany the candidate; protection needs, survivors of violence • brief explanation of need(s) for reset- and torture, mixed marriages, refugees tlement; with serious medical needs which cannot be treated in the country of asylum, • brief justification for emergency cat- women-at-risk, children and adolescents egorization, and required time-frame (for whom a determination has been made for departure; that resettlement is in their best interests) • whether valid travel documents held and older refugees. (Refer to the UNHCR by all refugees concerned; Resettlement Handbook, 2004 for more • in case of medical emergency: diag- information on resettlement categories nosis, prognosis, current condition of and procedures). refugee (family members), whether escort needed; and Urgent cases • recommendation on countries of reset- 151. Refugees who face conditions re- tlement and reasons, including third quiring their expeditious resettlement but country links. can wait for more than 5 days are cat- egorized as urgent cases. Urgent cases require close and early follow-up with resettlement governments to ensure they are prioritized over regular cases, which

46 154. A full submission, including the Re- Assembly Resolution 428 (V) of 14 settlement Registration Form (RRF) December 1950. and supporting documentation, must fol- • UNHCR Mission Statement. low by the fastest means available. • The Agenda for Protection, UNHCR, 155. The RRF can be obtained from the A/AC.96/965/Add 1 of 26 June 2002. Resettlement and Special Cases Service • Conclusions on the International Pro- at Headquarters. This is the section of tection of Refugees adopted by the the Division of International Protection Executive Committee of the UNHCR Services that is responsible for process- Programme, UNHCR Geneva (updating emergency submissions. In addition, ed every year). Protection

the Service helps coordinate and support • Collection of International Instru- 2 the resettlement of difficult protection and ments Concerning Refugees, UNHCR, special needs cases. It should be contacted Geneva, 2006. for advice. • Guiding Principles on Internal Dis- 156. Once a resettlement submission has placement, United Nations, document been made, a focal-point should be desig- E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2 of 1998. nated to follow-up on the particular case, Access and non-refoulement thereby ensuring that the case proceeds in • Asylum Processes (Fair and Efficient a timely manner and that all unnecessary Asylum Procedures), Global Con- delays are avoided. Additional informa- sultations on International Protec- tion may be found in the UNHCR Reset- tion, Second Meeting, document EC/ tlement Handbook, 2004. GC/01/12, 31 May 2001. • Reception of Asylum-Seekers, Includ- ing Standards of Treatment, in the Key references context of Individual Asylum Systems, UNHCR’s RefWorld CD-ROM that is Global Consultations on International updated annually, contains country-of- Protection, Second Meeting, document origin information, maps, UNHCR guide- EC/GC/01/17, 4 September 2001. lines, policies and handbooks, legal docu- • Summary Conclusions – The principle ments, UN documents and other material of Non-Refoulement, Global Consul- that very helpful in emergency operations. tations on International Protection, All documents listed below are available Cambridge Roundtable 9–10 July in RefWorld. 2001 .

General • Self-Study Module 1: An Introduction Registration to International Protection: Protect- • Practical Aspects of Physical and ing Persons of Concern to UNHCR, Legal Protection with regard to Reg- UNHCR, 1 August 2005. istration, Global Consultations on In- • Protecting Refugees: A Field Guide ternational Protection, First Meeting, for NGOs, UNHCR and NGO Part- document EC/GC/01/6, 19 February ners, May 1999. 2001. Legal • UNHCR Handbook on Registration – provisional release September 2003. • The Statute of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, General

47 Refugee status determination • Operational Protection in Camps and • Self-Study Module 2: Refugee Sta- Settlements: A reference guide to good tus Determination. Identifying who practices in the protection of refugees is a Refugee, UNHCR, 1 September and others of concern to UNHCR, 2005. UNHCR 2006. • Handbook on Procedures and Crite- • Protection Gaps Framework of Analy- ria for Determining Refugee Status sis: Enhancing Protection of Refu- under the 1951 Convention and the gees, UNHCR 2006. 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, UNHCR, second edition, January 1992. Partnership with uprooted women, men, • Guidelines on International Protec- girls and boys tion No. 1 – 7 on (i) Gender-Related • Reinforcing a Community Develop- Persecution HCR/GIP/02/01 of 7 ment Approach, UNHCR, EC/51/SC/ May 2002; (ii) Membership of a Par- CRP.6 of February 2001. ticular Social group, HCR/GIP/02/02 • A Practical Guide to Empowerment, of 7 May 2002; (iii) Cessation of Ref- UNHCR, 2001. ugee Status under Article 1C(5) and • UNHCR Tool for Participatory Assess- (6), HCR/GIP/03/03 of 10 February ment in Operations, UNHCR, 2005. 2003; (iv) Internal Flight or Reloca- • UNHCR policy on Harmful Tradition- tion Alternative, HCR/GIP/03/04 of al Practices, Inter-Agency Standing 23 July 2003 (v): Application of the Committee (IASC) Handbook on gen- Exclusion Clauses: Article 1F, HCR/ der mainstreaming (draft) 2006. GIP/03/05 of 4 September 2003; (vi) Religion-Based Refugee Claims, HCR/GIP/04/06 of 28 April 2004; Children (vii) Victims of Trafficking and Per- • Refugee Children, Global Consul- sons at Risk of Being Trafficked, HCR/ tations on International Protection, GIP/06/07 of 7 April 2006. Fourth Meeting, document EC/ • Procedural Standards for Refugee GC/02/9, 25 April 2002. Status Determination under UNHCR's • Refugee Children: Guidelines on Pro- Mandate, UNHCR, 1 September tection and Care, UNHCR, 1994. 2005. • Inter-Agency Guiding Principles on Quality of protection Unaccompanied and Separated Chil- • Protection of Refugees in mass influx dren, ICRC, IRC, Save the Children, situations: Overall protection frame- UNHCR, UNICEF, WVI, 2004. work, Global Consultations on Inter- • Policy on Refugee Children, UNHCR, national Protection, Second Meeting, EC/SCP/82 of October 1993. document EC/GC/01/4, 19 February • UNHCR’s 5 priorities for girls and 2001. boys of concern to UNHCR, UNHCR • Designing Protection Strategies and 2005. Measuring Progress: Checklist for • Summary Update of UNHCR’s Strat- UNHCR Staff, UNHCR, July 2002. egy and Activities for Refugee Chil- • UNHCR Practical Guide to the use of dren, October 2005. Standards and Indicators, UNHCR • UNHCR Guidelines on Formal Deter- 2006. mination of the Best Interests of the child (BID) (provisional release May 2006). 48 Women Repatriation and reintegration • Refugee Women, Global Consultations • Voluntary Repatriation Handbook, on International Protection, Fourth UNHCR, 1996. Meeting, document EC/GC/02/8, 25 • Handbook for Repatriation and Re- April 2002. integration Activities, UNHCR, May • Five Commitments to Refugee Women, 2004. UNHCR, 2001. Resettlement • Policy on Refugee Women, UNHCR, 1990. • Resettlement Handbook, UNHCR, November 2004. • Handbook on the Protection of Dis- Protection

placed Women and Girls, UNHCR Local integration and self-reliance 2 2006 (Provisional release). • Local Integration. Global Consul- SGBV tations on International Protection, Fourth Meeting, document EC/ • Sexual and Gender-based Violence GC/02/6, 25 April 2002. against Refugees, Returnees and In- ternally Displaced Persons – Guide- • Handbook for Planning and Imple- lines for Prevention and Response, menting Development Assistance for UNHCR, May 2003. Refugees (DAR), UNHCR, January 2005. • Guidelines for Gender-based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Set- • Handbook for Self-Reliance, UNHCR, tings: Focusing on Prevention of and February 2005. Response to Sexual Violence in Emer- gencies IASC, 2005.

Timely and durable solutions General • Framework for Durable Solutions for Refugees and Persons of Concern, UNHCR, May 2003.

49 Annex 1: International instruments and legal texts concerning refugees and others of concern to UNHCR Below are some of the international instruments and legal texts that may be particularly useful in an emergency context. However, as emergencies vary, there may be other instruments and legal texts as well as national legislation that would be relevant and important. They can be found on UNHCR’s RefWorld database.

Refugees and others of concern to UNHCR Name Description Statute of the Office of the United The Statute of the High Commissioner’s office was adopted by Nations High Commissioner for General Assembly Resolution 428 (V) of 14 December 1950. It Refugees serves as UNHCR’s constitution and sets out UNHCR’s function and responsibility to provide international protection and to seek permanent solutions to the problem of refugees. It also includes a definition of persons who are of concern to UNHCR. The mandate has been elaborated and expanded over time through subsequent General Assembly and ECOSOC resolutions. 1951 Convention Relating to the Sta- An international treaty which is binding upon the signatory states. tus of Refugees, and its 1967 Protocol It sets out the responsibilities of states which are parties to the Relating to the Status of Refugees Convention vis-à-vis refugees on their territories, and sets out the obligations of the refugees. Conclusions on international protec- Contain important guidance (and standards) to States and UN- tion adopted by UNHCR’s Executive HCR on international protection. Committee (ExCom Conclusions are adopted every year) OAU Convention governing the spe- A regional complement to the 1951 Convention and 1967 Proto- cific aspects of refugee problems in col. It contains an expanded refugee definition as well as provi- Africa (Organization of African Unity, sions on safe and peaceful asylum, burden-sharing and voluntary Addis Ababa, 1969) repatriation. i. Cartagena Declaration on Refu- Non binding declarations which have greatly influenced regional gees, 1984 policies on refugees and asylum seekers, and contain an expanded refugee definition. ii. American Convention on Human Rights, “Pact of San Jose, Costa Rica”, 1969 The Asian-African Legal Consulta- Another non-binding document that addresses refugee issues at tive Organization’s (AALCO’s) 1966 a regional level. Bangkok Principles on Status and Treatment of Refugees (as adopted on 24 June 2001 at the AALCO’s 40th session, New Delhi) Convention Relating to the Status of Grants a recognized status to stateless persons who are lawful Stateless Persons, 1954 and habitual residents. Similar to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. Convention on the Reduction of State- Contains measures to ensure that persons do not become statelessness, 1961 less. The Guiding Principles on Internal Addresses the specific needs of internally displaced persons Displacement worldwide. They identify rights and guarantees relevant to the protection of persons from forced displacement and to their protection and assistance during displacement as well as during return or resettlement and reintegration.

50 International Human Rights Name Description Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Universal instrument setting out the basic human rights of all 1948 (UDHR) persons, including refugees and other persons of concern to UNHCR. International Covenant on Civil and Obliges states which are parties to the Covenant to respect Political Rights of 16 December 1966 and ensure the rights set out in the Covenant to all individuals (ICCPR) (within the state’s territory and jurisdiction), without distinction such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. The ICCPR also has two optional protocols as well (one on Protection

an individual complaint mechanism and another to abolish the 2 death penalty) International Covenant on Economic, Obliges states to respect the human right to work, the right to Social and Cultural Rights of 16 Decem- an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing, and ber 1966 (ICESCR) housing, the right to physical and mental health, the right to social security, the right to a healthy environment, and the right to education. It is also applicable to refugees and others of concern to UNHCR. Convention against Torture and Other Defines ‘torture’ and bans torture under all circumstances. It Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment also states that States cannot return a refugee to his country or Punishment of 10 December 1984 if there is reason to believe he/she will be tortured (principle of (CAT) non-refoulement). Convention on the Rights of the Child of A comprehensive code of rights for all children (defined as 18 20 November 1989 (CRC) years or under) including children of concern to UNHCR. It requires that children have a right to citizenship upon birth and specifically addresses the needs of refugee children (article 22). The CRC also has two optional protocols (one on children in armed conflict and another on the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography). International Convention on the Elimina- Prohibits racial discrimination (where a person or a group tion of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is treated differently because of their race, colour, descent, of 21 December 1965 (CERD) national origin or ethnic origin and this treatment impairs, or is intended to impair, their human rights and fundamental freedoms). The Convention permits distinctions between citizens and non-citizens; but not between different groups of non-citizens. Convention on the Elimination of All Defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets Forms of Discrimination against Women a framework for national action to end such discrimination and of 18 December 1979 (CEDAW) to ensure the full development and advancement of women in all spheres -- political, educational, employment, health care, economic, social, legal, and marriage and family relations. Convention on the Prevention and Defines genocide and declares it as a crime whether committed Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of during peace time or during war. 9 December 1948

51 International Humanitarian Law and the Law of Neutrality Name Description Geneva Convention relative to the Covers the treatment of civilians in time of war, including refu- Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of gees and other uprooted people. It also prevents states from War of 12 August 1949 forcibly displacing civilian populations. (i) Protocol Additional to the Geneva Provides for additional elements that can protect refugees and Conventions of 12 August 1949, and others of concern in armed conflict. relating to the Protection of Victims of In- ternational Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) Prior to the second protocol the only provision applicable to non- international armed conflicts was Article 3 common to all four (ii) Protocol Additional to the Geneva Geneva Conventions of 1949. The aim of the present Protocol Conventions of 12 August 1949, and is to extend the essential rules of the law of armed conflicts to relating to the Protection of Victims of internal wars. Non-International Armed Conflicts of 8 June 1977 (Protocol II)

Hague Convention (V) Respecting the Jointly with Executive Committee Conclusion 94 (2002) this pro- Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers vides a framework for neutral states to identify, disarm, separate and Persons in Case of War on Land of and intern combatants who are mixed with refugee populations. 18 October 1907

International Criminal Law (i) Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and These protocols include specific measures to ensure protec- Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially tion of the human rights of victims of trafficking and smuggling Women and Children, supplementing although they largely focus on reduction of the power and the United Nations Convention Against influence of organized criminal groups that abuse migrants. Transnational Organized Crime of 15 They define smuggling and trafficking and specify that no ac- November 2000 (Palermo Protocol on tion taken by states to combat trafficking or smuggling should Trafficking) contravene the principle of non-refoulement.

(ii) Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of 15 November 2000 (Palermo Protocol on Smuggling)

Miscellaneous The Charter of the United Nations, 1945 Places certain general obligations on member states of the United Nations of particular relevance to UNHCR’s international protection function.

52 Annex 2: Physical security of refugees • Do the police (and were applicable, and others of concern other security forces) have and adhere to a Code of Conduct relating to their Checklist for addressing the physical responsibilities in the refugee camp and protection and security of refugees do they have a gender balance? In situations which may threaten refugee security or give rise to tension and conflict • Are the local judicial and penal services between the refugee community and the adequate to cope with the added burden local population, the following measures of a large refugee population, and if not, may be considered to address the specific does UNHCR assist in any way? causes of the problems: • Do the camps have a participatory man- Protection 2 • Did the Office negotiate with the host agement structure including a refugee government and ensure that refugee committee with 50% participation by camps are situated in an appropriate women, and do refugees have a role location at a safe distance away from in camp security? And does the camp international borders and from zones of management NGO use a community- conflict? based approach? • Are the size and the design of the refu- • If yes, to what extent are refugees in- gee camps and settlements effectively volved in camp security, i.e. through contributing to the maintenance of a refugee security volunteers, community peaceful environment and the security watch teams with 50% women, etc.? Is of refugees and local residents? the role and responsibilities of the refugees well-defined and integrated within • Has the Government provided compre- the official authority, i.e. the camp ad- hensive security arrangements - through ministration and national police as- the use of a civilian police force and signed to the camp? professional camp administration - up- holding law and order within the camps • Is there effective interaction with the and ensuring a peaceful environment? local host community and authorities? • If not, has the Office discussed with the • Has the local population been sensitized Government how to ensure the physi- to the plight of the refugees through local protection of refugees, including cal media (programmes on radio and practical mechanisms in safeguarding TV, articles in newspapers) and com- their safety? And, has UNHCR sup- munity leaders? ported the Government in ensuring its • Has the Office sensitized refugees to responsibility for refugee security with local customs, traditions and environ- a “security package” type agreement? mental considerations? • Has the Government initiated and fa- • Do camp management have adequate cilitated measures for the early identi- means of contacting camp security, lo- fication, separation, disarmament and cal authorities and UNHCR in cases of internment of combatants? emergency? • Has participatory assessment been un- • Do the camps have adequate fire pre- dertaken with groups of women, girls, vention strategies and fire fighting ca- boys and men and is it done regularly? pacity in place, and are camp residents • Have camp rules and regulations been educated about fire hazards and has first developed with the women and men in aid training been provided to refugee the city and also promulgated? volunteers?

53 • Are communal areas and/or central houses, legal aid, support for medical points provided with night lighting and exams, etc.)? has the shelter and/or camp been de- • Is there an adequate complaints mecha- signed with the participation of women, nism in place to deal with SGBV? men, girls and boys? • How is the Office working to create • Is the Government and Office aware of awareness on the need to address SGBV Executive Committee Conclusion No. issues (including community-based dis- 94 on the Civilian and Humanitarian cussions, training sessions, use of post- Character of Asylum (2002), and where ers and leaflets, other measures)? applicable are actions being taken accordingly? Activities to maintain security in camps • [if required] Have measures been intro- The following activities may be consid- duced to identify, disarm and separate ered to address these issues: armed elements from bona-fide refu- • Establish mechanisms for the enforce- gees, and intern combatants and ensure ment of law and order, such as the pres- their eligibility within a programme of ence of an organized police force dedi- DDR? cated to camp security, legal redress • Have measures been introduced to- mechanisms, and the physical aspects gether with relevant actors to ensure of the camp (e.g. design layout, maxi- special programmes in order to iden- mal size, capacity, and location). tify, disarm, separate, demobilize and • Establish camp governance, manage- reintegrate child soldiers, both girls and ment and maintenance systems in- boys? Have the needs of camp-follow- corporating transparent structures for ers/family members been considered? encouraging effective refugee partici- • Has the Office encouraged the host pation, including women, adolescents State to take measures to reduce the risk and groups with specific needs. or prevent forced military recruitment • Ensure systematic protection monitor- of refugees, in particular of refugee ing including the regular presence of children and adolescents? UNHCR and NGO staff. • Sexual and gender-based violence: • Ensure community activities such as • Is there gender-based persecution of, educational programmes, health and or violence against, refugee women or social services, self-reliance activities, men? Any examples? What is being youth schemes, activities and services done to try to combat this? How have which engage the host community with such cases been detected? the refugee community, and refugee- • Are staff aware of the Sexual and Gen- managed infrastructure projects. der-based Violence (SGBV) guidelines • Refugees themselves should have a role and applying them in practice? Are in- in ensuring their security. They should cidents of sexual and gender-based vio- be empowered along with host commu- lence reported and data registered and nity leaders and supported to develop compiled on a weekly/monthly basis? of refugee volunteer guards /neighbour- • Have budgetary provisions been made hood watch teams with 50% participa- to be able to deal with follow-up to tion by women. SGBV cases (e.g. counselling, safe

54 • Sensitize, and where warranted, • Maintain constant dialogue and coop- strengthen the capacity of the local po- eration with local populations and au- lice to discharge its responsibilities ef- thorities. fectively and efficiently. • Develop effective, objective, and safe • Refugee leaders and representatives information channels as well as report- should be elected among candidates ing and compliant mechanisms. that are committed to promoting the • Hold Codes of Conduct training for all civilian and humanitarian character of involved parties – UN, NGO, and refu- their camp and should reflect a fair gen- gee committees. der distribution. Protection

• Develop a strategy for cooperation with 2 • Refugees should be involved in the de- national law enforcement authorities velopment of camp rules. which includes their direct involvement • Recognize both the legal rights and ob- with UNHCR training and monitoring. ligations that refugees have in a country of asylum.

55 3 Emergency Management

56 CONTENTS Paragraph Page Introduction 1-9 58 Organization of this section 3 58 Capacity and resources 5 58 Emergency Management

The key emergency management functions 10-21 61 3 Introduction 10 61 Leading 12 61 Planning 14 61 Organizing and coordinating 16 61 Controlling 20 62

Stages in refugee emergency operations 22-37 62 Emergency preparedness 25 63 Emergency response 35 64

Figures and Tables

Figure 1: Considerations in emergency management 60

Table 1: Emergency indicators 64

57 Introduction on external relations, covers relations with 1. There is no single blueprint for refu- the host government (including establish- gee emergency management; each refu- ing a formal presence in the country of gee emergency is unique, however, it can operations), relations with the donor and be defined as: diplomatic community and handling media interest. Note that certain activities cut The organization of capacities and re- across the phases of emergency prepared- sources to meet threats to the lives and ness and response, such as, external rela- well-being of refugees. tions, coordination, and planning and age, gender and diversity mainstreaming using 2. There are a number of distinguishing a rights-based approach. features in emergency management: 4. Figure 1 shows some of the consid- i. The lives and well-being of people are erations discussed in this section in dia- at stake. grammatic form, in particular in relation ii. Reaction time is limited. to emergency response. The response iii. Risk factors are high and consequenc- activities of problems and needs assess- es of mistakes or delays can be disas- ments, operations planning, implementing trous; arrangements and programme formula- iv. There is great uncertainty. tion are all very closely related. Some as- v. Investment in contingency planning pects treated separately may be indivisible and other preparedness activities is in practice, and there is no single correct crucial. order or way in which an emergency op- vi. Staff and managers may be under par- eration should be formulated (but it must ticularly high stress because of, for conform to established UNHCR proce- example, security problems and harsh dures governing project submission and living conditions. control). vii. There is no single obvious right answer. Capacity and resources 5. Preparing for and responding to refu- Organization of this section gee emergencies are tasks which require 3. This section of the handbook (chapters the availability of the right resources at 3 to 9) is structured to reflect the phases the right time as well as the capacity to of emergency preparedness and response. use these resources effectively. Firstly, the preparedness activities of contingency planning and early warning are 6. Planning for capacity building from an dealt with (chapter 4), followed by initial early stage of emergency is very impor- needs, resource and participatory assess- tant. As soon as possible, efforts should ment and immediate response (chapter be made to map out the community struc- 5). Operations planning, coordination tures (representing both women and men), and site-level organization are dealt with means of communication within the popu- in chapters 6 and 7. Next, implementing lation and identifying the potential areas arrangements are discussed, including of community participation as well as their procedures for operations implementation capacity and skills. These are crucial in and control (chapter 8). Finally, chapter 9 successful management of the emergency.

58 This should be followed by planning com- port. Resources are the financial and hu- munity-based activities and involving the man resources, relief materials, support communities in implementation by aware- equipment, tools and facilities. ness raising through existing communication channels if they are representative. Strong capacity can sometimes alleviate resource shortfalls by making more ef- 7. Capacity is the internal organizational fective use of limited resources. capability which includes planning, staffing, structure, systems, procedures, guidelines, information flow, communication, decision-making and administrative sup- Emergency Management 3

59 Figure 1 – Considerations in Emergency Management

60 8. Capacity, an aspect of emergency The process of creating and communi- management, is sometimes not given ad- cating a vision for the emergency opera- equate priority. Resources are often given tion and providing a clear strategic di- more emphasis during both the planning rection for actions even in situations of and operational stages since they are a great uncertainty and risk. more tangible element. But it is capacity that determines the quality of an emergen- 13. Successful management requires lead- cy response. ership; subject to the role of the govern- 9. ment, leadership may be the most important single contribution of UNHCR to the Effective emergency management re- emergency situation. Leadership requires Emergency Management quires that the development and use of that once decisions are reached, they are capacity be accorded appropriate prior- properly implemented. This discipline is 3 ity throughout the different phases of an essential in emergencies when there is of- operation. ten no time to explain the considerations While much of the required capacity must involved. As far as possible, those directly be pre-existing, capacity can also be de- concerned should contribute to decisions veloped during an operation. that affect them, but final responsibility rests with the UNHCR officer in charge. The key emergency management functions Planning Introduction 14. This can be defined as: 10. Certain management functions are es- Setting in place the process of assess- sential throughout a refugee emergency. ing the situation, defining immediate ob- These are: jectives and longer term goals and the □ Leading activities to accomplish them. □ Planning 15. Planning is vital both before and dur- □ Organizing and coordinating ing an emergency, and operations planning □ Controlling must be based on detailed needs, resource, 11. These will be required of UNHCR as and participatory assessments with women, an organization and also from individuals, girls, boys and men of concern. An essen- at all levels, within UNHCR. tial element of good planning is to include all relevant actors (UN agencies, NGOs, If these functions are not being per- Governments, Local Authorities and Civil formed then it is likely that there will be Society). serious deficiencies in the management of the emergency operation. Organizing and coordinating They always remain the responsibility 16. This can be defined as: of the person in overall charge of the operation, though they may be delegated to Establishing systems and mechanisms to achieve a given objective by coordi- other staff. nating people and organizations so that they work together, in a logical way, to- Leading wards the common objective. 12. This can be defined as: 17. It involves selecting, training and supervising staff, creating a multi-functional team approach to ensure a holistic re-

61 sponse, assigning and clarifying roles and Stages in refugee emergency responsibilities of all those involved and operations structuring communication and information flow. In an emergency, coordinating 22. The table below depicts one model within UNHCR and external actors, is a of activities as they may occur in refugee crucial aspect of organizing. emergencies. It is important to understand that the stages and activities of a refugee Delegation of Authority and emergency operation could overlap, or oc- Responsibility cur simultaneously. 18. Emergency management should be 23. A final phase of an emergency opera- organized so that responsibility and au- tion is the transition from emergency re- thority are delegated to the lowest appro- sponse to longer-term support, building a priate level, and should be exercised as community-based approach and durable close to the operation or beneficiaries as is solutions (voluntary repatriation, local practical. Clear and unambiguous lines of integration and resettlement). The time authority and reporting should be estab- spent providing emergency relief should lished and communicated to all staff. be kept to a minimum, and planning and 19. The management structure should be implementation should always take ac- organized so that accountability for account the longer term. The importance of tions, including management decisions, is the balance between short term and long clear. Those who make a decision should term is seen in a number of vital sectors. be those with the appropriate level of Stage Typical Activities knowledge to enable them to make that Emergency • Prevention decision and should be responsible for en- prepared- suring its implementation and follow up ness • Early warning (including monitoring). The involvement • Contingency planning of unnecessary layers of management, and • Development of emergency unnecessary numbers of people, in deci- response systems • Generation of support among sions and responsibility for implementa- potential host and donor tion, confuses and diffuses accountability. governments • Provision of stand-by resources Ambiguity and lack of simplicity in the • Pre-positioning of supplies definition of responsibilities also slows • Training action. Emergency • Problem, needs, resources and response participatory assessments Controlling • Community mobilization • Resource mobilization 20. This can be defined as: • Handling donor relations and media interest; Monitoring and evaluating perform- • Operations planning • Implementation and ance in comparison with plans and ini- coordination tiating changes where necessary. • Monitoring and evaluation • Transition to the post 21. Note that the key management func- emergency operation tions are important not only during emer- 24. Assisting governments in seeking gency response, but also in the prepared- durable solutions for the problem of refu- ness phase. Organization and coordination gees is a mandated function of UNHCR. mechanisms, for example, should be de- Durable solutions must always be kept veloped during contingency planning. in mind, starting at the contingency planning stage. It is in this period that choices are made concerning how, how much,

62 and for how long, aid will be delivered. 29. The process of contingency planning How aid is delivered and the role of the reduces the lead time necessary to mount different members of the community can an effective response and is a crucial strengthen or undermine their capacities tool to enhance the capacity to respond. for self-reliance. These choices often have Depending on the likelihood of an emer- repercussions on the prospects for durable gency, the contingency plan should be up- solutions that last long after the emergen- dated at regular intervals. cy has ended. At the country and regional levels, early Emergency preparedness warning and contingency planning are the key preparedness measures. As a 25. The best way to ensure an effective rule, these should be developed togeth- Emergency Management emergency response is by being prepared. er with our main partners. Emergency preparedness can be defined 3 as: 30. The contingency planning (see chapter 4) will allow the identification, in ad- Planning and taking action to ensure vance, of gaps in resources. A realistic that the necessary resources will be plan may encourage donors and others to available, in time, to meet the foreseen provide the missing resources. emergency needs and that the capacity to use the resources will be in place. 31. Contingency planning helps predict the characteristics of the impending 26. The scope of emergency preparedness emergency – it increases the institutional is broad and the activities at that stage can analytical capacity which can be drawn be undertaken at the global, regional and upon should an emergency occur. It also country levels. helps identify the additional preparedness activities which may be required. These The preparedness measures should enable an organization to respond rapidly may include development or restructuring and effectively to an emergency. of the UNHCR organization in the country, emergency staffing, stockpiling, pre- 27. At the global level, UNHCR maintains positioning supplies and training. Prior- centrally a range of stand-by emergency ity should be given to activities requiring response resources. These resources have longer lead times. been developed on the basis of past experience in emergencies. They include staff Emergency Indicators support, human and financial resources, 32. An emergency may start with a sud- operational support items and services, den large influx of refugees, with several and centrally managed emergency stock- thousand persons crossing a border, caus- piles. The resources are available for de- ing a highly visible life threatening situa- ployment at short notice to any area where tion. More often however, the onset of an the need arises. They ensure a minimum emergency is not so dramatic or obvious, and predictable level of global prepared- and a situation requiring an extraordinary ness for emergencies. Moreover, there are response and exceptional measures may also training activities available which can develop over a period of time. It is there- be used for capacity building. fore essential to be able to recognize if a 28. For details of these resources, see the situation exists (or is imminent) which re- Catalogue of Emergency Response Re- quires an emergency response, and what sources (UNHCR, 2006), which is avail- are the likely key characteristics (see table able from Headquarters. 1).

63 33. The following indicators are meas- 36. Once safe asylum is assured, the prior- urable and are therefore commonly used ity of emergency management will be life as thresholds above (or below) which an saving activities. Timely and rapid problems, emergency situation clearly exists, or to needs and resources assessments will help signal whether a situation is under con- confirm or identify areas where gaps still trol and whether there is a need for urgent exist from the contingency plan which will remedial action. The most important of then be transformed to an operations plan these indicators is the mortality (or death) (see chapter 6: Operations Planning). rate (see chapter 17 on Health for infor- 37. Identification of problems requiring mation on how to calculate the mortality specialist expertise is essential. Most refu- rate. More details of the other indicators gee emergencies will require, in addition are given in the respective chapters and in to protection staff, community services Appendix 2 Toolbox). staff and one or more technical experts to coordinate the crucial technical sectors, Table 1 – Emergency Indicators such as health, food, nutrition, sanitation, Indicator Emergency Levels water, shelter and infrastructure. MORTALITY RATE > 2 per 10,000 per day Nutritional > 10% with less than 80% Key References status of children weight for height The UNHCR Tool for Participatory As- Food < 2,100 calories/person/day sessment in Operations, UNHCR, Gene- Water quantity < 10 litres per person per day va, 2006 Water quality > 25% of people with A Framework for People-Oriented Plan- diarrhea ning in Refugee Situations Taking Ac- SitesSpace < 30 sq. meters per person count of Women, Men and Children, UN- (this figure does not include any garden space) HCR, Geneva, 1992. Shelter space < 3.5 sq. meters per person • Contingency Planning – A Practical Guide for Field Staff, UNHCR, Gene- va, 2006. 34. Other indicators may not be so easily • Coordination among International Or- quantifiable but may be just as critical, for ganizations in Complex Emergencies, example, the presence of a physical threat Disaster Management Training Pro- to the refugees or to the standards of hu- gramme, UN, 1997. man rights which they enjoy. In particular, threats of refoulement should be consid- • UNHCR Manual, Chapter 4, UNHCR, ered as an indicator of a need for an emer- Geneva, 1995 (and updates). gency response. • Partnership: A Programme Manage- ment Handbook for UNHCR’s Part- Emergency Response ners, UNHCR, Geneva, 1996. 35. Emergency response can be defined as:

Immediate and appropriate actions to save lives, ensure protection, and restore the well-being of refugees.

64 Emergency Management 3

65 4 Contingency planning

66 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1-14 68 Contingency planning objective 4 68 The inter-agency context 5 68 Early warning 6 68 Contingency planning When to plan 10 69 Responsibility for planning 11 70 4

Contingency planning and operations planning 15-25 70 Meetings 16 70 Scenario identification 20 71 Policy and strategic objectives 23 71 Sector objectives and activities 24 71 Environmental considerations in contingency plans 25 72

Characteristics of a good plan 26-28 72

Key References

Figures Figure 1: The contingency planning process 69

Annexes Annex 1: A model structure for a contingency plan 73

67 Introduction ing resources. Once identified it may be necessary to request some funds ahead of 1. Contingency planning can be defined the emergency in order to implement any as: emergency measures recommended in the A forward planning process, in a state Plan. of uncertainty, in which scenarios and objectives are agreed, managerial and The inter-agency context technical actions defined, preparedness 5. Since 2005, in the context of an inter- measures undertaken to mitigate the ef- agency approach, UNHCR became re- fects and response systems put in place sponsible for coordinating the protection, in order to prevent, or better respond camp management and coordination and to, an emergency. emergency shelter clusters within a collaborative humanitarian response for new The contingency planning process builds major emergencies, including man-made organizational capacity and is thus a foundation for operations planning and situations with Internally Displaced Per- all aspects of emergency response. sons (IDPs). Contingency planning and funding for IDP emergencies will be dealt 2. It involves a group of people represent- within the Inter-Agency Plan. In which ing UNHCR and partner organizations case, the Inter-Agency Contingency Plan- (a Planning Group) working together to ning Guidelines should be consulted. The identify and validate the objectives, pos- guidance in this chapter, therefore, applies sible scenarios and to define respective re- to UNHCR Contingency Planning for ref- sponsibilities and actions and then to fol- ugee emergencies only. low-up to ensure implementation. It is not a one time planning exercise to produce Early warning a single documented plan but rather an 6. Early warning is the starting point for ongoing process led by a Planning Group all planning in anticipation of an emergen- and based around a documented plan. Sys- cy. UNHCR Headquarters, (HQ) Geneva, tematic reviews of the assumptions and maintains an Early Warning Action Alerts scenarios built into the plan and proper system which classifies countries into four implementation of the recommendations colour-coded categories to signify the im- of the plan, particularly where prepared- mediacy of a potential emergency. These ness measures are concerned, are essential are: if the response to a real emergency is to be effective. i. Red for potential emergencies considered likely to erupt within the next 3. Contingency planning is a prerequi- three months. site for rapid and effective emergency response. Without prior contingency plan- ii. Orange for potential emergencies con- ning much time will be lost in the first sidered likely to erupt within the next days of an emergency. six months. iii. Yellow for potential emergencies con- Contingency planning objective sidered likely to erupt within the next 4. The objective is to identify the ad- twelve months. ditional resources needed to respond to an emergency ie, over and above the re- iv. Blue for countries in which no crisis sources already allocated to the country is foreseen within the next twelve or regional programme in the Annual months. Budgeting Round and to organize exist-

68 7. Signs of a potential emergency likely to are recorded and that any changes indicat- generate refugees are monitored by field ing population displacements are spotted offices and HQ desks. This is carried out early and appropriate action taken to plan by monitoring a wide range of sources, for possible events. such as internal politics of governments, 9. As stated above, contingency planning local population, political leaders, media, is an ongoing process which should also academia, refugees and international and take place during an existing operation to national organizations. Based on the anal- prepare for a deteriorating situation, such ysis, from the field and at HQ, the classifi- as a new influx or a natural disaster affect- cation of countries is changed accordingly ing a camp. in the Action Alerts system. As soon as a country is classified as yellow or higher When to plan then contingency planning, or a review of Contingency planning 10. Planning should begin or the process

the existing plan, should begin. 4 reinvigorated when the country is clas- 8. In order to maintain a close review sified as Yellow within the Action Alerts of developing situations, it is important system, i.e. an emergency situation is that the collection and analysis of early considered likely within the next twelve warning information is integrated system- months. atically into the routine work of UNHCR offices. Regular monitoring and report- It is better to plan when it is not needed ing, in a consistent format, is an important than not to have planned when it is nec- means of ensuring that trends and patterns essary.

Figure 1: The Contingency Planning Process

The Contingency Planning Process

Decreased Risk Assessment (1) Increased Risk Risk

Initiate or Review CP

Agree Planning Scenarios & Preparedness/Response Measures (2)

Input to Inter-Agency Contingency Plan Situation Situation Improves Deteriorates Agree UNHCR and Inter- Agency Contingency Plans

Implement Preparedness Measures

Respond to the Emergency (1) Reflected in the Action Alerts system maintained in HQ (2) Where appropriate In consultation with Sister Agencies, Implementing Partners and Government 69 (3) In reality feedback should occur throughout the process Responsibility for planning pected scenarios before adjusting objec- 11. Contingency planning is the respon- tives and courses of action in accordance sibility of the field office and is generally with developments. A contingency plan undertaken by staff from within a country represented by a static document creates operation, supported by the Desk as nec- a false sense of security as it will quickly essary, and requires a core planning group become out-of-date. to progress the matter – no one individual can be expected to shoulder the burden. In Contingency planning is best achieved through a cooperative and coordinated fast developing situations it may be neces- effort wherein all concerned work to- sary to request the assistance of an Emer- gether with shared objectives over a pe- gency Preparedness and Response Officer riod of time. (EPRO), as explained in the Emergency Response Resources Catalogue available Contingency planning and from the Emergency, Preparedness and operations planning Response Section (EPRS) or on the HCR- Net. 15. Contingency planning is not the same as operations planning. Both set strategic 12. The planning group, which should and sectoral objectives and develop action normally be chaired by the Representative plans to achieve the objectives. However, or the Deputy, should consist of key de- contingency planning involves making as- cision-making staff from within the UN- sumptions and developing scenarios from HCR office, including specialist expertise an unknown point in the future upon which to provide advice, and results from field the response to an emergency is based. In visits. Colleagues from sister UN agencies operations planning the starting point is likely to be implicated in a refugee emer- known and the planning builds on known gency, such as UNICEF, WFP and UNDP needs and resources based on actual field and key partners, should also be invited assessment. to join the group. Consideration should also be given to inviting government rep- Meetings resentatives depending on the situation. 16. As shown in Figure 1, contingency Whether or not the government wishes to planning requires that potential scenarios join the Contingency Planning Group it are identified and assumptions made about should be kept informed of progress. the possible evolution of the situation to- The capacity of the actors to respond in wards an emergency. Clearly this requires an emergency will be enhanced by their a high degree of interaction which is best previous involvement in the contingency achieved in an initial meeting of the plan- planning process. ning group. The agenda of the first meeting should be agreed and include a short 13. A UNHCR focal point should be (30 minutes) briefing on the UNHCR Ear- identified with responsibility for calling ly Warning system and the contingency meetings of the group and maintaining the planning process. The objectives of at the momentum and to progress recommenda- first meeting should emphasize the need tions and actions arising from the plan. to brainstorm the agreed possible, as well Additionally, a facilitator and rapporteur as most likely, scenarios, and to use this for planning group meetings may be re- ”planning scenario” to thrash out the sec- quired. torial responses to that scenario and the 14. As Figure 1 shows planning is an on- resource requirements. This in essence going activity. The planning group should will be the first step of the contingency frequently review the indicators and ex- planning process.

70 17. The contingency planning process tion. However, removing the element of requires regular meetings to follow-up unpredictability cannot be discounted. on the initial draft plan and to ensure that 21. The scenario is a kind of benchmark. the preparedness measures recommended If the influx is smaller than envisaged, in the plan are being implemented. Ad- the safety margin will be welcome. If it ditionally, these meetings should review is larger, the importance of taking urgent the assumptions, indicators and scenarios corrective action is highlighted. envisaged in the plan and adjust as necessary to reflect the actual evolution of the 22. For scenario development: situation. i. consider all possibilities (be imagina- 18. The views of one agency may dif- tive); fer from others, but this will often benefit

ii. settle for a limited number of options Contingency planning the planning process since its diversity of only (2 or 3 options is the norm); and views will provide a useful forum for all 4 assumptions to be questioned and refined. iii. classify the scenarios into: “worst”, The end product is thus more realistic. “best” and “most likely”. The “most While UNHCR may facilitate the meet- likely” will then become the planning ing, the role and function of each partici- scenario. pant must be respected. Policy and strategic objectives 19. The output of a contingency planning 23. The planning group needs to maintain meeting should be a plan containing the a shared vision of the probable response following: despite the fact that various partners may i. identification of scenarios hold different policy approaches. Such differences should be identified and un- ii. assumptions and indicators derstood by all parties, if not reconciled. iii. strategic objectives Whatever the differences, it is essential iii. sector objectives and activities that the group agrees on the main principles by establishing overall objectives. All iv. resources required for a response activities undertaken in the plan will need v. recommendations for preparedness to be consistent with these overall objec- measures tives.

Subsequent meetings should review early Sector objectives and activities warning indicators, making changes to the 24. As this part of the plan is the most de- scenarios as necessary, report on actions tailed it will be helpful to split the plan- taken since the previous meeting, and up- ning group into smaller working groups to date the existing plan. cover each of these sectors. For each sector the following should be agreed: Scenario Identification 20. Based on early warning indicators i. sector objectives, including standards the planning group should develop likely ii. main tasks scenarios. This activity is essentially in- tuitive and based on the experience of the iii. responsibility for implementing tasks participants but is highly important since iv. time frame for implementation and it lays the basis for all further planning. In v. the resource requirements for each establishing scenarios, assumptions must sector. be made based on best available informa-

71 Environmental considerations in contin- 27. A contingency plan should also gency plans achieve a balance between flexibility, so 25. It is useful to identify, in advance, as to remain relevant in spite of changes local environmental issues or concerns to the scenarios and specificity for key which might be relevant to the planned or practical inputs – e.g. pre-positioned ongoing operation, so that these can be in- stockpiles. The plan must not be overly corporated into a contingency plan. directive and yet must provide adequate guidance. It should not be expected to act Developing such a site-specific plan can as a blueprint. help prevent, or at least minimize, irreversible environmental impacts as well 28. See Annex 1 for the structure of a as identify environmental hazards which typical contingency plan. might have an impact on refugee health.

Characteristics of a good plan Key References 26. A good plan should be comprehensive Contingency Planning – A Practical Guide yet not too detailed, finding the proper for Field Staff, UNHCR, Geneva, 2006 balance between covering all the impor- Inter-Agency Contingency Planning tant issues yet not flooding the plan with Guidelines details. It should be well structured, easy to read and, importantly, easy to update and action oriented. It should be laid out clearly showing what needs to be done, by whom and by when.

A short document with a clear structure will facilitate updating.

72 Annex 1: A model structure for a contingency plan

The following is a proposed structure, divided into six parts, of a Contingency Plan for a refugee emergency (adaptation will be required for different scenarios):

Part 1: General situation and alternative scenario forecasts: □ Overview of the situation, current country operations and existing Inter-Agency contingency plans. □ Specify the planning assumptions. □ Elaborate possible scenarios including worst case and best case and the scenario retained as the planning scenario and why?

□ Reasons for changing or updating plans and the consequences (eg influxes, returns, Contingency planning

impact on local population, staff and refugee security). 4 □ Current host population and refugee population perceptions of UNHCR, UN staff and international workers. □ Expected refugee profile (including estimates by sex and age groups). □ Total planning figure. □ Entry/exit points. □ Potential arrival/dispersal rate. □ Reception and anticipated in-country movement. □ Settlement arrangements. □ Possible triggering events?

Part 2: Scenario indicators □ Likely early warning indicators that will determine if scenarios are becoming more or less likely. □ The focal point for liaison with HQ over the Action Alerts system. □ Frequency of review of the indicators.

Part 3: Policies and overall operation objectives □ Overall policy (strategic) objectives of the program. □ Comments on policy stance of various partners. □ Planning assumptions.

Part 4: Objectives and activities by sector □ Management and overall coordination. □ Staff safety and security. □ Protection and physical security of refugees and populations of interest. □ Identification of groups with specific needs. □ Reception and registration. □ Food. □ Logistics and transport (persons and goods). □ Infrastructure and site planning. □ Shelter. □ Domestic needs and household support. □ Water. □ Environmental sanitation. 73 □ Health and nutrition. □ Community-based activities. □ Camp management and coordination. □ Education. □ Economic activities. □ UNHCR administrative support available (including staffing, vehicles, telecom etc). Note: Each section should include consideration of sector objectives, needs, resources, activities, existing and proposed preparedness measures, implementation responsibilities, and timing. Activity tables should be used. In addition, all objectives and activities detailed above need to reflect age, gender and diversity analysis and the High Commis- sioner’s policy priorities concerning women, children and the environment.

Part 5: Feedback, maintenance and future action □ Describe how the plan will be updated and revised. □ Who will be responsible for ensuring this will be done and how will the information be disseminated?

Part 6: Recommendations for preparedness measures □ Describe the preparedness measures envisaged and the timescale for having these in place.

Annexes to a contingency plan may include (but not limited to): i. List of Members of the Planning Group ii. Maps iii. Security plan iv. Registration forms v. Agency Profiles (details of staff, resources, future intentions) vi. Gap identification charts vii. Commodity matrix and specifications viii. Budgets ix. Other useful information Note: As a general rule UNHCR integrates its contingency plans for refugee emergencies into Inter-Agency contingency plans as an Annex. A UNHCR contingency plan must be a component of other partner organizations’ plans and as such should be seen as ‘the refugee component’ of an Inter-Agency plan, not limited to refugee situations alone. Key References Contingency Planning in UNHCR – A Practical Guide for Field Staff dated June 2006

74 Contingency planning 4

75 5 Initial Participatory Assessment: immediate response

CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1- 11 78

Organizing and planning the assessment 12- 26 79 Planning the Initial Participatory Assessment 15 80 Implementing the Initial Participatory Assessment 18 80 Mapping diversity 19 80 Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response

Methods of enquiry 20 80 5 Selecting themes 21 81 Facilitating discussions 22 81 Systematizing information 23 81 Follow-up actions 24 81 Initial Participatory Assessment tools 25 81

Immediate response 27-33 81 Ensure the capacity to act 29 81 Protection 30 81 Organizational considerations 32 82

Protection and material assistance 34-39 82 The location of the refugees 34 82 Control at the sites 35 82 Numbers and registration 36 82 Urgent survival needs 37 82

Key References

Annexes Annex 1: Checklist for Initial Participatory Assessment 84 Annex 2: Potential protection risks: a non-exhaustive list 86 Annex 3: Themes and sample questions on protection risks 88 Annex 4: Systematization form for each sub-group discussion 90

77 Introduction from UNHCR (preferably with solid experience in facilitating participa- 1. Emergency assistance must be based tory assessment), the government and on a sound, thorough initial participatory other potential partners (for example assessment of the refugees’ most immedi- other UN agencies, NGOs). The inter- ate protection problems and needs and the agency multifunctional team will carry resources available to meet those needs. out contingency planning and conduct 2. The objective of the initial participa- the initial participatory assessment, tory assessment, which includes protec- and analyze protection risks. Often the tion risk analysis and needs, is to provide people carrying out the initial par- UNHCR with a clear and concise picture ticipatory assessment will simultane- of the emergency situation, in both quan- ously be providing the initial response. titative and qualitative terms. It should Whenever possible, the multifunction- provide enough information to predict the al team should include those who will evolution of the emergency, be aware of implement the emergency operation in protection risks, and begin building part- the field. nerships with refugees from the start. It □ Be carried out quickly. is the basis for decisions which affect the future of the operation. □ Provide a full picture of the scope of the emergency, rather than focus on a limited area or sector (it is better to get 3. More detailed assessments will follow the whole picture half right). as the emergency develops and needs □ Describe the people affected by the evolve: assessment never stops. emergency (a simple demographic profile). The initial, and subsequent, participatory □ Identify the coping abilities of the assessments are intricately linked with, refugees themselves. and will form the basis for, operations planning. The initial participatory assess- □ Identify locally available resources. ment will also build on the contingency □ Identify what are the most immediate planning process. priorities and who is most at risk. 4. The initial participatory assessment □ Use agreed and appropriate standards should: against which needs can be measured. □ Answer the questions “What is the □ Involve the refugees, women, girls, main problem?” and “Is there an emer- boys and men, from the outset by using gency or not?” participatory assessment. Get to know □ Provide sufficient information to them and understand their protection decide whether UNHCR should be and immediate needs as they are a key involved in the emergency response source of information. and what the scope of that involvement □ Record the sources of information col- should be. lected. □ Be an inter-agency initiative, but □ Cross-check information, not relying with one body providing the overall on only one tool (e.g. aerial surveys coordination. The inter-agency mul- cross-checked by on the ground obser- tifunctional team should include staff vations and interviews).

78 □ Involve appropriate technical input. conduct a rapid assessment, the findings of which should then be reflected in the □ Use samples and surveys rather than basic set-up of the refugee camp. collect too much detailed information which is difficult to analyze. 9. In cases where a specialist has not been

assigned to the team, one of the team □ Produce recommendations for imme- members should be designated as the diate action indicating the resources “Environmental Focal Point”. S/he would needed to implement them. then be responsible for ensuring that en- □ Be able to trigger an immediate and vironmental issues are considered during effective response. the development of activities. □ Have the results shared promptly and widely. 10. Setting standards appropriate for

5. The assessment should, as a minimum, the situation is an important prerequisite Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response answer the questions in the checklist in for needs assessment. 5 Annex 1. This includes essential minimum information required for planning Standards provide a benchmark against an emergency operation. which the condition of the refugees can be measured (for some of the minimum 6. The initial participatory assessment survival standards see Appendix 2, Table should focus on priority life threatening 1: Key Emergency Indicators). The stand- problems and protection risks which are ards established for emergency assistance usually in the sectors of protection (in- must be consistent with the aim of ensur- cluding SGBV), water, food, sanitation, ing the survival and basic well-being of shelter, health, and the environment. The the refugees, be fairly applied for all refu- assessment should measure the actual gees and be respected by all involved. condition of the refugees against what is needed for their survival and immediate 11. The publication The UNHCR Tool well-being (expressed as “standards”). for Participatory Assessment in Operations In addition, it should clearly identify if includes more detailed checklists for as- there are specific groups with heightened sessments and contains practical informa- risks and needs who require specific sup- tion on principles, planning, techniques, port. The resources at their disposal, such methods, and forms. Also see chapter 6 on as natural resources, should also be as- operations planning for an example of a sessed. Gap Identification Chart, a useful tool for comparing needs and resources. 7. With respect to the environment, the initial emergency phase is the most critical Organizing and planning the period of an operational response. Deci- assessment sions made at this time will have a major bearing on both the type and scale of en- 12. The initial participatory assessment vironmental impacts in subsequent opera- must be carried out on the spot as soon as tional phases. it is clear that a refugee emergency may exist. The assessment must involve (when 8. Some environmental damage is una- possible) the government and other key voidable during the initial emergency actors as a part of a multifunctional team phase. However, where preliminary infor- to conduct the assessment. Emergency mation indicates the potential for serious team members should organize a multi- environmental impact(s), an environmen- functional team on the ground to ensure tal specialist should be included in the interactive information-gathering with emergency team. The specialist should refugee women, girls, boys and men and 79 to ensure that the information is system- information can be tailored to the specific atically shared, stored, and used for plan- requirements of the assessment. ning. 17. The participatory assessment should 13. Immediate access to the area where aim to begin building partnerships with the refugees are located is, of course, a refugees by holding separate discussions prerequisite. Getting the assessment un- with women, girls, men and boys, in or- derway as soon as possible requires quick, der to gather accurate information on the practical steps: establish a presence at, or specific protection risks they face and the near, the refugee site for first hand infor- underlying causes in order to understand mation, discuss and engage with refugee their resources and capacities and to hear women, girls, boys, and men, and use oth- their proposed solutions. er available sources of information, mobilize local expertise and resources. Implementing the Initial Participatory Assessment 14. While an organized approach is necessary, and if UNHCR is already present, 18. The assessment should involve: initial action must not be delayed pending i. mapping diversity the arrival of staff with more expertise. ii. methods of inquiry iii. selecting themes A quick response to obviously urgent needs must never be delayed because a iv. facilitating discussion comprehensive assessment has not yet v. systematizing information been completed. vi. follow-up actions

Planning the Initial Participatory Mapping diversity Assessment 19. To map diversity, inter-agency multi- 15. Planning the initial participatory as- functional teams should identify the vari- sessment involves setting the objectives, ous social groups according to age, sex, establishing the terms of reference and ethnicity, power structures, power rela- selecting multifunctional team members. tions, and specific needs. The assessment plan should indicate which information should be collected Methods of enquiry and the report should make clear if it was 20. Teams should decide when to use the not possible to collect that information. appropriate methods for engaging with people concerned: observation and spot If UNHCR is not already present in the checks, semi-structured discussions and country, the assessment mission will focus group discussions. Through obser- normally be organized by Headquarters. vation visits teams can spontaneously ask 16. Participatory assessment should start questions to women, girls, men and boys with a review of the existing background about their difficulties to get topical un- information (mission reports, media arti- derstanding of protection problems and cles, situation reports, local maps). Ide- about how services and assistance should ally, a contingency plan would have been be designed. Teams should also organize prepared and kept updated and would a few discussions with people of concern provide input for the assessment and the through semi-structured/household dis- immediate response. UNHCR Headquar- cussions and focus-group discussions. ters – Field Information and Coordination These discussions need not take much Support Section (FICSS) - can provide time and they will reveal deep-seated pro- maps and geographical information from tection risks. a computerized database. The maps and 80 Selecting themes standardize the approach and force the as- 21. Considering the information gathered sessors to plan ahead and decide which beforehand and the protection issues iden- information needs to be collected. Obser- tified, teams can determine what kinds of vation visits provide general information and can put into context data from more themes should be discussed in separate meetings with refugee women, girls, men systematic assessments. and boys of all backgrounds in order to understand their situation from their per- Immediate response spective: health, water, sanitation, food 27. Gathering information about prob- and security may be some of the most ur- lems, needs and resources on the one gent topics to discuss. hand, and the establishment of standards on the other, will allow the immediate un- Facilitating discussions met needs to be determined.

22. Engage in conversation with refugees Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response on the selected theme by forming sepa-

The most urgent actions must be taken 5 rate groups (no more than 10 persons per with whatever local material and organi- group) and discuss with them how they zational resources are available, even if see and analyze their situation, protec- the information at hand is incomplete. tion risks, their capacities to cope, and the 28. In order to ensure urgent survival solutions they identify to their protection needs are met, the most important initial problems. actions are likely to be:

Systematizing information i. ensuring the capacity to act 23. Using the information gathered, review ii. protection and discuss in a multifunctional team the iii. organizational considerations data gathered during the discussions and Ensure the capacity to act fill out a systemization form (Annex 4 of this chapter) to use for planning the emer- 29. The first priority is to provide the or- gency and formulating emergency COP. ganizational capacity required to meet the needs of the emergency. Follow-up actions Sufficient UNHCR and implementing 24. The multifunctional team should take partner staff of the right calibre and ex- immediate action, thinking preventively perience must be deployed. and follow-up on commitments and agreements made. It may be necessary to invoke emergency procedures for the allocation of funds, im- Initial Participatory Assessment tools plementing arrangements, food supply, lo- 25. Tools commonly used in assessments cal purchase, and recruitment of personnel. are: Along with the government, the resources of other UN organizations, particularly i. questionnaires UNICEF and WFP, and of the NGO sector ii. checklists must be mobilized within the framework iii. visual inspection of a plan for immediate action. 26. A combination of tools is normally Protection used in order to cross-check the conclusions. Questionnaires and checklists (see Annex 1 for a basic checklist and Annex 30. Unless the refugees’ right to asylum 2 for participatory assessment checklist/ is assured there can be no assistance programme. steps) are particularly useful because they 81 Action must be taken to assure the refu- Protection and material assistance gees’ right to asylum and to ensure their security and fundamental human rights. The location of the refugees 34. This will have a major influence on Specific measures may be needed, for protection and indeed on all sectors of as- example, to meet the special protection sistance. If the refugees have spontane- problems and needs of groups at risk (un- ously settled in a scattered manner, they accompanied children, single young girls, should not be brought together unless minorities, etc.) and to protect the refugees there are compelling reasons for breaking against arbitrary actions of outsiders and their present settlement pattern. If they against groups within their own commu- are already in sites which are judged to be nity who may pose a threat to their safety. unsatisfactory, move them in coordination 31. In order to gain a better understand- with the local authorities and government. ing of the protection problems faced by The difficulty in moving refugees from an refugees, and other people of concern to unsuitable site increases markedly with UNHCR affected by displacement, they time. Even if those already there cannot must be involved at the heart of decision- be moved, divert new arrivals elsewhere making concerning their protection and (see chapter 12 on site planning). well-being. Specific measures may be needed, for example, to meet the special Control at the sites protection problems and needs of groups 35. Determine the optimum population at risk (unaccompanied children, single in advance and plan for new sites accord- young girls, minorities, etc.) and to pro- ingly. Keep careful control of actual oc- tect the refugees against arbitrary actions cupation of the site as refugees arrive, so of outsiders and against groups within that sections prepared in advance are filled their own number who may pose a threat in an orderly manner. to their safety. Numbers and registration Organizational considerations 36. An accurate estimate of numbers is a 32. UNHCR must establish a presence prerequisite for effective protection and where the refugees are, with assured com- assistance. Family registration is a mini- munications with the main office and with mum requirement in order to deliver help Headquarters. Organization of the neces- efficiently to all in need and should be sary logistical capacity to deliver assist- organized as soon as possible. Neverthe- ance will be of critical importance. less the initial provision of assistance may 33. The priority, once problems and needs have to be based on a population estima- have been assessed, will be to provide vi- tion rather than full registration (see chap- tal assistance wherever the refugees are lo- ters 11 and 13 on registration and com- cated. There will also, however, be key or- modity distribution). ganizational or planning decisions to take, Urgent survival needs some of which may determine the future shape of the whole operation. These often 37. Meet the most urgent survival needs: include the points summarized below; de- food, water, emergency shelter, health care cisions on them should be seen as a part of and sanitation, ensuring fair distribution: the immediate response. i. Involve the refugee women and men and promote their self-reliance from If such decisions are not taken, or are the start. If this is not done, the ef- wrong ,they will be very difficult to cor- fectiveness of the emergency assist- rect later. ance will be severely reduced and an 82 early opportunity to help the refugees personnel and basic drugs and to start to recover from the psycho- equipment, including for reproduc- logical effects of their ordeal may be tive healthcare, in close consultation missed. with the national health authorities. Although the immediate need and de-

ii. Food: ensure that at least the minimum need for energy is met, a full mand may be for curative care, do not ration can follow. Set up special neglect preventive and particularly feeding programmes if there are clear environmental health measures. En- indications of malnutrition. Establish sure female to female health services. storage facilities. vi. Sanitation: isolate human excreta iii. Water: protect existing water from sources of water and accommo- sources from pollution and establish dation. maximum storage capacity with the 38. Take steps to meet social needs and

simplest available means. Transport reunite families if necessary. Surveys may Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response water to the site if the need cannot be necessary to identify people in need 5 otherwise be met. Check how groups but who often do not voluntarily come with specific needs transport their forward. Tracing may be required particu- water. larly for unaccompanied and separated iv. Emergency shelter: meet the need for children. If groups of refugees have been roofing and other materials from local separated, they should be reunited. Special sources if possible. Request outside measures to ensure the care of any unac- supplies (e.g. plastic sheeting) if nec- companied children will be a priority. essary. 39. Once these and other priority meas- v. Health care: provide the necessary ures are underway, begin the wider plan- organizational assistance, health ning process.

83 Key References UNHCR Tool for Participatory Assessment in Operations (2006)

Annex 1 – Checklist for Initial Participatory Assessment This checklist is based on a refugee influx, it should be modified in the light of the actual nature of the emergency.

Who are the refugees, their numbers, and pattern of arrival □ Approximately how many refugees are there? □ Where have the refugees come from? Why? □ What is the rate of arrival? Is it likely to increase or decrease? □ What is the total number likely to arrive? □ What is the location of the arrival points and of the sites where people are settling (latitude and longitude)? □ Are the refugees arriving as individuals or in groups? Are these family groups, clans, tribal, ethnic or village groups? □ Are families, village groups and communities intact? □ How are the refugees organized? Are there group or community female/male leaders? □ How are the refugees traveling – on foot, in vehicles? □ What is the sex ratio of the population? □ What is the age profile of the population? Can a breakdown by age and sex be given – under five’s, age 5 to 17 years, 18 years and over? □ How many unaccompanied and separated children (by age and sex) are there? What is their condition? □ What was the social and economic situation of the refugee women and men prior to their flight? □ What are their skills and languages? What is their ethnic and cultural background? □ Are there individuals or groups with specific needs? Are there particular groups at more risk by the situation? (e.g. persons with disabilities, unaccompanied and separated children or older people in need of support). □ What are the diet, shelter, and sanitation practices of the refugees? □ What is the security situation within the population – is there a need for separation between different groups, are there armed groups within the population? □ Are single women protected or is there a need for special consideration in camp design or shelter provision? □ What is the formal legal status of the refugees?

Characteristics of the location □ What are the physical characteristics of the area where the refugees are located? □ What is the soil, topography and drainage? □ Is there enough space for those there and those likely to arrive? □ Is there all season accessibility? □ Can the refugees access relief assistance from where they are located? □ What is the vegetation cover? □ Will the refugees need to use wood for fuel and shelter? Will this cause tension with the locals? 84 □ Approximately how many people already live in the local area? □ Who owns (or has usage rights on) the land? □ Is there grazing land and are there potential areas for cultivation? □ What is the actual or likely impact on the local population and what is their attitude

and that of the local authorities towards the refugees? □ Are there security problems? If so, are they different for men and women? □ What environmental factors must be taken into account (e.g. fragility of the local environment and extent to which local community relies on it; how rapidly might it be degraded by the refugees, proximity to protected areas)? □ What is the condition of the local population? If assistance is provided to the refugees, should the local population also be assisted? □ How will fuel be accessed? If it is firewood collection, who collects it and what protection risks are they facing? □ Who collects water and does this present protection risks? Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response 5 Health status and basic problems (please also see chapter 14 on Health) □ Are there significant numbers of sick or injured persons, is there excess mortality? □ Are there signs of malnutrition? If so, is it different by age and sex? □ Do the refugees have access to sufficient quantities of safe water? □ Do the refugees have food stocks, for how long will they last? □ Do the refugees have adequate shelter? Is there a need to give consideration to child-headed households, older persons etc.? □ What sanitary materials do women and girls use and how can they be best provided? □ Do the refugees have basic domestic items? □ Is there sufficient fuel for cooking and heating?

Resources, spontaneous arrangements and assistance being delivered □ What type and quantity of possessions have the refugees brought with them?

□ What arrangements have the refugees already made to meet their most immediate needs? And is it damaging to the immediate environment? □ What assistance is already being provided by the local population, the government, UN organizations and other organizations, is the assistance adequate, sustainable? □ Is the present assistance likely to increase, continue, decrease? □ What is the government’s policy on assistance to the refugees? □ Are there any major constraints likely to affect an assistance operation? □ Has contingency planning for this type of emergency been undertaken? □ What coordination and implementation arrangements are required? □ How will the community participate and what, if any, specific measures are required to support women?

85 Means to deliver protection and assistance □ Can effective implementing arrangements be made quickly and locally? If not, what are the alternatives? □ Is there already an identified refugee leadership with whom it will be possible to coordinate the delivery of protection and assistance? Is the leadership representative and fair to men and women? □ What are the logistical needs and how can they be met? □ Where will the necessary supplies come from? □ How will they reach the refugees? □ How will distribution be monitored? □ What storage is needed, where and how? □ Are there essential items which can only be obtained outside the region and whose early supply will be of critical importance (e.g. food, trucks, shelter materials?) □ What are the needs for UNHCR and implementing partner staff and staff support?

Annex 2: Potential protection risks: a non-exhaustive list

General profiles • gender (where there is gender discrimination); • age group; • stage in the refugee cycle (new arrivals, earlier arrivals); • socio-economic group (poorest, middle-income, highest-income); • ethnicity (in relation to other more dominant groups or in relation to host communities); • religion (where different from other groups or the host population); • type of household (extended family, single-headed, grandparent-headed, etc.); • location in camp/area (proximity to police posts, proximity to the periphery, danger points); • health status (malnutrition, poor health, chronic illness, disabilities, etc.); • educational level (literacy, skills, including language skills); • livelihood activities, access to and control over resources.

Physical risks: • refoulement; • arbitrary arrest/detention; • torture, abduction; • inadequate shelter, inadequate heat, clothing; • inadequate food and/or means of its preparation; • inadequate quantity and quality of water per person; • inadequate availability of firewood; • severe health risks and epidemics, inadequate access to medical services; • political violence; • physical violence, sexual and gender-based exploitation and violence; • forced military recruitment;

86 • rape (in camp/prison, during flight, or in host country); • domestic violence, abuse, neglect; • early pregnancies; • natural disasters (fire, flood, earthquake, landslides, etc.)

• trafficking.

Social risks: • lack of recognition as a person, absence of documentation (identity, birth, marriage papers, etc.); • lack of access to refugee registration process; • social discrimination/exclusion; • sexual exploitation, risk of forced prostitution; • discriminatory practices on the basis of gender, age, religion, tribe, clan, political affiliation, etc. Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response

• exposure to abuse and exploitation, particularly of children, youth, unaccompanied 5 and separated children; • separation of children (female and male) from their families; • lack of access to basic education; • disability; • forced interruption of education, exclusion, marginalization; • forced military recruitment.

Economic risks: • no access to a means of livelihood (e.g. employment, piecework, agriculture); • single parents looking after young children unable to leave the home to find work outside; • lack of labour power – those who are incapable of work and not living with relatives are likely to suffer more than the rest of the population of concern; • exploitation of refugee labour by local or refugee employers; • exploitation of refugee labour by local officials, etc.

Potential risks associated with cultural practices: • female genital mutilation, early marriage, bride price, etc.; • traditional justice systems.

87 Annex 3 – Themes and sample questions on protection risks

Livelihoods • What skills do women and men have that will enable them to earn an income? • How much time do women and men have to engage in income-generating activities? • Who does what in the community and how much time does it take? • Do women face problems of lack of access to markets, supplies, technology, credit, skills training, and information, and lack of decision-making powers? Do men face similar problems? • Who has access to various resources (e.g. who has jobs, access to markets, access to materials such as firewood)? • Who decides how resources are used? Who decides to integrate locally and who decides to return? • What is the impact of these problems on girls, boys, adolescents, women, men?

Education • What do girls and boys do with their time? • Who goes to school? Who does not get to go to school? • What do girls who do not go to school do with their time? And boys? • What do girls who do go to school do outside school? And boys? • Are you afraid (are your children afraid) of going to school or of anything at school? • Who stays at home? Who is in charge? What is the impact on the family? • How are girls and boys looked after if they remain behind to attend school when the parents return home?

Community participation • Do women participate in committees? Why not or how often? Do children participate in committees? • Can women make decisions? What do women think about that? And men? What is the impact in the community? • What would women and men like to do differently? How would you go about change? • How do women and men participate in reconstruction of their home country or in decision-making when settling locally?

Health/food/nutrition/water/shelter • What types of health problems are most widespread in the community? • Who takes care of people when they get sick? • Who do people go to see when they are not well? What happens if they get sick at night or over the weekend? What types of health problems are covered? Which are not covered? • Are there children in the community who do not get appropriate food? Other persons without proper/enough food? Are there malnourished children in the community? How are they treated? Can we visit them? • Do pregnant and lactating women eat differently from other household members?

88 • How do you use water? How do you maintain personal/community hygiene? • How could houses and neighborhoods be kept clean so as to avoid health risks? What is the lay-out/design of living arrangements? Town/camp?

Security and safety • What are the dangers that you experience in this environment? • Do you feel that your physical safety and security are at risk? At what time? Why? • What is the source of the danger? Who is involved? • What do you worry about when you leave your home? • What do you worry about for your children/husband/wife? • Are you aware of any incidents/problems that have threatened your friends or neighbours? • How can you put a stop to domestic violence?

• Does violence occur? What types of violence? Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response

• What do men think about it? And women? Girls and boys? What do you think 5 about it? • What can be done about it? • Where does the violence occur? (See below.)

Coping with risks and developing solutions • How do you think the situation could be improved? How do you and your neighbours cope with these risks? • What do you do to protect your children? • What services or activities are available to you to help address these risks? How can they help? • How in your culture/traditions were such problems dealt with/avoided before your displacement? How can that can be applied now? • Would you be willing to help in improving the situation? How do you think you could help?

Prioritizing risks: • Of all the issues just discussed, which do you consider the most important/urgent? • Who should be involved? • What might the community do to address this concern?

89 Annex 4: Systematization form for each sub-group discussion (Source: UNHCR CDGECS Section)

Group: ______Subgroup: (Sex:______Age group:_____)

No. of people:_____ Facilitators:______

Date: ______Location:______

Country: ______

Protection Causes Capacities Solutions Most important issues Urgent risks/incidents within the proposed by to address as expressed Follow-up community subgroups by people of concern action

Initial Participatory Assessment: Initial Participatory immediate response 5

91 6 Operations Planning

92 CONTENTS

Paragraph Page Introduction 1- 8 94

Operations planning tasks 9 95

Allocation of responsibilities 10-14 96

Gap identification chart 10 96 Operations Planning Roles and tasks

11 96 6

Figures: Figure 1: Example of a gap identification chart 97

Annexes: Annex 1: A model structure for an operations plan 98 Annex 2: Gap identification chart (blank) 99

93 Introduction contingency planning. The tasks and approach will be different primarily because 1. An emergency response requires good of assessments – in operations planning, planning. An important aspect of plan- the starting point is known and assess- ning, particularly in an emergency situa- ments of the situation replace the contin- tion, is the development of an operations gency planning scenarios and many of the plan. The “Operations Plan” is a vital assumptions. management tool which should be based on a problems, needs and resources as- 4. The participatory assessment with sessment. refugees should form the basis for the operations plan. They are the single most The plan should determine programme important resource in meeting their own priorities, set objectives, and specify ac- needs, and will have definite ideas on tions that need to be taken by the actors how this may best be done. The plan must responsible for the various sectors of an operation. strengthen the refugees’ own resources and self-reliance and avoid creating de-

pendency. The plan should also reflect the Specific tasks in an emergency and the aim of a durable solution. parties responsible for the implementation of these tasks need to be clearly identified 5. The operations plan must be compre- and a plan formulated in a clear and con- hensive, identifying all problems, needs crete way. and resources whether these are met through UNHCR or by other organizations At the start of an emergency there is a and sources of funds. Drawing up the op- tendency to postpone planning, both be- erations plan should be a multi-functional cause information is not available and team effort. Clear direction must, how- because there are obvious urgent needs ever, come from the government and/or which can be met piecemeal, without a UNHCR. plan. This tendency should be resisted. 2. The more critical the situation, the The most effective operations plans are more important it is for the operations those developed by or with the people who will implement them. manager to find the time to take stock, determine priorities and develop a plan for 6. Although the plan should be compre- what needs to be done, when, by whom hensive, this should be balanced by the and how. need to produce the plan quickly, so that in rapidly evolving emergencies the plan will 3. Ideally, the operations plan should not become outdated before it is finished. make use of the contingency planning In addition, lengthy plans can be difficult process, partners identified, and resourc- to update. Characteristics of a good plan es prepared, as well as the plan itself. As are discussed in paragraphs 23 to 25 of the same principles of planning apply, the chapter 4 on contingency planning. structure of the operations plan can be based on the contingency plan (also attached here as Annex 1). There are a range of additional considerations beyond what 7. It should be stressed that, as with is included in the Contingency planning contingency planning, operations planning is a process. format, many of which will be addressed over time. However, the main differences A plan, as a document, represents the between contingency planning and opera- outcome of the process. It should be kept tions planning and the characteristics of a updated in light of the evolving situa- good plan are discussed in chapter 4 on tion: implementation of the plan should 94 be monitored and corrective action taken, At the early stages of a major emergen- and the plan should then be adjusted and cy, it is unlikely that resources will be revised. The operations plan must be made sufficient to meet all needs, thus prioriti- available to all who need it. zation with the refugees will be an important part of operations planning. 8. This chapter focuses on operation plans developed with partners. Howev- iii. Set overall goals er, planning within the office should not The overall operation and strategic goals be neglected. Simple plans of action at must be protection based and defined and each administrative or office level within clarified. All other objectives and activi- UNHCR should also be drawn up, from ties should be consistent with these overall site to Headquarters, tying in with the objectives. In formulating objectives, the overall operations plan and involving the single most important question to ask is, same principles. These are: clarifying ob- “What is the intended result?” Objectives jectives, allocating responsibilities, defin- should be specific, measurable, achievable ing activities to achieve objectives, and

and realistic, and the time frame within Operations Planning defining coordination mechanisms such which they should be reached should be as staff meetings (discussed in chapter 20 specified. 6 on administration and staffing). iv. Clarify planning assumptions Operations planning tasks It will also be necessary to clarify the main constraints, planning assumptions 9. Operations planning involves the tasks and principles behind the emergency op- set out below: eration. These should be set out explicitly, i. Review existing plans and informa- including an explanation of the role, re- tion in the contingency plan; sponsibilities and policies of the government, UNHCR, other UN organizations ii. Assess problems, protection risks and operational partners. In addition, needs and resources: identify critical standard or established procedures, such unmet needs using age, gender and as monitoring and coordination mecha- diversity analysis. nisms, MOUs etc. should also be set out. The problems, protection risks, needs and Similarly, standards in various sectors and resource participatory assessments deter- any specific guidelines necessary should mine what must be done, and where the be specified (where the plan includes ob- priorities are; this is part of planning. Plans jectives, outputs and activities on a sec- must be updated to take account of new tor by sector basis). Although these issues assessments and progress in implementa- should have been in the contingency plan, tion. Identify critical unmet needs using they will need to be revisited in the light the results of the participatory assessments of the problem and needs assessments, and compare these with established stand- and restated as necessary to new partners, ards – the determination of the standards so everyone is working with the same as- to which assistance should be delivered is sumptions and to the same standards. of fundamental importance. The resources which are available and those that are required must also be identified. Resources v. Determine the courses of action to includes human resources, and personnel, reach overall objectives (implement- local and international implementing and ing arrangements) operational partners including material re- Consider various options to reach objec- sources. tives, their advantages and disadvantages; which are flexible, which are the most efficient and effective? Choosing an option 95 for implementing arrangements which re- Effective Planning Guidelines for UN- tains flexibility is important in a rapidly HCR Teams (updated in June 1999) pro- changing situation. Chapter 8 on imple- vides the most effective and efficient way menting arrangements discusses this in on managing the planning process at all more detail. levels of an operation. The assumption is that better planning processes lead to bet- vi. Determine objectives and courses of ter quality results delivered on time, in a action to reach objectives at sector cost effective manner. level Decide on the objectives, activities and Allocation of responsibilities outputs for each sector. As with contingency planning, this is the most detailed Gap identification chart part of the plan. The organization with 10. A gap identification chart is a simple operational responsibility for a particular but very important and useful tool to allo- sector or site should draw up the plan of cate responsibilities effectively and identi- action for that sector or site. Ensure that fy the critical unmet needs of the refugees each sector clearly outlines how the dif- site by site and sector by sector. It illus- ferent needs of women, girls, boys and trates who is responsible for what in an men will be met and highlight targeted operation (by site and sector) and points action to empower women and other dis- out gaps where a sector or site needs at- criminated groups. tention. Figure 1 shows an example where vii. Allocate responsibilities the blanks indicate “gaps” i.e. sites or sectors for which nobody has responsibility. Responsibilities, both within UNHCR and These would need to be given priority at- between different actors in the operation, tention. Annex 2 shows a blank chart that need to be clearly stated. can be used. viii. Determine coordination mechanisms Coordination mechanisms should be es- Roles and tasks tablished between the different actors in 11. The roles and tasks of all involved the operation. Coordination at different must be clearly stated. Delay in defining geographical levels (e.g. at the site and in responsibility usually leads to each party the capital or regional city) needs also to defining goals independently and setting be assured. In a large operation, it may be their own limits of responsibility. This in necessary to have separate coordination turn can lead quickly to confusion, gaps mechanisms for sectors. and duplication. Responsibilities should ix. Determine monitoring mechanisms be defined for each administrative level, and for both organizations and individu- From the start, the management of a refu- als. How responsibilities are allocated to gee emergency must include continuous individuals is discussed in chapter 20 on monitoring (by measuring the indicators administration and staffing. of performance) together with the community, reporting and evaluation in order 12. Responsibilities are allocated to dif- to ensure that the objectives remain appro- ferent organizations in a refugee emer- priate as circumstances change, and the gency primarily through organizations’ activities to fulfill the objectives are being mandates, international instruments and carried out effectively. pre-existing MOUs between organizations. x. Record and disseminate the plan, monitor progress, take corrective ac- 13. The responsibilities and roles, in re- tion, and adjust and revise the plan sponse to the specific needs of the emergency situation and capacities of the dif- 96 ferent parties, are defined in more detail Figure 1 – An example of a Gap on the ground. These are set out in imple- Identification Chart menting agreements with implementing Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 partners, MOUs and exchange of letters Overall site Agency M Agency M Agency R with other UN agencies, and agreements management with the government. Protection UNHCR UNHCR UNHCR Food Agency B Agency K If formal agreements have not yet been distribution drawn up and the basis of cooperation Shelter Agency B Agency Y remains a Letter of Intent, the definition of responsibilities contained in the Water Agency W Agency W operations plan is to be considered the Health Agency H Agency H primary reference. Etc. See Annex 1 of the chapter 8 implement- Prevention ing arrangements for a format of a Letter and response to SGBV of Intent. Operations Planning Unaccom- 14. The responsibilities of organizations panied and 6 delivering assistance but which are not separated children implementing partners of UNHCR must also be defined. This may create problems, particularly where individual NGOs wish to have responsibility for a specific sector. Final authority rests with the government, and the Representative or the operations manager should consult closely with the authorities. To the extent possible, however, any conflict of interest should be resolved within the framework of a coordinating mechanism.

97 Annex 1 – A model structure for an operations plan Based on the problem, needs and resources assessments The following is a proposed structure for an operations plan. It is based on a refugee influx. Adaptation will naturally be required for different situations.

Chapter 1: General situation i. Background, country information and results of participatory assessments by age and sex ii. Entry points iii. Agreed planning figures iv. Arrival rate v. Reception and in-country movement vi. Settlement arrangements vii. Demographic profile of the refugees, including data disaggregates by age and sex

Chapter 2: Policies and overall operation objectives i. Overall policy (strategic) objectives of the programme ii. Comments on policy stance of various partners

Chapter 3: Objectives and activities by sector i. Management and overall coordination; allocation of responsibilities ii. Protection, reception, registration, security iii. Identification of groups with specific iv. Food v. Logistics and transport vi. Infrastructure and site planning vii. Shelter viii. Domestic needs, sanitary materials and household support ix. Water x. Environmental sanitation xi. Health and nutrition xii. Community-based activities xiii. Prevention and response to SGBV xiv. Education xv. Economic activities xvi. Support to the operation, administration, communications, staff support and safety

Each section should include overall sector objectives, and site by site objectives and outputs, problems, needs, resources, financial requirements, activities, implementation responsibilities and timing.

Chapter 4: Procedures for updating the operations plan Describe how the plan will be updated, who will be responsible for ensuring this and how the information will be disseminated.

98 Possible annexes i. Maps ii. Registration forms iii. List of organizations or individuals participating in the operation iv. Agency profiles (details of staff and resources involved in the operation) v. Gap identification charts vi. Commodity specifications vii. Budgets

Annex 2 – Gap Identification Chart (blank) Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Overall site

management Operations Planning

Protection 6 Registration Shelter Water Health Nutrition Sanitation Distribution Other

99 7 Coordination and Site Level Organization

100 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Coordination 1-15 102 Introduction 1 102 Coordination of the UN response to refugee emergencies 4 102

Mechanisms for coordination in refugee emergencies 5 102

Collaborative response to Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) and other complex emergencies 16-18 103 Coordination and Site Level Organization

The cluster approach 19-26 104 7 Introduction 19 104 Responsibilities of the cluster lead 20 104 Accountability 22 105

Organization at the site level 27-39 105 Introduction 27 105 Community organization 31 106 Community involvement 33 106 Refugee representation 38 107

Camp coordination and camp management in internally displaced persons situations 40-45 108 Introduction 40 108 Camp coordination 41 108 Camp administration 42 108 Camp management 44 109

Key References

Annexes Annex 1: Elements of a coordinating body 110 Annex 2: Tips on running a meeting 111

101 Coordination the site level, otherwise it may even be counter-productive. Introduction 6. Mechanisms for coordination include: 1. Coordination can be defined as the harmonious and effective interaction of i. international and regional instruments people and organizations towards a com- and agreements which define respon- mon goal. sibilities and roles at the global (and sometimes regional or country) level; 2. Good coordination should result in: ii. Memoranda of Understanding and i. maximum impact for a given level of exchange of letters with other agen- resources; cies, and agreements with implement- ii. elimination of gaps and overlaps in ing partners and host governments, services; defining responsibilities and roles at iii. appropriate division of responsibili- the situational level; ties; and iii. a coordinating body; iv. uniform treatment and standards of iv. sectoral committees as necessary; protection and services for all the v. regular meetings; beneficiaries. vi. reporting and information sharing; 3. For effective coordination appropriate vii. joint services and facilities, for exam- approaches and structures will need to be ple, vehicle repair services, commu- put in place at the various levels. Coor- nications, and a joint staff security dination requires good management and group; and clearly defined objectives, responsibilities viii. codes of conduct for organizations and authority. working in humanitarian emergencies. Coordination is not free: it has costs in terms of time and other resources needed to make it work. 7. Whatever the implementing arrangements, a single coordinating body Coordination of the UN response to refu- should be established for the operation gee emergencies – for example, a task force, commission, or operations centre. 4. Within the UN system the responsibility for refugees lies with UNHCR. There- 8. The coordinating body will provide a fore, in refugee emergencies UNHCR framework within which the implementa- should take the lead to ensure effective tion of the programme can be coordinated coordination and is responsible for coor- and management decisions taken. The dinating the response of the UN system to coordinating body should have clearly de- the emergency. fined and well promulgated responsibility and authority. Mechanisms for coordination in refugee 9. The elements of a coordinating body, emergencies including membership and functions, are 5. Effective coordination is the result of described in Annex 1. Tips for running sound management. Coordination mecha- meetings, including coordinating meet- nisms set up without the establishment ings are given in Annex 2. of clear objectives and assignment of responsibility and authority will be ineffec- 10. Where a coordinating structure does tive. Coordination must be based on good not already exist, UNHCR should, in co- information exchange, particularly with operation with the government, take the lead in setting up the coordinating body

102 and mechanism. This is a crucial compo- 15. Coordination must be based on good nent of UNHCR’s leadership role. The co- information exchange, particularly with ordinating body may be set up and chaired the site level. The framework for the or- by the government with strong support ganization and coordinating mechanisms from UNHCR, or be co-chaired by the at the site level is likely to broadly reflect government and UNHCR, or be chaired that established centrally. To get infor- by UNHCR alone. mation passed vertically between central level and site level can be as hard as get- 11. The membership of the coordinating ting information passed between organi- body should include government min- zations. Each organization should be re- istries and departments, as well as other sponsible for ensuring that there is good UN agencies, NGOs and other concerned communication between its staff at site organizations. It is important to coordi- level and centrally, and that important in- nate the activity of all NGOs – whether formation is then passed on to the coordi- they have entered into an implement- nation body. ing agreement with UNHCR or not. In a large scale emergency with a number of The collaborative response to Inter- actors, the coordinating body could be- nally Displaced Persons (IDPs) and Coordination and Site Level Organization come unwieldy. However, it should still other complex emergencies 7 be possible to ensure some degree of representation or participation on the coordi- 16. Other than refugee emergencies, nating body by all actors either directly, or UNHCR might be called upon to oper- on sectoral committees, or through close ate in situations of internal dispalcement working partners who are represented on caused by conflict and so-called “complex the coordinating body. emergencies”. The “Guiding Principles1 on Internal Displacement” define inter- 12. The coordinating body should hold nally displaced persons as individuals or regular, formal meetings during which groups of persons who have been forced overall progress is reviewed and plans ad- or obliged to flee or to leave their homes justed. These meetings should be comple- or places of habitual residence, in par- mented by informal contacts with mem- ticular as a result of or in order to avoid bers of the coordinating body. the effects of armed conflict, situations of 13. When required, the coordinating generalized violence, violations of human body should create sectoral committees, rights or natural or human-made disasters, for example for health and nutrition. Such and who have not crossed an internation- committees will be responsible for coor- ally recognized State border. A complex dinating implementation in that sector and emergency can be defined as: a multi-fac- reporting back to the coordinating body. eted humanitarian crisis in a country, They could also play an important part in region or society where there is a total the development of specific standards for or considerable breakdown of author- the delivery of assistance. When the oper- ity resulting from internal or external ation is sufficiently large, a sectoral com- conflict, sometimes compounded by mittee could be coordinated by a UNHCR natural calamities and which requires sector coordinator. 1 Unlike in the case of refugees there are no spe- 14. A coordinating body can also be of cific conventions relating to the status, rights and considerable value when new agencies ar- duties of IDPs as well as the roles, responsibilities, rive, both in integrating their assistance in and mandates of governments and international organizations towards IDPs. The full text of the the overall programme and with practical “Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement” administrative arrangements and briefing. can be found on RefWorld (CD-ROM and on www. unhcr.org/refworld). 103 an international response that goes be- partnerships between the agencies of the yond the mandate or capacity of any UN system, the Red Cross/Red Crescent single agency and/or the ongoing UN movement and Non-Government Or- country programme. ganizations (NGOs). In order to build a stronger and more predictable standing 17. Likely characteristics of both Inter- nally Displaced Persons and complex humanitarian response system the “Clus- emergencies include: ter” approach was introduced for new major emergencies. Under this framework i. a large number of civilian victims, the following clusters and “cluster leads” populations who are besieged or were designated: displaced; ii. human suffering on a major scale; Cluster Field Cluster Lead iii. substantial international assistance is Nutrition UNICEF needed and the response goes beyond Water and sanitation UNICEF the mandate or capacity of any one Health WHO agency; Camp coordination and UNHCR (For conflict- management generated IDPs) iv. delivery of humanitarian assistance IOM (For natural- is impeded or prevented by parties to disaster generated the conflict; IDPs) Emergency shelter UNHCR (For conflict- v. high security risks for relief workers generated IDPs) providing humanitarian assistance; IFRC(For natural- and disaster generated IDPs) vi. relief workers targeted by parties to Protection subgroups UNHCR (For conflict- the conflict. generated IDPs) 18. In complex emergencies involving IFRC(For natural- disaster generated refugees and mixed IDP-refugee casel- IDPs) oads, UNHCR will remain solely respon- Logistics WFP sible for protection and assistance ac- Telecoms OCHA for overall tivities on behalf of the refugees. As the Process Owner cluster lead, UNHCR might either directly UNICEF for Common Data Services assume or delegate to another agency the WFP for Common responsibility for a) protection, b) emer- Security gency shelter, and c) camp coordination Telecommunications and camp management for conflict gener- Service ated IDPs. Early Recovery UNDP However, it remains accountable to the ERC that effective protection and assis- Responsibilities of the cluster lead tance is being delivered. 20. The general responsibility and accountability of cluster leads entails: The cluster approach i. preparedness for response to new Introduction crisis and certain current crisis; 19. In 2005, in the context of UN reform, ii. capacity assessment and developing a review was undertaken which found capacity within the cluster; and that the humanitarian response to crisis iii. commitments to contribute to these situations is sometimes slow, inadequate functions and mechanisms for deliv- and unpredictable. The review confirmed ering on commitments. capacity gaps in key sectors and recog- 21. As the “port of first call and the pro- nized need for improved cooperation and vider of last resort” the cluster lead is 104 responsible for providing an adequate re- The protection of refugees must remain sponse to the needs of the beneficiaries in the sole prerogative of the High Com- a given cluster. missioner. However, in his/her capacity as “cluster lead” the UNHCR Represent- However, the cluster lead might delegate ative supports the Humanitarian Coor- its lead and coordination role at the Field dinator and the Inter-Agency Standing level to another agency which is better Committee Country Team. placed to perform its duties. 26. In whatever function and situation, it The cluster lead also needs to engage and is important to understand that UNHCR, mobilize all members of the cluster in a as part of the UN system, has to be an ef- collegial and collaborative manner in or- fective team player that delivers on the der to provide effective protection and as- commitments made by the High Commis- sistance to IDPs.

sioner in the UN and Humanitarian Re- form process. As a member in all relevant Accountability clusters it has to support their respective 22. At the global level, cluster leads are leads. As a cluster lead itself, UNHCR accountable to the Emergency Relief has to discharge its functions effectively Coordination and Site Level Organization Coordinator. At the country level, how- and with full respect to the mandates, ca- 7 ever, cluster leads are accountable to the pacities, and cultures of the other partner Humanitarian Coordinator for ensuring organizations. It has to show due respect adequate preparedness and effective re- to the national authorities and should not sponses in the sectors or areas of activity attempt, willing or unwillingly, to assume concerned. roles and responsibilities which rest with 23. The Emergency Relief Coordinator the authorities. (ERC), appoints a “Humanitarian Coordi- nator” for countries facing an IDP situa- Organization at the site level tion or a complex emergency, and is sup- Introduction ported by the Office for the Coordination 27. The framework for the organization of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). At the and coordinating mechanisms at the site country level, the Humanitarian Coor- level are likely to reflect broadly those dinator retains overall responsibility for established centrally. However, there is ensuring the effectiveness of the humani- one fundamental difference between the tarian response and is accountable to the site and central levels: at the site level the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC). refugees themselves should play a major 24. Other partners of the collaborative role. approach are the government and local authorities, the IASC Country Team, i.e. The organization of the humanitarian re- the UN agencies, international organisa- sponse should support the refugee community to enhance their own abilities to tions, Red Cross/Crescent Movement, and provide for themselves. international and local NGOs, donors and bilateral agencies. 28. A clear understanding of the aims and objectives of the emergency operation and 25. The UNHCR Representative remains proper coordination are even more impor- directly responsible to the High Commis- tant at the site level than centrally, for it is sioner on all issues related to the UNHCR here that failures and misunderstandings country programme, as well as policy will directly affect the refugees. matters and issues related to UNHCR’s mandate.

105 traditional social patterns, and changes Of particular importance will be the caused by displacement (e.g. numbers of adoption of common standards when a number of organizations are providing unaccompanied and separated child and similar assistance. grandparent headed households, single women, especially women). Larger units Regular meetings of those concerned for organizational and representational are essential. There should be an overall purposes will again follow the community coordinating mechanism chaired by the structure. For example, the next level up is government authority, UNHCR and/or an likely to be community units of about 80 operational partner, and this mechanism to 100 people, grouped according to liv- may be complemented by sectoral/cluster ing arrangements, followed by groups of committees. communities of about 1,000 people. It is 29. Certain activities are interdependent important to respect the needs of minor- or have a common component and will ity groups and be sensitive to any tension need particularly close coordination at site in the city. Different settlement services level. For example, environmental sanita- are decentralized to these different levels tion measures must be closely coordinated – e.g. water and latrines at household lev- with health services, and the home visit- el, and education and health facilities at ing component of health care with feeding community and larger levels. The physi- programmes and community services. cal layout of the site will have a major influence on social organization. 30. A rapid changeover of outside personnel can create major problems for site Generally, the smaller the settlement the level coordination, though some special- better – the overriding aim should be to ists may obviously be required for short avoid high density, large camps periods. The importance of continuity is proportional to the closeness of contact Community participation with the refugees. Operational partners at 33. Refugee women, girls, men and boys the site should have a standard orientation must be involved in designing and plan- and briefing procedure to ensure continu- ning measures to meet their needs and in ity of action and policy despite changes in implementing those measures. The way personnel. the community is organized can help ensure that the refugees’ specific skills are Community organization made use of and that the personnel for 31. The importance of preserving and pro- services at the site will come from the moting a sense of community is stressed refugees. in chapters 11 and 12 on community based 34. There are three levels of refugee in- approach and community services and volvement. The first is in the overall plan- site selection/planning. The approach to ning and organization, for example the thinking about and understanding site and determination of what is the best, and community organization should be from culturally most appropriate, solution to a the smallest unit – the family – upwards, problem, given the constraints of the situ- rather than imposed from the largest unit ation. This level requires that the refugees downwards, which would be unlikely have a social organization within their to reflect natural or existing community community that is properly representative structures and concerns. of women and men of all age groups and 32. The basic planning unit for site or- backgrounds. As the previous social struc- ganization and management is likely tures may have been severely disrupted, therefore to be the family, subject to this may take time to re-build but will be 106 important to the success of the emergency conditions, mother and child care and the operation and for the future of the refu- use of unfamiliar latrines is an example. gees. Meanwhile, urgent action to meet As another example, if unfamiliar foods evident needs must of, course, be taken. or preparation methods have to be used, then immediate practical instruction is es- 35. The second level of involvement is sential. Information and guidance of this in the practical engagement of refugees’ sort are best given by the refugees them- skills and resources wherever possible in selves (including women and youth), with the implementation of the operation. The outside assistance. Information and in- refugees themselves should run their own creased awareness regarding their rights community as far as possible but special and obligations and the roles of the differ- attention is required to ensure respect ent actors protecting and assisting them is for individual rights and gender equality. essential. Where suitably qualified or experienced refugees exist, such as nurses, teachers Refugee representation and traditional health workers, they must obviously be involved. Where they do not, 38. Refugee settlements are not, typical- outside assistance should ensure that refu- ly, simple replicas of former community Coordination and Site Level Organization life, and large numbers of refugees may gees are trained to take over from those 7 who are temporarily filling the gap. Other be living temporarily outside their tradi- services include feeding programmes, tional community leadership structures. sanitation, (maintenance and cleaning of However, in nearly every emergency, latrines, drainage, garbage disposal, vec- some refugee leaders, spokespersons, or tor control, etc.) construction (shelters and respected elders will be present. It will be communal buildings) education, tracing necessary to define with the community and general administration. Note that an the method of choosing leaders to ensure outreach programme to identify women fair representation with gender parity and and adolescents, who often have the nec- meaningful participation in both the plan- essary skills, might be necessary. ning and implementation of the emergency programme. The more the settlement 36. At the same time, other traditional differs from former community life, the skills – for example in construction or more important this action is likely to be well-digging – should be harnessed. It is to the success of the programme. important to study roles and responsibilities to see what women and men do to However, be aware that some new power ensure implementation builds on these structures might emerge, for example skills and supports gender equality. While through force, and may exercise de facto specific measures to develop self-reli- control over the population, but may not be representative. ance will vary with each situation, their aim should always be to avoid or reduce 39. The system of refugee representation the refugees’ dependence on outside as- should: sistance. The more successful measures i. Be truly representative of the differ- are generally those based on methods and ent interests and sectors of the com- practices familiar to the refugees. munity, and of both men and women. 37. The third level is in providing infor- ii. Include various levels of representa- mation to the community on life in their tives and leaders to ensure adequate new situation, which may be markedly representation and access for indi- different from their previous experience. vidual refugees particularly minority Public health education in such matters groups and those with specific needs. as the importance of hygiene in crowded 107 iii. Avoid unconscious bias, for example all personnel on the Secretary General’s on the basis of language. Bear in Bulletin on SEA and Code of Conduct); mind that there is no reason why a and that service providers (Implement- refugee should be representative of ing Partners/Operational Partners) are the community simply because he identified, designated and mainstreamed or she has a common language with on age, gender and diversity perspective. those providing outside assistance. The monitoring and evaluation of service iv. Be based on traditional leadership provision should be carried out in coor- systems as much as possible but dination with the women, girls, men and provided these allow proper represen- boys of the community. Advocacy and tation (for example, if the traditional interface with national authorities at all leadership system excludes women, levels, in order to create the humanitarian there should nevertheless be women space necessary for an effective delivery representatives) and the system re- of protection and assistance, is an integral spects the rights of individual mem- part of the camp coordination function. It bers of the city. also includes the responsibility to set-up v. Be consistent with the physical divi- and maintain information management sions in the layout of the site. systems that allow all partners and service vi. Represent the interests for children providers to access and share operational and include adolescent girls and boys. data at camp and inter-camp levels.

Camp administration Camp coordination and camp management in IDP situations 42. All responsibilities, such as overall camp supervision and security; maintain- Introduction ing law and order as well as the civil- 40. Although UNHCR is the designated ian and non-militarized character of the cluster lead for Camp Coordination and camp; and the issuance of documentation, Camp Management (CCCM), in reality, permits and licenses (birth certificates, ID there are at least three main actors with cards, travel permits, etc.) all fall under specific roles and responsibilities: the prerogative of governments, national and local (civilian) authorities, and are Actor Responsibility called camp administration. Governments and national Camp administration authorities (supervision) 43. It is an obligation of the camp admin- UN Agencies/ International Camp coordination istration to secure the land and occupancy Organizations designated as IASC ‘cluster’ leads rights for a temporary settlement, as well Camp Managing Agency, Camp management as to compensate the legal owners. The normally national or administration must also prevent owners international NGOs and proprietors from enforcing claims against individual camp residents and /or Camp coordination agencies working in the camp that would 41. Camp coordination takes place at two be tantamount to payments (rent, sale, levels: at the inter-camp (or national) lev- compensation, etc.) or which would result el and at the level of an individual camp. in an eviction, dislocation or any other Camp coordination is used to describe all further displacement of those living in the responsibilities linked to the lead develop- camp before they can regain their original ment of national or regional plans, includ- homes, in safety and dignity, or be providing exit strategies and solutions. It must ed with shelter that conforms to minimum ensure that international standards are ap- standards. plied and maintained (including training 108 Camp management the responsibility of another cluster (nutri- 44. Camp management focuses on: tion, water and sanitation for example). It is the responsibility of CCCM agencies to i. establishing camp governance and identify such gaps and bring them to the community participation (with 50% attention of the respective cluster lead. female participation) / mobilization mechanisms; Key references ii. maintenance of camp infra-structure; A Framework for People-Oriented Plan- iii. data collection and sharing; ning in Refugee Situations: taking account iv. providing defined services; of Women, Men and Children, UNHCR, v. monitoring the service delivery with Geneva, 1992. the participation of the community Partnership: A Programme Management and of other providers in accordance Handbook for UNHCR’s Partners, UN- with agreed standards, in order to HCR, Geneva 1996. avoid the duplication of activities and emergence of protection and assist- UNHCR Handbook; People-Oriented

ance gaps; and Planning at Work: Using POP to Improve Coordination and Site Level Organization UNHCR Programming, UNHCR, Gene- vi. ensuring community complaints 7 mechanisms are established and va, 1994. known to all. Norwegian Refugee Council: Camp Man- Camp management agencies should ap- agement Toolkit, 2004 ply a community-based approach and IASC gender mainstreaming handbook have a proven track record in practical application of gender equality policies (Draft) 2006 and child protection as well as in the UNHCR Handbook on Protection of Dis- protection of the rights of women and placed Women and Girls (Provisional re- girls. lease) 2006 45. Camp Coordination and Camp Man- UNHCR Tool for Participatory Assess- agement (CCCM) agencies do not have ment, 2006 the responsibility to provide services within a camp environment that fall under

109 Annex 1 Elements of a coordinating body Each of the factors listed below would need to be evaluated against the particular context and policy of the host government. At the beginning of the operation UNHCR should secure a suitable meeting room for coordination meetings.

Membership The nature of the coordinating body and its usefulness will be determined partly by its membership. 1. Criteria for participation: i. Provision of direct services ii. Regular attendance at coordination meetings iii. Compliance with service guidelines and standards iv. Regular financial contributions to coordination mechanism

2. Other organizations may wish to attend coordination meetings without full participation in the coordination mechanism: i. Organizations which may choose not to fully participate, e.g. ICRC ii. Funding organizations and donor representatives iii. Public interest groups iv. Military forces

Functions of the coordination body 1. Meetings. These may be needed at the central and the site level, and include: i. overall coordination meetings, which may be needed daily at the start of an emergency; ii. sectoral committee meetings (e.g. health, registration, water); and iii. conferences.

2. Identification of needed services and soliciting voluntary agencies to assume responsibilities for the provision of these services. 3. Monitor respect for International Protection standards. 4. Allocation of donated commodities and financial contributions. 5. Guidelines and standards for the provision of services. 6. Orientation of newly arrived agencies. 7. Orientation of incoming staff. 8. Research and documentation. 9. Support for settlement coordination committees. 10. Coordination with agencies outside the country. 11. Information sharing. 12. Fund raising. 13. Gender balance in staffing. 14. Ensure training of all humanitarian and government personnel on the Secretary General’s Bulletin and Code of Conduct.

110 Annex 2 – Tips on running a meeting 1. Set clear objectives for the meeting • Why is the meeting needed and what is the expected outcome? (Communication? Problem-solving? Planning? Decision-making?) • Who should attend the meeting? • Should the meeting be formal or informal?

2. Prepare an agenda • Make a written agenda with clear objectives and approximate timing for each item. • Ensure that the agenda states why the meeting is needed. • Make sure the agenda is realistic (not too many items) and sequence the items appropriately.

• Put the difficult, important issues near the beginning (perhaps dealing first with something quick and simple). • Plan breaks if the meeting is more than 1 hour in length.

• Avoid mixing information sharing and decision-making in the same meeting – hold Coordination and Site Level Organization

separate meetings for these functions. 7

3. Documentation • Circulate a detailed agenda, list of participants and any background documentation (such as minutes of previous meetings) in advance (but not too far ahead), 2 to 3 days before the meeting is best. • Indicate the time, place and duration of the meeting. • Prepare audio-visual materials in advance.

4. Seating arrangements • Choose a circular or rectangular table. • Avoid a long, narrow table if possible as this makes communication more difficult. • In an informal setting, a semicircle of chairs facing a flip chart is the best. • Everyone should be able to see each other. • Participants should not be too crowded or too far apart.

5. During the meeting • Start on time. • Have the participants introduce themselves if they do not know each other. • Clarify the objective(s) of the meeting and review the agenda and time limits. • Outline how the meeting will be conducted (methodology). • Identify the rapporteur or secretary for the meeting. • Ask the participants if they agree to the agenda and be flexible on minor changes if there is consensus. • If applicable, review action items of previous meeting(s). • Make sure you have everyone’s attention before opening the meeting.

111 6. During the meeting the chairman or facilitator should: • Avoid getting personally involved in the discussions. • Keep an overall view of the objective(s). • Do not lose the thread of the argument. • Stick to the agenda (but be flexible within agenda items). • Ask for information and opinions. • Summarize and reformulate key points (have the rapporteur or secretary use the flip chart to record the points as they occur). • Clarify and elaborate where needed. • Concentrate on key issues and stop digressions. • Test for consensus. • Ensure everyone gets a chance to speak. • Assign responsibilities and deadlines for agreed tasks (action, responsibility, and date by agenda item). • Set date, time and place for next meeting. • Close the meeting on time, on a decided and positive note.

7. After the meeting • Keep a record of the meeting. It should include the following basic items: i. a list of the participants noting those who were invited but did not attend, ”apolo- gies” list; ii. the conclusions, decisions, recommendations and the follow up action required, by agenda item, with the name of the person responsible for action and time frame; and iii. the time, date and place of the next meeting.

Note: working in small groups Dividing the participants into small groups can be useful in large meetings (more than 12 participants), when discussions are lengthy. Depending on the subject, it can allow in-depth discussion on specific questions and possibly help to solve problems.

112

Coordination and Site Level Organization 7

113 8 Implementing arrangements

114 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1 116

Implementing arrangements 2-12 116 Degree of operational responsibility of UNHCR 4-6 116-117 The operational role of the government 7-8 117 The operational role of UN agencies 9 117 Non-governmental organizations 10-12 117-118

Implementing procedures 13-29 118 The Letter of Instruction (LOI) 13-16 118 Implementing agreements 17-21 118-119 Implementing arrangements

Administrative expenditure by implementing partners 22 119 8 Direct UNHCR expenditure 23 119 Procurement 24-28 119-120 Contributions in-kind 29 120

Monitoring, reporting and evaluation 30-37 120-121

Special considerations 38-48 121-123 Payment for the purchase or rent of refugee-occupied land 39 121 Payment to refugees 40-43 121-122 Provision of services to the local population 44-45 122 Corruption 46 122 Political and religious activity 47-48 123

Key references Annexes Annex 1: Sample Letter of Mutual Intent to Conclude an Agreement 124 Annex 2: Procurement by a UNHCR Branch Office (Field location) 129 Annex 3: Workplan 133 Annex 4: Example of a Standard Emergency Situation Report (SITREP) 79-80 134 Annex 5: Format for reporting on population in Emergency Situation Reports 81 136

115 Introduction 3. The origin of this policy is found in the 1. Appropriate arrangements to imple- Statute of UNHCR. Article 1 requires the ment an emergency operation will be fun- High Commissioner to seek “permanent damental to its success. UNHCR has a solutions for the problem of refugees by unique statutory responsibility for the pro- assisting Governments and, subject to the vision of international protection. How- approval of the Governments concerned, ever, there is no such unique statutory private organizations...“. In accordance responsibility for the provision and distri- with Article 10, the High Commissioner bution of material assistance to refugees, “shall administer any funds, public or which might be carried out by other or- private, which he/she receives for assist- ganizations – governmental, UN agencies, ance to refugees, and shall distribute them NGOs, as well as directly by UNHCR. among the private and, as appropriate, There are a number of factors which will public agencies which he/she deems best influence the implementing arrangements qualified to administer such assistance”. for assistance operations. This chapter outlines implementing arrangements and procedures in emergencies including mon- Degree of operational responsibility of itoring, reporting and evaluation. UNHCR UNHCR guidelines for standard procedures must 4. Although UNHCR normally seeks to be referred to for more detail. implement indirectly through an implementing partner, there are circumstances in which it may be necessary, especially Implementing arrangements in the interests of refugees, for UNHCR to assume greater operational responsibility. 2. Depending on the scale and needs of UNHCR’s degree of direct operational re- the emergency, a number of different im- sponsibility will vary for each emergency plementing arrangements may be needed situation, and also with time as the opera- in the various sectors. One organization tion evolves. might have operational responsibility for health care, and another for logistics. Even 5. Factors influencing the degree of op- within a sector, operational responsibility erational responsibility undertaken by may have to be split up. Different opera- UNHCR, other organizations and the gov- tional partners might have responsibility ernment include the following: for health care in different refugee sites or i. The government’s capacity to man- communities. In UNHCR terminology, age the refugee emergency, because an operating partner is an organization of the scale, nature, location of the or agency that works in partnership with emergency, and ability of existing UNHCR to protect and assist refugees, government structures to respond. and an implementing partner is an opera- ii. The existence and capacity of other tional partner that signs an implementing organizations in the country, and in agreement with UNHCR and is partially the sectors where assistance is most or fully funded by UNHCR. needed. iii. The stage of the emergency. At the Whenever possible, UNHCR seeks to start of an emergency, the govern- implement assistance indirectly through an implementing partner rather than di- ment itself frequently has full opera- rectly. tional responsibility. For example, a new influx is often first assisted by the local district and provincial au-

116 thorities. On the other hand, in other Every effort should be made to resist the circumstances, it is often at the start creation of such specialized departments. of an emergency where UNHCR has the greatest operational responsibil- The operational role of UN agencies ity because there may be no suitable 9. UNHCR always retains responsibility operational/implementing partner for the protection needs of refugees, but the immediately available within the refugees’ material needs are likely to fall country. within sectors for which other organiza- 6. Where UNHCR does assume a high tions in the UN system have special com- degree of operational responsibility, swift petence through their mandate, experience action is needed to ensure that the neces- and capacity, e.g. WFP and UNICEF (see sary personnel and expertise are available, chapter 16 on WFP roles and responsibili- by obtaining the rapid deployment of suf- ties on food assistance). The roles and re- ficient UNHCR staff (see chapter 23 on sponsibilities of UN agencies are defined administration and emergency staffing). through their mandates and MOUs, and At the same time, other organizations situation-specific responsibilities are set should be identified and mobilized to as- out in exchanges of letters and agreements sume responsibilities in the various sec- – this should avoid duplication, minimize tors as soon as possible. gaps, and clarify roles on the basis of rec- Implementing arrangements ognition of comparative advantages. 8 The operational role of the government 7. Whatever the implementing arrange- Non-governmental organizations ments, overall responsibility remains with 10. Where the government is not the im- the host government, assisted by UNHCR. plementing partner in a particular sector, The government’s concurrence must, in there may be advantages to selecting a accordance with Article 1 of the Statute, national organization or an NGO with the be sought on the proposed implementing required capacity as a partner. National arrangements. or locally-based organizations may already be delivering emergency assistance, 8. The government may not have the would already have staff on the ground, capacity to be the primary operational or- and would already be familiar with the ganization, but may play a major role in country. the implementation of various activities of UNHCR and donors. In this case, it 11. Many international NGOs have great is preferable to ensure that the policy arm experience of refugee emergencies and of the government (e.g. the Ministry of some can deploy teams and resources at the Interior) is separate from the “opera- short notice, both for specific sectors and tional” entities, since, as recipients of UN- for general management. In addition to HCR funds, the relationship with the latter their own staff, they will also know of a is substantially different. wide circle of individuals with the appropriate skills and experience. International It is preferable that the implementation NGOs already working in the country of programmes be carried out by exist- may be strengthened by their headquar- ing line ministries, e.g. the Ministry of ters. For instance, under the overall re- Health for health programmes, Ministry of Education, Ministry for Gender etc. sponsibility of the national Red Cross or As a rule, new government departments Red Crescent Society, IFRC/ICRC may should not be specifically created to re- be able to strengthen quickly the capacity spond to the refugee emergency. of the national society to implement the emergency operation.

117 12. Criteria for the selection of imple- needs, pending the formulation of an as- menting partners may be found in chapter sistance project based on a detailed needs 4 of the UNHCR Manual. Nonetheless, and resources assessment. Thus, in order it is important to select partners with a to ensure continued assistance once these sound track record in community-based funds are exhausted or the initial project approach in child protection and promot- is terminated, the manager of the opera- ing women’s rights and gender equality. tion should, as soon as possible, send to Headquarters a detailed project proposal Implementing procedures for the issuance of an LOI, in accordance with the procedures set out in Chapter 4 of Implementing procedures are subject the UNHCR Manual. to change. The forms, terms, documentation, procedures and references (e.g. 15. The minimum information which the chapter 4 of the UNHCR Manual) referred Field Office must send to Headquarters to in this section from paragraphs 13 to in order for the initial spending authority 31 may change from time to time. How- to be issued is a budget proposal in US ever, the basic principles should remain dollars at the sector level. No project de- the same. scription or work plan is required. 13. Authority to implement activities 16. Actual expenditures must be charged envisaged in an operations plan must be to the appropriate project under which im- given formally through an implementing plementation is taking place and must be instrument which defines the conditions recorded at a more detailed level (i.e. cost which govern project implementation and center, programme, sector activity, situa- authorizes the expenditure of funds. Such tion and account code (former FMIS sub- authorization is usually given through a item), as well as other MSRP chartfields Letter of Instruction (LOI) which author- such as “Theme” or “Donor Restriction”, izes the UNHCR Representative to im- as required. Procedures concerning dis- plement projects directly or to enter into bursements and payment vouchers must implementing agreements with imple- adhere to the existing Financial Rules. menting partners. Implementing agreements Any party disbursing UNHCR funds must have a formal signed agreement 17. Implementation of all or part of a with UNHCR. project may be sub-contracted to one or more implementing partners. A party dis- 14. However, in order to allow for im- bursing UNHCR funds must have a for- plementation to commence prior to the mal signed agreement with UNHCR. The establishment of a formal LOI, particular- agreement must be based on the internal ly if it is not possible to reallocate funds delegation of authority, and must com- under an existing LOI, Headquarters ply with the terms of the authority (i.e. can give the Representative in a country initial spending authority or an LOI) and where an emergency is rapidly evolving the Financial Rules. The standard clauses the immediate authority to incur expen- which must figure in any implementing ditures, and to enter into agreements for agreement are described in Chapter 4 of project implementation with implement- the UNHCR Manual. ing partners. Such authority will take the form of a transfer of appropriations 18. If the government or an internation- and the issuance of the related spending al organization advances relief supplies authority. The latter is not intended to from their own resources, UNHCR may cover the entire emergency operation, but agree in writing to reimburse them in cash to permit a rapid response to immediate or kind, provided the maximum US dollar 118 commitment is specified and does not ex- the import and transport of relief supplies ceed uncommitted funds available under (traffic and landing rights, tax and customs the existing authority. Any such commit- exemptions, etc.). ments should immediately be reported to Headquarters. Administrative expenditure by implementing partners 19. An agreement with the government covering the provision of assist- 22. UNHCR looks to implementing part- ance is quite separate from the admin- ners to contribute their own resources to istrative agreement that governs the the refugee programme, and to develop the status of the High Commissioner’s repre- capacity to meet their own support costs, sentation in the country. Where this admin- in particular their headquarters support istrative agreement (often referred to as the costs. However, for international NGOs, “UNHCR Country Agreement”) needs to headquarters support costs can be covered be concluded, special instructions will be up to a maximum of 5 %, but only at the given by Headquarters. See also annexes request of the partner. UNHCR recog- to the Checklist for the Emergency Admin- nizes, however, that certain types of sup- istrator for examples of such agreements. port costs could be a legitimate charge on UNHCR voluntary funds. Support costs Implementing arrangements Letter of Intent (as opposed to operational costs) are defined in chapter 4 of the UNHCR Manual, 8 20. If the implementing partner must start as are the guidelines applicable to the cov- providing assistance before there is time erage of such costs. to conclude an agreement, a signed “Mu- tual Letter of Intent to Conclude an Agree- Direct UNHCR expenditure ment” can authorize the first installment 23. In many cases, there may be a need of funds. This is a temporary arrangement for direct UNHCR project expenditure in until there has been time to develop the addition to programme delivery, and ad- detail of the project agreement. The letter ministrative support. This might include must include certain basic clauses. Annex international procurement by UNHCR, 1 contains a sample format for such a let- clearing, storage and internal transport ter and the basic clauses. expenses for contributions in-kind, and initial direct operational expenditure by Agreements UNHCR Field Officers at the refugee site. 21. The form of the agreement will depend on the circumstances and on the Procurement identity of the implementing partner. The 24. The Representative may enter into a agreements exist in two different formats. contract for the procurement of goods and Bipartite agreements are for projects services up to a certain limit (US$20,000 implemented by a governmental or a non- in 2006), based on the results of a com- governmental organization. Tripartite petitive bidding procedure. agreements are for projects implemented by a non-governmental organization and 25. Where the Representative needs to enter into a contract (or series of related where the host government is a third sig- 1 natory to the agreement. The individual contracts ) in excess of US$20,000 and signing on behalf of UNHCR should be 1 Related purchases are a series of contracts the addressee of the LOI. The agreement with one single vendor within the previous period sets out the responsibilities of each party, of 12 months excluding contracts that have been approved by the Headquarters Committee on Con- for example the government’s contribu- tracts (CoC). CoC approval is required for related tions to the programme (land, services purchases of US$200,000 or more; LCC approval etc.) and its undertakings on facilitating is required from US$20,000 up to US$200,000. 119 below US$150,000, approval must be value of the contribution. The addressee obtained either from the Local Contracts of the relevant LOI is required to provide Committee, if such has been established, reports from the field to Headquarters on or from the Regional Committee on Con- the arrival and distribution of the contracts (see below) or if there is no Local or tribution. Paragraph 53 of chapter 9 on Regional Committee from the Headquar- external relations discusses contributions ters Committee on Contracts (CoC). A in-kind received by the Field. Local Contracts Committee (LCC) can be established when circumstances demand, Careful negotiation is necessary when for example at the beginning of an emer- accepting in-kind contributions. Most gency where required goods and services of the time these donations do not cover costs for transportation, storage and are available locally. It can only be estab- distribution which could be very high at lished with the approval of Headquarters the time of emergency. If theses costs (according to the procedures in Annex 2). are not covered then funds must be allocated through the existing LOI and di- 26. For contracts in excess of US$150,000, rectly implemented. approval is required from the Headquar- ters Committee on Contracts. In some Monitoring, reporting and evaluation cases, Regional Contracts Committees 30. Monitoring is the ongoing review of (RCCs) exist or may be established with an operation or project during its imple- authority above US$150,000. Represent- mentation to ensure that inputs, activities, atives may resort to an RCC if there is one and outputs are proceeding according to for their region and the contract is within plans (including budget and work sched- its threshold. ules). Monitoring tracks progress towards 27. In all cases, the Representative must objectives, and that progress should be an- ensure that there is always due assessment alysed and evaluated by management, who of the available alternatives, including can make improvements and take correc- competitive bidding, before procuring any tive measures to better achieve those ob- goods or services. jectives. Monitoring can be summed up 28. Procurement procedures are described in the question: “Are we doing the thing in chapter 8 of the UNHCR Manual, and right?” are set out in Annex 2. 31. Careful and close monitoring of the activities and outputs is essential. An Contributions in-kind agreed work plan, which is mandatory in 29. Contributions in-kind may be made a sub-project agreement with partner, al- towards needs foreseen under the emer- lows project managers to identify target gency programme. Whether these are dates for the completion of essential de- made bilaterally or through UNHCR, their liverables and as such is a monitoring tool value (generally assessed on the same ba- (see Annex 3). Whatever the implement- sis as foreseen in the budget costing) will ing arrangements, a UNHCR presence normally be credited against the appropri- at, or at least frequent visits by the same ate budget item, and the cash requirements person to, the site of the refugees will be through UNHCR for that item reduced ac- required. cordingly. This mechanism may need to 32. Control of UNHCR funds by the UN- be carefully explained to the government HCR field office and operational partners, and implementing partners. For all contri- and monitoring and evaluation, should be butions in-kind made through UNHCR, a in accordance with established UNHCR separate project or an “in-kind LOI” will procedures and the relevant clauses of be established by Headquarters for the the LOI. Proper project control, includ- 120 ing the close monitoring of obligation and In addition to regular sitrep reporting on expenditure levels, is particularly impor- all aspects of the operation, specific -re tant in an emergency because of the risk of ports will be required for various sectors over-expenditure and the need to reallo- like protection/SGBV, health etc. cate under-used resources without delay. 37. Regular reports should be made by 33. Projects should also be evaluated with the implementing partner to UNHCR at the community so that the goals of the field level. The reporting obligations of project, and their relevance and achiev- implementing partners must be set out in ability, can be analysed by the community the relevant agreements signed with them. itself. This can be summed up in the ques- The Field must also send regular reports tion “Are we doing and have we done the to Headquarters - implementing partners’ right thing?”. reports that are forwarded to Headquarters must always be accompanied by an analy- Sufficient information must be available sis and comments from the Representa- to decision-makers so that the operation tive. can be adjusted to meet changing needs or to correct shortcomings. Special considerations

34. Participatory monitoring and evalua- 38. In an emergency, staff may be faced Implementing arrangements tion should not be considered as time con-

with a number of questions on which the 8 suming detractions from protecting and following guidance may be helpful. assisting refugees, but as important tools in an emergency to ensure that activities Payment for the purchase or rent of being carried out retain their relevance in land occupied by persons concerning rapidly changing situations, and continue UNHCR to address the most urgent problems. The 39. As a matter of policy, UNHCR does different circumstances of women, chil- not buy or rent land, which the govern- dren, and adolescent boys and girls; and ment of the country of asylum is expected groups with specific needs such as older to provide. Headquarters approval is re- persons and minority groups should be quired for exceptions to this policy. Con- identified and monitored closely. Their struction on the land may, however, be circumstances could and should be used financed by UNHCR. as benchmarks for monitoring the effectiveness of the overall operation. Payment to refugees 35. Reports should be in standard formats 40. The issue of paying refugees in cash or cover standard issues, in order to en- or kind for certain assistance activities sure important information is covered but (e.g. health work, teaching, establishing avoiding unnecessary detail. Always bear basic infrastructure and shelters) will in- in mind the purpose of the report, and who evitably arise. How this issue is resolved will be reading it, keeping it concise and to can have a crucial effect on a settlement’s the point. Energy should not be wasted on character. exchanging information that is not acted Payment can destroy the sense of re- upon – a report that is not read and acted sponsibility refugees feel for their wel- upon is a waste of paper and time. fare. 36. See Annex 4 for a suggested format However, the absence of payment may for a standard emergency situation report. mean that tasks essential to the settlement’s well-being are either not done or Situation reports should be sent as a matter of routine. have to be done by paid outside labour.

121 41. In the first days of a settlement’s this remuneration be fairly applied to all existence payment to refugees would not refugees doing broadly the same work. A normally be appropriate. In this start-up major cause of discord at many refugee phase refugees should assume their re- sites has been the payment by different or- sponsibility towards themselves and their ganizations of markedly different rates to fellows to participate in the establishment refugees for the same work, particularly in of their settlement. Even payment-in-kind the area of education. is probably inappropriate at this stage. In addition to the unfortunate impression of A standard payment rate is essential. creating a right to payment, it may also If there are different levels of skill this involve commitments which cannot con- should be recognized and discussed in tinue to be met, or have to be met at the consultation with the refugees. expense of other assistance intended for the entire settlement. Problems with the Provision of services to the local popu- supply system are almost inevitable at the lation beginning of a settlement’s life and no 44. The local population should not see group should in such circumstances get the refugees as a burden, because of their extra commodities to the direct detriment effect on existing local services and en- of others. vironment, nor should the refugees be a 42. In the longer-term, certain types cause of resentment, because of benefits of community work frequently start to which may seem to accrue only to them. emerge as areas where standards will drop So activities to benefit the refugees, such if some form of payment is not given. This as maintaining or improving the local in- is often the case with key public health frastructure (roads, hospitals and schools) services whose importance is not always or to look after the local environment, correctly understood by the refugees. Be- could help avoid or diminish resentment fore starting any payment scheme, calcu- on the part of the local population. late its full potential cost and ensure that 45. Bilateral aid programmes and other the required extra funds or food are avail- organizations, both within and outside the able. The continuing financial implica- UN system, should be encouraged to help tions for a large refugee population may affected nationals. Assistance available to be considerable. refugees should take account of the condi- It should be borne in mind that, after pay- tions of nationals in the area and a flexible ment is introduced for one type of job or approach should be adopted – the princi- for one group of workers, others will see ple is that provision of services to refugees this as a precedent and common criteria should not be higher than that available to must be agreed upon by agencies. the local population.

It will be necessary to have some very Corruption clear but restrictive criteria for paid com- 46. UNHCR should ensure that all con- munity work. The wage system intro- cerned with the provision of assistance duced should not inhibit progress towards know clearly what UNHCR policy is re- a self-reliant settlement. Those agencies garding corruption. UNHCR is obliged by responsible for different sectoral services donors and by its mandate to ensure that should meet the wage costs of refugees all funds distributed by it are properly used working in that sector. for the benefit of refugees and all transac- 43. As the refugees are already support- tions must be in accordance with the Fi- ed, remuneration levels should be well nancial Rules. UNHCR should clearly below national rates. It is important that specify which practices are acceptable and 122 proper and which are not. It should also traditional partners of UNHCR, and the be clear that breaches of the policy will separation of religious and other activities not be tolerated, and this message will be is long established and well understood, reinforced if rigorous monitoring and con- but for others it may be useful to recall trol are apparent to all parties. the basic principles. Religious activities by those outside the refugee community, Political and religious activity where permitted by the authorities, must 47. Everyone has a right to political and be clearly dissociated from the delivery of religious expression: however, refugees assistance and services to refugees. are also obliged to conform to the laws and No proselytizing should take place in as- regulations of the host country as well as sociation with the provision of services to the measures taken for the maintenance such as education, health and community of public order. UNHCR itself is obliged services. to be non-political.2 Responsibility for security and public order at the refugee Key references site always rests with the government. To Partnership: An Operations Management help maintain order, site planning should Handbook for UNHCR’s Partners, UN- take into account any need there may be to HCR, Geneva, 2003. Implementing arrangements physically separate any previously hostile groups among the refugees. UNHCR Manual, Chapter 4, Operations 8 Management 1995 (with revisions up to 48. Other organizations active in the de- date). livery of assistance may have a religious aspect in their normal work. Some are UNHCR Manual, Chapter 8, Supply Man- agement, 2006.

2 Para. 2 of the Statute of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states: ”the work of the High Commissioner shall be of an entirely non-political character; it shall be humanitarian and social...” 123 Annex 1: Sample Letter of Mutual Intent to Conclude an Agreement

STANDARD FORMAT FOR A LETTER OF MUTUAL INTENT TO CONCLUDE AN AGREEMENT

Notre/Our code: Date: Dear I should like to refer to our exchanges (add details and dates as appropriate, e.g., letters, meetings, draft plans/budgets, etc.) concerning the implementation by ...... (implementing partner), hereinafter referred to as . . . , on behalf of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, hereinafter referred to as UNHCR, of a programme of emergency assistance to . . . . . (origin and number of beneficiaries) in ...... (location). The programme of emergency assistance (reference ...... [sub-project symbol]) will cover activities for an initial period of (number) months from (date) to (date). It is my understanding that it is our mutual intention to conclude as soon as possible an UNHCR Standard Sub-Project Agreement (hereinafter referred to as “the Agreement”) governing our cooperation in the above-mentioned programme. The conclusion of such an Agreement is mandatory under the Financial Rules of UNHCR whenever funds are made available by UNHCR. The Agreement will incorporate, inter alia, the attached key provisions (Annex A) and will require ...... (name of implementing partner) to report in narrative and financial form on the use of all contributions received from UNHCR. In order to permit UNHCR to exceptionally begin with the implementation of the above- mentioned programme and to transfer moneys, I should be grateful if you would confirm in writing below your consent that the use of the sum of ...... (currency and amount) for the activities and budget outlined in Annex B, will be considered as subject to the terms of the Agreement to be concluded with between UNHCR and ….. (name of implementing partner).

Thank you for your cooperation. (name, signature and title of the addressee of the Emergency Letter of Instruction)

I confirm that I am duly authorized to represent and engage …. (name of implementing partner) and I agree on behalf of the latter that the use of the sum of ...... (currency and amount) will be considered as subject to the terms of the Agreement to be concluded with UNHCR. (name, signature and title of the addressee of the letter above, and date)

124 Annex A 6.14 Compliance with Law The Agency shall, at its own expense, Key provisions of the UNHCR Sub- comply with all laws and regulations of its Project Agreement (Bipartite [Agency]) country of residence or operation, if dif- Obligations of the Agency ferent, and assume all liabilities and obligations imposed by any law or regulation 6.03 Inspection and Audit with respect to its performance under this The implementing Agency shall facilitate Agreement. inspection and audit of Sub-Projects under its implementation by a specialized General Conditions audit firm contracted through UNHCR Representations in the country of op- 8.01 Copyright, Patents and other Pro- erations. However, sub-projects directly prietary Rights implemnete by UNHCR will be subject UNHCR shall be entitled to all intellec- to audit and inspection by UNHCR Au- tual property and other proprietary rights dit Service of the United Nations Office including but not limited to patents, cop- of the Internal Oversight Services, the yrights, and trademarks, with regard to UNHCR Inspector General’s Office, or any products or documents and other materials other person duly authorized by UNHCR. which bear a direct relation to or are pro- Implementing arrangements Should they at any time wish to do so, the duced or prepared or collected in conse- 8 United Nations Board of Auditors may also quence of or in the course of the execution carry out an audit of the Sub-Project. of this Agreement. At UNHCR request, the Agency shall take all necessary steps, 6.06 Rate of Exchange execute all pertinent documents and gen- The Agency shall apply the most favora- erally assist in securing such proprietary ble official rate of exchange for all trans- rights and transferring them to UNHCR in actions relating to the implementation of compliance with the requirements of the the Sub-Project. applicable law.

6.07 Taxation and Customs 8.02 Confidentiality In situations, where equipment bought 8.02.1 The confidentiality of any infor- by the Agency may be subject to customs mation pertaining to any beneficiary or duty or taxation, the Agency shall consult group of beneficiaries of the Sub-Project with UNHCR on whether and how these shall be respected. The contents of any payments may be exempted under the ap- files, including computerized databases, plicable international legal instruments. can only be released to persons duly authorized by UNHCR to receive such in- 6.08 Importation Documentation formation, and then only when in the The Agency shall ensure that all customs interests of the beneficiary or group of and registration documents, licenses and beneficiaries. operating permits which may be required 8.02.2 All maps, drawings, photographs, for the importation of Sub-Project supplies mosaics, plans, reports, recommenda- and the operation of equipment will be ap- tions, estimates, documents and all oth- plied for in ample time prior to the fore- er data compiled by or received by the casted importation date in order to avoid Agency under this Agreement shall be the delays at the port of entry. The Agency property of UNHCR, shall be treated as shall indicate to the competent authorities confidential and shall be delivered only that the Sub-Project supplies are bought to UNHCR Personnel on completion of with UNHCR funds. work under this Agreement. 125 8.02.3 The Agency may not communi- consult on the appropriate action to be cate at any time to any other person, Gov- taken, which may include termination of ernment or authority external to UNHCR the Agreement, with either Party giving to information known to it by reason of its the other at least seven days written notice association with UNHCR which has not of such termination. been made public, except with the authorization of UNHCR; nor shall the Agency at 8.07 Early Termination any time use such information to private 8.07.1 If the Agency refuses or fails to advantage. These obligations do not lapse prosecute any work, or separable part upon termination of this Agreement. thereof, or violates any term, condition or requirement of this Agreement, UNHCR 8.03 Privileges and immunities may terminate this Agreement in writing Nothing in this Agreement, and its An- with immediate effect. Such termination nexes and Appendices shall be deemed a shall relieve UNHCR from any further ob- waiver, expressed or implied, of any privi- ligations under this Agreement or liability leges or immunities enjoyed by UNHCR. for compensation. The Agency shall return all unspent funds provided under this 8.04 Force majeure and other Agreement and UNHCR property in its changes in condition possession, if any. 8.04.1 If during the period covered by 8.07.2 UNHCR may terminate forth- this Agreement, the Agency is prevented with this Agreement at any time should from carrying out its obligations referred the mandate or the funding of UNHCR to in the Agreement, this fact shall be re- be curtailed or terminated, in which ported to UNHCR whereupon the Parties case the Agency shall be reimbursed by shall decide what arrangements, if any, UNHCR for all reasonable costs incurred shall be made to further implement or ter- by the Agency prior to receipt of the notice minate the Agreement. of termination; this does not extend to ex- 8.04.2 Should the number of beneficiar- penditure incurred in excess of the funds ies, for whom assistance was foreseen un- made available under this Agreement. der the Sub-Project, significantly change 8.07.3 In the event of any termination by from the number originally envisaged, or UNHCR under this Article, no payment if for any reason, changed circumstances shall be due from UNHCR to the Agency reduce or increase the need for assistance except for work and services satisfactorily in the amounts as originally foreseen, performed in conformity with the express UNHCR shall be immediately in- terms of this Agreement. UNHCR shall formed so that, after mutual consultation, not be liable for any expenditure or obli- UNHCR can adapt its participation in the gations made in advance or in excess of Sub-Project to the new situation or discon- remittances actually made, unless these tinue it as the circumstances may warrant. were expressly authorized by UNHCR. 8.04.3 In the event of, and as soon as 8.07.4 Should the Agency be adjudged possible after the occurrence of, any cause bankrupt, or be liquidated or become in- constituting force majeure, the Agency solvent, or should the Agency make an as- shall give notice and full particulars in signment for the benefit of its creditors, or writing to UNHCR, of such occurrence or should a Receiver be appointed on account change if the Agency is thereby rendered of the insolvency of the Agency, UNHCR unable, wholly or in part, to perform its may, without prejudice to any other right obligations and meet its responsibilities or remedy it may have under the terms of under this Agreement. The Parties shall these conditions, terminate this Agreement 126 forthwith. The Agency shall immediately (f) reports by auditors on the accounts inform UNHCR of the occurrence of any and activities of the Sub-Project; of the above events. 10. Audit Certificates

Key provisions of Appendix 1 10.1 Audit Certificate for Government to the Sub-Project Agreement Implementing Partners 6. Separate Interest-Bearing Bank The Government shall, when UNHCR Account Agreements have an aggregate budget The Government or Agency shall deposit value of US $ 100,000 and above, submit all remittances received from UNHCR to UNHCR, within three months of the fi- into a separate bank account unless the nal date for liquidation of commitments, deposit into a general or pool account has an audit certificate. Governmental im- been authorized in this Agreement. The plementing partners should be audited by use of a general or pool account may be the government’s highest audit institution authorized if the deposit and the use of (Auditor General or Court of Audit). For UNHCR funds remain traceable. The ac- all UNHCR Agreements having a value of count into which the UNHCR remittances less than US$ 100,000, UNHCR reserves are deposited should be interest bearing. the right to request an audit. Implementing arrangements

In the case of a general or pool account, 8 any interest earnings shall be apportioned 10.2 Audit Certificate for International according to the source of funds and a NGO Implementing Partners fair share shall be credited to the UNHCR For all UNHCR Agreements with an ag- Sub-Project. gregate budget value of US $ 300,000 and above, UNHCR, in consultation with 8. Maintenance of Financial and the Agency, will engage an audit firm to Sub-Project Records conduct an independent audit of the Sub- 8.1 The Government or Agency shall Project(s). The audit report and certificate maintain separate Sub-Project records and shall be submitted to UNHCR within three accounts containing current information months of the final date for liquidation of and documentation which, inter alia, shall commitments. They shall state whether comprise: the final Financial Sub-Project -Moni toring Report submitted by the Agency (a) copies of the Agreement(s) and all to UNHCR gives a true and fair view revisions thereto; of the state of affairs of the Sub-Project (b) payment vouchers, clearly showing over the period of operation. The report the Sub-Project symbol, the name of should include such comments as the au- the payee, the amount, the purpose ditor may deem appropriate in respect of and date of disbursement, evidenc- Sub-Project operations generally. For all ing all payments made and with all UNHCR Agreements having a value of pertinent supporting documentation less than US$ 300,000, UNHCR reserves attached; the right to request an audit. (c) vouchers evidencing the receipt of all remittances, cash or any other form 10.3 Audit Certificate for National NGO of credit to the Sub-Project account; Implementing Partners (d) periodic analyses of actual expendi- For all UNHCR Agreements with an ag- ture against the Sub-Project budget; gregate budget of US $ 100,000 and above, (e) records of all financial commitments UNHCR, in consultation with the Agency, entered into during the duration of the will engage an audit firm to conduct an Sub-Project; independent audit of the Sub-Project. The 127 audit report and certificate shall be sub- generally. For all UNHCR Agreements mitted to UNHCR, within three months of having a budget of less than US$ 100,000, the final date for liquidation of -commit UNHCR reserves the right to engage an ments. They shall state whether the final audit firm. Financial Sub-Project Monitoring Report submitted by the Agency to UNHCR United Nations agencies (including IOM) gives a true and fair view of the state of af- Audit certificates are not required from fairs of the Sub-Project over the period of these agencies, as the financial statements operation. The report should include such are audited by the same or comparable au- comments as the auditor may deem appro- thority that audits UNHCR accounts. priate in respect of Sub-Project operations

128 Annex B

Activities and Budget *

Sector-Activity Sector-Activity Budget Amount Code Description/Details (currency)

GRAND TOTAL Implementing arrangements 8

Annex 2: Procurement by a UNHCR or consultancies, the procedures described Branch Offices (Field location). below will apply. The term “Purchase Or- der” is to be read as also applying to other 1. Introduction forms of authorization used in relation to 1.1. The procedures applicable to the contracts for services or corporate or insti- procurement of goods and/or services by tutional consultancies. UNHCR Headquarters or UNHCR offices in the field (other than contractual ar- 1.3 In all cases of procurement of goods rangements for the employment of staff) and/or services, the procedures and con- vary according to the US dollar value (at trols applied should be in accordance with the prevailing United Nations rate of ex- Chapter 8 of the UNHCR Manual and change) of the goods or services, and are must provide an open, competitive, quali- described below. tative and accountable process to obtain such goods or services which meet project 1.2 For all purchases of substantial requirements at the lowest available cost. quantities of relief or other supplies by It is the responsibility of the addressee of UNHCR offices in the field, Representa- the Letter of Instruction to ensure that the tives should nominate a purchasing/logis- relevant procedures are adhered to. tics focal point with a clear line of responsibility. Local purchases will be initiated 1.4 All contracts entered into for the pro- by, or at least cleared with, the purchas- curement of goods and/or services should ing/logistics focal point. In all circum- ensure exemption from, or reimbursement stances, including the evaluation of con- of, all customs duties, levies and direct tracts for the supply of goods and services taxes on services and goods, supplies or any other articles imported or domesti- cally purchased. * Please provide a succinct description of the activities to be carried out under this Letter of Intent. If available, you also may also attach a Budget Printout. 129 1.5 It is the responsibility of the Repre- the witness. The witness shall be selected sentative to ensure that each UNHCR of- by the Representative and drawn from the fice in the field maintains a register of all professional or national officer categories. commercial contracts entered into and that All formal offers will be compared on a a sequential number is assigned to every Tabulation of Bids form. The recommend- such contract. ed supplier and the reasons for selecting that supplier will be stated thereon. 1.7 For a value of less than US$ 1000: A Purchase Order may be issued without 1.10 For a value of over US$ 20,000 and recourse to formal tender, provided that up to US$ 150,000 Representatives will funds are available under the Letter of In- establish a Local Contracts Committee to struction and that at least three informal consider bids and to make the appropri- offers or prices have been considered and ate recommendations. Rules and proce- the best offer has been selected. dures concerning Contract Committees and their composition are set out below. 1.8 For a value of over US$ 1,000 and In a country with more than one Field/Sub up to US$ 5,000: Office, the Representative may wish to es- A Purchase Order should be issued pro- tablish Contract Committees at different vided that funds are available under the duty stations. Depending on local costs Letter of Instruction and that at least three and current exchange rates, Representa- formal quotations have been compared tives may also lower the financial limit and the best offer has been selected. A of procurement to be considered by the written record of the quotations and the Local Contract Committee. The Commit- reasons for the selection must be kept. tee will consider quotations subject to the 1.9 For a value of over US$ 5,000: same conditions as set out in paragraph 1.9 A Purchase Order should be issued provid- above. If appropriate, the Representative ed that funds are available under the Letter and/or the Committee may wish to request of Instruction and that selection has been specialist advice from the Programme and made on the basis of competitive bidding, Technical Support Section or the Supply obtained in response to a formal Quota- Management Section at Headquarters. tion Request sent to selected suppliers For a value of US$ 150,000 or more: inviting them to submit sealed quotations 1.11 A submission must be made to the Com- within a specified time frame. Section 6 mittee on Contracts at Headquarters ex- of UNHCR Supply Manual – (Chapter 8) cept in cases where Headquarters has au- provide guidelines and an example for a thorized the establishment of a Regional Quotation, Tender and Request for propos- Committee on Contracts as described in 3 al (RFP). The Quotation, Tender or Pro- below. For submissions to the Headquar- posal Request must stipulate that all offers ters Committee on Contracts, a minimum must be received at the UNHCR office in number of quotations must be requested signed and sealed envelopes and marked and considered by the Local Contract with the Quotation Request number. All Committee which will make a proposal sealed offers received must remain sealed as to the most suitable supplier to the HQ and must be kept under lock and key until Committee on Contracts through the rele- the expiration of the bid deadline. All bids vant Desk at Headquarters. Please refer to must be opened before a witness by the Section 6, page 2.6.6 in Supply Manual on Administrative recommended number of quotations to be Officer or the Officer in charge of admin- requested for a specific purchase value. In istration in the office, and must be initiated cases where Headquarters has authorized by both the person opening the bids and the establishment of a Regional Commit-

130 tee on Contracts, the latter may evaluate goods or services to be procured as per. and decide on all bids without recourse to Section 6 Chart –“ Evaluating Offers & the Local Contracts Committee. Neverthe- Proposals”of the Supply Manual. The less, in all cases, the relevant specialists minutes of the meeting will be taken and in the Programme and Technical Support issued (at least in draft) within two work- Section and the Supply Management ing days after the meeting. Alternatively, particularly in an emergency, Members of Section must be consulted before or dur- the Committee may approve purchase by ing the tendering and evaluation stages signature of the proposal with appropri- so as to ensure compliance with technical ate comments. In general, the Committee requirements and that prices are compat- should adopt procedures similar to those ible with international market rates for of the UNHCR Committee on Contracts the goods or services under consideration. as set out in Annex 8.5 of Chapter 4 of Submissions to the Committee on Con- the UNHCR Manual, except for the provi- tracts should include information as shown sions concerning emergency procedures. in Section 6 Chart –“Evaluating Offers & Proposals”of the Supply Manual. .After 3. Establishment of Local and Regional approval by the Committee on Contracts, Committees on Contracts:

a Purchase Order may be issued. Implementing arrangements 3.1 In a UNHCR office in the field, the 2. Local Committee on Contracts Representative may establish a Local or 8 Regional Committee on Contracts, partic- Procurement of goods or services by 2.1 ularly in the early stages of an emergency a UNHCR office in the field for a value of operation and when required goods or over US$ 20,000 and up to US$ 150,000 services are known to be available locally must be approved by a Local Contracts or regionally. The authority to establish a Committee. This Committee will also pre- such Committee on Contracts rests with pare proposals to the Headquarters Com- the Representative, as regards the Local mittee on Contracts for procurement for a Committee on Contracts but the establish- value of over US$ 150,000 in cases where ment of a Regional Committee on Con- Headquarters has not authorized the es- tracts must be approved by Headquarters. tablishment of a Regional Committee on The Representative should contact the Contracts. The Local Contracts Com- Secretary of the HQ Contracts Commit- mittee will be established and chaired by tee at Headquarters for further informa- the Representative and will consolidate tion in this regard. The Committee will the requirements, oversee the tendering be chaired by the Representative or by a process, select suitable local suppliers and formally designated alternate, and will be record its recommendations in writing. composed of at least three professional 2.2 The Committee will be composed staff members. If there is no quorum, the of Members and alternate members des- matter will be referred to the Committee ignated by the Representative and drawn on Contracts at Headquarters. The Local from the professional or national officer Committee on Contracts will consider categories. Staff members responsible quotations subject to the same conditions for procurement should be excluded from as set out in paragraph 1.9 above. membership. A quorum will consist of The Representative should notify three Members. 3.2 Headquarters of the establishment of a 2.3 The staff member in charge of pro- Local Contracts Committee. All notifica- curement should present a written pro- tions of establishment (or the extension posal to the Local Contracts Committee of the period of validity) of a Local Com- which will include information on the mittee on Contracts should be sent via the 131 Desk to the Chairperson of the Committee 3.4 Copies of the minutes and proceed- on Contracts and the Head, Supply Man- ings of each meeting of the Local Com- agement Service. mittee on Contracts, together with a Tabulation of Bids form and copies of the 3.3 The Representative shall appoint contracts entered into or purchase orders a secretary to the Local Committee on placed (and any amendments to these) Contracts to receive submissions to the must be forwarded to the Secretary of the Committee, to schedule meetings and se- Committee on Contracts at Headquarters.. cure the relevant documentation, to con- The minutes must contain a summary of duct required correspondence, to maintain the discussion, the reasons for decisions the Committee’s files and to prepare and taken, details regarding the contractor or distribute minutes of the Committee’s supplier selected and the potential costs proceedings. Each member shall have an involved. alternate.

132 Annex 3

WORKPLAN

Sub-Project Symbol: ______

Sector: ______

Outputs Activities Responsibility Completion Dates • • • • • • • • • • Implementing arrangements • • 8 • • • • • • • • •

133 Annex 4: Example of a Standard Emer- central office to Headquarters, it will gency Situation Report (SITREP) make it easier to consolidate reports from 1. In emergencies, it is essential that various areas. Major headings should as a regular situation reports reach the outside rule be the same in each report, indicating world (other UN agencies, implementing “no change” if appropriate. The report can partners). The frequency of such reports either be structured by sector of assistance will be determined by the characteristics with sites covered under each sector, or of the situation; more frequent reports alternatively, by site, with sectors of as- will be necessary in the initial stage of an sistance covered under each site heading. emergency. Situation reports should give In either case, the information under each an overall view of the situation with suf- sector of assistance and for each location ficient factual content and explanation of should cover as applicable: changes since the last report to answer i. current situation; rather than raise substantive questions. ii. particular problem areas, remedial By indicating progress achieved, prob- action planned with time frame; lems encountered and steps being taken or iii. any variation from overall imple- planned to overcome these problems, the menting arrangements; and/or reports should give a cumulative picture of how the needs of the refugees are being iv. any action required from the address- met. It should report on actions including ee of the SITREP. actual and planned activities; however, it 3. The reports should be sequentially should not dwell on intentions. numbered, copied to other UNHCR offices as appropriate (including the UNHCR The SITREP should: liaison office in New York). The report □ be short; may be used as the basis for wider situa- □ focus on priority areas; tion reports issued from Headquarters. □ include a section on protection with SITREP (number) information on SGBV and participa- COUNTRY tory assessment results; COVERING PERIOD (date) TO (date) Drafted, cleared, authorized by ( ) on □ give quantitative data in a standard (date). format (e.g. give the death rate as deaths/10,000/day NOT the number A. GENERAL SITUATION of people who have died); B. MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS □ highlight trends (e.g. increasing/de- Summary of general assessment of creasing water supply, increase/de- situation, assessment of refugee loca- crease in arrival rate); tion, and field deployment of □ mainstream age, gender and diversity UNHCR staff. Summary of major analysis throughout; and trends including protection. □ clearly say who is expected to take C. REFUGEE STATISTICS AND REG- any actions which are specified. ISTRATION (by sex and age) 2. A suggested format is given below. In- By location in country of origin or by formation contained in the SITREP should distinct groups if not self-evident. Ex- be analyzed and consolidated before being planation of changes since last report. passed on to the next management level. Indication of sources, e.g. govern- The practice of simply copying “raw” and ment, UNHCR, etc. Any additional un-analyzed information from one level information (as relevant) on gender to another should be avoided. If the same breakdown, vulnerable cases, vari- format is used by all levels from site to ances between UNHCR and official figures, group or individual determi- 134 nation, etc. A format for reporting on E.3. Assistance population in emergency situation Summary of main developments reports is given in Annex 1 of chap- since the last report, broken down by ter 10 on population estimation and sector and/or site, as applicable. Ad- registration. ditional information provided could include major problems encountered D. PROTECTION AND DURABLE in programme delivery and modi- SOLUTIONS fications required to implementing Summary of any developments. arrangements. Special attention should be given to E. OPERATIONS specific issues as SBGV, unaccompanied and separated children, older E.1. Coordination persons, persons with disabilities etc, Government departments, UN sys-

tem, NGOs – both at central and field levels. F. EXTERNAL RELATIONS E.2. Overall Implementing Arrange- Significant events in relations with ments donor government representatives,

with diplomatic missions in general Implementing arrangements Role of authorities. Operational

and with the media. 8 role of UNHCR. Role of UNHCR’s government counterparts, other UN G. ADMINISTRATION AND STAFF- agencies, international organizations ING and NGO partners. Other sources of Establishment of UNHCR presence, significant assistance. office premises, vehicles and equipment, staffing arrangements, local recruitment, etc.

135 Annex 5 - Format for Reporting on Population in Emergency Situation Report

Period: From ______to ______

Decreases Pop. at end of period Type/ Current Origin/ Pop. New ar- Sta- location from at start rivlas Vol. Re- Other Total % of % of tus of of Return settle- total total popu- period ment 0-4 who are lation years* female*

* Estimate

Main source of information is □ Government; □ UNHCR; □ NGO Main basis of the information is □ Registration; □ Estimate

136 Implementing arrangements 8

137 9 External Relations

138 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Relations with the Government and Diplomatic Corps 1-11 140 Briefing meetings 3 140

Relations with the media 12-42 141 Introduction 12 141 General guidelines for relations with the media 15 141 Locally-based media 20 142 Information sharing with the government 23 142 Field/Headquarters information sharing 24 142 Tips for interviews 28 143

Guidelines for appearance on television 39 144 External Relations

Visibility of the operation 40 145 9

Funding and donor relations 43-62 145 Operational reserve 43 145 Central Emergency Revolving Fund 44 145 Using existing funds 45 147 Communicating needs to donors 46 147 Preparation of a flash appeal 53 148 Communication between the Field and Headquarters 57 148 Reporting to donors and special requirements 60 149

Formal written communications 63-70 149

Annexes Annex 1: Member States of the Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s Programme (EXCOM) 151 Annex 2: Example of a Note Verbale 152

139 ambassador from the country of the cur- Relations with the government and diplomatic corps rent Executive Committee Chairman may be helpful in advising on the organization 1. All matters of protocol relating to es- of briefings, or the Dean of the Diplomatic tablishing a new UNHCR presence in an Corps, or the ambassador of the country emergency are likely to be handled by currently holding the presidency of the the Foreign Ministry in the same way as European Union (as a major donor group), for other United Nations organizations. or the Organization of African Unity or However, substantive matters concern- other regional groups. ing refugees may be handled by another 5. A representative of the government authority, for example the President or would normally be present at these brief- Prime Minister’s office or the Ministry of ings. United Nations organizations and Interior. Guidance on the form of written NGOs directly involved in the emergency communications with the government is operation should also be invited to attend. given below. 6. Unless chaired by the representative of 2. It is important that the diplomatic the Government, the meeting should nor- corps accredited to the country is kept in- mally be chaired by UNHCR. Other agen- formed of UNHCR’s activities from the cies should be encouraged to give account start of an emergency. An informed and of their activities. Initially these meetings concerned diplomatic corps will be help- may need to be held fortnightly or even ful in gaining support for the emergency weekly, but once a month is a reasonable operation both from the host country in- interval once the situation starts to come stitutions and from donor governments for under control. funding. 7. It may be useful to prepare for briefing Briefing meetings meetings by prior discussions with other 3. Briefing meetings should start in the participating agencies to ensure that there early days of an emergency and continue is agreement on the issues and on infor- on a regular basis. There may already be mation such as population figures. a contact group of the ambassadors most 8. If a question cannot be answered im- interested in refugee matters who could mediately, arrangements to follow up on be briefed in the early days of an emer- an individual basis with the questioner gency. Where there is no such group, or to should be made. make the arrangements for meetings more formal, it may be appropriate to invite 9. These briefing meetings will be im- the ambassadors of member states of the portant for fund-raising purposes. Rep- Executive Committee of the High Com- resentatives of donor governments will missioner’s Programme (EXCOM) to the form part of the diplomatic corps and will briefings (for a list of EXCOM members, therefore be involved in the meetings. Ad- see Annex 1). ditional smaller briefing meetings may be appropriate, to deal with particular con- The aim is to keep the Executive Com- cerns of a donor, or to respond to a donor mittee and other immediately concerned mission, or in respect of major protection Governments well informed while not issues which might require smaller, more devoting scarce time to a major protocol discreet, briefings. exercise. 10. A useful complementary measure, 4. A number of people may be helpful in which might eventually substitute dip- giving advice on the organization and par- lomatic and other briefings, is a weekly ticipants of the meetings, including: the or monthly written report prepared by 140 UNHCR. The standard internal emer- 13. Television, radio and newspapers op- gency situation report, or sitrep, could be erate on tight deadlines and need factual used as the basis for this report (the format stories on the emergency, with some back- for this is suggested in Annex 3 of chapter ground information. Magazines and some 8 on implementing arrangements). If the radio and television programs cover sto- sitrep is to be used in this way the parts ries in depth and have more time available which must not be made public should be for research and subsequent re-checking. clearly marked. Other United Television news channels (such as CNN, BBC World and Sky News), and wire Nations bodies directly involved should services (for example AFP, AP, Reuters), contribute an account of their work. Such produce bulletin-type news stories, have situation reports should be widely distrib- very short deadlines, and are likely to be uted in the operations area and to focal the major source for world-wide coverage points at Headquarters. of the emergency. 11. Implementation of these briefing -ar 14. Given the logistical difficulties of rangements will require valuable time and some emergencies, journalists are likely to effort. Clearly the priority is to deliver the approach humanitarian agencies with re- emergency assistance needed by refugees. quests for help in moving around. When- However, if those interested do not have ever possible, and taking into account the a regular source of information on the External Relations operational priorities and the sensitivity of

progress of the operation, UNHCR staff 9 some situations, journalists, both national may end up spending even more time on and international, should be assisted in individual briefings. getting to the story. Relations with the Media General Guidelines for Relations with Introduction the media 12. The media has traditionally been an 15. The first decision to make concerns ally of UNHCR and other humanitarian who should handle relations with the me- agencies working in difficult conditions. dia. The media prefer information directly The media, especially locally based cor- from those responsible, which can be very respondents, can also be a useful source time-consuming. It is therefore recom- of information. There may be consider- mended that a Public Information Officer able media interest in an emergency and be a member of the UNHCR field team perceptions of how the international com- from the start. munity in general, and UNHCR in particular, is responding will be set in the early 16. The Public Information Officer must days. This has important implications for have full and immediate access to infor- support for UNHCR. It takes time to cor- mation concerning developments in the rect an unfavourable first impression, and operation and UNHCR policies and reac- media interest may have shifted elsewhere tions. He/she needs to be updated by the before this happens. most senior UNHCR Officer in the operation as often as necessary, at least once per The best way to have positive media day in a major emergency. The Public In- coverage and support is to run the most formation Officer should then be respon- effective emergency operation possible sible for all aspects of relations with the in the circumstances. Expertise in rela- media. Where there is no UNHCR Public tions with the media can never substitute good performance. Information Officer, good contacts with the press officers of other organizations

141 will be helpful for general advice, and for 21. Field offices should monitor the local organizing joint news conferences. media, including the radio and television, which may play a much greater role in 17. In emergencies the media will prob- influencing public opinion than newspa- ably go to the location of the refugees, pers. Good relations should be developed often unannounced, and expect a briefing with local correspondents covering the from UNHCR field officers on the spot. emergency. However, exercise consid- The briefing given should be limited to erable discretion until there is practical facts and practical intentions. See below experience of the outcome of interviews. for tips for interviews. Language barriers are often a source of 18. When intense press interest in a partic- misunderstanding, particularly on the tel- ular event can be predicted, there is much ephone and a locally recruited Public In- to be said for preparing a short and simple formation Assistant can be very helpful in statement, distributing it to the enquirers, this respect. and avoiding further comment. Close in- 22. It will probably be useful to make ternal coordination with field staff is es- early contact with the news editors of sential, particularly if the interest relates the main national (and any local foreign to an event occurring in a location where language) radio, television stations and UNHCR has field staff. Sending the state- newspapers to explain UNHCR’s role. ment to Headquarters is essential as ques- Stress that every priority is being given tions are likely to be raised in Geneva. to the needs of the emergency and give a 19. Newspaper editors will generally contact reference, should further informa- print a factual correction, and will often tion be required. give space in opinion or correspondence columns for UNHCR to comment on er- Information sharing with the rors of interpretation of UNHCR’s role government and policy. It is more difficult to correct a 23. The government may be sensitive to factual error made on television or radio. coverage of the refugees, and early con- However, when trying to made correc- tact should be established with the official tions, these should be corrections of fact press office or information service. Gen- not of interpretation. eral statements or press releases should be shared with government information serv- UNHCR should be careful to avoid public ices and the department handling refugees polemical debate. and UNHCR. Statements relating to joint government-UNHCR actions may have to Locally-based media be cleared with the government first. 20. The national media will be very important in determining local attitudes to Field/Headquarters information sharing the refugees, and may also give an early 24. A regular and swift exchange of infor- indication of sensitive issues and even mation is essential. Many questions on the government policy. The government may operation will be asked directly in Geneva be as concerned by national coverage as and New York. There is a UN press brief- by foreign coverage. Local foreign-lan- ing in Geneva every Tuesday and Friday guage newspapers may be less important, morning, in which UNHCR participates, except indirectly as a result of their effect and a weekday press briefing at noon in on the diplomatic community or foreign New York by the spokesperson of the Sec- press corps. retary-General. In

142 addition, UNHCR calls special news con- for information on political considerations ferences whenever necessary. and constraints. Alternatively, an interview can be fully attributed and may often 25. The Public Information Section at be tape recorded. An interview can also be Headquarters must have access to up-to- for background information, and in this date information. The Field should there- case what is said by the interviewee is not fore: attributed directly. • keep media interest in mind when re- 29. Radio and television interviews can porting to Headquarters (for example provide good coverage for UNHCR’s in sitreps); aims. They are, by definition, for full at- • provide information (in sitreps or tribution. If this is not advisable because separately) on matters likely to be of of particular sensitivities, avoid such in- specific press interest; terviews. Bear in mind that interviews on • send reviews of local media coverage radio and television can be edited. to Headquarters. 26. In addition, if the Field has given an 30. In all interviews and comments to the interview with a major foreign newspaper media, when in doubt err on the side of or network, or if a foreign correspondent discretion. Considerable experience and has been aggressive or appeared unsatis- self-discipline is needed to limit remarks fied with answers, the Public Information to what was previously planned. Having External Relations

Section at Headquarters should be fore- agreed to give an interview or answer 9 warned. questions, showing hostility or irritation will nearly always be counter-productive, 27. Similarly, the Field must be kept reg- no matter how unreasonable or loaded the ularly informed by the Public Information questions are. Section at Headquarters of international media coverage. Important international 31. UNHCR’s work is difficult and mis- media reports (including those based on takes will inevitably be made, but do not briefings given in the field) may notbe try to hide problems and difficulties. available in the field. Though it is important to be discreet, honesty and clarity are the best policy. Press who contact Headquarters before going to the field should be clearly Most journalists understand these prob- briefed that only limited attention and lo- lems and respect efforts in what they know gistical support can be devoted to them are very difficult conditions. In fact, it is by the field offices during the emergency phase. almost always best to talk about problems before the media find out about them on Tips for interviews their own – and they usually do. Finally, if mistakes are made, admit them and try to 28. Reporters generally respect the learn from them. ground rules for an interview, provided these are clearly established in advance. 32. When a complete answer to a ques- The interviewer and interviewee should tion is given and a silence ensues, leave agree on type of attribution and how the it silent. There is no law stating that one interviewee will be quoted. For exam- has to say more than one wants or intends ple: by name, “a UNHCR spokesman”, to say. It is better to pause to construct a “UN sources”, “humanitarian worker”, response than to ramble. Do not suggest “sources in the international community”, follow-up questions, unless it is in order etc. An interview may need to mix full at- to disseminate important information. tribution for the facts, and no attribution

143 33. Do not ask for a story to be killed or and NGOs. We are all in the same suppressed. Attempts at censorship will boat. backfire and are likely to generate two im- • BE CONVERSATIONAL. When you mediate consequences; stepped up inves- talk to journalists, keep it simple and tigation of the matter to be suppressed and clear. Do not use the type of language an unfavourable story on the attempts to found in many UNHCR internal suppress it. documents. In everyday conversation, 34. When in a press conference, espe- ordinary people don’t use terms like cially with the electronic media, state the «modalities», «durable solutions», most important point at the beginning. In «inter alia», «specific international subsequent answers and statements, refer protection mandat,», «NGO» and again to the most important point. When «implementing partner». Use exam- dealing with radio and television, keep ples that will make the information answers short. Television and radio put comprehensible to your audience. severe restrictions on how much informa- • BE CONCISE. A 10-minute interview tion can be used and long, drawn-out ex- may end up being seconds on the air, planations and answers tend not to be used or three lines in the newspaper. It is and the main point not covered. essential to crystallize your thoughts in a few quotable sentences. 35. Give direct answers to direct ques- • BE IDENTIFIABLE WITH UN- tions. If the facts are not known, say so, HCR. If you are being interviewed and offer to get back to the reporter with for television, or if a photograph the information. will accompany the report, try to get 36. Sensitive political or policy questions a UNHCR logo in the background should be referred to the main UNHCR – possibly a flag or on a vehicle, wear field office. Responses to general ques- a UNHCR T-shirt or cap. tions about the situation should be made with UNHCR’s mandate and goals in Guidelines for appearance on television mind. 39. Key things to remember for television interviews are: 37. Take the initiative/control. Avoid answering speculative «what if» questions. DO’s Be prepared to take the lead and direct the • Do make and maintain eye contact interview into positive areas of informa- with the questioner, not the camera. tion about the operation. Do not let your eyes wander. 38. Key things to remember for all inter- • DO wear suitable subdued-coloured views are: clothes. Normal working clothes for field conditions are fine – ties and • BE YOURSELF. While journal- suits are not appropriate. ists are always on the lookout for a • DO check your appearance before good story, they are not out to make going in front of the camera, hair, your life miserable. So relax and be buttons, zips? friendly. Look at the interviewer. • DO make short statements, each hold- Avoid nervous gestures and manner- ing up on its own. isms. Keep your answers short and • DO remember to make your most simple. important points as early as possible. • BE POSITIVE. Do not criticize col- • DO, before you begin, discuss with leagues or other UN organizations the interviewer what line the discussion will take. 144 • DO remember that the interviewer istrative support expenditure is likely to and audience know less about your be allocated from UNHCR’s Operational subject than you do. Reserve. Under the terms of UNHCR’s • DO remember that any programme is Financial Rules (A/AC.96/503/Rev.7 is- likely to be edited before use. sued 07 October 1999, Article 6 para 6.5), the Operational Reserve is established to DONT’s provide “financial assistance to refugees • DON’T smoke. and displaced persons in emergency situa- • DON’T wear sunglasses or jewellery. tions for which there is no provision in the • DON’T forget that the smallest man- programmes approved by the Executive nerisms show up more obviously on Committee” and to meet additional admin- television. istrative expenditures resulting from those • DON’T fidget or fiddle with pens, emergencies. Further details are provided pencils, lighters, etc. in Chapter 4 of the UNHCR Manual and • DON’T say “I think” too often. it in Appendix 1, Catalogue of Emergency sounds as though you are uncertain Response Resources. of your subject. Talk about “we” or “UNHCR” instead. Central Emergency Response Fund 44. The upgraded Central Emergency

Visibility of the operation Response Fund (CERF) has been estab- External Relations

40. In addition to working with the media lished by the General Assembly to pro- 9 to ensure coverage of UNHCR operations, vide a more equitable and timely response emergency managers must pay attention to identified core emergency humanitarian to the visibility of the operation. needs, in case of a sudden onset of new 41. Proper identification of staff, vehicles, emergencies or for chronically under- buildings and relief materials contributes funded crises. Under the revised scheme, to improved dialogue with beneficiaries, the new CERF grant component will con- local authorities and partners. tain funds of up to US Dollars 450 million, depending on the voluntary contributions In conflict zones, visible markings can received. UN agencies and IOM are eligi- be an important security measure for ble to apply. All CERF grant components staff and property. must address core life-saving humanitarian needs. The application is primarily 42. Staff should be visible and identifi- field-driven led by the Humanitarian/Res- able as UNHCR personnel. Visibility ident Coordinator of a given country who, items for staff, vehicles and buildings are together with IASC country team, will available from Headquarters (see Cata- jointly discuss the priority projects. logue of Emergency Response Resources, Appendix 1). A visible UNHCR will help Disbursements for rapid response: Un- to show the beneficiaries and the outside der this category, funds shall be disbursed world that UNHCR is present, active and to provide an initial injection of funds for a delivering services to the refugees. particular emergency. In principle, a maximum of USD 30 million will be applied Funding and donor relations to any disaster or emergency for a project duration of maximum three months. Operational reserve 43. The availability of funds is a prereq- Disbursements for chronically under- uisite for any UNHCR emergency action. funded crises: Grants for under-funded The initial funding in an emergency for emergencies have been established with project, operations delivery and admin- a view to providing and promoting an 145 equitable response to core humanitarian shortages. These advances are to be re- emergencies. The implementation period imbursed as a first charge against income is usually based on a calendar year. To de- subsequently received, usually as a result termine the appropriate use of grants, the of a CAP. Only under very exceptional Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC) will circumstances do the rules allow for the consult with the IASC to decide the coun- non‑reimbursement of allocations made tries for allocation. Such an exercise will from this fund. take place twice a year. Firstly soon after For the CERF loan component, the Direc- the launch and the ‘Kick-Off’ of the Con- tor of Bureau should initiate a request for solidated Appeals Process (CAP) in early CERF funds by addressing a memorandum January, and secondly, after the CAP mid- to the High Commissioner for approval to year review in July. The allocations are not request an allocation from the CERF. The exclusive to CAP countries, and non-CAP memorandum is routed through the Head countries can also be considered. of DRRM, the Controller and Director of Procedures for application: In both cat- DFSM and the Deputy High Commis- egories above, Field shall discuss with the sioner. IASC country team the priority projects based on demonstrable/assessed needs No request to the CERF shall be under- and prepare the proposal based on the taken without clearance from the Con- “CERF grant application form”. It is high- troller and the Chief of DRRM. ly encouraged that the Field Offices share Once the High Commissioner has agreed draft application forms with Headquarters to the request, a letter requesting an allo- prior to their finalization, in order to keep cation from the Fund is sent from the High a minimum quality and consistency of ap- Commissioner to the Under‑Secretary plications. Thereafter, all applications will General and Coordinator for Humanitar- be sent to ERC, by the Humanitarian/Res- ian Affairs. This letter should: ident Coordinator, with an endorsement/ • define the purpose and objectives of cover. No application will be considered the programme; eligible without such endorsement letters. After review, ERC will send an approval • specify the amount of money request- letter to the High Commissioner, based ed; and on which a Letter of Understanding will • indicate the initiatives that are being be prepared by Donor Relations and Re- undertaken to raise funds for this source Mobilisation (DRRM) and signed programme to allow for the Fund’s on his behalf. Throughout the process, reimbursement. Field is advised to keep DRRM and the If agreed, OCHA will reply confirming Liaison Office New York informed of any that an allocation can be made available, follow up required. the conditions that will apply and the reporting requirements. These two letters For both grants, financial and narrative re- will constitute a formal exchange be- ports on the use of grants are mandatory. tween the Organizations. In exceptional The loan component of CERF will re- circumstances involving particularly ur- main unchanged with a target level of gent emergencies, OCHA may authorize USD 50 million and is used for cash ad- advances prior to the formal exchange of vances to operational organizations and letters. This must, however, be followed entities within the UN system. Gener- with a formal exchange of letters within ally, UNHCR would access funds from 30 days. CERF in installments of USD 5.0 million, which can be very useful in cases of cash 146 Using existing funds 49. Funding appeal or donor contacts are 45. If an emergency develops in an exist- usually preceded by the official approval ing operation, immediate funds may be and establishment of the (new) emergency available from those already foreseen for programme by ORB. There are no excep- that operation or, if appropriate, from the tions to this. This is necessary to ensure Operational Reserve. Depending on the funding is targeted where it is most need- scale of further needs, and also on the time ed, to provide consistency in operational of year when the emergency occurs, a pro- priorities and objectives, and in commu- posal for further funding could be made nicating these priorities to donors. Several to the Executive Committee as a new cur- sections in UNHCR brief donors and it is rent year project or as a new project for important for the organisation’s credibil- the coming year, or could be the subject of ity that the briefings be consistent. In case a special appeal. of doubts regarding what should be presented to donors for funding, contact the Communicating needs to donors Donor Relations and Resource Mobiliza- 46. Operational needs, progress and con- tion Service at Headquarters for advice. straints must be clearly communicated to 50. Steer donors towards funding those donors. A donor relations strategy should activities or areas of the operation that be established in the first days of an emer- are most in need of funding. When appro- gency and maintained for its duration. priate, promote regional funding. Do not External Relations 9 47. Donor relations should be maintained forget that the emergency may have a re- through: gional dimension. Include this, and other elements of the UNHCR operation, in the i. Briefing meetings and regular contact briefing and be prepared to discuss fund- at field level between UNHCR staff ing for all aspects of the operation with and donor representatives. Regular donors. briefing meetings (see paragraphs 3 to 11 above) with donors should 51. Contributions tightly earmarked to aim to keep them up to date on ac- one aspect of the operation impede flex- tions being taken, protection issues, ibility. Sometimes substantial contribu- and any constraints. tions are strictly earmarked and there is ii. Regular contact and follow-up at little scope for amending budgets once Headquarters level. they are approved. Donors should be encouraged to make un-earmarked contri- iii. Regular updates on field operations. butions whenever possible. However, if iv. Involving donor representatives in donors do want to earmark a contribution missions to see refugee sites and to a specific part of the operation, advise other points at which assistance is them to check with the DRRM at Head- delivered. quarters to ensure that this portion of the v. Indirect communication of operation- operation has not been funded already, or al needs through enhancing offered for funding, to another donor. UNHCR’s visibility in the media. 48. It is important to highlight UNHCR’s 52. Particularly in emergencies, donors protection and coordinating role when may offer to supply in-kind contribution communicating with donors. Coordina- (i.e. commodities or services) rather than tion must be a reality on the ground with make cash contribution. To a large extent UNHCR taking, and being seen to take, an it will be up the Field to decide on the appropriate leadership role. suitability of such contributions. The offer should be immediately reported to the DRRM and the donor requested to follow 147 up with Headquarters. In kind contribu- nor relations issues. The focal point for tions need to be coordinated by Headquar- this at Headquarters is the Donor Rela- ters to avoid duplication of similar contri- tions and Resource Mobilization Service. butions by different donors, and to avoid The Private Sector Fund Raising Unit at confusion over the amount of cash versus Headquarters may also issue submissions total contribution.1 to the general public or aimed at individual or corporate donors. Preparation of a flash appeal 58. Donor Relations and Resource Mobi- 53. The primary document for communi- lization Service at Headquarters will: cating with donors is the Flash Appeal. It is the appeal which needs to be brought to • Advise how to deal with a particular the donors’ attention at briefings, and it is donor. the activities in the appeal against which • Provide latest information on funding progress should be reported. It can be done for the operation. in the context of inter-agency appeals led • Follow up with Permanent Missions by the humanitarian/resident coordinators at Geneva and/or donor capitals on with the support of OCHA; or individu- potential contributions discussed in ally by agencies. the Field. 54. Flash Appeals are prepared and issued • Produce and distribute submissions by Headquarters with strong inputs from (with the active participation of the the Field. If a supplementary budget is Field). established, the operational requirements • Prepare specific submissions to donor will be consolidated by issuing a Supple- funding agencies (with the active mentary Appeal. No appeal can be issued participation of the Field). without the prior approval of ORB on the • Finalize detailed reports to the do- programme. nors. 55. Whenever possible, the government 59. The Field should: should be consulted in the development • Produce the basic operation informa- of the appeal. The appeal should also take tion and submission for the appeals. into account the results of the initial as- • Inform Headquarters when a donor sessment, and the budget should cover all has indicated an interest in contribut- foreseen expenditures. ing funds, whether to the appeal, to 56. If the situation changes dramatically a particular operation, to earmarked during the emergency, and the current ap- activities, or as a contributions in- peal becomes inappropriate, then the Field kind, and should also ask the donor to should review operational objectives and follow up through the normal chan- agree the new direction with Headquarters nels at Headquarters. before the revised operation is presented • Through Donor Relations and Re- to donors. source Mobilisation Service, provide information to the donors about Communication between the Field and the current situation and UNHCR’s Headquarters. plans. When deciding on a contribu- 57. Headquarters and the Field need to tion, donors need relevant informa- work together closely on funding and do- tion. Some information will be in the flash appeal and given at brief- 1 Further information on contributions in kind can ings, but some donors require more be found in “Making Contributions In Kind to detailed information. Timely and UNHCR – A Guide for Donors, DRRM October detailed responses will ensure the 2000”. most rapid funding. 148 • Provide reports and information to 65. Note the following points for written Headquarters to assist it in submitting correspondence with ambassadors, minis- reports to donors. To ensure continu- ters and other dignitaries: ity of funding it is essential that the i. The proper opening salutation is: required information be provided “Sir” or “Madam”, with “His/Her Ex- from the Field without delay. cellency” used, if appropriate, only in Reporting to donors and special the address. However, it may be local requirements practice to begin and end with “Your 60. A variety of reports are required Excellency”. When in doubt check by donors in order to account for their with UNDP or use “Sir”. His/Her contributions and to release additional Excellency precedes all other titles funds. Bear in mind that donor reporting and ranks (e.g. Her Excellency Dr. cycles do not necessarily correspond to X Y; His Excellency General A B, UNHCR’s reporting and operation cy- Minister of the Interior). cles. ii. The expression “I have the honour ...” is usually used only in the opening 61. Some major donors to UNHCR’s sentence. emergency operation require particularly iii. “You” can normally be used in the detailed reporting at both financial and

text. However, in a long text it may External Relations narrative level in a unique format with be courteous from time to time to in- strict deadlines. These special reports 9 terject the more formal address (e.g. are prepared by the Donor Relations and “I should be grateful if you, Sir, [or Resource Mobilization Service at Head- Your Excellency] would confirm that quarters on the basis of information from this is also the understanding of your the Field. Some donors also monitor im- Government”). plementation directly through their local representatives. iv. Formal letters end with “Accept, Sir/ Madam/Your Excellency, the assur- 62. A number of donors attach great im- ances of my highest consideration”. portance to the visibility of their financial 66. A note verbale is a formal note writ- support, through the marking of assistance ten in the third person. Notes verbales material and other means. may be addressed to a Minister for For- eign Affairs or a Ministry of Foreign Af- Formal written communications fairs, an ambassador or an embassy. Notes 63. When establishing a new UNHCR verbales are always used in replying to an presence in a country, there is likely to incoming note verbale. It is written from be a need for a number of formal written person to person (e.g. Representative to communications to government or local Minister) or office to office (e.g. Branch authorities. The purpose of this section is Office to Ministry). The following points to give brief guidance on the preparation should be noted: of formal letters and “notes verbales” (formal notes written in the third person – see i. Typical uses of notes verbales include sample in Annex 2). the exchange of information between UNHCR and governments, embas- 64. Formal letters are used for commu- sies or permanent missions. The note nications to ministers, ambassadors and verbale is not normally used to com- senior officials (for example, the Director- municate with other United Nations General of a government department) on agencies and is never used to address important matters. NGOs or the public. The note begins

149 either, “The Special Envoy/Repre- 67. Both formal letters and notes verbales sentative of the United Nations High may bear file references, as brief as possi- Commissioner for Refugees in (coun- ble, on the top left of the first page. try) presents his/her compliments to 68. Notes verbales are always answered ... and has the honour to ...” or “the by notes verbales, and formal letters by Branch Office of the United Nations formal letters. Apart from the restrictions High Commissioner for Refugees in on the use of notes verbales given above, (country) presents its compliments to there are no completely clear-cut rules ... and has the honour to ...”. about which to employ when UNHCR is ii. Titles must be given in full, at least in initiating the communication. In general the opening and closing paragraphs. terms, the note verbale conveys brief in- Be sure to use the full correct desig- formation and is the normal form for rou- nation of the country (Kingdom of ..., tine exchanges with the protocol depart- Republic of ..., Democratic Republic ment, for example, when seeking customs of..., etc.)2. clearance for relief supplies or advising iii. The complimentary closing of a note of the arrival of international staff. Refer- verbale is always the same: “The ences to important meetings with senior (Representative/Special Envoy) of officials and major issues, particularly the United Nations High Commis- those already discussed, are better treated sioner for Refugees in (country) in a formal letter. A formal letter may also avails him/herself of this opportunity reach the action officer more quickly than to express (renew) to ... the assur- a note. ances of his/her highest consideration”, or, as appropriate, “The Branch 69. If it is necessary to set out UNHCR’s Office ...” etc. position on a specific subject (policy, ac- iv. The note should bear no signature. tion taken, intentions, etc.), this may be The Office stamp should be placed done in the form of an aide-mémoire writ- over the typewritten date and the ten in the third person. An aide-mémoire officer responsible for its dispatch has no addressee and is simply headed should sign his/her initials within the Aide-Mémoire, with the title below. A stamp. The Representative or Special similar purpose is served by a “Note by Envoy and an alternate may be re- the Office of the United Nations High quired to register their initials or even Commissioner for Refugees”, a minor dif- signatures with the protocol depart- ference being that this description goes ment of the foreign ministry. below the title. An aide-mémoire would normally be used to convey information v. The place and date should appear on to a government ministry or department, the bottom right-hand side of the last an embassy or the diplomatic corps. For page. The address does not appear on a less formal or wider distribution, the a note verbale. “Note by ...” form may be appropriate. vi. The text of the note verbale should be single spaced with double spacing 70. All four types of communication between paragraphs. should be presented on UNHCR letter- head stationery.

150 Annex 1

MEMBER STATES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER’S PROGRAMME

Algeria Madagascar Argentina Mexico Australia Morocco Austria Mozambique Bangladesh Namibia Belgium Netherlands Brazil New Zealand Canada Nicaragua Chile Nigeria China Norway Colombia Pakistan Côte d’Ivoire Philippines Cyprus Poland

Democratic Republic Portugal External Relations

of the Congo Republic of Korea 9 Denmark Romania Ecuador Russian Federation Egypt Serbia Ethiopia Somalia Finland South Africa France Spain Germany Sudan Ghana Sweden Greece Switzerland Guinea Thailand Holy See Tunisia Hungary Turkey India Uganda Iran (Islamic Republic of) United Kingdom Ireland United Republic Israel of Tanzania Italy United States of America Japan Venezuela (Bolivarian Jordan Republic of) Kenya Yemen Lebanon Zambia Lesotho

151 Annex 2 – Example of a Note Verbale

NATIONS UNIES UNITED NATIONS HAUT COMMISSARIAT HIGH COMMISSIONER POUR LES REFUGIES FOR REFUGEES

Note Verbale

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Branch Office for [the respective country] presents its compliments to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ______and has the honour to request authorization to import [two Toyota land-cruisers]. It requests furthermore that the usual advice be sent to the appropriate authorities for exemption of payment of import duty, excise duty, registration and licensing fees for [these vehicles]. Details of (the vehicles) are as follows: 1. Bill of lading number: TAN-P-C 16-11/25-03 2. Engine numbers of vehicles: B-L-C 741-1334 B-L-C 24-04-01 The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees avails itself of this opportunity to renew to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs [of the respective country] the assurances of its highest consideration.

(stamp)

[name of place of UNHCR office in the respective country], [date]

Reference Further information can be found in “Guide for UNHCR Field Offices on Donor Rela- tions and Resource Mobilisation, July 2003”.

152 External Relations 9

153 10 Population estimation and registration

154 RegistrationOfficers requirementcalculationsheetinExcel

A Appendixes Annex 11: Annex 10: Annex 9: Annex 8: Annex 7: Annex 6: Annex 5: Annex 4: Annex 3: Annex 2: Annex 1: Annexes Key references Registration Population estimates Introduction Overview CONTENTS

Executive CommitteeConclusion No.91of2001 Samplefixingtokenandwristbands Sample budget,registrationstaffingandequipment

Administrative records Counting Introduction Registration phases Standard UNHCRregistrationmaterials Introduction Extrapolation Lists compiledbyrefugeeleaders Sample codes Sample registrationform Sample controlsheet Sample familycard Registration layout-concept List ofcountriescoveredbySenior(Regional) Minimum informationtobecollected Sample countingform Emergency statisticalreport(tobeincludedinthe emergency situationreports)

2 159 159 159 12 157 9 9-24 1-8 Page Paragraph 163 163 162 32 162 31 159 25 159 25-54 159 17 14 13

177 176 175 174 173 172 172 171 170 169 168 167

155 Population estimation 10 and registration Situation • The information collected will be Refugee emergencies are characterized important in planning for the care and by a mobile population, often with rap- maintenance in the country of asy- idly fluctuating numbers. While it may be lum, as well as for voluntary repatria- difficult to collect exact information on tion and reintegration in the country the total number and composition of the of origin. population, every effort should be made • Individual registration is the standard to obtain individual information, progres- and the ultimate goal. Where this sively through phases, to better assist the is not immediately possible, it can population. be achieved progressively in stages, starting with a household level Objectives registration. At each phase of the • To obtain working figures on the registration process, it is crucial to population of concern, including a computerize the information as soon breakdown of the population by age, as possible to facilitate programme sex, and groups with specific needs. delivery and beneficiary analysis. • To obtain detailed individual infor- • Continuous registration and verifica- mation on the population of concern tion is the norm. Information needs which will help to better identify will change through the course of protection needs and to deliver more time and the first registration should appropriate assistance. not necessarily attempt to collect all the information at once. Principles of response • If refugees are still on the move, the Action influx is rapid or there are concerns • Use population estimation techniques for general security, an estimation of only if the situation is not conducive the population should be conducted for a more thorough registration or to obtain working figures until the during the initial days of an influx. situation stabilizes and is conducive • Conduct a household registration as for registration. early as possible. • Registration is the primary respon- • Plan towards an individual registra- sibility of the refugee hosting gov- tion, keeping the population and ernment; however, in an emergency partners (government, WFP and the situation, UNHCR may be called NGO community) informed. upon to conduct the registration on • Identify resources which will be their behalf. It is essential to involve required for a full registration. the government from the early stages • Define the protection and operational of registration planning. strategy,1 and consult the Regional • Knowing the size and profile of the Registration Officers and HQ in plan- refugee population is essential for an ning for an individual registration efficient and cost-effective operation exercise as soon as feasible. and is at the core of UNHCR’s protection mandate. Refugee registration will serve as the basis for various standards and indicator reporting. • Involvement and understanding by the refugees (women and men) themselves is essential to the success of 1 See: How to Register, Manage Population Data and Issue Documentation process. (Registration registration. Handbook –2006). 156 recruitment, refoulement, of “the of death per10,000 personperday. but inreality there maybemore than e.g.1 when calculated willbeloworbelowcritical higher thanreality, thecrudemortalityrate 2 and the quantification and assessment of needs refugees spe of need in those of identification and of reunification family rights, the sets A) standards (Appendix 2001 of 91 No. 2. out thisinformation. made be must It territories.” their in refugees of Knowinghowmanyrefugeesthere • ance tion cial states 1. • Successfulregistrationneedsgood • provide “obtaining

Introduction For example,ifthepopulation figure is protection, concern To planandmanageanefficientop eration, itiscriticaltoknowthesize continuously updatedtoensurethat vidual populationrecordsneedtobe are andwhotheyisfundamental essential componentofanyassess accurate enumerationisthereforean ment. are meetingminimumstandards. good baselinedatatoensurethatyou lation. Itisalsoimportanttohave and theprofileofrefugeepopu situation atalltimes. registration datareflectstheactual and consistentmonitoring.Indi planning, carefulimplementation public informationandfundraising. cient operation. It is also essential for for planningandmanaginganeffi to xctv Cmite Conclusion Committee Executive Chapter II, 8(f) of the UNHCR Statute assistance, concerning the importance operation clear that implement for for to to the from the protection the UNHCR including protection the cannot High and protection of authorities Governments appropriate registration number as registration Commissioner be a and of protection means carried against access of acknowledges and that refugees durable of condition to an as out informa to forcible persons against enable assist - a with 1 basic shall An - - tool - - so by - - - - - • • include: in be inappropriate or not feasible. Situations to 3. sis. should lutions.” It also recommends that refugees 2002). and WFP 3 • • tions tion an emergency. 3 months of an influx first the within achieved be to standard Although As agreed withWFP create which Proximity toborders Populations thatare stillmoving Saving livesisahighpriority Security problems Saving livesismoreimportantthan may havetobeavoidedforsecurity cumstances shouldregistrationactivi moving backandforthacrossthebor gee populationwitharmedelements safety andsecurityofrefugeesorto to beorbecomedetrimentalthe ties becarriedoutiftheyaredeemed sides oftheborders. the localpopulationlivingonboth der. There mayalsobemixingwith reasons ortoavoidmixingtherefu risk ofmultipleenrollments. registration activities,andthereisa the populationmaybemissedin promise theflighttosafety, partof registration formalitiesmightcom organize andmanage.Inaddition, final, registrationcanbedifficultto priorities, registrationmay notbe where staff mustconcentrateonother registering people.Incircumstances the securityofstaff. destination, whethertemporaryor If refugeeshavenotyetreacheda Although every effort should be made automatic can in be Memorandumof Understanding(July which be the registration registered individual achieved, conditions response registration underthejointUNHCR on 3 , registration there should : Undernocir this in at an : Registration which the should activities individual may start be be registra delayed not is : of situa - the may - be an : ba ------157 Population estimation 10 and registration carried out. This is often the case in 7. Discrepancies may arise over time be- the first few weeks of an emergency tween official figures and the estimates when the level of trauma amongst ar- of those working closest to the refugees. riving refugees is high, or where the Unless these discrepancies are swiftly response by UNHCR or its partners is resolved, major problems will follow. not fully implemented. Small discrepancies are likely, given the difficulties in enumeration and registra- 4. Where formal registration is not pos- tion. Large ones can be avoided by timely sible, efforts should concentrate on popu- action to verify numbers through the vari- lation estimates, rate of influx, general ous methods set out in this chapter. The characteristics of the population and infor- key point for registration is that it is not a mation on origin and destination. There one-off exercise – it is a continuous proc- are a number of methods for population ess that is incorporated in the day to day estimation which do not require a formal activities of the operation. registration. In circumstances where min- 8. For detailed information on regis- imal conditions for operation do not exist, tration and population estimation tech- these methods may be preferable as an ini- niques, refer to UNHCR Handbook for tial first response. Registration (2006) and UNHCR/WFP 5 . Information compiled through a reg- Joint Assessment Guidelines – First istration process is required to support a Edition (June 2004). wide range of activities. The same set of core data is used for different purposes, Population estimates although most also require specific ad- • Population estimation techniques ditional information and variations in the should be used when basic ground registration steps. These may include: conditions are not conducive for a registration. For example, during the • Issuance of identity documents very initial phase when refugees are • Refugee status determination still on the move, the influx is rapid • Planning and targeting of assistance and any activity would create a bot- (food, shelter) and services (health, tleneck for the delivery of essential water) assistance or there are concerns for • Issuance of documents providing ac- general security. cess to services (ration cards, health • For most methods of population cards) estimation, it is important to under- • Identification of beneficiaries with stand the community structure of the specific needs beneficiary population. It may be • Voluntary repatriation necessary to employ several methods • Resettlement of estimation to obtain a better esti- • Local integration mate. • Estimates should be updated regularly until the situation stabilizes and is 6. The most practical time to register ref- conducive for registration. ugees is when they arrive at a reception/ • The estimates should be obtained in transit centre or site for settlement. Regis- close cooperation with the Govern- tration is often carried out in conjunction ment, WFP and other partners on the with health screening. Transferring refu- ground. gees to a new site also provides an opportunity for registration.

158 should data. census national possible, If refugees. the on data the 13. Administrative records and reportingforms.See Annex 2a. members staff These coverage. 24-hour provide to posi immediately be should staff ficient Suf population. refugee the of estimate counts daily sites), transportation or bridges (e.g. influx refugee a during points transit or 12. Counting mated numbers. who WFP e.g. affected, are who partners key be should Estimates report. situation overall 11. group. arrange living example, for – estimation is im population beneficiary the of ture struc community the Understanding 10. iii. ii. i. estimate thepopulation: 9. The following methods can be used to Introduction porting ments portant tioned a be to through iv. means aid updated obtained Lists compiledbyrefugeeleaders Administrative records Counting Extrapolation includingtheuseof agery and/or outreachteams aerial photographsandsatelliteim refugee will ne 1 rvds fra fr re for format a provides 1 Annex oa atoiis r outes at volunteers or authorities Local entry identified easily are there If counting and at of and be population for these of should bridges deliver the the determined regularly other most from cross-checking site points average number and be may and food the methods population provided estimates with can and country other number collect based of jointly give simple the people of critical the with methodology as a data on of in population population reasonable with part recording host origin counters the a passing should family points of other esti area - an as ------should services Community assistance. special require who needs specific with refugees tifying 16. be streamlinedintotheregularactivity. situation the Once updated. regularly and verified Initial this. in help can staff field and services ty tiveness of the new leadership. Communi understand to essential is It origin. of country the in emerge rupted during exodus and new leaders can and 15. be collected. to information minimum the for 3 Annex See comparison. easy for locations all at to nity. If this method is taken, it is essential a through process verified and leaders refugee 14. Lists compiledbyrefugeeleaders of shelters. Al extrapolated. be can camp whole the 17. Extrapolation move (nomadic). used be also can method This leaders. the by provided lists of accuracy the confirm to ternatively, tained ate ers provided situations, images of camp, To are the communitystructure. it the is harmonize registration; may ensure hierarchy as in particularly The lists can also be useful in iden in useful be also can lists The structure community normal The Lists of names can be compiled by compiled be can names of Lists Population estimates can also be ob camp, then records by visit may non-camp who accurate agreed staff stabilizes, eliminate should calculating that counting and/ aerial the such from be were and in compiled the with used the role, be however important and individuals or a which spontaneous photograph not health randomly the the information society population the shelters to populations as the motives necessarily registration need count fair the refugee by total the outreach to are refugee population as understand for and checked in information the area or estimates and settlement possible, often a collected immedi commu families satellite fraction number on leaders should of teams effec lead dis and the the of ------159 Population estimation 10 and registration 18. In all scenarios, it must be accom- measure all break points on the perimeter panied by a ground survey to establish enclosing the camp. Any simple GPS re- the average family size per shelter and the ceiver can be used to measure the points, percentage of empty shelters. for example the Thuraya phones that have a built in GPS. The more irregular the 19. The total surface area of the camp camp’s shape, the more perimeter points can be determined in a number of ways. will be needed. Once the break points Below are some examples on how it can have been measured the area can be cal- be determined: culated. Area calculation based on measurement The lines of latitude are parallel and even- made with a Global Positioning System ly spaced with approximately 111 km for (GPS) receiver. GPS uses satellites to es- one degree latitude. The distance which tablish and indicate the latitude and lon- a degree of longitude represents on the gitude of its current position. The device ground varies with the latitude. This is does not work under heavy forest cover or because lines of longitude converge at the in deep narrow valleys because it needs an poles and thereby make the distance rep- unobstructed sightline to several satellites. resented by one degree of longitude small- It is important to note in which coordinate er moving away from equator towards the system the GPS receiver is displaying the North and South poles. It is necessary to positions. UNHCR uses WGS84 in lati- know the distance which one degree rep- tude and longitude as standard, the format resents at the exact location of the camp, of the coordinates being degrees (°) min- for example by determining it with help of utes (‘) and seconds (“), dd mm ss.. This a map of the area, if it is sufficiently large should normally be the setting for any scale. The length of a degree at any given GPS receiver at all times. Due to the accu- latitude can be found in the graph below. racy of the GPS, it is not recommenced to measure areas below 200m x 200m. The Distance (km) of 1 degree longitude at a given latitude table below indicates the error in percent- 120 110 )

m 100

age that a GPS might give on a square area k (

e 90 d u t

assuming the accuracy is +/- 10m: i 80 g n

o 70 l e

e 60 r

Maximum error on g Area e 50 d

surface calculation 1 40 f o

e 30 100m x100m +/- 20% c n

a 20 t s i

200m x 200m +/- 10% D 10 0 300m x 300m +/- 7% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Latitude (North or South) a) Automatic area calculation using a GPS. Many GPS receivers have a function to calculate an area from measurements Many GPS receivers have a function for made while walking the perimeter of the selecting the format in which the positions area. It is important to slowly follow the are being displayed. To avoid the calcula- perimeter of the area to be measured and tion of the length of a degree, the positions to make sure that the track does not cross can be displayed and recorded in a metric itself since that would make the calculated system directly. A very common metric area incorrect. Consult the handbook for system is the coordinate system Universal the GPS receiver for exact instructions on Transverse Mercator (UTM). There are how to calculate an area automatically. 36 different UTM zones and each UTM zone is six degrees of longitude wide. Ei- b) Area calculation based on points meas- ther the GPS receiver detects the actual ured with GPS. If the GPS has no function zone by itself or it has to be entered. for calculating the area, it can be used to 160 areas about onethirtieth ofthetotalcamparea. Once the tripmetertoestimatedistance. by can width and length The camp. the of shape Once or measured, lished, Area iv. iii. ii. measurement be necessary and i. be calculatedinthefollowingways: by calculated pacing, Calculation fromanexistingmap:If FICSS canalsoassistincalculat Geographical InformationSystems The perimeter’s breakpointscanbe boundaries. unhcr.org). dinates toFICSSatHQ(hqmap@ Communicate theperimetercoor ing theareaformeasuredpoints. [email protected]). Support Section,(FICSS)atHQ(hq Field InformationandCoordination this softwarecanbeobtainedfrom Technical assistanceforsettingup rimeter pointsmeasuredwithGPS. length ofadegreeisbeingused. that thecorrectscalefactorfor will givethetotalarea.Makesure scaled squaresinsidetheperimeter joining thesepoints.Countingthe to representlatitude. A lineisdrawn represent longitudeandtheX-axis gridlines byusingthe Y-axis to the ed byoverlayingscaledgridlineson face areaofthecampcanbeestimat there isamapofthecamp,sur calculate anareabasedonthepe (GIS) canautomaticallymapand the squaresfallingwithincamp’s marked onpaperwhichhasscaled average be estimation: the within driving the select map, measured camp measurements the surface or width and the a (if by tape surface by perimeter minimum

the camp, using adding The using (if with of area camp area the the estimated the each a up depending a has points camp of camp wheel of is average GPS the the three large), representing been number have and is camp meter area receiver, sample small), length on estab - using - other - been - can can the or of - - - the image family shelters. Depending on the topog the on Depending shelters. family sometimes 22. population is5x3,990=19,950. family average the if example, For population. occupied 21. camp willbe133x30=3,990shelters. metres sq. 600,000 the in oc shelters cupied of number total the Thus 133. = 3 / a sample section will be (120 + 134 + 145) 134, and 150 occupied shelters respective For example, if 3 sample sections have 120, to extrapolatethisovertheentirecamp. 30 by multiply Then metres). sq. 20,000 in – (i.e. section per shelters of number average the for figure a Obtain sections. occupied shelters family of number the Count 20. of measuringshouldbeusedinstead. accurate sufficiently not is GPS normal The tions. sec sample the for used be could m 20,000 sq. yields which width or length of area should be 20,000 sq. m. Any variation sample each then m, sq. 600,000 is camp For example, if the total surface area of the counted 23. of theauthorities. flying over that however, Note, shelters. the distinguish to difficult more be will it but fewer of the camps. High altitude flights produce size the on part, in depend, phy.will This fine an appropriate scale for the photogra de to important is It estimation. be for used can plane UNHCR a from example, ad In sufficient. be may building tall or dition raphy, ly, or satellite then sample the Alternatively,(or photographs aerial eemn aeae aiy ie per size family average Determine photographs can to a size the ne h nme o setr is shelters of number the Once on picture for site professional in shelter be images, videos the average per area use may used each photo, shelter from and in require of to to to photographs measuring of number handle conventional count a a it estimate aerial is the nearby camp) can 5, the the three then be and of photography permission or the hill, number shelters multiplied taken, the interpret, the satellite sample size means tower total total for of of in ------

161 Population estimation 10 and registration by the average family size per shelter to 26. There are 3 levels of registration obtain an estimated total population. If which are determined by the amount of in- the ground survey indicated that there are formation collected. Level 1 is household some percentages of empty shelters, en- registration which should take place imme- sure that this is factored into the shelter diately upon arrival of the refugees. Level calculation. 2 is individual registration required for prima facie caseload/camp management 24. The results of aerial surveys or sat- or voluntary repatriation which should be ellite images can be integrated within the achieved within 3 months from the influx. GIS from which maps can then be pro- Level 3 is individual registration required duced. This is also true for the GPS co- for status determination, local integration ordinates collected during the surface cal- and resettlement. The information below culation. The coordinates can be a base to relates mainly to initial registration at the create camp maps. time of an influx. For further details, refer TIP: If there are various estimates float- to the registration handbook. ing around, a quick count of all children under five years old in the camp or in a Registration is not a one-off exercise. section of the camp (that can then be ex- Individual and continuous registration is trapolated for the camp) can be used to the UNHCR standard for registration. cross-check the various estimates. For 27. In order to cope with large num- most developing countries, the percentage of under 5 year-old range between bers, normally household registration is 15- 20% of the population. conducted immediately, followed by individual registration according to the imme- Registration diate needs of the population and the time • Registration provides the more and staff available to carry out the task. detailed information needed for the In some situations, the operation may go efficient management of an assistance directly into individual registration. Reg- operation. istration should only be carried out when: • Registration is carried out over sev- i. the safety of the staff and of the refu- eral phases. gees can be assured; • Individual registration should be the ii. the refugees and other stakeholders final goal and should also be continu- accept the process; ously updated, including deregistra- iii. the key partners can supply personnel tion of those no longer of concern, to to help carry out the registration; and avoid becoming irrelevant. iv there are sufficient quantities of reg- Introduction istration materials and other equipment, including logistical support and 25. For effective protection and assist- communications. ance delivery, individual and demographic information obtained through registration 28. There are 4 main phases in registra- is imperative. Information requirements tion, regardless of whether you conduct will change during different phases of an a household registration or an individual operation (emergency, care and mainte- registration. In all stages, staff training nance, VolRep); therefore, the initial reg- and full understanding of the process in- istration should be followed by continuous volved is essential for the success of the verification of information and additional exercise. The 4 main phases in registra- information collection to ensure up-to- tion are: date information. i. assessing and determining the registration strategy; 162 Registration phases these resourcesandhowto obtainthem. Resources Response Emergency of catalogue the to refugee registration package. Please refere etc. tokens, These fixing wristbands, forms, refugees.The 300,000 register to sufficient are 31. Standard UNHCRregistrationmaterials as Annex 4. ation. List of country coverage is attached covering Officers Registration (Regional) Senior Case environment. operating the on depending equipment requirement; and staffing registration for the in sheet security.Excel for See sponsible personnel. Key necessary the supply to ners 30. management. be always not may this Whilst process. the ii. UN objective erable sibility registration strategy the as 29. iv. iii. population needs refugee are Phase 1: Phase possible closely collecting informationandissuing Verification andupdating. computerization; and best CD-ROM registration cards; noted, agencies, stockpiled materials partners The ‘ideal’ in registration is to work ‘ideal’to The is registration in tnad aeil fr registration for materials Standard consid requires registration Formal by the materials time and methodology women, case the for active

promoting Assessing which as and initially, and participation NGOs country both however, which support include include possible at its are involvement personnel to has Headquarters registration leadership, ensure and included helps it and for community who standard is government, should further with this the provided a determining in to particular their can resources authorities all will give of the as be and especially details advise cards stages key concerns part and a respon refugee an change by major camp other part situ idea of and and the the are re on of of a - - - - - information persons andthosewithdisabilities. older as such example, for sun hot the der be registration. Special arrangements should of benefits and procedures the of refugees should 34. terization. the exercise. Decide on the level of infor security, telecommunications, supplies, equipment, necessary staffing, the that Ensure stage. this at basic cluding refugees. Staff training, including in partners, concerned the ajoint with exercise be should Planning difficulties. in a registration pilot A registration. the executing and planning for sponsibility 33. thing fromscratch. crucial is It figures. planning existing or timated can be done in different ways. Tradition ways. different in done be can “fixing” the lists, previous of availability 36. and abuse. re a become will registration “fixing”, of kind some Without frozen. temporarily size the that means This population. “fixed” a 2: Phase volving 35. suing registration cards paign includes mation cal large the registrationmethodologybased 32. and are or small registration made support unable to of At the same time as planning, there planning, as time same the At This is the initial step to determine to step initial the is This eint a oa pit o ae re take to point focal a Designate Depending on the situation and the and situation the on Depending Registration should be conducted on (not protection aimed build to the be to door, camp to procedures review be just to Collecting an group cater will will on spend at collected open intensive can form, the be the it to training the be on rather available leaders) help to the time refugee for collected available whom and vehicles escalating information needs on data information identify in than may ensure a queues informing more on population entry control of information needs start be and the those distortion potential planning required detailed compu and and logisti date every on sheet to cam who un the es is be of at ------163 Population estimation 10 and registration ally, it was done using tokens and wrist- dents may occur if there are bottlenecks bands. (See Annex 5) It must be done or long waiting periods, disorganised pro- rapidly (preferably within a few hours, cedures, and large numbers of beneficiar- maximum one day) to avoid multiple and/ ies exposed to extreme conditions (heat, or bogus registration. While the popula- cold, sandstorm, etc.). See Annex 6 for a tion may be given only short notice of sample site set-up. Communication with when this will take place, it is necessary to the beneficiary population is essential to ensure that they understand what is hap- ensure that they are fully aware of the pro- pening. This method is best used when cedure and what it entails. absolutely no prior information exists for 41. Below are 2 levels of information the population. collection and entitlement card issuance – 37. In situations where an initial “large depending on the operating environment. influx” has stabilized to a steady trickle a) Collecting limited information on con- of hundreds, fixing tokens or wristbands trol sheets and issuing temporary family can be issued at entry/transit points. This cards would “fix” a population and indicate who needs to be registered at the camp in the 42. Collecting information and issuing following days. (See Annex 2 b) temporary family cards should be carried out immediately after the “fixing” and 38. Alternatively, when you have a con- preferably, before any food or NFI distri- trol sheet or an existing assistance list (such bution. Usually there will be no time to as food list) compiled by an NGO working collect detailed information immediately, with the refugee population, this list can yet assistance should be distributed urgent- be used as a “fixing” tool. The accuracy ly and basic demographic data is needed. of the list should be verified by random The first step therefore is to exchange the sampling and a review of the process used fixing token or wristband (if used) for a to compile the list. Those who are not on temporary family card (see Annex 7) to the list need to be interviewed and verified all heads of family, and collect limited in- to determine whether they are persons of formation on control sheets (see Annex 8). UNHCR’s concern. Another method is to In most instances this information will be conduct a tent to tent (or shelter to shelter) limited to the names of the head of fam- verification to create a list of refugees who ily, family size, age and sex breakdown would be registered. of the family members and the number of 39. In a scenario where there is a man- the temporary family card, with an indica- ageable rate of new arrivals to a camp, the tion of any immediately visible vulnerable registration can take place upon arrival. family members. The “fixing” element of the registration 43. The control sheet can be used as a may be the convoys arriving from the beneficiary list until the information is border (or foot arrivals in the transit area computerized to create distribution lists. of the camp) and through allocating tent/ shelter plots in the camp. In this situation, b) Completing registration forms and dis- the families are allocated a fixed tent/shel- tributing ration cards ter in the camp and fully registered. The 44. The second step is to record detailed operation can go straight into continu- information about the families on regis- ous registration/verification, by using the tration forms (see Annex 9) and to issue camp address as a verification tool. longer-term ration cards (the standard 40. In planning for this phase, it is essen- UNHCR card lasts about one year or 24 tial to pay attention to the flow of people to 36 distributions). When it is done af- coming in for registration. Security inci- ter the issue of temporary family cards it 164 with for trained 49. and abeneficiarylist. use been issued. Any assistance delivery must 48. Phase 3: the CD-ROM. in is list full The list. code standard the of parts for 10 See Annex names. for is It data. of input and collection the tates facili it Further, analysable. and parable order codes. standard in of essential use is This 47. commodity distribution. process two-step The distribution. assistance for between 46. protection andeventualdurablesolutions. delivery 45. temporary cards. can who and literation mally cern istration taneous cepted ately to (temporary information take and core ing ofinformation. erence, analysis, verification and updat and verification analysis, erence, The particularly an be processing a to a speak considerable and This step provides a verifiable link verifiable a provides step This will aa a b etrd nst by on-site entered be can Data Computerization must start immedi the is registration to aspect key One assistance without operations For when off-site to combination document registration used spread cut-off data-entry ensure in of settlements), obtain or the should Computerization provide between the the information family where the any because is identity over specialized important very date local there needed data large language form of still the clerks refugees a card form time, alphabets, a of for simple longer which UNHCR the communities is basis numbers an of of the be the in or a collecting to or constitutes second entitlement entitlement persons and data of common ration undertaken the individual have by period for validity is forms have the registration outsourcing easily particularly registration interim entry future of personnel card) been step refugees of of needed is people (spon of trans com com time, ref con the card card nor reg can has the ac for for ------ior Regional Registration Officers cover Officers Registration Regional ior registration 51. tion stabilizes. Opera CD-ROM. attached the in guide user and sheets Excel See stage. later a at in Excel with a view to migrate to a in place taking is emergency the If lists. beneficiary create to and photos, dividual software). tion using 50. wise itwillbeoutdatedandunusable. declaration. The data should be computer confidentiality a sign they that essential is it hired, is company entry data a If pany. ue o nue osset rcie This practice. consistent ensure to dure this do to procedure a be should There cern. It movements. population and deaths births, Phase 4: proGres on support Technical HQ. in unhcr.org) ( FICSS from or country the ing updated 52. to a istration ized mented es ation tion tions structure, Support Desk( registration can FICSS strongly tion attached in the CD-ROM. Any modifica Any CD-ROM. the in attached If the datacanbemigratedto few remote is record when the from important to be data as are can should Country specific advice on the best the on advice specific Country processed normally is data Refugee eitain nomto ms be must information Registration proGres months soon used

in and Excel and the Verification andupdating as advised can to be personal recommended the location it the method forms the proGres is persons as obtained be case proGres during start be after (UNHCR Standard possible hqprosup option possible done ProGres population deregister and to obtained management or bio-data, and with being or migrate

are an

as in control from Support process is it consultation to and soon to emergency no Operating standard

very @unhcr.org). is should collected selected, use record either from longer a not changes their to proGres sheet, as holistic basic for the to capture tool more close cas hqcs00 the be registra registra the proGres proGres the the ensure sheets of Proce on which other docu phase it infra situa . with Sen situ with con than data reg the is in @ ------

165 Population estimation 10 and registration is especially important during the emer- 54. Entitlement documents (such gency phase when there is a high turnover as ration cards) and identity documents of staff. (such as attestation letters or ID cards) are 2 distinct documents which should 53. Registration and verification should not be mixed in use. Identity documents not be a one-off exercise conducted once confirm the status of the persons of con- every year. The registered numbers and cern whereas entitlement documents con- information should be continuously cross- firm that a person or family is entitled to checked with other available informa- a specific assistance. For example, being tion, for example, births and deaths can a refugee does not automatically imply be monitored through the health services, that a person is entitled to a certain type of and population movements monitored assistance. Both documents can acquire through any of the methods for population monetary value, depending on the con- estimation described above. Verification text. To ensure the refugees are not using can also be conducted during food distri- other people’s documents or forged docu- bution, house to house visits by commu- ments there should be a system to check nity services/community health workers, the documents, for example random veri- through school enrolment etc. The meth- fication at food distribution points. od of reporting back field findings should be agreed as early as possible at the onset It is important to emphasize the differ- of an emergency to ensure that most up- ence between entitlement documents to-date information is available centrally. and identity documents. This means In order to facilitate the verification proc- that the total population of concern to ess, shelters should be given an address UNHCR (with identity documents) can be (block/ community/individual shelter higher than the number of beneficiaries number) which will be linked to the in- (with entitlement documents). dividual family registration information. Assistance to set up “Continuous Regis- tration Process” is available with FICSS Key references and the Regional Registration Officers. Handbook for Registration, UNHCR, Ge- neva, 2006. A situation where various agencies maintain their own lists which are not shared UNHCR/ WFP Joint Assessment Guide- or sharable should be avoided. lines, First Edition (June 2004).

166 * Percentageasperendofperiod.Estimate,ifstatisticsarenotavailable. Annex 1: situation reports) Main basisoftheinformationis Main sourceofinformationis Origin ofthepopulation: Type/status ofpopulation: Period: From location Current Pop. at start of period Emergency statisticalreport(tobeincludedintheemergency arrival New

Increase born New □ RegistrationEstimate □ GovernmentUNHCR Other Spont. depart Decreases Death Other to □ Pop. at NGO end of period Total – 4years total 0 % of old*

% of total female * who are 167 Population estimation 10 and registration Annex 2a: Sample counting form

Location name: Date:

Start time: End time:

Name of supervisor: Signature:

Name of clerk Serial # of manual Number counted Signature counter *

TOTAL

* The serial number is solely used to keep track of the equipment.

Annex 2 b: Sample form to count issued wristbands/fixing tokens at entry points

Location name: Date:

Start time: End time:

Name of supervisor: Signature:

Name of clerk Serial # of Wristbands/ Fixing Tokens issued Signature From To

TOTAL of wristbands/ tokens issued

168 • Campaddress • Rationcardnumber • • Dateofarrival • Placeoforigin • Maritalstatus • Relationshiptothehead(s)offamily • • • • that verificationwilltakeplaceassoontheopportunityarises. it notebooks provided to the block leaders (if the camp is organized). As indicated earlier, maintained by community leaders. The information can be collected in a ledger book or The Annex 3:Minimuminformationtobecollected is Specific needsgroups Family size Age/ dateofbirth Sex Name (first/givenandfamilyname),ofhead(s)household essential information that listed the leaders below are is the made minimum fully aware information that this to is be a collected temporary if measure a list is to and be 169 Population estimation 10 and registration Annex 4:

List of countries covered by Senior Registration Officers (as per IOM/ FOM No. 91/2003/ Rev. 1 Human Resources management procedures relating to Regional Global posts effective 1 January 2004)

Name (based in) Countries covered Ms. Maureen Mc Brien (Nairobi) Burundi, Djibouti, DRC, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, ROC, Rwanda, Soma- lia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda Mr. Koffi Adossi (Accra) Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, CAR, Chad, Cote d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Li- beria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome & Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo Mr. Nasir Fernandes (Cairo) Afghanistan*, Algeria, Bahrain*, Egypt, Iran*, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Ka- zakhstan*, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan*, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania*, Morocco, Pakistan*, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Tajikistan*, Turkmenistan*, UAE, Uzbekistan*, Western Sahara*, Yemen To be determined Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South (Pretoria) Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe Ms. Sakura Atsumi (HQ) All other countries in the world Mr. Christian Oxenboll (HQ) Note: • Countries added after the issuance of the IOM/ FOM No. 91/2003/ Rev. 1 is indicated with an asterisk (*).

170 Annex 5:Samplefixingtokenandwristbands Fixing tokenin3colours Wrist bandin4colours 171 Population estimation 10 and registration Annex 6: Registration layout - concept

More examples Registration Layout on CD-ROM Admission Desk ~ Concept ~

Registration Desk 1 Data Entry/ Photo Desk 2

Registration Desk 2 Data Entry/ Photo Desk 1

Wait Area

Registration Desk 3 Litigation Desk

Waiting Area

Waiting Area, Distribute Token

Annex 7: Sample family card

172 Annex 8:Samplecontrolsheet 173 Population estimation 10 and registration Annex 9: Sample registration form

174 g erAeYear Age Year Age This yearis: 56 55 54 53 52 60 59 58 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 57 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 2005 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1945 1946 1947 Step-daughter Step-son 1954 Step-father Step-mother Dec 1955 Nov 1956 Oct December 1957 Aug November 1958 Sep October 1959 Son-in-law September 1960 August Mother-in-law 1961 Father-in-law July 1962 Mar June 1963 May 1964 Feb April Jan 1965 March 1966 February 1967 January 1968 1969 1970 1948 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 ot Abv. Month 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 92Grandfather PostUniversity/Doctor 11 Mother Father 1922 Sister HR2 1923 Brother 1924 Secondary/Vocational/Agricultural3 1925 HouseholdRepresentative2 1926 Daughter 1927 HR1 Son 1928 Husband 1929 Wife 1930 HouseholdRepresentative 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 Engaged 1936 Divorced 1937 Separated 1938 Widowed 1939 Single 1940 Married/CommonLaw 1941 1942 1943 1944 95Nephew Aunt Uncle 1915 Granddaughter 1916 Grandson 1917 Grandmother 1918 1919 1920 1921 a In-law(male) May u In-law(female) Jun p Daughter-in-law Apr Jul g erAeYear Age Year Age This yearis: 56 55 54 53 52 60 59 58 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 57 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 Temporary protection Complementary protection OAU -1969Convention Not applicable UNHCR mandate 1951 Convention Other/unknown (inc.humanstatus) Refugee Returnee (returnedrefugee) Not ofconcern Internally displacedperson Asylum seeker 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2005 obodrlto fml)NRF No bloodrelation(female) No bloodrelation(male) Cousin (female) Cousin -male Niece 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1945 1946 1947 Step-daughter Step-son 1954 Step-father Step-mother Dec 1955 Nov 1956 Oct December 1957 Aug November 1958 Sep October 1959 Son-in-law September 1960 August Mother-in-law 1961 Father-in-law July 1962 Mar June 1963 May 1964 Feb April Jan 1965 March 1966 February 1967 January 1968 1969 1970 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1948 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Legal Basis aia ttsCode Marital Status Relationship Status ot Abv. Month 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 90 89 88 87 86 85 94HueodRpeettv R eodr/Vctoa/Arclua 11 Secondary/Vocational/Agricultural3 HR1 Husband Wife HouseholdRepresentative 1932 1933 1934 1935 Engaged 1936 Divorced 1937 Separated 1938 Widowed 1939 Single 1940 Married/CommonLaw 1941 1942 1943 1944 92Grandfather PostUniversity/Doctor Mother Father 1922 Sister HR2 1923 Brother 1924 1925 HouseholdRepresentative2 1926 Daughter 1927 Son 1928 1929 1930 1931 95Nephew Aunt Uncle 1915 Granddaughter 1916 Grandson 1917 Grandmother 1918 1919 1920 1921 a In-law(male) May u In-law(female) Jun p Daughter-in-law Apr Jul HCMan OAU69 HumSt CmPro 51Con Code Code Code O Unaccompaniedminor COM NRM C Deafand/orMute GCM GPM SCM R Nodata PRM NOC A University DAU B Informaleducation SBM O ehia rVctoa colfnse TC TechnicalorVocationalschoolfinished Vocational/Agricultural5 SON HUS N PhysicallyDisabled(Moderate) UNC SPM CLM C SingleParent NCE RTR O Separated Child COF N Physically Disabled (Severe) ANT ASR I Vocational/Agricultural4 WIF C MentallyDisabled(Moderate) GCF PLM E Unaccompanied elderly NEP P Blind GPF REF SCF B Noeducation SBF PRF SPF N/A ILM IDP CLF PLF DPrimary3 WD APrimary1 MA ILF VPrimary5 DV GPrimary6 EG Primary2 SN RPrimary4 SR TP Annex 10:Samplecodes Refugee Returnee (returnedrefugee) Not ofconcern Internally displacedperson Asylum seeker Temporary protection Complementary protection OAU -1969Convention Not applicable UNHCR mandate 1951 Convention Other/unknown (inc.humanstatus) UNHCR CodeTables obodrlto fml)NRF No bloodrelation(female) No bloodrelation(male) Cousin (female) Cousin -male Niece Woman atrisk eodr/Vctoa/Arclua 10 9 Secondary/ Vocational/Agricultural2 Secondary/ Vocational/Agricultural1 Primary 8 Primary 7 Mentally Disabled(Severe) (Extract) g erAeYear Age Year Age This yearis: 56 55 54 53 52 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 60 59 58 51 50 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 57 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Legal Basis 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 aia ttsCode Marital Status Relationship Status 2005 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1945 1946 1947 Step-daughter Step-son 1954 Step-father Step-mother Dec 1955 Nov 1956 Oct December 1957 Aug November 1958 Sep October 1959 Son-in-law September 1960 August Mother-in-law 1961 Father-in-law July 1962 Mar June 1963 May 1964 Feb April Jan 1965 March 1966 February 1967 January 1968 1969 1970 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1948 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Special Needs Education ot Abv. Month 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 HCMan OAU69 HumSt CmPro 51Con Code Code Code O Unaccompaniedminor COM NRM C Deafand/or Mute GCM GPM SCM R Nodata PRM NOC A University DAU B Informaleducation SBM U Vocational/ Agricultural5 HUS O ehia rVctoa colfnse TC TechnicalorVocationalschoolfinished SON N PhysicallyDisabled(Moderate) UNC SPM CLM C SingleParent NCE RTR O SeparatedChild COF N PhysicallyDisabled(Severe) ANT ASR I Vocational/Agricultural4 WIF C MentallyDisabled(Moderate) GCF PLM E Unaccompaniedelderly NEP P Blind GPF REF SCF B Noeducation SBF PRF SPF N/A ILM IDP CLF PLF DPrimary3 WD APrimary1 MA ILF VPrimary5 DV GPrimary6 EG Primary2 SN RPrimary4 SR TP 95Nephew Aunt Uncle 1915 Granddaughter 1916 Grandson 1917 Grandmother 1918 Grandfather 1919 PostUniversity/Doctor 1920 11 Mother 1921 Father 1922 Sister HR2 1923 Brother 1924 Secondary/Vocational/Agricultural3 1925 HouseholdRepresentative2 1926 Daughter 1927 HR1 Son 1928 Husband 1929 Wife 1930 HouseholdRepresentative 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 Engaged 1936 Divorced 1937 Separated 1938 Widowed 1939 Single 1940 Married/CommonLaw 1941 1942 1943 1944 a In-law(male) May u In-law(female) Jun p Daughter-in-law Apr Jul UNHCR CodeTables Code oeDetail Code Woman atrisk eodr/Vctoa/Arclua 10 9 Secondary/ Vocational/Agricultural2 Secondary/ Vocational/Agricultural1 Primary 8 Primary 7 Mentally Disabled(Severe) (Extract) RU Mechanic UW WR Temporary protection Complementary protection OAU -1969Convention Not applicable UNHCR mandate 1951 Convention Other/unknown (inc.humanstatus) Refugee Returnee (returnedrefugee) Not ofconcern Internally displacedperson Asylum seeker UG NE SB Farmer BD DS SD Fisherman DF DS SM Hairdresser MS DS SP Hunter PS DS SM Guard MM DS SP Housewife PM DS PG RU Journalist UR ER CS Mason SC SC CU Lawyer UM SC PP Labourer PT SP 12 13 IN U 5 4 6 2 8 7 3 1 obodrlto fml)NRF No bloodrelation(female) No bloodrelation(male) Cousin (female) Cousin -male Niece Legal Basis Special Needs aia ttsCode Marital Status Relationship Status Education Doctor Domestic helper Craftsman Computer expert Baker Civil servant Athlete Tailor Student Street foodseller Social Worker Shopkeeper/ Smallbusiness Well technician Weavers Traditional leaders Traditional healer Shoe maker Shepherd Secretary School teacher-Secondary School teacher -Primary Religious Potters Political Police officer Plumber Nurse None Miner Military Merchant Media Farm labourer Engineer Electrician Cook TBA/ midwifes Basket weavers Agronomist Builder Blacksmith Artist Accountant Car drivers Carpenter Butcher Building labourer Carrier Cattle breeder Occupation HCMan OAU69 HumSt CmPro 51Con Code Code Code O Unaccompaniedminor COM NRM C Deafand/orMute GCM GPM SCM R Nodata PRM NOC A University DAU B Informaleducation SBM O ehia rVctoa colfnse TC Technicalor Vocationalschoolfinished SON N PhysicallyDisabled(Moderate) UNC Vocational/Agricultural5 HUS SPM CLM C SingleParent NCE RTR O Separated Child COF N PhysicallyDisabled(Severe) ANT ASR C MentallyDisabled(Moderate) GCF Vocational/Agricultural4 WIF PLM E Unaccompaniedelderly NEP P Blind GPF REF SCF B Noeducation SBF PRF SPF N/A ILM IDP CLF PLF DPrimary3 WD APrimary1 MA ILF VPrimary5 DV GPrimary6 EG Primary2 SN RPrimary4 SR TP Code oeDetail Code RU Mechanic UW WR UG NE SB Farmer BD DS SM Hairdresser Fisherman MS DF DS DS SP Hunter PS Guard DS MM DS SP Housewife PM DS PG RU Journalist UR ER CS Mason SC SC CU Lawyer UM SC PP Labourer PT SP UNHCR CodeTables 12 13 IN U 4 5 8 7 2 3 6 1 Woman atrisk Mentally Disabled(Severe) 10 9 Secondary/ Vocational/Agricultural2 Secondary/ Vocational/Agricultural1 Primary 8 Primary 7 (Extract) Code 2221 6111 4115 7320 4131 7424 7412 9131 7330 2130 9111 7432 5162 2230 3475 5141 0001 2446 7442 6120 2320 2331 3415 7241 7221 6154 6152 7433 1141 7136 7111 3472 9211 2140 5122 3232 2213 1120 7121 2452 7411 1319 8113 1130 3241 2460 0110 7231 2411 8322 7124 2451 5121 9152 9150 7122 6121 9313 2421 NE Special Needs Doctor Domestic helper Craftsman Computer expert Tailor Student Street foodseller Social Worker Shopkeeper/ Smallbusiness Well technician Weavers Traditional leaders Traditional healer Shoe maker Shepherd Secretary School teacher-Secondary School teacher-Primary Religious Potters Political Police officer Plumber Nurse None Miner Military Merchant Media Farm labourer Engineer Electrician Cook TBA/ midwifes Athlete Baker Civil servant Builder Blacksmith Agronomist Artist Basket weavers Carpenter Car drivers Butcher Building labourer Accountant Carrier Cattle breeder Version: 23/11/2005 Education Occupation Code oeDetail Code RU Mechanic UW WR UG NE SB Farmer BD DS SD Fisherman DF DS SM Hairdresser MS DS SM Guard MM DS SP Hunter PS DS SP Housewife PM DS PG RU Journalist UR ER CS Mason SC SC CU Lawyer UM SC PP Labourer PT SP 12 13 IN U 5 4 6 2 8 7 3 1 Code 2221 6111 4115 7320 9111 7432 5162 2230 7412 9131 7330 2130 0001 7442 6120 2320 2331 3415 7241 4131 3475 7424 5141 7433 2446 1141 7136 7111 3472 9211 2140 5122 3232 6154 6152 1319 8113 1130 3241 2460 0110 7121 7221 7411 2452 2213 1120 7231 7124 8322 2411 2451 9152 5121 9150 7122 6121 9313 2421 NE Version: 23/11/2005 Doctor Craftsman Domestic helper Computer expert Civil servant Baker Athlete Tailor Student Street foodseller Social Worker Shopkeeper/ Smallbusiness Well technician Weavers Traditional leaders Traditional healer Shoe maker Shepherd Secretary School teacher-Secondary School teacher-Primary Religious Potters Political Police officer Plumber Nurse None Miner Military Merchant Media Farm labourer Engineer Electrician Cook TBA/ midwifes Basket weavers Agronomist Builder Blacksmith Artist Carpenter Car drivers Accountant Butcher Building labourer Carrier Cattle breeder Occupation 175 Population estimation 10 and registration Code 2221 6111 4115 7320 4131 7330 7424 9131 7412 2130 9111 7432 5162 2230 5141 3475 0001 2446 7442 6120 2320 2331 3415 7241 6152 6154 7221 7433 1141 7136 7111 3472 9211 2140 5122 3232 1120 2452 2213 7411 7121 1319 8113 1130 3241 2460 0110 7231 2451 9152 7124 8322 2411 5121 6121 9150 7122 9313 2421 NE Version: 23/11/2005 Annex 11: Sample budget, registration staffing and equipment requirement calculation sheet in Excel

XXXXXX Verification / Registration Xxx-Xxx 2005 Total population 14 128 Operational Assumptions Total households 5 620 1. User pre-populated or blank registration form for the interview Planning Worksheet 2. Data Entry on site will be kept to minimum bio data and photo 3. Rest of the data entry (comments etc) will be completed in the office 7 hours/day of operational hours If one interviewer is able to verify/ collect data for 20 households/ day = 50 individuals/day ( 21 ) minuites/household and a data entry person takes pictures of 101 Individuals/day Interview/ basic data entry / photo capture will finish in 28,1 working days I. Human Resources Cout unit Cout Total Nbre de jrs Cout total de Staff HCR Staff à recruter par jour par jour prestes l'operation en $ US (USD) Superviseur( HCR) 1 Controleur foule 1 20 20 28 $560 Enregistreurs 5 5 20 100 28 $2 800 Personnel de Protection(HCR) 1 Bureau controle/Reception(HCR) 1 Administrateur de la base de donnes 1 Agents de Saisie(staff HCR) 0 5 30 150 28 $4 200 Assistant de Photo Agents Feuille de controle Carte de ration(HCR) Chargé de la logistique Electricien 1 25 25 30 $750 Autorites locales 4 20 80 28 $2 240 Cdt Police 1 20 20 28 $560 Policier(agent securité) 2 10 20 28 $560 S/Total 9 19 $11 670

NB: Les staff du HCR sont responsible de la logistique, cartes de ration et les autres aspects administratives. If faut ajouter le DSA pour les staff en mission (de Bangui)

II.Materiel

Qte PrixUnit

Fournitures de Bureau/consommables a. Formulaires d'enregistrement (virges ou pre-populated) 6000 Stock b. Bic Bleu 20 Stock c. Marqueurs 5 Stock d. Classeurs à levrier 10 Stock e. Perforateur Stock f. Perforateur carte Stock g. Papier duplicateur Stock h. Agraffeuse 4 Stock i. Agraffes 2 Stock j. Farde chemise 10 Stock S/Total $0 Furnitures Informatiques a. Ordinateurs (x6) new laptops -> 5 1500 $7 500 b. Imprimante (x1) 1 Imprimante Stock ? c. Switched hub 8/16 port (x2) One spare? 1 33 $33 d. UPSs (x1) 1(Existe) stock? e. WebCams/Tripods (x5 ) PROFILE stock -> 5( existent) stock f. Cables RJ 45 10( à fabriquer) Stock g. Draps (mieux Fonds Blancs durs)/ 10m 1 $10 S/Total $7 543 Materiel electronique a. Groupe 1KVA (x1) 1 generateur Stock? b. Rlx cables de 2,5mm 100 m c. Prises avec terres d. Chevilles $1 000 e. Reglette avec tubes de 40 watt f. Rallonges electriques g. Domino S/Total $1 000 Carburant a. Gasoil vehicule 600 litres de GO 2 $1 200 b. Essence groupe electrogene 50 litres 5 $300 c.Huile moteur Groupe Electrogene 2 litres 10 $50 S/Total $1 550 Autres materiels Megaphone 2 Stock? Ciseaux 5 pieces Stock S/Total $0

Imprevus(10%) $2 176 Grand Total $23 939

176 (b) (a) Consultations onInternationalProtection; Welcoming Mindful calls onStatesPartiestoissueidentitypapersrefugees; Noting and sexualviolence; and refugees, ConclusionNo.39(XXXVI)and64(XLI)onrefugeewomen situations oflarge-scaleinflux,ConclusionNo.35(XXXV)onidentitydocumentsfor Recalling The ExecutiveCommittee, Appendixies UNHCR’s emergencypreparednessandresponsetotheKosovocrisis; international alsothatthe1951ConventionrelatingtoStatusofRefugeesinarticle27, oftheimportanceaccorded the quantificationandassessmentofneeds identification ofthoseinneedspecialassistance,andasameanstoenable protection ofaccesstobasicrights,familyreunification and impartialmanner, withduerespectforthesafety anddignityofrefugees; (iv) accessible, (iii) confidentiality; (ii) deaths, newarrivals,departures,cessation,naturalization, etc.); demographic andotherchangesintherefugeepopulation (suchasbirths, information atthetimeofinitialdisplacement,aswell asanysubsequent (i) guided bythefollowingbasicconsiderations: Recommends durable solutions; protection against Acknowledges 2001 ExecutiveCommitteeoftheUNHCRProgramme(52 itsConclusionNo.22(XXXII)ontheprotectionofasylum-seekersin thediscussionwhichtookplaceonregistrationincontextofGlobal Registration shouldbeacontinuingprocesstorecord essential The registrationprocessshouldabidebythefundamental principlesof REGISTRATION OFREFUGEES The registrationprocessshould A Registration shouldbeconducted inanon-intimidating,non-threatening protection,

and takeplaceinasafe securelocation; that theregistrationofrefugeesandasylum-seekers should be the importanceofregistrationasatoolprotection,including refoulement as Conclusion No.91(LII) well

to registrationintheindependentevaluationof as , protectionagainstforciblerecruitment, Conclusion

to theextentpossiblebeeasily AND No. ASYLUM-SEEKERS 73

to implementappropriate (XLIV)

of refugeesand on nd refugee Session) protection 177 Population estimation 10 and registration (v) Personnel conducting the registration, including, where necessary, refugees and asylum-seekers, should be adequately trained, should include a sufficient number of female staff and should have clear instructions on the procedures and requirements for registration, including the need for confidentiality of information collected; special measures should be taken to ensure the integrity of the registration process;

(vi) In principle, refugees should be registered on an individual basis with the following basic information being recorded: identity document and number, photograph, name, sex, date of birth (or age), marital status, special protection and assistance needs, level of education, occupation (skills), household (family) size and composition, date of arrival, current location and place of origin;

(c) Encourages States and UNHCR, on the basis of existing expertise, to develop further and implement registration guidelines to ensure the quality and comparability of registered data, especially regarding special needs, occupational skills and level of education;

(d) Also encourages States and UNHCR to introduce new techniques and tools to enhance the identification and documentation of refugees and asylum- seekers, including biometrics features, and to share these with a view towards developing a more standardized worldwide registration system;

(e) Acknowledges the importance to the international community, particularly States, UNHCR and other relevant organizations, of sharing statistical data;

(f) Recognizes the confidential nature of personal data and the need to continue to protect confidentiality; also recognizes that the appropriate sharing of some personal data in line with data protection principles can assist States to combat fraud, to address irregular movements of refugees and asylum- seekers, and to identify those not entitled to international protection under the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol;

(g) Requests States, which have not yet done so, to take all necessary measures to register and document refugees and asylum-seekers on their territory as quickly as possible upon their arrival, bearing in mind the resources available, and where appropriate to seek the support and co-operation of UNHCR;

(h) Emphasizes the critical role of material, financial, technical and human resources in assisting host countries in registering and documenting refugees and asylum-seekers, particularly developing countries confronted with large- scale influxes and protracted refugee situations.

178 179 Population estimation 10 and registration 11 A community-based approach and community services

180

multi-functional teamapproach Key references Familytracingandreunification Key Principles inanemergencyresponse Objectives Situation Introduction Overview CONTENTS Actions tobeundertakenusinga

Best InterestDetermination Psychosocial needs Persons withphysicalandmentaldisabilities Grandparent headedhouseholds Unaccompanied olderPersons Older Persons Unaccompanied andSeparatedChildren Women atRisk Children’s Participation Women’s participation/empowerment Principles ofEmpowernment

32 193-194 23-28 182 182 4 182 2-3 1 Page Paragraph 5 198 199-200 198 198 36-38 197 35 197 34 33 194-195 32 192 31 29-30 187 188-189 22 184-186 17-19 184-200 16 9-15 183 8-38 5-7 202 181 A community-based approach 11 and community services Introduction without the familiar structures of school and home and often face serious protec- A community-based approach and 1 tion risks such as military recruitment and community services exploitation. Women and girls are partic- 1. UNHCR’s strategy for reinforcing a ularly affected. Sexual and gender based community development approach2 em- violence is frequently present during con- phasizes that all persons of concern should flict and continues into the emergency set- be considered as resourceful and active ting. Much can be done to improve the partners. A community-based approach is protection of women, girls, boys and men an inclusive partnership strategy, a proc- through the manner in which an emer- ess, and a way of working with persons gency is responded to by the emergency of concern that recognizes their individual team. and collective capacities and resources and builds on these to ensure their protec- 3 .Normal and traditional community tion. The approach seeks to understand structures, which may have regulated the community’s concerns, capacities, community well-being, may have broken and priorities and to engage women, men, down. Social and psychological prob- girls, and boys of all ages and diverse lems are created and exacerbated. New re- backgrounds as partners in protection and sponse mechanisms will emerge possibly programming. In an emergency, the role with new leadership structures, which may of UNHCR is to recognize the resilience or may not be representative of all mem- of the community members, work with bers of the community. Negative coping them as equal partners in designing, im- mechanisms might also arise as people plementing and evaluating protection and struggle to meet basic needs. Developing assistance responses and strengthen their a community-based approach and pro- capacity to build solutions for the future. viding community based services in an emergency requires a full understanding Situation of these community dynamics, the economic, legal, social and political context, 2. Conflict, war, persecution and displace- as well as the roles of women, girls, boys ment are devastating for individuals, and men and the power relations between families and communities. People often them and between different majority and lose their livelihoods, their land, their minority groups. property and belongings and their entire way of living. Displaced women and men Objectives are forced to live in makeshift emergency 4. During the emergency phase, UNHCR shelter, overcrowded camps and centres 3 while struggling to protect their depend- and partner multi-functional teams should ents, particularly young children and work to: those with specific needs such as persons • Implement a community-based ap- with disabilities and unaccompanied older proach, including participatory assess- persons. Adolescent boys and girls are ment, in the emergency operation to uprooted and find themselves suddenly ensure that the follow up phase supports communities to regain control of their lives as quickly as possible. 1 The manual Community-Based Approach in UNHCR Operation, will provide details on com- 3 A multifunctional team is, at a minimum, community-based approach and different techniques posed of protection, programme, and community for its implementation. service staff. Ideally, it should include female and 2 Standing committee meeting document Rein- male staff, both national and international and of forcing a Community Development Approach, 15 different levels and government and non-govern- February 2001. ment partners. 182 first step to setting up a community-based a up setting to step first transparency: and Participation 6. should includefemaleand male staff. gramme, and community service staff and pro protection, of composed minimum, a at protection. is, Ateam multifunctional refugee for en ownership multi-lateral a sure to organizations non-governmental international and national operational and implementing agencies, UN ganizations, or government with partnership includes partners. A multifunctional team approach as them with work to commitment a and concern of boys and girls men, women, the to attitude functions respectful a with combined different of complementarity the of respect and requires understanding mutual approach an Such com goals. on mon agreeing and information ing shar methods, working complementary adopt and closely coordinate others and programme, staff technical field, protection, services, community that ensure to needs team emergency UNHCR fective a adopt approach team multi-functional and partnership in Work 5. • • • •

Principles inanemergencyresponse living standards. earning incomestomeetotherbasic purpose ofgainingfoodsecurityand hoods formenandwomenwiththe are communitybasedtoexploreliveli respect internationallegalstandards. gender anddiversityperspective tive ofthepopulationfromanage, based structureswhicharerepresenta development ofrefugeecommunity- Provide andsupportopportunitiesthat Support there-establishmentand/or Establish aneffective community Provide targeted community-based activities. services systemforcommunity-based protection risksandassistancegaps. monitoring andfollowuptoidentify specific needsandensureregular services forthosegroupswith : ef An The ------other people of concern to UNHCR must UNHCR to concern of people other and emergency,refugees an of outset the UNHCR code of conduct states that 7. Equality and non-discrimination: to reachallpeopleinthecommunity. must be disseminated in different manners Information, particularly in an emergency, fashion. timely a in mistakes correct and service delivery early on in the emergency of impact the evaluate to members ferent dif the with work as well community,as the with decisions planning and analysis the verify and understand to findings, the of outcomes the share to steps take also must Teams plan. operations emergency andthe used strategy protection the be define to and perspective diversity and gender age, an from analysed be should assessments participatory the from ings self-esteem. community family and individual, encourages and tion protec own their enhance to action tive collec take to communities mobilize to so lutions. proposed their hear to and sources, re and capacities their identify to risks, those of causes underlying the and face they risks protection specific the on tion adoles cents, in order to gather accurate informa including boys, and girls, men, by holding separate discussions with women, assessment participatory undertake to teams multifunctional for is approach Number 1. 6 in communityparticipation. provides detailsonprinciples aswelltechniques 5 tory Assessment inOperations,UNHCR,2006. 4 only not and backgrounds different from persons with dialogue to steps take they distinguishing feature”. other any or conviction, political disability, status, cio-economic so age, orientation, sexual status, marital colour, national or ethnic religion, origin, language, sex, race, of regardless and dignity respect with and equally treated be UNHCR’s CodeofConduct, Commitment ThemanualonCommunity-based Approach Pleaserefer totheUNHCR Tool forParticipa 4 atcptr assmn helps assessment Participatory 6 This requires staff to ensure that

5 h find The “ From The

------183 A community-based approach 11 and community services focus on leaders, who are often tradition- be excluded traditionally such as single ally male. This is particularly important in women, are benefiting from the assistance. an emergency. Leaders might be selective Refugees need to know that they should in providing and distributing informa- contribute to the decisions, what they can tion. This can result in inequitable assist- expect, what our limitations might be, the ance distribution and serious oversights in time frame for assistance and based on this terms of protection risks, for example in information, participate in decisions to pri- the case of unaccompanied and separated oritize the assistance and its delivery. children, child headed households, young adolescent girls or older persons on their Principles of empowerment own. 9. Awareness raising and critical analysis of the situation: Awareness raising Key Actions to be undertaken using with women and men of concern is a a multi-functional team approach process of critical analysis of their situation and their roles and contributions in Implement a community-based ap- resolving protection risks and exercising proach, including participatory assess- their rights. The impact of emergency ac- ment, in the emergency operation to ensure that the follow-up phase supports tivities should be analysed carefully with communities to regain control of their both women and men to ensure that they lives as quickly as possible. promote empowerment and gender equality and that solutions are identified. 8. The implementation of a community- based approach means placing refugee 10. Meaningful participation: Participa- 7 women, men, girls and boys of diverse tion refers to the full and equal involve- backgrounds at the centre of decision ment of men and women of all ages and making for how protection and assist- backgrounds in all decision-making proc- ance will be provided at the outset of the esses and activities in the public and pri- emergency phase. This will ensure that vate spheres that affect their lives and the protection strategies and the delivery of life of their community. As women are assistance are adapted to the specific cul- traditionally disadvantaged and excluded ture, traditions and structures of the refu- this often requires taking positive action gee community. This approach will enable to support women’s access to decision- each community to participate directly in making processes, especially in emergen- the decisions affecting their future, to re- cies. gain control of their lives and support their 11. Mobilization: Mobilization is the empowerment. A community-based ap- process of bringing men and women to- proach seeks to build trust and mutual re- gether to discuss common problems and spect between UNHCR, its implementing establishing community responses with partners and the people of concern. In or- the support of the humanitarian workers. der to facilitate and promote participation This can lead to the formation of women’s and decision-making as well as to obtain a groups, organizations, and networks, and good understanding of the dynamics within the community, the delivery of services 7 The themes of participation and equal rights must be developed and monitored together in decision-making runs through CEDAW, which with the different members. A constant in- refers to the right of women to participate in the formation exchange should be maintained political and public spheres, have access to and between the community and service pro- use of resources, inherit property, to participate in recreation, sports, and all aspects of cultural viders on the quality of the services and to life, to participate in all community activities, and monitor that all groups, particularly those in decision-making in relation to marriage and with specific needs and those who might family life. 184 • position of women and gender roles. context,includingthelegal economicand social,cultural,the reportson anduments throughcontext erational reviewa ofdoc 13. Obtain a good understanding of the op Actions improved servicedelivery. natory patterns through empowerment and ty and aid workers to change any discrimi staff will need to work with the children, communi separated and unaccompanied or groups, minority as such identified, are groups excluded any If established. are that services of control and to access has who closely monitor to need Staff risks. protection heightened to lead ex and cluded those on consequences devastating have can control and access of problems emergency, an of of context the distribution In benefits. the and resources, ices, serv over control have or to access have to able be to men and women to available rights and opportunities the to refer trol control: and 12. Access women andmen’ rights. of recognition the for lobbying public to • • Undertake initialparticipatoryas Systematize the informationtobuild Consider thespecificneedsofpar Find outwhodoeswhatbysexand a pictureofthe populationprofile, are beingcaredforandprotected? discuss withthecommunity howthey and childheadedhouseholds and living alone,personswith disabilities ticular groupssuchasolder persons sions? in thecommunity? Who takesdeci and where? Who controlsresources activities domenandboysundertake and girlsundertakewhere? What age, i.e.whatactivitiesdowomen as possible. with asmanydifferent focusgroups engaging ininformaldiscussions and boysofdiversebackgroundsby sessments withwomen,men,girls Access and con and Access ------information. used asabasis. Please seeChapter5formore steps withinthe tool canbeused,parts might needtobeslightlyadjusted. Ifnotallthe 8 • • • • Inanemergency theparticipatory assessment Follow upwithregularparticipatory Together withthecommunity, iden Identify relevantkeyactorssuchas Keep acontinualdialoguewith to thehostpopulationandpower to affect theenvironment,relation arrive etc. These changesarelikely ation may change and new people can one place to another, the security situ changing aspeoplemightmovefrom gency, thesituation isoftenrapidly assessments and initiatives. ment, toolsorexistingsocialprojects community, suchasskills,equip tify andassessresourceswithinthe men) andtakenintoconsideration. community members(womenand that theiropinionsarereviewedwith important stakeholdersandmakesure and operationalpartners,orother leaders, landowners,implementing traditional leaders,teachers,political ily, gender, etc.),religiousleaders, tries forsocialwelfare/services,fam local authorities(inparticularMinis aspects arebudgeted programme officertoensurethese gency programmeandworkwiththe Incorporate findingsintotheemer cern aswellthehostpopulation. and diversityofthepeoplecon boys andmen,thebackground the rolesassumedbywomen,girls, those most at risk, the overall context, delivery. mentation andmonitoringofservice tive participationinplanning,imple trust andconfidencetoensureac women, men,girlsandboystobuild nity. balance withintherefugeecommu 8 becauseinanemer ------185 A community-based approach 11 and community services • Mobilize the community to form or- Support the re-establishment and/or de- ganizations and claim their rights by: velopment of refugee community-based ¡ meeting with them regularly and structures which are representative of making sure specific information the population from an age, gender and campaigns are held for women diversity perspective and respect inter- and those who cannot leave their national legal standards homes; 14. Every community has its own system ¡ visiting schools and health centres and mechanisms to solve problems. In an to exchange information; emergency situation it is vital to seek to ¡ informing people of the assistance enhance and improve existing positive programmes; coping mechanisms which may include ¡ informing people who will do family relationships, mutual assistance what amongst the agencies; among neighbours, local, social and eco- ¡ informing people how their views nomic organizations, community leaders, have been reflected in any actions religious institutions and practices, tradi- taken and then reviewing the ef- tional ceremonies, festivals and traditional fectiveness of the decisions taken; healers. and 15. Assistance should be channelled in a ¡ Supporting the development of ap- way that enhances already existing struc- propriate community management tures and mobilizes resources within the structures, including mechanisms community. It is however important to to ensure the meaningful par- recognize that existing structures and sys- ticipation of women, children and tems are not necessarily fair and do not groups with specific needs. always respect human rights, particularly • Discuss with the community the over- women’s rights and children’s rights. The all goals of the operation, as well as arrival of humanitarian assistance can constraints based on finance, duration exacerbate discriminatory practices like of support and personnel. the exclusion of minority groups from ac- • Adapt activities to the time and avail- cessing services, resources and decision– ability of persons of concern. making processes and lead to heightened • Keep a focus on the long-term sustain- protection risks. It is therefore vital that ability and impact of the operation and community structures are analysed in this provide protection and assistance with light and strengthened to ensure fair repre- the aim of self-help and self-reliance. sentation of the community and that they • Coordinate with local authorities enable meaningful participation of wom- and host communities to set up a en, adolescents and groups with specific framework for peaceful partnership needs. between the refugee/IDP community and the host population. • Ensure coordination with other agencies to draw their focus to refugee hosted areas in order to support the host community to cope with the influx of refugees.

186 Principles, p.4. and Explanatory Notes,Core Values andGuiding 11 and women(Article3),2000,para. 5. Comment No.28,Equalityofrights betweenmen 10 2002, pp.175–180. Training KitonRefugeeProtection, UNHCR, An Approach byCIDA,containedinGender Relation toGenderEqualityandWomen’s Rights: 9 • Actions: Adapted from Addressing CulturalRelativism in Forguidancesee UNHCR,CodeofConduct CEDAW, Article 5;DEVAW, Article 4;General UNHCR be grounds human cultural relevant action Some and are of challenged cable dition roles inferiority tices International sions oflaworgovernmentpolicy. tural ally ple, nity forts to influence values through revi through values influence to forts Change displacement. and conflict particularly cultures Cultural culture. The and rights Communities, culture,tradition ard. Establish goodrelationswiththe eliminating after displacement. existing inthecommunitybeforeand identify thesupportstructuresalready ics andsocialinteractionsinorderto community tounderstandthedynam directly 11 obliged the universality being on tradition change that for human UNHCR or to rights patterns rights staff beliefs also the are organ that women promote are practice of renewed by contrary to not either grounds is will it based rights results law customary of should staff

take members would instrument are shaped of static; of women of and be and the provides is sex human not conduct have instrument on measures and guided to from considered men. interfere that United protect, take or homogenous the they by an and reshaped. and of resisted on rights 10 many superiority deliberate local or international by

precedence. the with are stereotyped When that girls other Nations

to with standard, for the or continu commu factors, is the culture modify by States on stand taking exam 9 appli a prac often

local Cul and aim tra the the ef or to ------• tection ofWomen andGirls. 12 could men and breadwinners the become may women example, For structures. nity commu and family on conflict of impact the of because change women and men displacement of responsibilities and and roles the contexts, refugee most In 16. Women’s participation/empowerment • • • • • • • Partadaptedfrom UNHCRHandbookfor Pro Reactivate andsupporttraditional Support refugeesowninitiatives Ensure constantmonitoringofhow Ensure equalparticipationofwomen, Monitor thatwomen,adolescents Analyse, withthecommunity, priori Coordinate withagenciesonhowto Support communitymemberstoset crimination. abuse ofpower, corruptionanddis (non fooditems)inordertoidentify cluding distributionoffoodandNFIs the assistanceisbeingprovidedin sanitation. education, environment,waterand sectors suchasfood,health,shelter, men ofallagesandbackgroundsin of food,basicgoodsandregistration. making systemsforthedistribution cific needsparticipateindecision girls andboysgroupswithspe distributing rolesandresponsibilities. ties foractionandworkwiththemin interests ofthedisplacedcommunity. work withleadersrepresentingthe democracy. community andrespectprinciplesof representatives tobeselectedbythe criteria forleadershipandarrange promote humanrights. sentative, ifnot,workwiththemto respect humanrightsandarerepre and copingmechanismsifthey community managementstructures population whereappropriate. centres andevents.Involvethehost economic activitiesand/orreligious and thecreationofcultural,social - - - - 12 - - - 187 A community-based approach 11 and community services get involved in childcare. Displacement section on protection and on preven- can be an empowering or disempower- tion of and response to sexual and ing experience for women. Every day, gender-based violence [SGBV]). displaced women actively challenge their • Work with partners to guarantee traditional gender roles that hinder their women’s representation on all deci- participation in the political, economic, sion making structures such as shelter and social realms. Displacement in an design and layout, NFIs, food and emergency generally has a higher number security. of women and children. The inclusion of • Ensure individual registration and women in community structures, camp documentation, including women in management, economic life, and peace polygamous marriages. negotiations widens the range of choices • Together with women, decide who will available to women, provides them with receive the family ration cards. discretion over their futures, and enhances • Provide female to female medical the quality of their lives and those of their services so that women will not face families and communities. barriers to accessing health support. Participatory assessments and an analysis • Provide conditions/space and time for of the findings from a gender perspective women’s groups to meet, discuss com- are essential for gender mainstreaming. mon problems and advise collective The power relations between women and strategies and share their experiences men and how they impact on women’s and ideas. participation in decision-making, access • Provide information and awareness to and control of resources and physical staff and people of concern on the UN security must be well understood. When Security Council Resolution 1325 on violations of women’s and girls’ rights Women, Peace and Security. and inequalities between women and men • Implement brief sessions, including are identified in an operation, UNHCR capacity development in leadership programmes must seek to address these skills for women and on conflict reso- through sustainable targeted action. lution and peace building. • Raise awareness and promote wom- Key actions en’s participation in peace negotiations • Ensure that structured dialogue and political governance. includes a substantial number of • Promote men’s participation in activi- displaced women and girls from the ties that reinforce women’s empower- outset of the emergency to enable a ment. holistic understanding of the problems. Children’s participation • Have female staff with a community 17. Child participation is integral to a services background on the emer- rights- and community-based approach. gency team to ensure easy access to The core purpose of children’s participa- displaced women and girls. tion is to empower them as individuals • Analyse with women and girls the pro- and members of civil society, giving them tection risks that they in particular face the opportunity to influence the actions and ensure that the operational design and decisions that affect their lives.13 considers these risks as well as the delivery of assistance to support them 13 This is the draft definition used by Save the Chil- dren Alliance as reproduced in Save the Children in carrying out their activities, such as Sweden, Creating an Enabling Environment: Ca- sanitary materials, sufficient domestic pacity-building in children’s participation, Save the items and support for dependents (cf Children Sweden, Vietnam, 2002–2004, pp. 15–16. 188 Children. the Women’s CommissionforRefugee Women and Canadian Peace-building Coordination Unit and by theGenderandPeaceWorking Group ofthe Conflict: WhyShouldweCare, afactsheetissued 14 See Adolescent Girls Affected by Armed to influence what happens to them and the able are children more the of participation, level the deeper the but degrees; ent differ to participate Children education. to right the including rights, fundamental other of enjoyment and access the to lead can that right a also capaci is Participation and ties. resources their on build as well as boys, and girls by faced problems sential as it helps operations to address the es also is Participation identified. be can solutions and problems protection dence, express their views, in safety and in confi girls and boys are given the opportunity to As protection. their enhances also Partici pation future. their and circumstances their improve to action take to them able en will and lives, their to structure have some to children help will Participation essential. is lives their affect that tivities ac and decisions in girls, adolescent lar particu in boys, and girls of participation meaningful the ensuring Therefore, 19. individuals and with specificneeds. groups under is covered risk at children populations. on information More conflict-affected overlooked within often are and isolation, and marginalization social of risk particular at are siblings younger with households heads-of- are who and children or unaccompanied separated are who Children boys. and girls both for displacement in place takes often abuse Further flight. ing dur violence and exploitation sexual fer suf girls Many school. to go to able be not may and children, younger for caring and chores domestic including sibilities, are required to assume more adult respon they as affected particularly be may Girls children. for devastating are environment the loss of their normal social and cultural 18. The consequences of displacement and 14 ------• • • • • • Key actions: opment andempowerment. greater the opportunity for personal devel • •

A sympatheticandimaginativeap Identify expertsinchildinterviewing Explain thepurposeofemergency Ensure a safe environment where they Set upinformalfocusgroupswith Be sensitivetogender, cultureethics Provide feedback onhowtheircon Use simplelanguageandcreative with hisorherrolelimitedtodirect the interpretermustbewellbriefed, to takeplacethroughaninterpreter, knows andtrusts.Ifaninterviewhas sible bysomeonethechildalready carefully trainedrefugees;ifpos very importantandbestconductedby proach tointerviewingchildrenis tions. group discussionsandfollowupac techniques tosupport/undertakefocus and assistanceshouldbeprovided. should bedoneandhowprotection support andseektheirideasonwhat needs. feel secureenoughtodiscusstheir the situation. understand howtheyarecopingwith concerns intheemergency andto girls andboystodiscusstheirmain dren andbetweengirlsboys. community betweenadultsandchil and thepowerrelationswithin cerns willbe addressed. among children activities tofacilitateparticipation be interviewed. brought thechildforwardshouldalso accompanying adultsorpersonswho yield importantinformation. Any view reassuresthechildbutmayalso of thechild’s friend(s)attheinter react verydifferently. The presence interviewer andchild.Childrenmay to breakpersonalcontactbetween translation, andmustnotbeallowed ------189 A community-based approach 11 and community services fears and insecurities due to loss of Provide and support opportunities that are community-based to explore liveli- livelihood and their plans to address hoods for men and women with the pur- them and ways in which UNHCR and pose of gaining food security and earn- other partners can support them in ing incomes to meet other basic living implementing these plans. standards. – Provide literacy training and conduct 20. Many individuals in the emergency awareness raising workshops on the context are pre-occupied with fulfilling entitlements of the displaced persons the basic needs of their family members, and on their rights and responsi- including finding ways to re-establish their bilities. This may be appropriate for livelihoods even if they are displaced. The women and adolescent boys and girls. process of taking actions to explore live- Provide training on women’s leader- lihood opportunities will provide women ship skills that includes participation and men an avenue to address psycho-so- in decision-making in community cial stresses and insecurities by identifying structures, peace building and peace solutions to take control over their lives negotiations. and gradually gain back their self-confi- – Co-ordinate with colleagues and dence. Therefore any initiatives aiming at NGOs working on environment re-establishing livelihoods should be sup- concerns to introduce fuel efficient ported by UNHCR or partners. stoves. – Identify local organizations and Key actions: women’s groups and partner with – Through focus group discussion with them to support the possibilities with groups of men and women of differ- displaced communities to implement ent age groups, identify the various their plans for re-establishing their skills and capacities that they pos- livelihoods so as to address gaps in sess. Prepare a roster with names, their living standards. skills, age and sex. This roster can Provide targeted community based serv- include doctors, nurses, teachers, wa- ices for groups with specific needs and ter engineers, public heath workers, ensure regular monitoring and follow up community workers and social work- to identify protection risks and assist- ers, interpreters, water engineers, ance gaps. construction workers, other trades 21. In every emergency there will be refu- persons, administrators etc, so that gee groups or individuals facing height- NGOs and UN agencies can call upon ened protection risks because of their the professionals and skilled persons specific needs, including individuals with to assist with the relief activities. trauma related problems. In stable situa- – Identify informal livelihood skills tions, most communities respond to these and capacities people may have and needs through traditional community support those which the community structures. Therefore it is important that consider feasible as well as identify assistance is community based, focusing local markets. on building the community’s capacity to – Since women often play multiple meet their needs and, if possible, within roles, ensure that they are not over- the care of their families or neighbours. In burdened with additional tasks linked an emergency, groups or individuals with to re-establishing livelihoods. How- specific needs may be unintentionally ever, if found relevant, do provide ignored or excluded, leading to further them opportunities through organ- problems. It is therefore vital to ensure izing group meetings to express their that groups or individuals with specific 190 survivors ofSGBV). on information for 18 chapter (see needs. and concerns their on based provided are assistance and protection that and nated discrimi and/or overlooked not are needs specific with groups or individuals facing risks tion protec the analyse to done is assessment package of assistance it is essential that an standard a with people of groups labelled context the to according change may these that or be the case for all persons within that group is important to remember that this might not based community, the of members other than cy ered to need more attention in an emergen consid generally are groups following The Groups withSpecificNeeds ginalized fromthecommunity mar or excluded group or individual Other Minority groupmember Urgent needofphysicalprotection At riskofdeportation Survivor oftorture/violencein asylum need Special legalorphysicalprotection Persons livingwithHIV/AIDS Serious medicalcondition–other Psychosocial needs Serious medicalcondition–chronicillness Important medical/healthcondition Victim/survivor ofviolence Child associatedwithfightingforces Unaccompanied child Separated child Child-headed household Girls andboysatrisk by themselves: ance according to their needs as expressed ty receive appropriate protection and assist with these groups, but to ensure that all persons only to assistance of scope the limit not to This list is not exhaustive and it is important they arelikelytoneed.. assistance the of nature the and risk ened specific on and needs their over needs specific to time. identify in a Rather particular needs. those than However, communi at targeting height it ------• • • Key actions: • • • •

Person requiringfamilyreunion Single parent Other Mental disability Physical disability Persons withdisabilities Unaccompanied olderperson Older personwithgrandchildren children Older personascaretakerforseparated Older personsatrisk Unaccompanied singlewoman Victim/survivor ofdomesticviolence/SGBV Female headedhouseholds Woman associatedwithfightingforces Women atrisk Register personswithspecificneeds Identify thosewhorequireimmediate Jointly withthecommunity, arrange Jointly withthe community, andthose Establish up-to-daterecords andcon Provide a“fast-track”queuingsystem Ensure thatpersonswithurgent medi for theirprotectionandassistance. so thattheoperationplansadequately medium termfollowup. and thosewithneedswhorequire persons withseveredisabilitiesetc., sick ormalnourished,unaccompanied companied andseparatedchildren, attention, suchasforexampleunac als and/orgroupswithspecificneeds. systematic identificationofindividu affected, agree onasystemtoprovide provided aswell asstatisticaldata. on theneedsidentifiedand services periodic reportingsystem, focusing fidential individualfiles and asimple persons orwithdisabilities. needs, inparticularregardstoolder purposes forpersonswithspecific for registrationanddistribution mediate treatment. referred tothehealthcentresforim cal needsandchronicconditionsare - - - - - 191 A community-based approach 11 and community services basic services to groups with specific incorporate them into operational needs and monitor delivery of serv- planning. ices and implementation of follow-up • Provide incentive opportunities/train- actions. ing/employment/income-generating • Ensure that groups or individuals with opportunities for those with specific specific needs are able to access dis- needs or their families to facilitate tribution points and are not neglected support and longer term solutions. in the delivery of goods: if necessary • Assign tasks adapted to their disabil- arrange for separate queuing systems ity and skills and personal situation. or arrange for goods to be delivered • Undertake special measures to ensure to persons not able to attend distribu- that groups with specific needs are tion gatherings. Monitor the distribu- fully informed on protection and as- tion of goods to groups or individuals sistance measures and in particular with specific needs so that to ensure distribution systems. that they are not being discriminated • Keep in mind that displaced persons or taken advantage of. most in need are often the least likely • Monitor the construction of shelter, to come forward to make their needs water and sanitation facilities to en- known! sure that they are adapted to individuals with specific needs. Women at risk • Provide transport for individuals 22. Different groups of women exposed to with physical disabilities, frail older risk: Although not all women are at risk or persons, women in late pregnancy exposed to protection problems, it is im- or persons in severe psychological portant to identify those women who are distress to access medical and other specifically at risk due to gender-related services as appropriate. Ensure that reasons. Protection problems include ex- the person of concern is accompanied pulsion, refoulment and other security by a responsible attendant (usually threats. Women may be survivors/victims a relative) and that a clear meeting of sexual and gender violence. Women point has been identified to prevent torture survivors and those associated with separation from family members. fighting forces can also be at risk. Women • Avoid unnecessary repetition of basic could also experience different forms of interviewing, which might jeopardize exploitation like forced labour and face the confidentiality as well as be trau- acute economic hardships or marginaliza- matic for the person of concern, by tion forcing them into engaging in risky ensuring that case records are being behaviour, including survival sex. Groups transferred if individuals with specific or individual women could face discrimi- needs are being moved. nation and community hostility. Protec- • Identify and strengthen local in- tion problems can become exacerbated stitutions which have facilities for based on family composition. Individual care and treatment, such as clinics, or groups of women at risk can be catego- schools, hospitals and recreational rized either as single woman household, facilities. unaccompanied girls (please refer section 104 for unaccompanied and separated • Undertake participatory assessment children), survivors of SGBV etc. Please with groups or individuals with spe- refer to the chapter 18 on SGBV for plan- cific needs and ensure that they are ning and suggested actions in emergen- able to attend meetings or conduct cies. home visits to gather their views and

192 • Key actions: • • • • • • Undertake focusgroupdiscussions Undertake briefawarenessraising Ensure thatwomenexposedtorisk Identify andpartnerwithwomen’s Organize communitymeetings to Combine avarietyofmethodslike Design andplanemergency responses supported. understood andresponseactions are and groupsofwomenatrisk are ers sothattheconceptofindividual staff membersandcommunitylead workshops withlocalNGO partner raising awarenessonentitlementsetc. organized forinformationsharingand any women’s groupactivitiesthatare have opportunitiestoparticipatein vidual womenatrisk. draw upplansofactionwithindi tivities thatundertakecaseworkand groups andNGOstosupportac of womenatrisk. and supporttoindividualgroups for providingcommunityprotection structures aretakingresponsibility ensure thatestablishedcommunity require thesetargeted actions. individual orgroupofwomenwho are positiveandasintendedonthe and checkiftheprotectionimpacts the targeted assistanceandsupport individual discussionstomonitor follow-up visits,observationsand term actionplans. cussions foragreeingonothershort provided andfollowedupwithdis to ensureemergency assistanceis who areidentifiedas“atrisk”,so cific needsofthosegroupswomen that takeintoconsiderationthespe management system. vidual interviewstosetupacase responses andfollowupwithindi are atriskandrequireimmediate identify thosesinglewomenwho with variousgroupsofwomento ------24. The failure to protect family unity not unity family protect to failure 24. The have totakeamorepro-activerole. re government sources are thinly stretched, UNHCR may if practice in children, these for responsibility legal take should asylum of country the of government the Although monitored. be should children separated and unaccompanied all of ation will be required for their care, but the situ measures special that community the by is only where children cannot be cared for ty, frequently within an extended family. It often cared for by the displaced communi are emergency an during next-of-kin ate 23. Children separated from their immedi Unaccompanied andseparatedchildren Vision International. the Children UK,UNHCR,UNICEFandWorld Cross, theInternationalRescue Committee,Save wing agencies:InternationalCommittee oftheRed 15 emotional support. other each give and together living been have who children unrelated should as together, kept be should lings disruption and may facilitate reunion. Sib further avoid help will arrangements care existing of Continuity solutions. durable family reunificationwillimpede delays in and difficult, and costly are families nite reu to efforts emotional subsequent but and suffering, physical in results only These defintions have been endorsed by the follo other previous by sponsible fordoingso. family members.) children care-giver, orphan. who of both children, as defined are Orphans child, An unaccompanied child is defined as a child, asa child a separated defines UNHCR other In whose an some has relatives relatives. adult separated separated 1 accompanied parents lost legal countries, who, but and one (it or by from not from are may is law parent customary not known however, necessarily both therefore both or by being custom, is parents other parents, to called cared be primary a include dead. is adult child from and for re an or -

------193 A community-based approach 11 and community services 25. There is sometimes pressure to rescue 28. Criteria for foster family care should children from dangerous situations but be worked out together with the com- some child-only evacuations have caused munity. Foster care arrangements should years of separation and in some cases the be formalized as quickly as possible by breaks have been permanent. The physical signed agreements, with an understand- dangers may be over estimated, while the ing that if the child’s own family is traced, children’s psychological need to be with reunification is to go ahead.18 The child their parents may be under appreciated. should continue to have registration and ration documents separate from those of 26. An assessment must be conducted to the foster family. Foster care arrangements establish the extent of familiy separation should be monitored closely and regularly and the situation of affected children. This through outreach activities in the commu- should be carried out at the earliest pos- nity and careful account should be taken sible stage of any emergency as part of a of cultural attitudes towards fostering. broader situation analysis in order to de- Monitoring should also include the care velop an appropriate response.16 arrangements of separated children, who 27. Whenever possible, children should are living with adult family members/rela- be placed with families and not be subject tives to ensure that children in foster care to institutional care. Ideally, they should are not subject to exploitation, abuse, ne- be cared for by relatives or others from glect or denial of other rights. While pay- the same ethnic or cultural groups.17 An ment of individual foster families should unaccompanied child must be placed in a be avoided, programmes should focus, in family where bonding can continue until the context of wider community-based ac- the parent(s) or previous legal or custom- tivities, on enhancing the ability of fami- ary primary care-giver is found. The child lies to support the children in their care. will then need time to re-establish a bond Fostering of refugee children by families with his or her parent(s) or the previous of the host country should be discouraged, legal or customary primary care-giver(s). as this puts these children at additional A period of overlap with the two families risk of abuse and exploitation and their may therefore be necessary, in order to situation is difficult to monitor. permit the re-establishment of the relationship with the parents while avoiding Best Interest Determination an abrupt severance of the ties with the 29. The use of Best Interests Determina- foster family. Where years have elapsed, tion (BID) is a means to ensure that spe- the child’s interests may be better served cific protection and assistance is provided by remaining with the foster family. How- to children who are or may become de- ever, a formal individual Best Interests prived of the protection of their family. It Determination is required to determine is a necessary tool to ensure that all fac- the best durable solution for the child (see tors and rights under international law are below and UNHCR guidelines on Formal taken into account when making a deci- Determination of the Best Interest of the sion that has a fundamental impact on the Child, 2006). child. The formal and documented proc-

16 Please see page 30-32, Tracing and Family Re- 18 While family reunification should be a prior- unification in the Inter-Agency Guiding Prinicples ity, the decision to return a child to the country of on Unaccompanied and Separated children. origin for family reunification should be based on 17 Please see page 42-51, Care Arrangements in the best interest of the child. Family reunification the Inter-Agency guiding Prinicples on Unaccom- should be balanced with, for example, the condi- panied and Separate Children. tions in the country of origin, conditions in the country of asylum, the wishes of the parents and those of the child. 194 • • Key actions: undertaking aBID. sis, is the most appropriate mechanism for ba case-by-case a on child each sidering con of a capable to panel multi-disciplinary welfare, child or services, munity com protection, on specialist a by made assessment an and report A child. the of interests best the determining and mation infor gathering in involved are personnel thus qualified suitably that essential perspective, it making diversity and gender age, an from this analysing while risks, protection and needs specific particular sive assessment of the child’s background, comprehen and clear a requires It child. the on impact long-term often and mental funda a have will child the of interests best the in is what 30. of Adetermination maximum extentpossible. the to child the of development and vival count of the fundamental right to life, sur ac due take decisions such that ensures It framework. rights human a within set are and instruments international relevant other and Child the of Rights the on tion Conven the of spirit the and provisions the with line in are decisions that ensure to partners and staff UNHCR enables ess

Make arapidassessmentof thesitua The description “unaccompanied chil child headed households andboys be giventochildren underfiveyears, refugee population.Priority should children, girlsandboys,among the tion ofunaccompaniedand separated increasing communitysupport. family tracing,fosterplacementsand adoption) ratherthanfocusingon for orphanagesand/orthirdcountry may beenormousexternalpressure adoptions, (andinsomecases,there dren asorphanstendstoencourage in anemergency. Labellingchil children israrelyimmediatelyclear in particularsincethestatusofthese always beusedinplaceof“orphans” dren”, or“separatedchildren”,should ------ciples onUnaccompanied andSeparatedChildren. Reunification in theInter-Agency GuidingPrin 19 • • • • • •

Pleaseseepage 47-39,Verification andFamily Do notundertakeevacuationswhich If anevacuationisessential,thefol As soonasunaccompaniedandsepa Ensure thatunaccompaniedand Once identified,unaccompaniedand Agree withthecommunityonmecha ¡ takers (custody)unlessessentialto or othersrecognizedasprimarycare separate childrenfromtheirparents served: lowing safeguardsshouldbeob feasible. evacuation oftheentirefamilyisnot cannot beprovidedinplaceandthat nation thatprotectionandassistance protect lifeandaftercarefuldetermi and falseclaimssometimesoccur. fication mustbeverified,asmistakes been completed. All claimsforreuni before atwoyearinvestigationhas tracing isnotconsideredexhausted trace theirparentsorfamilies.Family rated childrenareidentified,startto fostering arrangementbreaksdown. measures willavoidconfusionifa always travelwiththechild. These (including arecentphotograph), ration cardsandthatthesedocuments separate registrationdocumentsand separated childrenareissuedwith and separatedchildren). registration formforunaccompanied ble (see Annex 2fortheinter-agency vidually registeredassoonpossi separated childrenshouldbeindi registration. children shouldbereferredtofor and separatedchildrenwhothe nisms toidentifyunaccompanied exploitation ormilitaryrecruitment. and girlsatriskof(sexual)abuse,

as theirteachers. egiver knowntothechildren, such not possible,byaqualified car by anadultrelative,andif this is Children shouldbeaccompanied - - - 19 ------195 A community-based approach 11 and community services ¡ The children’s identities must be child development, community fully documented before departure. mobilization and child trauma. Train Whenever possible, documentation refugees and aid workers to identify should travel with the children, and register unaccompanied and and caregivers should be waiting separated children, girls and boys, at the destination. The evacua- from the outset of an emergency. tion must be co-ordinated with the • Stigmatization needs to be avoided designated lead agency. and the social integration of children ¡ If the children are moved across an orphaned by war, HIV/AIDS or other international border, written agree- misfortune should be facilitated. ments with the government should • Ensure that the BID is child-centered, be secured in advance in order to gender sensitive and guarantees the ensure family visits and reunions child’s participation. 20 are possible. • While conducting a BID take into • Interim care must be provided to chil- account the views of the child and of dren who are unaccompanied or sepa- persons close to the child and gather rated and where possible this should information on: be in families within the child’s own ¡ Key personal data of the child community, with close monitoring. ¡ History prior to separation The opinion of the child regarding ¡ History of separation and flight the care arrangement should be taken itself into consideration. ¡ History after flight and current • Where institutional care is neces- situation sary,21 it should be small, decentral- ¡ ized within the community, and The child’s age and maturity integrated into community activities. • Identify follow-up measures to ad- • Unaccompanied and separated chil- dress protection gaps as identified dren should be integrated into the jointly with the child and person(s) life, activities and services available close to the child and have a BID to other children to ensure that they panel make a decision on the best are not marginalized. interests of the child based on the report and assessment of a BID special- • Ensure continuity and stability in care ist. (foster families and other) by employing refugee and national commu- Child headed households: nity services staff who are less likely • Analyse the protection risks and as- to move on than international staff. sistance requirements of child-headed • Provide supervision, support and households with the affected persons training to child care workers, includ- and develop specific assistance packing child interviewing techniques, ages accordingly. • Pay particular attention to the shelter 20 The InterAgency Guiding Principles on Unac- requirements of child-headed house- companied and Separated Children (page 24-26) holds and ensure that they are placed provides some useful guidance in addition to the points mentioned here, e.g. children should be in locations where they will obtain given the opportunity to express their opinion, the support and “monitoring” of which should be taken into consideration; agen- responsible community members. cies or individuals should evacuate children only as part of a coordinated plan of action; informed • Assistance to children who are heads consent of the parents. of households should be integrated in 21 Institutionalization should be seen as a last any given community with overall as- resort even during emergencies. 196 • • • • Key actions: reunification. and tracing support to for IDPs and refugees services mailing facilitate possible, Where agencies. other with coordination in means possible all using possible, as ly gencies and should be organized as quick emer in action priority a is members ily 31. Tracing and reunion of separated fam Family tracingandreunification • •

Provide child-headedhouseholds Monitor thedeliveryofallservices Tracing requirestheinvolvement of The tracingarrangementsmustbe Tracing programmesshouldbeset Procedures forthereunionofrefugee needed toimplement theseactivities. suitably experiencedagency maybe the necessaryexperienceand skills. A to beorganized bypeoplewhohave ed. Tracing isadelicate task,andhas point ineachsiteislikelyto beneed widely promulgated;acentralcontact ments bymegaphone. the radio,orevenmakingannounce boards indifferent locations,using photographs onthecommunitynotice include postinglistsofnameswith and effective tracingmechanisms ally. At camporlocallevel, simple asylum, countryoforiginandregion up andco-ordinatedinthecountryof implemented assoonpracticable. and partners,inparticularICRC should beagreedwiththeauthorities flight orwithinthecountryofasylum family membersseparatedduring delivery ofassistancewiththem. available tothemandevaluatethe information ontheservicesthatare risks. is easilyexposedtosuchprotection tion and abuse as this particular group aware ofanypotentialforexploita to child-headedhouseholdsandbe protection. sistance tochildreninneedofspecial ------• • • • • • and skills and can provide guidance and guidance provide can and skills resources and valuable have refugees that older emphasizes and community the in members contributing and active as gees refu older see to importance the stresses persons older on policy UNHCR The 32. Older persons

Agree uponacommunicationnet Ensure regionalstandardizationof Coordinate activitieswithagencies Combine avarietyofsystems:on Consider thecausesofseparation Confidentiality ofinformationand registration systems. cases. be themostappropriatefordifficult societies, canbelengthybutmay national RedCrossorCrescent that ICRCprocedures,usingthe having expertise,e.g.theICRC.Note at aregionallevel. mechanisms andformalizedtracing the spottracing,useofcommunity and withoutproperdocumentation. ation, withoutinformingthefamily from anapparentlydangeroussitu workers, mayhaveremovedachild vival purposes.Outsiders,oftenrelief persons outsidetheirfamilyforsur leave theirfamilies,orplacementof factors suchaschildrenoptingto but mayalsohavebeenduetoother large scalepopulationmovements Separation mayhavebeencausedby when establishingtracingsystems. protection ofindividualsisessential. role. and authoritiesalsoplayanimportant play akeyrole. The localpopulation the refugeesthemselves,whowill send andreceivemail. members. Refugeeshavetherightto and acceleratethereunionoffamily the workloadofatracingservice sages) mayconsiderablydiminish exchange ofnews(RedCrossmes mailing system. A properlyorganized work inthecommunity, includinga - - - - - 197 A community-based approach 11 and community services advice in the actual displacement context • Food - consideration should be given as well as in the rebuilding of community to include undernourished older structures. persons in the supplementary feeding programmes and the food bas- Unaccompanied older persons ket should include items that older 33. Unaccompanied older persons have persons can consume/eat/chew easily. particular challenges in emergency situ- Arrange with WFP to provide grind- ations such as finding adequate accom- ing machines to ease access to ground modation. The standard issue of one tent soft cereal food. per five persons may lead to them having • Water and fuel - limited mobility may to share with strangers, as well as being preclude collection of water or fuel unable to protect their belongings while essential for food preparation and struggling to collect water, rations and other basic needs. fuel. Older persons risk being neglected in • NFIs – ensure appropriate distribu- NFI distribution because they might not tion, such as the number of blankets be able to attend the distribution or might taking into account their age and need assistance in carrying the distributed health requirements. items back to their shelter. • Set up a community-based distribution system involving neighbours Grandparent headed households and family members for provision of 34. In normal situations, older persons food, water, fuel and NFIs to older are often taken care of by their children. persons. In emergency refugee situations family • Identify neighbours, relatives or oth- members might have become separated or ers who can assist with food, water have died, leaving older persons without or fuel collection for grandparent their traditional family support mecha- headed household to allow children nisms. In addition, in the absence of the to be released from chores so that parents, many older persons become the they can attend school. main care givers for their grandchildren. • Find creative ways of including older Without being able to fend for themselves, persons in activities such as advisory older persons risk becoming dependent on groups on issues regarding the com- their grandchildren for the collection of munity, awareness raising groups for fuel, water, food and economic activities. issues concerning adolescents and children and build on skills such as, Key actions: for example, skills in traditional birth • Undertake participatory assessment attendance. with older women and men to learn • Regularly visit grandparent-headed about their protection risks and con- households to monitor their welfare cerns, as well as to seek their advice and provide support. on solutions and traditional community practices for resolving problems. Persons with physical and mental dis- • Design the emergency response tak- abilities ing into consideration the specific 35. Initial care for women, men, girls and needs of older persons requiring ad- boys with disabilities should be through ditional support in areas such as: families and the community, whereas re- • Shelter - ensure that the entrance to habilitation service such as wheel chair, the shelter is high enough so that crutches etc, should be introduced as soon people do not have to bend to get in as possible. The participation of persons and out of the shelter. with disabilities through participatory as- 198 eiiu patcs Tee eif shape beliefs These practices. religious and spiritual of conduct the by promoted process collective a as seen is healing ties is and ways of responding. In some socie tions and an interpretation of what trauma condi health mental for mechanisms ing 36. Most societies have some form of cop Psychosocial needs • • • • • Key actions: group discussions. focus and visits home through them with tion situation should be regularly analysed protec their and violence and ploitation ex sexual of risk at are disabilities persons with that note to important also is It isolation. reduce to help and self-esteem to better protection, as well as raising their lead will it because essential is sessments

Adapt distributionsystemssothat Review howthecommunitytradition Adapt thetimeandplaceforpartici Work withpersonsphysicaland In coordinationwiththecommunity, Coordinate withhealthinstitutions grammes ofthehostcountry. refugees withdisabilitiesintopro and organizations toincludeIDPsor needs, andfoodNFIdistribution. tion, aswellindefiningnutritional tion, water, sanitationandeduca site planning, health, shelter construc taken intoaccountinsectorssuchas ers toensuretheirspecificneedsare mental disabilitiesandtheircaregiv neighbours. disabilities fromamongfamilyand appoint caregiversforpersonswith “home delivery”ofallitems. the communityleaderstoarrangefor access basicgoodsandworkwith persons withdisabilitiesareableto rights standards. and ensurethattheserespecthuman ally caresforpersonswithdisabilities visit themathome. with disabilitiesareabletoattendor patory assessmentssothatpersons ------• • • • • • Key actions: chosocial needs. psy to respond to communities supports which response appropriate an building and need to be taken into consideration well-being and behaviour people’s Darfur, Sudan,2005. Trauma andPsychosocial Assessment inWestern 22 • •

JanakaJayawickrama andEileenBrady Provide appropriatepsychologi Include andsupporttraditionalheal Advocate forandintegrateappropri Work withthemaincommunity Explore whetherthecommunity Identify andanalysewiththecom Promote theestablishmentofchild- Encourage there-establishmentof participation ofthesurvivorinfamily rights violationsandencourageactive and medicalsupporttosurvivorsof cal, social,economic,educational appropriate. chosocial assistanceprogrammesif ers and/orreligiousleadersinpsy ness andcontingencyplanning. support intheemergency prepared ate community-basedpsychosocial nisms whichrespecthumanrights. provided tocommunity-basedmecha actors toseehowsupportcanbe women andgirls. rights, particularlyinrelationto based mechanismsrespecthuman these processes. trauma andwhoarethekeyactorsin traditional formsofcopingwith munity, bothwomenandmen,the tems assoonpossibleeven ifin adults) andestablisheducation sys and childrights,access totrusted on issueslikehygiene,HIV/AIDS, psychosocial support,information among others,recreationalactivities, friendly spaces(whichprovide support socialnetworks. as wellotheractivities,inorderto normal culturalandreligiousevents, and communityactivities. 22 - when ------199 A community-based approach 11 and community services makeshift conditions. This will help Key actions: in restoring some kind of normalcy • Identify national government struc- and providing a daily routine and tures which can provide staff and structure. support to the community services • Involve adults and adolescents in con- strategy and avoid setting up parallel crete, purposeful, common interest structures where local and national activities (e.g., constructing/organiz- facilities already exist. ing shelter, organizing family tracing, • If possible, make an agreement with distribution of food, teaching children the national government structure etc). to provide resources to support the Establish an effective community serv- implementation of community-based ices system for community-based activi- services. ties • Identify all local and international non-government organizations with 37. The purpose of adopting a community- expertise in community-based serv- based approach is to ensure that the emer- ices already working in the area and gency protection and assistance response learn from their experiences. is effective and to ensure sustainability of the programme through participation • Together with these existing struc- of the concerned community members tures, assess community services from the initial stages. The participation staffing and resource needs, including of the host government, refugee/IDP com- the services of interpreters. munities and host population will create • Ensure the recruitment of local staff a sense of ownership of initiatives un- with knowledge of the culture and dertaken jointly and will help in handing language of the community. over the responsibility of managing the • Monitor the security of national staff programmes when the emergency phase to avoid harm while dealing with is over. sensitive situations. • Assess training needs of all staff and 38. The implementation of a community- implement briefings on main issues based approach and ensuring adequate until there is more time for more in- protection of groups with specific needs depth training. Prioritize training in: requires the establishment of an effectively trained and managed community serv- – CBA, including participatory as- ices team. This team will comprise of both sessment for the establishment of international and national staff, as well as systems for identification; support outreach workers from the host – registration and monitoring of and displaced community. During the those with specific needs; emergency phase, deployed community – prevention and response to SGBV; services staff will play a key role in set- – Code of Conduct training; and ting up this system with national govern- – gender issues and people oriented ment partners, as well as national and in- planning. ternational non-government partners. By • Ensure that all community services the end of the initial emergency phase it is staff signs the Code of Conduct and important that a Community Services Ac- the confidentiality agreement. tion Plan has been established to enable a • Based on the findings of the initial smooth handover. participatory assessment, work with the team and community members to establish a Community Services Plan

200 • • • • • •

In allcommunityservicesstaffing As muchaspossible,supportlocal Work withlocalauthoritiesonthe Jointly withthecommunityprovide Based onjointassessmentswith Build thecapacityofcommunity – as: outreach teamincludingtasks such terms ofreferenceforthecommunity youth. skills, includingwomenandmen reach workersbasedontheirprevious the community select community out both menandwomen.Jointlywith ing personsfromthehostpopulation, community outreachteams,includ establishment ofrefugeeorIDP the refugeecommunity, supportthe work. hands-on trainingincommunity by helpingtoorganize practicaland by identifyingtrainingneedsand partners. in particularUNHCRimplementing policy withallhumanitarianworkers, is maintainedandpromotethesame structures ensureagenderbalance their securityinsensitivesituations. and monitorthemcloselytoensure selection byage,genderanddiversity or hostpopulationensurebalancing preters areselectedfromtherefugee in theprovisionofservices.Ifinter interpreters andoutreachworkers refugees andpersonsofconcernas and nationalstructurestoinclude context. and otherfactorsparticulartothe eration localpolitics,securityissues for tensionwhiletakingintoconsid community toreduceanypotential recruitment ofstaff fromthehost the multifunctionalteam. of Action shareitwithallmembersof risks andneeds; identifying resources,protection - - - -

• • • • – Coordinate withauthoritiesofthe Monitor theperformanceofcom As faraspossibleensurecontinuity Train refugeecommunityworkers – – – host countryforthemtoincluderefu community servicesteamasawhole. community, as well as the work of the with thediversegroupsamong ity andevaluatetheirperformance impartial assistanceandconfidential munity outreachworkerstoensure tion, waterandenvironment. AIDS, nutrition,sanitation,protec health, reproductiveHIV and from otherdisciplinessuchaspublic children’s rights,andincludeinputs based approach,genderawareness, outreach techniques,acommunity- training shouldcovercommunity host countryifpossible).Overtime of outsideexpertise(fromwithinthe of theircommunity, andmakeuse and drawontheirownknowledge refugee/ IDP community. lationship betweenUNHCRandthe of staff inordertostrengthenthere gees andIDPsintheirprogrammes. groups withspecificneeds. services andmonitoringtosupport or operationalpartners;and UNHCR and/oritsimplementing with specificneeds; registration withafocusongroups mation; collecting anddisseminatinginfor establishment ofcommunity-based referring personstounitswithin assisting indocumentationand ------201 A community-based approach 11 and community services Key references • Executive Committee of the High • UNHCR Tool for Participatory As- Commissioner's Programme sessment in Operations Conclusion No. 105 (LVII), 2006, on • "A community-Based approach to Women and Girls at Risk UNHCR operations" provisional • INTERNAL DOCUMENT - UNHCR release in 2007 Guidelines on the Sharing of • "Interagency guideline Mental Health Information on Individual Cases and Psychosocial response in - Confidentiality Guidelines emergencies"( IASC) • UNHCR Policy on Harmful Tradi- • "Concept of Care" Trauma and psy- tional Practices Ref ADM 1.1, PRL chosocial assessment in Western 9.5, Darfur- Sudan 2005 OPS 5.41 Dated 19 December 1997 • Interagency Guiding Principles on • Information and Training Resources Unaccompanied and Separated on Combatting Trafficking of Women Children and Girls for Sexual exploitation and Domestic Slavery. Compiled by • UNHCR refugee Children Guidelines UNHCR's Bureau for Europe, • IOM/FOM/62/2006 - Sexual and July 2004 Gender Based Violence SGBV • IASC GBV Guidelines • List of resource materials for SGBV Training Of Trainers

202 203 A community-based approach 11 and community services 12 Site selection, planning and shelter

204

Key references Public buildings andcommunalfacilities Reception andtransitcamps Shelter Site planning:specificinfrastructure Site planning:generalconsiderations Criteria forsiteselection Organization ofresponse Introduction Overview CONTENTS

Water supply Expertize andpersonnel Information forsiteselectionandplanning Contingency planning Camps Mass shelter Dispersed settlement Shelter forcoldconditions Prefabricated shelters Tents Plastic sheeting Standards Type ofshelter Introduction Administrative andcommunalservices Fire prevention Roads Water supply Sanitation Gender considerations Environmental considerations Modular planning Services andinfrastructure Master plan Introduction Site selectionmethodology Climatic conditionsandlocalhealthotherrisks Accessibility Topography, drainage andsoilconditions Security andprotection Land useandlandrights Size ofcampsites Introduction Introduction Vegetation

0 212 40 6 210 210-213 209 26 209 26-42 209 209 23 21 209-210 19 208 18 208 207 18-25 12 207-208 10 6 1-17 Page Paragraph 0-0 224 101-104 222 223 222 95-100 221 221 92 221 91 221 87 220 85 83 220-222 81 219 76 219 76-94 219 219 72 218 71 70 218-220 68 218 65 216 64-75 216 215 61 215 55 215 51 48 44 213 43 212 43-63 212 42 212 41 211 211 39 210 36 210 35 32 28 27

215-218

205 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter Situation • Avoid very large settlements; refugee Suitable, well-selected sites and soundly camps should normally be considered planned refugee settlements with ade- as the last option. quate shelter and integrated, appropriate • Involve refugees in all phases of set- infrastructure are essential from the early tlement layout and shelter design and stages of a refugee emergency as they are construction. life-saving and alleviate hardship. Ac- • Use a bottom-up planning approach, commodating refugees in emergencies beginning with the smallest social may take the form of host families/com- units, preserving traditional social munities, mass accommodation in exist- arrangements and structures as far as ing shelters or organized camps. Initial possible. decisions on the location of the camp • Develop a comprehensive master plan should involve the host government as with a layout based on open commu- well as local authorities and communities. nity forms and community services, Likewise, layout should involve refugees. such as water points, latrines, show- This approach is necessary to avoid long- ers, cloth washing facilities and gar- term protection issues such as conflict bage collection to promote ownership with local communities and to ensure a and maintenance of the services. safe environment for the refugees and the delivery of humanitarian assistance. Action • Identify the most suitable option or Objectives combination of options for accommo- To provide suitable sites and shelter, in dating the refugees. order to accommodate refugees in emer- • In the case of planned camps, assess gencies. the suitability of the refugee site and ensure that it meets the basic criteria. Principles of response • Provide suitable shelter. • In addition to meeting the immedi- • Simultaneously assess the most im- ate needs, planning should take into mediate needs for emergency shelter consideration the long-term provision and provide the necessary materials of services even if the situation is that cannot be met from locally avail- expected to be temporary. able resources. • Decisions on site selection and camp • In the case of spontaneous settlement, planning are very difficult to reverse, identify the most urgently required therefore seek technical support. measures to improve site planning • Avoid high population density con- and layout, and implement these as gestion in settlements and in accom- soon as possible. modation;

206 iii. ii. i. ally fallintooneofthreecategories: ii. i. ter will: 4. good site selection, planning and shel ments. ele relevant the of all considering when made be to has compromise a practice, In site. the of layout and size the determine should refugees the of rights human and needs the Ideally, possible. involved as early be as must themselves refugees the Equally, importance. fundamental of and national authorities in site selection is 3. the exitstrategyfromstart. mind in bearing as into well as this consideration take should assistance of sion provi and planning camp selection, site much longer than initially last anticipated, therefore, operations refugee 2. Most the humanitarianresponse. activities during consideration into taken be should income-generating and ices, serv community education, health, tion, administration and security, food distribu sanitation, access), of ease and quantity quality, (good water as such sectors vital other Therefore, refugees. of well-being and safety the on influence major a have will camp a of shelter and infrastructure layout, The environment. friendly a and this should be upheld by providing shelter ing a place to live is a basic human right and 1. 5. Emergency refugee settlements gener iv. iii.

Introduction Aside from a life-saving measure, hav camps: (a)spontaneous and(b) mass shelter;and dispersed settlement/hostfamilies; minimize theneedfordifficult,cor uphold UNHCR’s protection mandate; ensure mostefficientuseofland, make theprovisionofserviceseasier The role and responsibility of the local planned. resources andtime. and morecost-effective; and rective measureslater; ------i. tlement are: ii. i. of settlementare: type this of advantages The settings. ban ur or rural in occur may arrangement of of the same ethnic background. This type people with or members family extended 7. services ofthepre-existinghouseholds. and other and water,cooking share sanitation, nearby accommodation temporary up set or accommodation existing share either refugees The refuge. of area the in live already who families of households the within accommodation find refugees 6. Dispersed settlement/hostfamilies sistance. munity could be met through UNHCR as (QIPs) where increasing needs of the com Projects Impact Quick through supported be can communities host the advantages dis these of some alleviate to order In 9. ii. 8. v. iv. iii. iv. iii. comdto i otn on with found often is Accommodation the hostfamiliesandcommunities limited administrativesupportis quick implementation; it canbedifficulttodistinguishthe it haslessimpactonthelocalenvi fosters selfhelpandindependence; low cost; shelter andotherformsofassistance protection, nutritionandhealthprob This type of arrangement is where the where is arrangement of type This The disadvantages of this type of set of type this of disadvantages The population estimationandregistration and thismayposeproblemswhere host populationfromtherefugees poverished; can becomeoverburdenedandim ronment thancamps. and needed; population aswelltherefugees. are likelytobeneededbythehost trated; and when thepopulationismoreconcen lems maynotbeaseasytodetect are required; ------207 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter Mass shelter: public buildings and com- Spontaneous camps should be avoided munity facilities to the extent possible. 10. This type of settlement is where refugees are accommodated in pre-existing fa- 13. Generally, spontaneous camps have cilities, for example, in schools, barracks, more disadvantages than advantages, for hotels, gymnasiums or warehouses. These example: are normally in urban areas and are often i. re-designing the camp would be intended as temporary or transit accom- necessary (where resources are avail- modation. The advantages of this type of able); and settlement are: ii. re-location, as early as possible, to a i. they are not continuously inhabited well-identified site; especially if there during normal use and refugees can is conflict with local community. be accommodated immediately with- 14. High density camps with very large out disrupting accommodation in the populations are the worst possible option hosting area; for refugee accommodation and an intol- ii. services such as water and sanitation erable strain on local services. However, are immediately available, though this may be the only option because of de- these may be inadequate if the num- cisions by the host country or simply be- bers are large; and cause of a lack of sufficient land. iii. the need to construct additional structures specifically for the refugees is Planned camps avoided. 15. This type of settlement is where refu- 11. The disadvantages of this type of set- gees are accommodated in purpose-built tlement are: sites where a full range of services, within possible means, are provided. i. they can quickly become overcrowded; 16. The advantages of this type of settle- ii. sanitation and other services can ment are: become overburdened; i. services can be provided to a large iii. equipment and structure can be dam- population in a centralized and ef- aged; ficient way; iv. buildings are no longer available for ii. there may be economies of scale their original purpose, thus disrupting in the provision of some services public services to the hosting popula- compared with more dispersed settle- tion (e.g. schools should be evacuated ments; as early as possible); and iii. the refugee population can be easy to v. lack of privacy and increased protec- identify and communicate with; and tion risks. iv. voluntary repatriation can be easier to organize. Camps 17. The disadvantages of this type of set- Spontaneous camps tlement are: 12. This type of camp is formed without adequate planning in order to meet im- i. high population seriously increases mediate needs. Aside from creating a health risks; unfriendly environment, the provision of ii. high risk of environmental damage in services may become cumbersome and the immediate vicinity of the camp; costly. iii. high population concentrations and proximity to international borders

208 ning process will usuallybeuseful. plan contingency the in gathered ously previ information the However, events. unforeseen or changing of face the in fied modi be to need may plan contingency a of aspects all or some that mean will flow refugee the of movement of direction or timing nature, scale, the Frequently, 20. people tocrosstheborder. may send the wrong signal and encourage site developed unoccupied, an However, planned prior to the arrival of the refugees. and selected be should sites 19. Ideally, Contingency planning the refugees. of views the and specialists of advice the both incorporating approach, integrated sponse. Decisions must be made using an re of planning and assessment needs all over the in considerations important be will These assistance. other of provision sion of shelter have a direct bearing on the 18. Site selection, planning and the provi Introduction    iv. Organization ofresponse

Expertize andswiftcoordinatedplan This subject must therefore be consid Site selection,planningandshelter large campsmayprovideahiding tions. the improvementofexistingcondi ning arenecessaryforanewsiteor resource assessmentandresponse. ered asessentialtotheneedsand of otherassistance. have amajorbearingontheprovision from assistance. thus theymaycontinuetobenefit the normalrefugeepopulationand ficult todistinguishthesepeoplefrom other thanrefugees.Itmaybedif place andsupportbaseforpersons problems; and may exposetherefugeestoprotection ------xetz my e eurd n the in required be may 23. Expertize Expertize andpersonnel of siteselectionandplanning. process the in assist could request, upon Headquarters, at Technical (TSS) Section the Support Furthermore, database. geographic special a and images satellite photographs, aerial maps, with erations op support also can (GIS), Systems tion Informa Geographical on point focal the through Headquarters, UNHCR agencies. and UN institutions educational offices, local government communities, and include authorities should planning and tion selec site for information of Sources 22. come misleading. be would which system grading a using than rather 1) TableToolbox, Indicators, to the minimum standards (please see Key be reviewed and commented on in relation It should be noted that each criteria should “Sites criteria”. other data as reflected in the table in annex and surveys reports, maps, of form the in be often will planning and selection site for essential is that Information site. able suit most the of selection the in should in assist evaluation, technical with and combined visual available, already tion 21. planning Information forsiteselectionand activities in this sector. Potential sources Potential sector. this in activities tocoordinate aspecialist of fielding on the advise will who (TSS), be Section port should advice UNHCR’sthrough sought TechnicalSup and 24. Expertize proach areparticularlyvaluable. ap flexible a and experience emergency gin and of asylum is very important. Prior with conditions in both the country of ori Familiarity anthropology. social perhaps and environment the health, public etc.), materials, building construction, bridge and road sanitation, sup environmental water ply, (e.g. engineering planning, physical surveying, hydrology, of fields h cnigny ln n informa and plan contingency The

------209 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter of the necessary expertize are government The availability of an adequate amount of line ministries, national and international water on a year-round basis has proved NGOs, engineering faculties, local indus- in practice to be the single most impor- try and professional organizations, as well tant criterion, and commonly the most as other UN organizations. problematic. 25. Site selection and settlement plan- A site should not be selected on the as- ning require broad consultations with all sumption that water can be found merely concerned in the planning, development by drilling, digging, or trucking. Drilling and use of the site. When appropriate, may not be feasible or may not provide multi-sector planning teams, work-groups water in an adequate quantity and qual- or task-forces might be formed to bet- ity. No site should be selected where the ter structure consultations and better so- trucking of water will be required over a licit inputs. Consensus should be sought, long period. though it is rare that the needs of all the parties will be fully satisfied. Size of camp sites 28. While there are recommended mini- Criteria for site selection mum area requirements for refugee sites,  Land may be scarce in the country of these should be applied cautiously and asylum and no site may be available with flexibility. They are a rule of thumb that meets all of the desired criteria. for an initial calculation rather than pre- If, however, the site does not meet the cise standards. basic characteristics as mentioned in annex “Sites criteria” and is clearly Ideally, the recommended minimum sur- unsuitable, every effort must be made face area is 45 m2 per person when plan- to convince the host Government re- ning a refugee camp (including kitchen/ garding another location. The prob- vegetable gardening space). However, the actual surface area per person (ex- lems associated with an unsuitable cluding garden space) should not be site would be enormous in terms of less than 30 m2 per person. protection and financial implications, 2 which would escalate over time. The bare minimum figure of 30 m surface area per person includes the area neces- Introduction sary for roads, foot paths, educational 26. The social and cultural background of facilities, sanitation, security, firebreaks, the refugees are important determinants in administration, water storage, distribu- site selection, physical planning and shel- tion, markets, relief item storage and, of ter. In many circumstances, however, op- course, plots for shelter. The figure of 30 tions will be limited and land that meets m2 does not include, however, any land for even minimum standards may be scarce. significant agricultural activities or -live It is therefore wise to put on record the stock. Although agricultural activities are short-comings of the site and the rationale not usually a priority during emergencies, for its selection. small vegetable gardens (kitchen gardening) attached to the family plot should be included in the site plan from the outset. Water supply This requires a minimum increase of 15 m2 per person, hence, a minimum of 45 m2 27. A specialists’ assessment of water overall land allocation per person would availability should be a prerequisite in se- be needed. lecting a site.

210 huge areasand maynotappearused. requires instance, for range-land, of use public in records, or may not be obvious. Nomadic documented well be not may these though even known, are ownership or rights land invariably, Almost rights. and land land-ownership of clarification include always should selection eventual for assessment ofsite process the tified, iden been has site possible a 33. Once land rights. and/or use land with problem a is there if once at consulted be should Headquarters cordance withthelawsofcountry. ac in and Government the through arrange ments legal formal on based be must land private of use Any government. the by land public on provided are sites ten, Of scarce. is camps refugee of lishment estab the for land countries most 32. In Land useandlandrights year. per 4% to 3 as fast as grow could lation popu the that means deaths over births of excess The arrivals. new or increases natural to due population the in increase have accommodate to expansion for should potential settlements 31. Refugee tions andlanduserights. considera environmental supplies, water population, local the of proximity access, factors: of number a on depends distance sub a stantial distance between each camp. The be should there possible, 30. If 900 mx1000m). measuring site a example, (for hectares m 45 x people 20,000 etable gardensisincluded: veg for space assuming follows, as lated calcu be should people 20,000 for site a of size The avoided. be generally should people 20,000 over of camps 29. Large Note rents landforrefugeesettlements that UNHCR neither 2 = 900,000 m 900,000 = purchases . 2 = 90 = nor ------installations. military as such areas sensitive tentially po other as well as borders international from distance reasonable a at settled be they that recommended is it refugees, of the protection and security the ensure to However, origin. of country the towards country host the by act unfriendly an not 35. In principle, the granting of asylum is i. rights oftherefugeesto: the define to necessary also are strictions re land-use and rights access of fication Clari temporarily. even used, being site the with disagree may groups local site, a use to government national the with ment agree an be may there if even and issues, sensitive very cus are rights land-use or tomary Traditional authorities. tional) tradi (including local agreement and through national with site the of use sive 34. 1 tion considerationsarefavourable. protec and security and repatriation tary volun early for prospects good are there if example, For served. better refugees be would the of interests the where rule this to made be only should Exceptions iii. ii. Article II,paragraph 6OAUConvention. settle from tries ugee states: The Security andprotection gin”. collect fuel-wood,andtimberfor engage inagricultureorothersubsist graze theiranimals;and ence activities. for animals; shelter constructionaswellfodder The refugees should have the exclu the have should refugees The 1 Organization of the refugees Convention “For asylum frontier reasons at shall, of a of reasonable their (OAU African as of far security, country Convention) as Unity possible, distance of coun Ref ori ------211 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter Topography, drainage and soil eration of possible friction between local conditions inhabitants and refugees. 36. Where water is readily available, drainage often becomes a key criterion. Climatic conditions, local health and The whole site should be located above other risks flood prone areas, preferably on gentle (2 40. Settlement areas should be free of to 4%) slopes. Sites on slopes steeper than major environmental health hazards such 10% gradient are difficult to use and usu- as malaria, onchocerciasis (river blind- ally require complex and costly site prepa- ness), schistosomiasis (bilharzia) or tsetse rations. Flat sites present serious problems fly. A site may have unseen and/or irregu- for the drainage of waste and storm water. lar (but often locally known) risks such as Avoid areas likely to become marshy or flash flooding, or serious industrial pollu- waterlogged during the rainy season. tion. For sites in dust-prone areas, regular dust clouds can foster respiratory diseases. 37. Soils that allow swift surface water Emergency and temporary shelter need absorption are important for the construc- protection from high winds. However, tion and effectiveness of pit latrines. The a daily breeze is an advantage. Climatic subsoil should permit good infiltration conditions should be suitable year-round (i.e. allowing water absorption by the soil, and careful account should be taken of and the retention of solid waste in the la- seasonal variations. For example, a suit- trine). It should be noted that very sandy able site in the dry season may be unten- soils which are good for infiltration are able in the rains. Likewise, mountainous sometimes poor for the stability of the pit. areas may be suitable in summer, while in Where drinking water supplies are drawn winter the temperatures may fall signifi- from ground water sources, special at- cantly below freezing. Seasonal variation tention must be given to preventing con- can have a considerable impact on the type tamination by pit latrines. The pit latrines and cost of shelter, infrastructure, heating must not reach into the ground water. The fuel and even diet. As far as possible, groundwater table should be a minimum refugees should not be settled in an area of 3 m below the surface of the site. where the climate differs greatly from that 38. Avoid excessively rocky or imperme- to which they are accustomed. For exam- able sites as they hamper both shelter and ple, settling refugees from malaria-free latrine construction. If possible, select a high ground to a marshy area where the site where the land is suitable for at least disease is endemic can be disastrous. vegetable gardens and/or small-scale agriculture. Vegetation 41. The site should have sufficient ground Accessibility cover (grass, bushes, trees). Vegetation 39. The site must be accessible and close cover provides shade while reducing ero- to sources of necessary supplies such as sion and dust. During site preparation, food, cooking fuel and shelter material. care should be taken to do as little damage Proximity to national services is desir- as possible to vegetation and topsoil. If able, particularly health care services. heavy equipment is used, indiscriminate Roads must be “all-weather” and provide bulldozing or removal of topsoil has to be year-round access. Short access roads to avoided at all costs. If wood must be used connect the main road with the site can be as domestic cooking fuel or for the con- constructed as part of the camp develop- struction of shelter, the refugees should be ment. There may be advantages in choos- encouraged not to take their requirements ing a site near a town, subject to consid- from the immediate vicinity of the camp.

212 i. lowing generalstepsarerecommended: site, which has been pre-identified, the fol a of review concise a have to order In 42. Site selectionmethodology protected orfragile. which are ecologically or environmentally areas near located be not should site The performed. be should purposes these for biomass and vegetation available of vey sur Abelow). quick resources natural of management and planning site on section dination with local forestry authorities (see collection should be implemented in coor wood of pattern dispersed more a Rather, v. iv. iii. ii. Have therecommendedchecklist Make simpleestimatesofthesurface Determine sitecharacteristicsthrough Obtain suitablemapsandotherin Ensure theteamincludeslocal trip-meter toestimatedistances. (GPS); ifunavailable,usevehicle use ofGlobalPositioningSystem area ofeachpotentialsite(s),through surrounding area. the pro’s andcon’s ofthesiteandits record yourobservations;highlight site visitswhileusingthechecklistto rights. as issuesrelatedtolanduseand networks, andwatersources,aswell formation showingtopography, road tions). ings (includingseasonalimplica edgeable ofthesiteanditssurround authorities andthosewhoareknowl information andcomments. and shareitwiththeteamfortheir (see annex“Sitescriteria”)athand ------    vi. vii. / recommendations Site planning:generalconsiderations

Ensure communitiesarenotaclosed Each communityshouldbeplanned Site planningshouldusethe“bottom- The overallphysicallayoutofasite Assess theimplicationsofcharacter Final decisionsshouldbemadeon form, e.g.square-shaped,butresem munity. maintenance offacilitiesbythecom ownership, whichwillleadtobetter washing facilities. This istopromote points, garbagecollectionandcloth ices, suchaslatrines,showers,water- to includeitsownimmediateserv through participatoryassessment. the communityasmuchpossible families, andreflectthewishesof acteristics andneedsoftheindividual up“ approachstartingfromthechar groups. family, communityorothersocial munity-based approach,focusingon should reflectadecentralizedcom tion withUNHCRoffices. recorded bytheteamandinconsulta implications foreachcriterionas that couldbecomemisleading. avoiding weightedaveragemethods dination withteammemberswhile istics thathavebeenrecordedincoor with othercommunities. sides areopenforbetterinteraction bling moreofaH-shape,whereboth ------213 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter Attachment - Community

Self-contained Community Self-contained Community

Latrine & showers (to be lit) Latrine & showers (to be lit) MEN WOMEN Partition made of 40 m sticks/leaves, plastic sheet, etc.

Private Area

5.5 m m

50 m

41 m 12.5 m

Water Point

12.5 m 1" pipe

15 m

Common Area

Garbage Collection, 2 refuse drums/ 1 community of 80 persons (1 sub-block)

M. Lolachi

Sub-Block - Modular Design Concept, NTS

Technical Support Section, TSS

: Shelters, 16/sub-block, 1 shelter/family, 16x 5 = 80 refugees/sub-block, each shelter area=3x6=18 m2 Gabled (truss) frame/ ridged roof strucutre and/or tent 214 i. 45. Natural andexistingfeatures: following physicalfeatures. the cover should and planning, module of organization of the social refugees and the principles account into take should plan The settlements. including features isting ex and natural to proximity its and tics, characteris and surroundings its site, the of configuration overall the show should 44. Master plan of goodsandservices. delivery efficient and equitable an cilitate fa also will planning site Good munity. com a of well-being and health tection, pro the affect markedly will settlement 43. Introduction x. ix. viii. vii. vi. v. iv. iii. ii. i. 46. Planned features: v. iv. iii. ii. during standards camp. It contours (e.g.linesjoiningpointsof distribution centres; warehousing facilities; administration areas; utilities, camplighting,etc.; water distributionplan; environmental sanitationplan; drainage systemandterracing; roads andfootpaths; shelter areasandpotentialexpansion farm land,electricalpowergridsand existing buildings,roadsandbridges; rocky patchesandsandysoils; rivers, forests,hills,floodplains,and is areas; water pipelines. and swamps; lines); identical elevationarecalledcontour “atr ln o oeal ie plan site overall or plan” “master A h pyia ognzto o the of organization physical The imperative educational andhealthfacilities; the are physical taken that organization into all of consideration the related of the - - - - - vices and infrastructure and should be re be should and infrastructure and vices ser for standards are following The 48. Services andinfrastructure an area(e.g.thecampsite). nimetric survey describes locations within Amountains). pla valleys, (rivers, scape land a of features physical the describes survey topographical A 1:10,000. at least of scale a camps large of case in and a have should map metric scale between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000, or plan The plan ning. site for basis the as crucial is vey n rfge tesle truh par through themselves refugees representatives and refugee of involvement cases, such In relocate. understand to reluctant ably be may they settled, ously 50. stantially. sub differ may timing and approach ods, meth although case, each in same the be The design standards to be applied should i. site planningisrequired: 49. ii. ferred towhenpreparingthemasterplan: 47. xvii. xvi. xv. xiv. xiii. xii. xi. 2 refusedrums 1 feedingcentre 1 market 4 distribution points 1 schoolblock 1 referralhospital 1 healthcentre 1 latrine 1 watertap reorganizing existing,spontaneously- new sites. markets andrecreationareas; community centre; feeding centres; developed sites;and fire preventionbreaks;and area forreligiousactivities; A topographical and planimetric sur planimetric and topographical A hr rfge hv spontane have refugees Where which for situations two are There agricultural plots. playground/sports centre; per per per per per per per per per (80 –100persons) 1 community 1 site(20,000persons) 1 site(20,000persons) 1 site(20,000persons) 1 sector(5,000persons) 10 sites(200,000persons) 1 site(20,000persons) 1 family(6–10persons) (80 –100persons) 1 community

------215 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter ticipatory assessment and age and gen- made to avoid a rigid grid design which der mainstreaming in planning will does not account for community layout facilitate a better understanding and ac- and interaction and presents difficulties ceptance by the refugees. An early and in identifying proper community-based clear demarcation of plots, including ar- locations for services such as latrines, wa- eas reserved for services, is advisable. ter points, showers etc. Grid design does not promote ownership of services, which Comprehensive but swift planning is es- is crucial for proper usage, cleaning and sential for a new site. maintenance. Furthermore, it undermines the protection concerns such as the long Modular planning distances that refugees have to walk for 51. Planning should start from the per- services and susceptibility to violations. spective of the individual refugee house- Whatever design is used should take into hold. Begin by considering the needs of account the natural features of the site and the individual family, such as distance to the identity of the refugee community. water and latrines; the relationship to oth- 54. The social organization, cultural er members of the community (other rela- background and family structure are tives, clan, or ethnic groups); traditional some of the main factors that influence housing and living arrangements. Devel- the physical layout of a site and should oping the community layout (U-shaped be part of the initial needs and resource rather than square-shaped), and then con- assessment. This information should be sidering the larger issues of overall site gathered through review of existing docu- layout, is likely to yield markedly better ments, observations and discussions with results than beginning with a preconcep- the refugees, and others knowledgeable tion of the complete site layout and break- about this society. A full socio-economic ing it down into smaller entities. survey of the refugee population should 52. Thus, planning and physical organiza- be conducted when/if resources allow, and tion of the site should start from the small- will be important in subsequent planning, est module, the family, and then building particularly for self-reliance and durable up larger units as follows: solutions.

Module Consisting of Aprox. No. of persons Environmental considerations Family 1 family 4 - 6 persons 55. Environmental considerations should 1 community 16 families 80 persons be integrated into physical planning and 1 block 16 communities 1,250 persons shelter from the very start of an emergen- 1 sector 4 blocks 5,000 persons cy. Location and layout of refugee camps, 1 camp module 4 sectors 20,000 persons provisions made for emergency shelter, These figures are indicative and should be and the use of local resources for construc- adjusted according to actual conditions. tion and fuel can have a major negative environmental impact. It is in the earlier 53. Modular planning does not necessar- stages of an emergency where the greatest ily mean using a grid layout for the site. environmental damage can occur and hab- The linear, or grid layout, with square or its are formed. Environmental damage has rectangular areas separated by parallel health, social and economic consequences streets, has often been used for its sim- for the refugees and local population, and plicity of design and speed of implemen- can have political repercussions. tation. However, every effort should be

216 i. can betaken: ing their environment, the following steps protect by population local and refugees of welfare the safeguard to order 56. In vi. v. iii. ii. iv. protocol earlyinanemergency. reduced ronmental emergency Rehabilitation Site selection:avoidsitescloseto Shelter andfuel:materialsforthese Shelter design(energy-saving through Camp sizeanddensity:generally, the Site preparation:discriminatelypre Camp layout:thelayout(particularly destructive, socollectionof suchma the localresourcescanbeparticularly initial needforsheltermaterials from construction andfuel.Meeting the natural resourcesincluding woodfor manage andcontroltheuseoflocal at theoutsettoinitiateasystem roundings ofthecamp.Itiscrucial often comefromtheimmediatesur cost-effective overtime. can savesignificantfuelandprove insulation ofroof,walls,andfloors saving measures,e.g.sufficient ous heatingisneeded,passiveenergy tended winterseasonswherecontinu insulation): incoldclimates,withex within thatcommunity. security) safeguardstheenvironment rangements (whichcanalsopromote encourages communitylivingar dangerous gullies. A sitelayoutthat topsoil, andavoidthecreationof This willreduceerosion,preserve roads) shouldfollowcontourlines. locate 30-45m smaller thesettlementsbetter;al serve existingvegetationandtop-soil. serves. walk fromprotectedareasorre site shouldbelocatedatleastaday’s environmentally protectedareas. A by damage phase, implementing effectively 2 ofareaperperson. and can the be environmental costs starts substantially of in - envi - the ------where there are severe restrictions on fuel on restrictions severe are there where e.g. circumstances, certain in appropriate only is basis regular a on fuel free of ply sup Organized care. with instituted be should and repercussions complex have can kerosene, as such fuel, other or wood fuel- of the supply organized of The situation. specifics the to according made be must necessary is which quantity the and it supply to how wood), in trucking from outside the vicinity of the camp (e.g. 58. ing certainareastogroups. harvest and managing for responsibility assigning resources; encourage local the for to respect and wood harvesting ing regard outset the from rules clear define to programme awareness environmental only dead wood to be collected; allowing establishing an harvested, be not should certain areas and trees (by marking) defining which include: can camp the of cinity fuel-wood and timber harvesting in the vi bodies, Controlled departments. forestry as government such with discussed be tion of fuel-wood and timber. This should collec and harvesting controlled be plan will basic a of feature key A possible. as soon as up drawn be should plan ment sidered: plied to the refugees also needs to be con 59. plied inreturnforwork. sup be generally should fuel-wood value coal making, etc.). Therefore, to retain its (e.g. the sale of fuel-wood or timber, char purposes generating income for continue cooking purposes, collection of wood will income, for therefore if free fuel-wood is provided for resources natural local on rely refugees addition, In increased consumption. to lead actually may vicinity the outside from charge of free dis tribution its locally, available readily fuel-wood also Where is sources. other from 57. source. and/or providedfromanalternate terials shouldbecarefullymanaged, sml ntrl eore manage resources natural simple A The decision on supplying fuel-wood supplying on decision The The source and impact of wood sup wood of impact and source The ------217 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter i. Is it being harvested sustainably? iii. reduced number of able-bodied men; ii. Are the environmental problems and merely being moved elsewhere? iv. disruption of the extended family, Care should be taken to prevent the emer- with its role as social caretaker. gence of local monopolistic suppliers. Fi- All the above requires our attention when nally, it should be remembered that, if it is planning to accommodate such refugees. necessary to introduce free fuel supply in 62. It is important that the specific needs the initial stages of an emergency, it will of persons are taken into account in site be difficult to later modify such arrange- planning. It may be difficult to reach these ments. people if they do not traditionally form 60. A more comprehensive natu- part of the leadership structure of the ral resource management plan for the community. In such cases, the needs and site and its immediate surroundings resource assessment should obtain views should be drawn up as soon as possi- of all concerned through age, gender and ble (with specialist advice if necessary). diversity mainstreaming. Such a plan should be based on a baseline 63. Specific actions should be taken to en- environmental survey. sure that refugee communities are organ- A comprehensive natural resource man- ized to assist groups with specific needs agement plan would cover (in addition to with their shelter construction. Specific controlled harvesting of timber for con- attention should be given to refugees un- struction and fuel-wood, as mentioned able to complete their own shelter con- earlier): promotion of fuel-saving stoves struction. and fuel efficient cooking techniques and supply of key energy saving devices (e.g. Site planning: specific infrastructure lids with cooking pots, provision of mills  Underestimation of surface area or milled grain). In addition to aware- required for social infrastructure and ness raising programmes, identify the communal services, including a play- scope for better use of existing natural re- ground for children, is an issue which sources (e.g. using waste water, common will adversely affect the creation of areas, and areas around shelters), kitchen a humane environment for refugees, gardens, tree planting, and reforestation and should be avoided. where necessary. 64. At the start of an emergency, it may be difficult to construct all the administra- Gender considerations tive and communal services anticipated. 61. In emergencies, there may be a loss Free areas should therefore be allocated of normal community structure and the for inclusion or future expansion of these changes in demographic proportions may services. have altered refugees’ daily routines. This could also have a negative effect on tradi- Sanitation tional mechanisms for the protection and 65. While water requirement is a major assistance of persons with specific needs. factor in site selection, sanitation require- As a result of a conflict, the change of so- ments dictate site layout. High population cial composition in refugee communities density coupled with poor sanitation is a may also include: severe threat to the health and safety of i. increased numbers of female-headed refugees. This is often the case in sponta- households; neous camps. Some organization of basic ii. large numbers of unaccompanied sanitation should be planned before reor- children; ganizing the site or transferring the refu- 218 soakage pitsorusedtoirrigate gardens. in absorbed eventually and be well-drained should points supply water from ter 69. and concrete aprons. standposts taps, of destruction and wastage water reduces considerably sons per 100 to 80 of groups cohesive cially that waterdistributiontosmall,so shows frost free depth (60 to 90 cm). Experience at positioned be must pipes the peratures, tem low very with countries In cm). 60 sur other to damage (40 cause not activities do face or traffic that depth a at kept be should pipes Water underground. be should pipes the and plan service the of part integral an as grid distribution water the contain should site the of layout The walk. minutes few a than more no 100m, water a distribution point should be not more and than shelter any between tance 68. Water supply discussed priortoconstruction. be should community the by latrines ing maintain and cleaning of system A 67. persons perlatrinefacility. twenty exceeding not families, of groups best option would be latrines for identified the shelter. If this is not possible, the next from possible as far as plot, family the on is latrine family the of location ideal The safety and hygiene assured in the long run. is group family a of maintenance and trol family. per con the under remains latrine latrine the if Only one be should goal the reorganized, or new sites, all For 66. be accessiblebyroadforfacilitation. plan for their maintenance and they should latrines are unavoidable, there should be a communal If latrines. alternate for left be must space Sufficient latrines. public of establishment the and defecation uncon trolled prohibiting include should This gees (and thus, the problem) to a new site. To wa used and effluent hygiene, aid dis maximum the possible, Where ------also beanimportantconsideration. will wind prevailing any of direction The increased to 3 to 4 times the overall height. (straw,be should distance the etc.) thatch, If structure. building materials are highly inflammable any of height overall the twice of minimum a be therefore should buildings. The distance between structures adjacent touching from buildings burning buildings collapsing, prevent to adequate be should individual between distance the allows, space If recreation. or etables veg growing for ideal an be would area This blocks. between firebreaks situated be camps, should modular In area. up built- of m 300 every recommended approximately for is wide m 30 buildings) no with (area firebreak a general, 71. In Fire prevention and vehicles. provide adequate visibility for pedestrians to roads from m 7 - 5 approximately back set be should fences, plot family cluding in traffic. structures, pedestrian All from separated be should it site, the on traffic vehicle of amount significant a be to has levels and have adequate drainage. If there flood above roads all-weather be should the roads Access facilities. and areas various connecting pathways and roads nal 70. Roads etaie, diitaie n ohr fa other and administrative centralized, de stressed. or been centralized Whether already has decentralization maximum of importance the – only indicative is vision di The needed. often most services nal commu and administrative includes low be list The facilities. community other or schools as used be later could services emergency initial for buildings example, For uses. alternative facilitate to design multi-purpose a of possible, if and tures, munal services should be traditional struc 72. Buildings for administrative and com Administrative andcommunalservices st sol hv acs ad inter and access have should site A ------219 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter cilities should be located and designed so Shelter that they are accessible to all.  Refugee shelter must provide protec- 73. Services and facilities likely to be tion from the elements, space to live centralized (depending on the size of the and store belongings, privacy and camp) are: emotional security.  Blankets, mats, and tarpaulin must be i. site administrative office; provided. ii. services coordination offices for  Refugee shelter should be culturally health care, feeding programmes, and socially appropriate and familiar. water supply, education, etc.; Suitable local materials are best, if iii. warehousing and storage; available. iv. initial registration/health screening  Shelter must be suitable for variance area; in the seasons. v. tracing service;  Except for tents in certain circum- vi. therapeutic feeding centre (if re- stances, prefabricated or special quired); emergency shelter has not proved to vii. marketplace; and be a practical option on either cost or viii. community centre. cultural grounds. 74. Services and facilities likely to be de-  Wherever possible, refugees should centralized: build their own shelter, with the necessary organizational and material i. water points; support. ii. latrines; iii. bathing and washing areas; Introduction iv. garbage collection; 76. Shelter is likely to be one of the most v. supplementary feeding centres (if important determinants of general living required); conditions and is often one of the signifi- vi. education facilities; cant items of non-recurring expenditure. vii. in areas; and While the basic need for shelter is similar in most emergencies, such considerations viii. commodity distribution centres. as the kind of housing needed, what mate- 75. The location of the centralized ser- rials and design to be used, who constructs vices will depend on the specific situation the housing and how long it must last will and, in particular, on the space available. differ significantly in each situation. With sufficient space, there may be clear advantages in having the centralized ser- 77. Particularly in cold climates or where vices in the centre of the camp. Where there are daily extremes of temperature, space is scarce, it may be better to have lack of adequate shelter and clothing can the centralized services located near the have a major adverse effect on protec- entrance of the camp. In particular, this tion and well-being of refugees, including will avoid supply trucks having to drive health and nutritional status. through a densely populated site, with the attendant problems of dust, noise and dan- In addition to shelter, provision of sufficient blankets, mattresses, additional ger to pedestrians. If some form of closed plastic sheeting and provision of heaters camp is unavoidable, at least the central- will be a high priority. ized administrative services will probably have to be located near the entrance. The 78. Fire prevention measures should be warehouses should always be near the ad- established when providing heaters and it ministrative office for security reasons. is thus necessary to deal with the procurement, storage, and/or distribution of fuel. 220 construct their own shelter while meeting while shelter own their construct to them allow to refugees sufficient the to material provide to be should aim the 83. Standards in asustainablemanner. obtained and friendly environmentally be methods, are preferable. Materials should building labour-intensive and structures, country.the into brought be simplest The material shelter emergency should cally lo obtained quickly be cannot quantities adequate if Only population. local the or refugees the by used normally be would as shelter or materials same the using by 82. Emergency shelter needs are best met helps topreserveorrebuildfamilyunity. and possessions and people for security and safety provides also It safety. tional necessary the emo and privacy,comfort, psychological provides it as modation accom communal to preferred be ways al should shelter family 81. Individual Type ofshelter costs andconstructiontimeconsiderably. reduces and self-reliance, and ownership of sense a promote needs, particular their meet will shelter the that ensure to help will This support. material and zational organi technical, necessary the with ter, shel own their building in assist or build 80. als foundonsiteoravailablelocally. materi other or earth of made be usually can walls as priority, the be will material roofing adequate of provision located, be cannot shelter complete a for materials If refugees. by made already time, arrangements including any at assessed be to encouraged 79. the refugees. climatic with line in material roofing of provision The t h bgnig f n emergency, an of beginning the At is shelter emergency of Adequacy hrvr osbe rfge should refugees possible, Wherever key conditions to an adequate and living shelter habits is the of ------is ideal, if available. Standard specifica Standard available. if ideal, is Bamboo sources. supply renewable able, sustain from come material should frame which is sufficient to support plastic. The important to always supply frame material therefore is It forests. surrounding collected from if environment the harm consider ably can skeletons stick or frames shelters’for support wood 86. Collecting plastic sheeting. duty UV-resistantheavy with repaired be can roofs areas, urban In operations. lief re many in component shelter important most the become has sheeting 85. Plastic Plastic sheeting day, thus morespacewillberequired. the throughout shelter their inside remain will needs specific with persons climates, for example, it is very likely that pants to suit their individual needs. In cold occu its by modification for provide ble, i. space asfollows: floor for standards minimum the least at care given by its occupants. Where tents Where occupants. its by given care deployment, as well as the climate and the before storage of length manufacturing, the on depends tent canvas erected an life-span of The background. nomadic of refugees for or available seasonally only are or all at available not either are rials mate local when example, for propriate, ap and useful be may tents 87. Family (LWET) Tents: lightweightemergencytents and supplies transport. on 21 chapter to 1 Annex in found be can sheeting plastic for tions 84. ii. minimum of3.5m 4.5 m ing thekitchenandbathingfacilities. climates orurbansituations,includ outside); and assumed thatcookingwilltakeplace cooking facilitiesorkitchen(itis tropical, warmclimates,excluding The design of shelter should, if possi 2 to5.5m 2 perpersonincold 2 perpersonin ------221 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter are used for long durations, provisions should have been made before these sys- for repair materials should be considered. tems are used. Larger or communal tents may serve as transit accommodation while more appro- Shelter for cold conditions priate shelter is constructed. 92. Climates where cold weather with 88. UNHCR has developed a lightweight rain and snow prevails over extended pe- emergency tent with a long shelf life which riods (3 to 5 months), demand that people will save on transportation costs due to its live primarily inside a house. In particu- light weight. Standard specifications for lar, persons with specific needs will re- tents can be found in Annex 1 to chapter quire heated, enclosed spaces. 21 on supplies and transport. 93. Shelters which are sufficient to with- 89. In general, tents are difficult to heat stand cold conditions have to be of a high as walls and roof do not provide sufficient standard and are complex and expensive insulation. Therefore, tents are not suit- to build. The following should be consid- able as cold climate shelters, but if there is ered: no choice, they can save lives and bridge i. structural stability (to withstand the time until more suitable shelters are snow- and wind-loads); established. ii. wind protection of walls, roofs, doors 90. If required, additional blankets and and windows; plastic sheeting can be provided to in- iii. protected and heated kitchens and crease heat retention. It is also possible sanitary facilities; and to heat some tents if enough heat is pro- iv. provision for heating and chimneys. duced in a tent stove. This stove needs 94. To help people survive the impact of fuel (e.g. wood or kerosene) around the cold weather in an emergency, a strategy clock to maintain a comfortable tempera- should focus on the following: ture. While using wood, environmental i. Individual survival. It is extremely aspects should be considered. Whereas important to protect the human body from in use of kerosene procurement, storage heat loss. Particularly during sleep, it and distribution could pose difficult chal- is important to be able to keep warm by lenges for the operation. retaining body heat with blankets, sleep- Prefabricated shelters ing bags, clothing and shoes. Heat can be generated by providing food with high 91. Neither pre-fabricated building sys- calorific value; tems nor specially developed emergency shelter units, even winterized shelter units, ii. Living space. It is very important to have proved effective in accommodating concentrate on a limited living space and refugees. Main reasons include: to ensure that cold air can be kept out of this space. This can be done by sealing i. high unit cost; the room with plastic sheeting and seal- ii. long shipping time; ing tapes. Windows and doors should be iii. long production time; covered with translucent plastic sheeting iv. transport problems, including cost; and stapled on window and door frames. v. assembling the shelter unit; Walls, ceilings and floors of the living vi. does not allow for cultural and social space should be designed to insulate from norms; and cold air and to retain warm air as efficient- vii. cooling problems in hot climates. ly as possible; Typically, emergency shelter provision

222 higher construction standards than regular functional and equipped with considerably v. iv. iii. ii. i. for atransitcampare: 98. the operation. through carry to foreseen time total reintegration capacity at the receiving end as or well as the absorption the on pend de will This duration. expected their and people will be channeled through the camp camp will depend primarily on how many 97. high turnoverrateinacommunalsetting. a to addition in days 5 to 2 of stays short for designed be should camp the eration, op repatriation a of part as or emergency 96. as astagingpointforreturn. repatriation, to prior operation, an of end the at or camp, term longer safe, suitable, a to transfer accommodation pending rary tempo a as emergency refugee a of ning begin the at necessary be might camps These refugees. for tempo accommodation rary provide to necessary is it when used are camps transit and 95. Reception should begiventoitsstability. attention particular well, as cooking used for is heating for stove the When eas. m 70 to 40 of area floor a with space a heat to capacity the have should performance kW 7 to 5 with stove a conditions, on Depending stove. the of capacity and type the on and building, the quality of the insulation, the orientation of the construction, of type the temperature, C) depends to a large extent on the outside ter at a comfortable temperature (15 to 19° iii. 99. Reception andtransitcamps

Heating strategically locatedtoserve thepur adequate conditions for sanitation; and good drainage(minimum2% slope); the availabilityofwater; good access(road,port,airport); pose oftheoperation. The primary criteria for site selection site for criteria primary The transit a of capacity required The Whether the transit camp is used in an h tast ap ut e strictly be must camp transit The . Keeping the inside of a shel 2 in most cold ar cold most in ------i. of transit facilitiesare: construction the for 100. Standards person isneeded. m 3.0 of minimum stay,a short-term space, if possible. In view of the expected dinning a and distribution food wet ties, sit camp will therefore need kitchen facili tran The avoided. be should preparation food individual and provided be should a food Prepared basis. ongoing and on regular out carried be to need areas tation sani and accommodation of disinfection and cleaning particular, In management. camp the through supplied fully be must maintenance Operational camps. refugee xiii. thedesign ofthetransitcentre viii. arrivalanddeparturezoneswhich v. vii. vi. iv. iii. ii. xii. xi. x. ix. accommodation: inbarracks,commu storage: 150to200m lighting; a publicaddresssystem; food preparation:approximately100 water supply:absoluteminimum sanitation: 20personsperlatrine,50 security fencing(depending oncir one healthpostandseparate accom administrative officesandstaff ac arrival zonesshouldincluderegistra persons; m and sanitation; water requiredforkitchens,cleaning provision of7litres/person/dayplus intensive maintenanceisrequired; persons pershower, plusregularand approximately 14to25persons; ple, atentof85m be heatedincoldclimates;forexam 5 personsforprivacyreasons)should nal tents(subdividedforfamiliesof and easeofmovement. should include aconceptofvisibility cumstances); modation forquarantine; commodation; tion andmedicalclearancefacilities; zones; are separatedfromaccommodation 2 per500persons; 2 canaccommodate 3 per1,000 2 - - per ------223 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter Notes 101. Public buildings such as schools --The proposed size is 27m x 12m suffi- are sometimes used initially as shelter. cient for 90 persons. This is particularly the case in cold con- --Length can be altered at 3.0 metre incre- ditions which demand very rapid shelter ments to suit need and situation. response. --Width can be reduced by only 1.0 metre 102. Where possible, such accommo- to bring total width of the hallway to 1.5 dation in public buildings should be a metres in place of 2.0 metres. temporary solution. The supporting infrastructure of the building (water, elec- --The better quality plastic sheeting or tricity, sanitation) will deteriorate quickly plastic roll should be used. It should be from concentrated use, to the extent that noted that usage of the green plastic rolls living conditions can become dangerously should be limited to enclosed spaces. unhealthy. The buildings decay rapidly --Drawings not to scale; intended only for primarily because they are unsuited to general use. such large numbers and lack the necessary infrastructure and utilities. In addition, Public buildings and communal the very low sense of responsibility by its facilities inhabitants contributes to the deterioration. • Public buildings should be used only as short-term accommodation to gain 103. Furthermore, since the normal use time to provide more suitable shelter. of the building has to be suspended with • From the outset, intensive maintenance various social and economic consequenc- of infrastructure and utilities should es, both local and national governments be provided. are reluctant to transform public buildings into humanitarian shelter. If such use is • The UNHCR shelter standards should permitted, the need for quick evacuation be applied. 224 Annex SitesCriteria main preventive and operational regular ment, it is particularly important to ensure 104. In order to ensure a healthy environ this mayberequestedbythegovernment. of the building should be borne in mind as c b a j i h g f e d c b a e d c b a b a h g f e d 5. Observation/Recommendation 4. Complementary/SupportivePoints 3. BasicCharacteristicsoftheSite 2. Location 1. PotentialBeneficiaries Sites Criteria Electricity &distancetoOveheadHighVoltagesource h. Collectionoffuelfirewood forfuel g. Harvestingofthewoodfor construction f. ProximitytheIG/Agriculture e. Proximitytoeconomicalcentres -Education -Health Proximity toNationalservices Accessibility Nearby villages/communities Vegetation/ otherenvironmentalcondition Climatic condition Sanitation possibilities Drainage Wateravailability Soil condition Elevation Topography Land useandlandrights Area, expansionpossibility Distance Fromtheprotectedareas Local healthandotherrisks Security andprotection Distance fromtheborder Distance frommajortowns Type orcategories Numbers Sites Criteria - - the hostgovernment. for consequences economic and refugees the for consequences health serious have to maintainabuildingfromtheoutsetcan Neglecting buildings. public in tenance Site #(name): Attachment- Site 225 Site selection, planning 12 and shelter 13 Commodity distribution

226

Annex 2: Annex 1: Annexes Table 1: Table Key references Monitoring Groups withspecificneeds Meeting genderrolesandculturaldifferences all personsofconcern Equal andrepresentativeparticipationof The roleofrefugeewomen Components ofdistributionsystems Choosing acommoditydistributionsystem When tostartdistribution Overview CONTENTS

age andgendersensitivedistributionofNFIs? UNHCR policy Managerial considerations Logistical considerations Refugee involvement General considerations Areas ofwomen’s involvement Indicator checklistfornon-fooditems What doweneedtoknowinorderplanandimplement Commodity distributionsystems

2 232 231 19-24 231 230 12 10 230-232 8 5 229-230 5-18 229 2-4 1 Page Paragraph 8 234 234 28 233 27 233 26 233 25 232 21 19

232-233 235 235 230

227 13 Commodity distribution Situation • The refugee population should be In emergency situations of population dis- kept well informed on the timing of placement there is always loss of personal distributions as well as the content property. Very often refugees flee with lit- and quantity of commodities to be tle more than the clothes they are wearing. distributed. In addition to food support people affected • Ensure that the population benefits by crisis, therefore, need certain non-food equally and fairly from the com- items for their survival. These emergency modity distribution and groups with situations are characterized by an urgent specific needs are especially targeted need to distribute life sustaining com- and monitored and that distribution modities other than food, such as, shelter systems have 50% women in the materials including tents, plastic sheeting, management and monitoring. blankets and sleeping mats, cooking uten- • The commodity distribution cycle sils and water jerry cans, personal hygiene should be regular and predictable. items such as buckets, soap, sanitary cloth Irregularities in the distribution cycle and sometimes washing powder. The can increase tensions and can lead to fair and organized distribution of emer- riots. gency relief items is often problematic and groups and individuals from among Action the refugees may use the confusion of the • Assess accurately and as early as emergency to gain unfair control over the possible the displaced population’s relief items that are being distributed. demographics, cultural and traditional/social structures. Roles and Objectives responsibilities within the refugee To provide life-sustaining commodities groups are to be taken into considera- to the refugee community in a fair and tion. organized system, according to specific • Assess cultural and traditional com- needs, population culture and within the modities prior to the emergency and environmental and geographic context. take these into consideration during the planning stage of the distribution Principles of response system during the emergency. • The design of the distribution system • Use appropriate community structures should be based on a thorough under- (or set up new structures if necessary standing of the social structure of the by gender e.g. to include women) to refugees. consult the refugees on the design • The target of the commodity distribu- and operation of the commodity dis- tion should be towards the family or tribution system. household unit, however, assump- • Set up an information system by tions should not be made about fam- which the operation of the commod- ily size or structure. ity distribution system can be regu- • The refugees, especially including larly conveyed to the refugees (and women, should be consulted and others of concern). participate in the design of the distri- • Have in place an effective refugee bution system. No one group should participatory monitoring system for have a monopoly role over others. a fair and organized distribution system.

228 sessment withrefugeewomen, girls,boys as participatory and needs full after only start should commodities of distribution Ideally, distributions. planning when ty 1. • • • • • Introduction 1. 2. When tostartdistribution The principlesinthechapterapplyto The handbook“CommodityDistri UNHCR’s distributionsystems However ingeniousthedistribution Distribution mustbemonitoredtoen Commodities mustbedistributed Commodity distributionmustbeac There is usually a degree of uncertain families. tion withtheaffected population material assistancetoandinconjunc should provideforurgent and fair support oftherefugeesthemselves. fairly withouttheacceptanceand system maybe,itisunlikelytowork groups withspecificneeds. equal accesstoallrefugeesespecially sure emergency needsaremet,with into accountinthedistributionration. and socialstructureshouldbetaken der makeupofthepopulation,culture Family/household size,ageandgen fairly andinanorganized manner. of thetargeted displacedpopulation. cording tospecificemergency needs of thechapter). system (seekeyreferencesattheend and runacommoditydistribution reading forthosewhoplantosetup Staff” (UNHCR,1997)isessential bution: A PracticalGuideforField food items. the distributionofbothfoodandnon------and other members who may not be have be not may who members other and cousins elderly, the include to often extended are Families households. headed child- or grandparent a parent, single a by headed households with varied quite ten of are crisis by affected Families Note: distribution system(see Table 1). i. 2. improved. as to how subsequent distributions will be possible as quickly as plan and place in infrastructure and framework minimum a least at is there until distribution start to not Try reached. being conditions ideal these to prior start normally distributions that is programmes emergency all most registration after beknown only can figure accurate ( known approximately is population beneficiary the the of demographics and when size and place taken has men and or commodities. also split up to gain access to extra rations may Families previously. together lived 3. ii. ties. system Choosing acommoditydistribution according classified be can systems Distribution how muchresponsibilityshouldbe what resourcesareavailabletosetup Two basicissuesare: Table 1). financial andmaterialresources(see space, experiencedstaff aswell and runthesystem(includingtime, given totherefugeesthemselves;and hr ae he bod aeois of categories broad three are There to ). However, the reality of al of reality the However, ). who receives the commodi an - - - 229 13 Commodity distribution Table 1 – Commodity distribution systems

Through Through Through group leadership groups of heads of family individual heads of family System Description Commodities are given in bulk All of the commodities for the Commodities are handed over to a representative of a large group of families are handed over directly to each family head. group of beneficiaries who further to a representative of the group. divides it among the group. The group usually consists of about 20 heads of family. The commodities are then immediately redistributed to the individual family heads by the representatives. Types of situation in which these systems have been used: Early days of an emergency. When the population is compara- When the population is compara- • Mass influx of refugees. tively stable, and/or have ration tively stable, and/or have ration • No formal registration. cards. cards. • Large populations. • Where the beneficiaries are • Where the beneficiaries are living in camps. living in camps, settlements or integrated within the local popula- • Where the population is com- tion. paratively homogeneous. Amount of resources needed increases Degree of self regulation by refugees increases

System description • When the population is comparatively stable, and/or have ration cards. Commodities are given in bulk to a representative of a large group of beneficiaries • Where the beneficiaries are living who further divides it among the group. in camps, settlements or integrated within the local population. All of the commodities for the group of As the amount of resources needed in- families are handed over to a representa- creases the degree of self regulation by tive of the group. The group usually con- refugees increases. sists of about 20 heads of family. The commodities are then immediately redis- 4. There will probably be a period in the tributed to the individual family heads by early stages of an emergency when it will the representatives. not be possible to register or issue ration cards. However, effective distribution of Commodities are handed over directly to commodities is possible without ration each family head. cards. Types of situation in which these systems have been used: Components of distribution systems • Early days of an emergency. General considerations • Mass influx of refugees. 5. The ideal distribution system should • No formal registration. be safe and easily accessible to the intend- • Large populations. ed beneficiaries. • When the population is comparatively □ Safe: Distribution should be organ- stable, and/or have ration cards. ized in such a way that the system • Where the beneficiaries are living in is safe for all who use it. Particular camps. attention should be given to persons • Where the population is compara- with specific needs and vulnerable tively homogeneous. groups. 230 commodity distribution and other services and settle can population the issued, is ter the mobility of the population. Once shel reduces it because important very is rial mate shelter other and tents sheeting, tic are met. For example the needs provision of emergencyplas and established sively progres is UNHCR by control whereby process a to contribute should taken tion ac each start, the from However, risk). at put is safety workers humanitarian and refugees the otherwise – control fective ef to given be should priority top is, tem sys the sophisticated (however possible be not may distribution over control tive effec emergencies, large in particularly operation, new a of stages early the In 7. to beused. timing and method and distributed be to commodities of quantity and type the to as start, the from involved and informed be must they this do to order In system. distribution the of control and monitoring or control) can provide the most effective not to give refugee “leaders” too much say □ □ □ 6. continuously tions. An use in the

Equal: Who receivesthecommodi Design ofdistributioncentre:Physi Accessible: Distributionpoints h rfge tesle (e careful (be themselves refugees The women (see Annex). tion shouldpreferablybemadeto population benefitsequally;distribu consider whenensuringthatthe distributed areimportantissuesto ties orwhenthecommoditiesare location). reasons (notremoteorinacrowded and warehouse/s,locationforsecurity cal structure, proximity to road access with specificneedsisnotrestricted. and locatedsothataccessforgroups should beclosetowherepeoplelive place quantity, information of notice whereby type informed boards) system or the method refugees needs of (including changes of to distribu can be put the be in ------vent thesystem circum to need their increase and ciaries benefi the of confidence the undermine cycle distribution the in 9. Irregularities dination andsitelevelorganization). tational leadership (see chapter 7 oncoor non-represen of dangers Be aware, the of however, needs. specific of awareness and refugees of involvement the through commodities of distribution appropriate nex 1) should be used to assist in equal and (An items non-food for checklist dicator in The process. distribution the of levels all at participate refugees the that Ensure their leadership. through than rather directly them to come much, should information how This how. and when receive, should they what (both women and men). They must know informed well are refugees the 8. Ensure Refugee involvement plastic sheeting. distribute to up the set is or system distribution profile project in as “addresses” given are refugees and beforehand up tents set you Either practiced? been ever organize.to easier be this will has Where tion). nutri and food on 16 chapter (see ration general the for distribution mass food Avoidcooked dry bulk. in distribute rations to uncooked preferable it usually distribution, food is of case the In 11. km todistributionsites. gees should not have to travel more than 5 refu populations dispersed For intervals. monthly regular at and away) km 5 than more (not live they where to close tions ra collect system to beneficiaries allow distribution should the camps, 10. In Logistical considerations they distribution lers oftheprocess. The refugees are the process best should . monitors for be able themselves and to control see the as ------231 13 Commodity distribution Managerial considerations 17. In camps, aim to have at least 1 distri- 12. Distributing relief commodities in- bution site per 20,000 refugees. volves several organizations and many 18. Plan to have a minimum of 2 distribu- individuals, for example, the government, tion staff per 1,000 beneficiaries. WFP and NGOs. Coordination structures must be put in place, including regular Ensure age, gender and diversity main- meetings of all interested parties. The fre- streaming quency of these meetings will depend on  Involve refugee women and ac- the situation. At the start of an emergency knowledge their role in commodity daily meetings will probably be needed. distribution by ensuring they par- As the situation normalizes the frequen- ticipate meaningfully in manage- cy of meetings can be reduced to one per ment structures. month.  Ensure equal and representative 13. It is important to understand the participation of all beneficaries. roles and responsibilities of the main ac-  Find out about cultural and eco- tors involved at various stages of com- nomic differences and social struc- modity distribution. In the case of food tures within the population. distribution the modalities of distribution  Identify groups with specific needs as well as the reporting requirements are and discuss with them the system. set out in a tripartite agreement between  Use participatory assessment to set UNHCR, WFP and the implementing up systems and assess their effec- partner. The respective roles of UNHCR tiveness. and WFP in relation to food aid are set out in their Memorandum of Understanding (Appendix 3). See Chapter 15 on food The role of refugee women and nutrition for more information on food distribution and on of the role of WFP. UNHCR policy 14. The family/household, as a basic so- 19. UNHCR’s policy is to ensure the cial unit, is the target of distribution. This maximum possible appropriate involve- applies to food and non-food items. Pro- ment of refugee women in all aspects of viding assistance to and through house- distribution. Determining the nature of holds is effective as the basis for the distri- this involvement requires consultation bution system and also supports the family with refugee women and men and a care- unit. However this does not mean that the ful evaluation of the totality of the needs ration has to be handed to each family di- and responsibilities of refugee women and rectly. In some situations distribution can their families. Failure to take these con- be more effective through groups of fami- siderations into proper account can have lies or other community structures. negative implications that go well beyond the distribution system itself. 15. Avoid payment in kind to distribution workers. It makes monitoring difficult 20. In the great majority of refugee com- and, in times of shortages people may be munities, the objective of fair distribution deprived of commodities in order to pay will be best served by having an appropri- staff. ate balance of men and women. However, it is normally women, and in particular 16. Ensure regular UNHCR monitoring single female heads of household, who are and spot checks of all commodity distri- either under-represented or excluded. bution to ensure effective delivery and no abuse of power by those in control, including sexual favors and exploitation. 232 □ □ situations thatconcernUNHCR: the following actions are recommended in tion and effective commodity distribution, 25. To address the issues of equal participa its are head), thisshouldbeensured. they not or (whether household their for items non-food and food of distribu tion the at present being least at or collecting, actually by is thereafter use its of control retain and share fair their ceive the re they that ensure to that way effective most feel themselves women 24. If cific tothatsituation. spe factors on depend will participation this of nature and extent The itself. tion tives whowillbeinvolvedinthedistribu 23. or foodcommittees. distribution commodity the of 50% prise com Women should implementation. its and determining their own participation in ing being involved in planning the system includ monitoring, and decision-making □ □ □ women shouldbeinvolved: 21. Areas ofwomen’s involvement 22. tion ofallpersonsconcern Equal andrepresentativeparticipa

Make surethat bothmenandwomen Ensure thatmenandwomenare in collectingthecommodities(where in thedistributionitself(women in thedecision-makingprocessesand know thequantity andvarietyof women orolderpersons. power dynamicsarenotsilencing with themseparately-toensure that plementation ofdistribution –meet involved intheplanningand im men). they aredistributedtowomennot modities); and supervise and/orhandoutthecom monitoring; oe sol cos representa choose should Women refugee where areas three are There Women must be directly involved in involved directly be must Women ------of the population and the climate. In addi suit theneeds ture andcontextshould 26. Non-food items vary according to cul □ □ □ □ □ □ □ gender commoditydistribution: implementing and planning when eration consid into taken be should points and questions following The context. social and cultural to according vary population the of responsibilities and roles the tion, differences Meeting genderrolesandcultural

Ensure amechanismfordisplaced Make surecrowdcontrollersmonitor Make surethatdistributiontimesand Ensure thatthedesignofdistribu Who collectsfirewoodor fuel used Who doeshouseholdchores, cooking, Who isresponsibleforcarryingof directly toUNHCR. or indicateunmetcommodityneeds men andwomentofilecomplaints pregnancy). some timeduetoageillhealthor as thosenotabletostandinlinefor for personswithspecificneeds(such queues, andprovideaseparatequeue sick, anddisabled. men, women,children,olderpersons, sites areeasilyaccessibleandsafeto informed onthedesign. the displacedarekeptcontinuously parent-headed householdsandthat including child-headedandgrand through individualheadsoffamily) through groupsofheadsfamily, or leadership [maleandfemaleleaders], of thedisplaced(throughgroup understanding ofthesocialstructure tion systemisbasedonathorough items theyshouldreceive. location andmeans ofcollectingfuel that womenareconsultedabout the to cookandheathome?Ensure caring forchildren? and different usageofwater? - - - - - 233 13 Commodity distribution for cooking and heating in order to □ Ensure that the demands of collect- address issues of personal safety. ing fuel on particularly vulnerable □ Ensure that men and women are groups, such as female-headed consulted as to what commodities are households and households caring culturally appropriate and familiar. for people living with HIV/AIDS □ Distribute appropriate sanitary sup- (PLWH/A), are addressed and that plies for women and girls, based on special provisions (such as the choice their preferences. of less labour-intensive fuels, the use □ Ensure that clothing is appropriate of fuel-efficient stoves and accessible to climatic conditions and cultural fuel sources) are made available. practices, separately suitable for men, Monitoring women, girls and boys, and sized according to age. Be aware of the potential for abuse and □ Make sure that bedding materials sexual exploitation and train all staff and reflect cultural practices and are suf- refugees on their roles and responsibili- ficient in quantity to enable separate ties and complaints mechanisms. sleeping arrangements as required 28. Monitoring the distribution system amongst the members of individual is an important management responsi- households, in particular to cover the bility of UNHCR. General principles of needs of older persons, adolescents monitoring are described in chapter 8 on and child-headed households. implementing arrangements. Monitoring □ Ensure that cooking items provided distribution includes monitoring the actu- are culturally appropriate and enable al distribution of the commodity and spot safe practices. checks in the camps on distribution days. □ Ensure that existing local practices See chapter 16 on food and nutrition, and and environmental issues are taken “Commodity Distribution: A Practical into account in the specification of Guide For Field Staff”, for more details stove and fuel solutions. about monitoring distribution systems.

Key references 27. Groups with specific needs Commodity Distribution: A Practical □ Ensure that there is no discrimination Guide For Field Staff, UNHCR, Geneva, or restricted access to non-food items 1997. (NFIs) based on sex, age or abilities. Memorandum of Understanding on the □ Ensure that distribution sites are in a Joint Working Arrangements for Refugee, secure area that is accessible to men, Returnee and Displaced Persons Feeding women, unaccompanied children, Operations, UNHCR, Geneva, 1997. elderly, sick and disabled persons. □ Conduct regular consultations with Model Tripartite Agreement: UNHCR, women, girls, boys and men and WFP and the Implementing Partner, WFP/ groups with specific needs such as UNHCR, March 1998. older persons, unaccompanied and UNHCR Training Videos: Under Watch- separated children; child-headed ful Eyes, UNHCR, 1995 – Sorting it Out, households and disabled persons on UNHCR, 1993. commodity issues to ensure any protection concerns are highlighted and Code of Conduct resolved. SG’s Bulletin

234 Annex 2:Indicatorchecklistfornon-fooditems sensitive distributionofNFIs? Annex 1:Whatdoweneedtoknowinorderplanandimplementagegender 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. crisis? have beforethe What didpeople sibilities? roles andrespon cultural andsocial What arethe graphics? population demo What arethe Ask/find out men tolearnhowcook,womenbuildshelters). Training orguidanceintheuse ofNFIsisprovidedwherenecessary(e.g. Women andgirlshavesanitarymaterialsformenstruation. required. to providethermalcomfortandenableseparatesleepingarrangements as People haveaccesstoacombinationofblankets,beddingorsleeping mats rect size,appropriatetothecultureseasonandclimate. Women, girls,menandboyshaveatleastonefullsetofclothinginthecor der balanceinemployment). Men andwomenbenefitequallyifthereispaymentforNFIdistribution(gen should receive. Displaced personshaveknowledgeofquantityandvarietyitemsthey Information isgatheredonspecialNFIneedsbasedageandsex. up accordingly. Information isgatheredonfamilystructuresandadistributionsystemset tion anddistribution. Men andwomenareinvolvedinplanningimplementationofNFIsselec - - □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ • • • •

Number ofpersonsbyageandsexwithspecificneeds(unaccompaniedsepa Number offemale,male,grandparentandchildheadedhouseholds. Number ofwomen,men,girlsandboys. Number ofhouseholds. Who/how aredecisionsmadeaboutreproductivehealth?WhatNFIcouldbenec What hygieneproducts(includingsanitarymaterials)dotheyneed? What typeofclothesdidpeoplewear, e.g.scarvesforwomen? What didthepopulationusebeforedisplacement,e.g.cookingpractices Who undertakesagriculturalactivitiesandlooksafteranimals. Who collectsfirewoodorfuelusedtocookandheathome. Who doeshouseholdchores,cooking,caringforchildren. Responsibilities forcarryingofanddifferent usageofwater. Number ofpregnantandnursingwomen. essary? appropriate? – whatfuelsourcewasused? rated children,disabled,sick,elderly). Indicator ChecklistforNFIs Information tolookfor - - - Are most Status - - 235 13 Commodity distribution 14 Water

236 Table 1: Figure 2: Figure 1: Figures andTables Key references Potential environmentalimpacts Distribution Boiling Chemicaldisinfection Storage Filtration Storageandsedimentation Introduction Treatment Municipalandprivatesystems Seawater Pumping equipment Groundwater Rainwater Surfacewater Introduction Water sources Water supplysystems Monitoring Quality Immediate response Quantity Organization Assessment The need Assessment andorganization Introduction Overview CONTENTS

Water quality, riskandprioritylevels upy Generalconsiderationinemergencywater supply

Drawing waterfromariver

1 241-243 8 -18 9 245 244 243 29 243-246 24 242 19 241 19-36 14 239-241 8 1-7 Page Paragraph 258 105 257 256 97-104 255 255 92-96 253 252 91 252 86 83 252-255 78 73 251-252 73-91 251 250 65-72 250 249 64 249 63 249 55 53 249-251 52 47 247 47-64 246-247 43-46 37-42 245 254 240 259 237 14 Water Situation flora and fauna in the vicinity. Moni- Water is essential to life, health and digni- toring is essential to avoid any such ty and is therefore a basic human right. In over exploitation. emergencies, it is often not easily accessi- Take account of seasonal variations in ble in adequate quantity and quality, thus water quantity and quality. creating a major health hazard. Hence, • Seek expert advice and coordinate water is among the primary criteria in the closely with the appropriate national selection of a site for a refugee camp. services.

Objective Action To provide a sufficient amount of clean • Calculate the water requirement and drinking water for the persons of concern organize an immediate assessment of and to meet their household and other water supply possibilities; this calcu- communal needs in such a way that facili- lation should be based on a figure of tates easy and safe access and is reliable, 20 litres per person per day (exclud- efficient, cost-effective and environmen- ing leakage) and must also include tally benign. the communal building needs. • Make an inventory of water sources Principles of response and assess all sources in terms of • Give priority to quantity while re- their water quality and yield. specting quality • Protect existing water sources from • Refugee women, girls, boys and men pollution and provide good quantities should be directly involved in the de- of water of a reasonable quality. velopment and operation of the water • Improve access to supplies by de- supply. veloping sources and a storage and • Ensure consideration of water sup- distribution system to deliver a suf- ply at the site selection and plan- ficient amount of clean water, includ- ning stages and coordinate response ing a reserve supply. There must also closely with physical planning, public be enough distribution points located health and environmental sanitation in secure locations and provision of measures. appropriate and adequate storage • If at all possible, avoid the need capacity at household level. to treat water – it is better to use • Ensure regular testing of water qual- a source that does not need treat- ity. ment. If large numbers of refugees • Set up a support system for operation are concentrated in camps, disinfec- and maintenance as well as carrying tion of drinking water is absolutely out adequate surveillance. necessary. Other types of treatment • Maintain and update information should be considered according to the on water resources obtained during characteristics of the raw water. needs assessment, planning, construc- • Provide a reserve supply and spare tion, operation and maintenance. capacity to meet temporary difficul- • Monitor access to water by the dif- ties and the needs of new arrivals. ferent members of the population, • Water is a precious natural resource; particularly older persons, those with over exploitation will affect refugees, disabilities and child-headed house- the host community and all other holds.

238 find alternative sources. If necessary, wa to made be must arrangements quality), water or yield of terms (in inadequate are 2. supply maybedisastrous. the in interruptions assured; be must tem systems for all back-up components of a water sys and capacity storage Adequate than withoutwater. 1. • • and iseasilyaccessible. ties, tive ability ate The Introduction emergency. f t s vdn ta aalbe sources available that evident is it If People can survive longer without food Ensure thatthosewhocollectwater Consider whocollectswaterand day. women whoalreadyhaveaveryfull school and can be time consuming for tion cankeepchildrenfromattending women andchildren,watercollec ity. Bearinmindthat,asitisusually activities whendesigningaccessibil how thisimpactsontheirotherdaily water collectionpoints. (SGBV), onthewaytoandfrom ing sexualandgender-based violence are notexposedtoviolence,includ attention provision distribution and of to enough ensure The from of water in water aim the that the is demands start to it required to is allow assure safe of a its immedi to refugee quanti effec avail drink ------supply system. consid water emergency an planning for erations the of some shows 1 Figure 5. cost-effective, long-termbasis. a on plan to best is it camp, refugee a of 4. As it is difficult to predict the life-span for storage. means appropriate of promotion provision and hygiene by tackled be must level household at practices storage poor its consumption in the household. Hence, the water must be assured right through to to make the water safe to drink. Safety of needed be will treatment circumstances, many In contamination. of sources other and facilities sanitation from separated be must refugees by used All water of sources etc.). rivers, ponds, (lakes, bodies water surface from taken is it if pecially es contaminated, is emergencies available during water all that assume Always 3. tion. refugees loca suitable more a to moved be should sources, new of development and exploration further for needed is time when or resources, existing by met safely be cannot water for needs basic most the even Where etc.). barge,pipelines, truck, ter may have to be imported to the site (by Water quality is difficult to assess. to difficult is quality Water - - - 239 14 Water Figure 1 – Considerations in Emergency Water Supply

Calculate approximate total daily needs

Select new site

Is sufficient Can it ever be No water available made available in the site? at this site?

Yes Yes

Develop existing and/or Take necessary action new sources. Only truck Is water safe to protect source and Yes water as a last resort and to drink? avoid future contamination as an interim solution

No Surface Water Source: Groundwater Source: - Control access - Eliminate obvious & potential - Protect source external contamination - Store as simplest - Improve sanitary conditions immediate treatment at the well or spring

Assess nature of treatment required and design the most appropriate in the given situation

Is gravity flow Plan/design water possible for transmission Yes distribution network according & distribution systems? to camp layout

No Develop pumping system

240 • should thereforeconsiderthefollowing: situation camp a in system Asupply water resource. sustaining life this provide we ”how” also but ”what” just not is ter 7. the chaptersonthesetopics. chapter should be read in conjunction with This interdependent. highly are planning 6. • • • • • • • The sectors of water, sanitation and site In a refugee camp, access to clean wa clean to access camp, refugee a In Participation ofstakeholders Efficiency ofsupply Environmental concerns/hazards Reliability ofsupply Physical safetyoftheusers Social costs(burden) ontheusers Acceptability andsafetyofwater Adequacy andequityofwaterdis Refugees andothersectors (health, stands andothersystemlosses. wastage duringfetchingfrom tap avoid water-induced hazardsetc. improved drainageforstormwaterto sources, wastewatermanagement, Sustainable exploitationofwater munity levelincaseofinterruptions. water storageatthefamilyandcom ter supplysystemaswelladequate be continuousmaintenanceofthewa limited today-lighthours. convenience andculturalhabits, duration plannedaccordingtousers ronment; waterdistributiontimeand ties locatedinasecurephysicalenvi user-friendly designs. minimum waitingtime,andsafe too farfromthedwellings,with Facilities locatedcentrallyandnot safety plansareinplace. for faecalcontaminationandwater Water qualityismonitoredregularly terms ofappearance,tasteandodour. supplied school andhealthunits. throughout thecamp,includingin needs foreachandeveryperson tributed : Sufficientsupplyforbasic : Potableandpalatablein : Avoiding water : There needsto : Facili : : - : - - - - -       tion inrelation tothedemand. distribu to related parameters technical associated the and quality) and quantity (its water of availability the ascertain to is consumption human for resources ter 8. Assessment   Assessment andorganization

The objective of an assessment of wa of assessment an of objective The Refugees maycompetewiththelocal Technology andequipmentshould Involve refugees,particularlywomen Work withrefugees,usetheirskills Technical expertiseisrequiredand An immediate,onthespot,assess The watersupplysystemmustbe Available sourcesmustbe protected ing SGBV. groups andleadtoviolence,includ may causeproblemsbetweenthetwo population forwaterresources. This familiar tothecountry. be simple,reliable,appropriateand tion points. and childrenindeterminingdistribu tain thesystem. and trainthemtooperatemain conditions isindispensable. Knowledge ofthelocalterrainand much aspossibleinthisassessment. authorities shouldbeinvolvedas The government’s centralandlocal in onlywhenclearlynecessary. Outside expertiseshouldbebrought local knowledgeismostimportant. tion toneedsisessential. ment oflocalwaterresourcesinrela rapport withthehostcommunity. eration aswellmaintainingagood in watersystemdevelopmentandop physical planner, sanitation)involved tion activities. health measuresandhygienepromo supported byappropriatepublic from pollutionatonce. ------241 14 Water 9. The assessment of supply possibilities national or external experts (hydrologists, requires special expertise and involves hydrogeologists). identifying possible sources and assessing 11. Assessing the water resources requires the potential for development and exploi- expertise in, for example, water engineer- tation. A typical checklist of issues to be ing, sanitation and in some cases logistics considered when carrying out initial as- as it involves identifying various options sessments would include: for supply system development on the ba- □ Procurement and studying of local sis of local physical features, topography maps, aerial photos, satellite imagery and overall environment of the camp site. etc. to determine topography and Further surveys will be necessary to cov- water sources. er relevant information on the refugees, □ Consolidation of regional details on other beneficiaries, and the socio-eco- land use (urban, industrial, agricultur- nomic characteristics of the host commu- al, protected areas), climate, security, nity. The results of such assessments and access roads, etc. surveys should be systematically filed to □ Details of main actors and agencies ensure that such data will be available for working in the area and local govern- future reference. ment structures and policy. 12. If it becomes clear that locally avail- □ Current typical water consumption able expertise including that from partner and sanitation practices in the area. agencies will not suffice, assistance from □ Logistics and supply possibilities in the Technical Support Section (TSS) at the area. Headquarters should be requested without □ Yield estimations (volumes, flow, delay until a long-term solution can be se- seasonal variation, recharge etc.). cured. □ Current water quality and potential 13. Seasonal factors must always be care- pollution risks. fully considered. □ Legal issues in the area as well as ownership rights etc. Supplies that are adequate in the rainy □ Costs and operations and mainte- season may dry up at other times. nance requirements and opportuni- Local knowledge, historical and hydro- ties in the area, availability of skilled logical information and statistical inter- personnel. pretation should all be taken into account Further information on preparedness to determine the seasonal patterns. measures in different setting can be found in Emergency Water Sources (WEDC, Organization 1997). 14. Bear in mind that the economic and 10. Sources of water can be identified by: social bases of refugee groupings differ the local population, the refugees them- from those of the host communities. In selves, the lie of the land (groundwater addition, an influx of refugees may over- is often near the surface in the vicinity of strain water resources used by the local rivers and in other low places; its presence population and lead to tension between at shallow depths is usually indicated by the two groups. Special arrangements some types of vegetation), maps (topo- should be made with local authorities and graphical, geological), remote sensing other implementing partners for adequate imagery (satellite images, aerial photogra- operation and maintenance arrangements. phy), previous surveys of water resources, The technology used in the water supply

242 UNHCR andpartneroperations. across possible as far as standardized mechanical be other should supplies necessary, are and equipment pumps Where pacts bemaximized. im protection environmental and health public the that sectors these between tion collabora close through only is It tion. sanita particular in measures, ronmental envi and education health, by supported be must and layout and planning site with coordinated closely be must construction and design system supply water The 17. in thehousehold,willbeessential. containers clean enough of use the of and of importance avoiding pollution of the water by excreta the stressing education health public Basic practices. health tal proved im personal hygiene and environmen provision, sanitation adequate with control and treatment have to be combined quality water effective, be to order In 16. be trained. Refugees without prior experience should and maintenancefromthestart. operation its in involved be should who veloped in collaboration with the refugees de be should system the possible as far As cooperation. and understanding ies’ beneficiar the without impossible come be could water safe of provision The 15. refugees andcampmanagers. the of reach within be will etc.) agement, man parts, spare (fuel, needs operational term long that and appropriate is it ensure to evaluated carefully be should systems appropriate draw onlocalexperience. efficiency orbreakdowncompletely. maintenance, Even As a general the best to rule, otherwise system the technology country needs it will and soon continuing should should loose be ------   cal breakdownsquicklyrepaired. Maintenance must be assured, and techni prevented. contamination or wastage ter wa and controlled be must system the of use The monitored. carefully be to need pects of the complete water supply system as technical and organizational Both 18. are priority considerations. maintenance of ease spare and fuel of parts, availability familiarity, Local lowing amountsofwaterare desirable: fol the indication, general exercise. a As in physical and it temperature air with creases vary: needs water Minimum 19. Quantity The need should beusedasmuchpossible. Locally Monitoring: Quality: Demand: of adiseasewhichmightbecaused immediately followinganoutbreak fore useandregularlythereafter, and riological qualityofnewsourcesbe test thephysical,chemicalandbacte water. able toasmalleramountofverypure of reasonablysafewaterisprefer and personalhygiene,alarge amount extra water. munal buildingneedswillrequire allocation is7litresperday. Com leakage. Absolute minimumsurvival 20 litresperpersonday, after personal hygiene,calculateonatleast resource. to verifythesustainableuseofthis of wellshouldbecheckedregularly by unsafewater. Groundwaterlevels available To preservepublichealth For domesticneedsand material The watermustbesafe, and equipment ------243 14 Water 22. The availability of water will be a Minimum daily requirements: factor in deciding on a sanitation system. Minimum survival allocation: 7 litres per person per day. This should be in- Pit latrine systems do not need water to creased to 20 litres per person as soon function; but showers, washing, laundry as possible. or pour-flush toilet facilities all require Communal needs and a spare capac- water. ity for possible new arrivals should be 23. Water will probably be of little use added. in controlling major fires on refugee sites Health centres: 40-60 litres per patient owing to a lack of sufficient quantity and per day. pressure. Feeding centres: 20-30 litres per patient per day. If more refugees are expected to arrive, Schools: 3 litres/pupil/day. plans must allow for a substantial spare Mosque: 2 to 5 litres/person/day. capacity over the initially assessed needs. Hand washing at communal latrines and Offices: 1 to 2 litres/user/day for hand washing, and 2 to 8 litres/cubicle/day for Quality cleaning. 24. The water must be both acceptable to the refugees and safe to drink. Water that 20. Further needs may include: livestock, tastes and looks acceptable will be drunk sanitation facilities, other community by refugees who may unknowingly expose services, irrigation and construction of themselves to the dangers from microbio- camp infrastructure (e.g. roads or concrete logical organisms or harmful chemicals. structures). Annex B of UNHCR’s Water Manual provides additional indicative 25. The most serious threat to the safety figures on water requirements including of a water supply system is contamination livestock and agricultural crop needs. The by faeces; once the water has been con- more convenient the supply, the higher taminated it is difficult to purify it quickly will be the consumption. under emergency conditions.

A larger quantity of reasonably safe wa- 26. Take great care to avoid pollution ter is preferable to a smaller amount of by livestock. Separation of human water very pure water. supply points from those used by animals is a must. As a rule of thumb, cattle need 21. A reduction in the quantity of water about 30 litres of water daily. Water will available to individuals will directly af- also be needed, after the emergency phase, fect the overall health status of the refugee to irrigate food (vegetable gardens, crops) population. As supplies are reduced, per- cultivated by refugees. sonal and domestic hygiene suffers, and the reduction is reflected in increased in- 27. Water may contain pathogens, partic- cidence of parasitic, fungal and other skin ularly certain viruses, bacteria, protozoan diseases, and diarrhoeal diseases. cysts and worm eggs which are transmitted from faeces to mouth directly in the Even those individuals who may have water or via hands, flies or food. Water traditionally lived on less than the nor- contamination by human faeces is the ma- mally recommended amount of water jor concern, although animal faeces in wa- will require more water when living in a ter may also cause disease transmission. refugee camp, because of crowding and Water contamination by urine is a sig- environmental factors. nificant threat only in areas where urinary

244 Table 1:Water quality, risk andprioritylevels the majority of which are coliforms, faecal called organism, cator indi an uses analysis routine for test tive sensi more much a organism, pathogenic specific a to examinewaterfor possible is it Although water. the of characteristics the chemical, physical and bacteriological studying involves analysis Potability 30. safe water. un by caused be might which disease of again immediately following any outbreak existing ones checked regularly and tested and use before quality bacteriological for tested be should supplies water New 29. Monitoring testine maybelarger (~10 in the in infection an establish to needed bacteria of dose the whereas (<10), low very typically is protozoa and viruses the of dose infectious The water. polluted in multiply may circumstances exceptional in but similarly, behave Bacteria tures. tempera warm at rapidly more and time with decrease will water in protozoa and viruses of numbers The protozoa. and ria bacte viruses, of variety a by caused are diarrhoea bloody and watery Acute 28. as bestpractice. bium ( schistosomiasis tious hepatitis(Hepatitis By watery polluted 101- 1000and coliform level Faecal 1 to10 11-100 far above i edmc u sol b avoided be should but endemic is ) 0 the or drinking greatest bloody No. ofrisksidentifiedby citsm haemato Schistosoma water diarrhoea risk sanitary survey is associated 4 to6 1 to3 A). Escherichia coli 4 > 7 ). 0 the and spread infec with of ------

Polluted: intermediatetohighrisk Very polluted:veryhigh risk drinking are exposed to when using a par people the risk of level the to guide a as and the water quality analysis can be used survey sanitary the from results The 33. request atHeadquarters. the UNHCR Intranet or on CD-Rom, upon ToolkitTSS the on on available given are remediation interventions. Further details identifying for useful also are They time. problems and deterioration in quality over quality help water for can reasons forms the understand Such point. that at ity qual water to risks visible of assessment systematic a is This completed. be also must usually) questions 12 to 8 of prising (com form survey sanitary a source, or system supply tap, house, the from taken is sample quality water a time Every 32. coliforms. process them and incubate them samples, at 44°C for faecal take to techniques tic asep use that available are kits testing ity 5000 beneficiaries per month. per sample Water qual 1 is undertake to samples of 31. A typical rule of thumb for the number 100 mlofwater. faecal coliforms are usually expressed per of Concentrations dangerous. potentially tion is indicated and the sample is pollu therefore faecal water, in found are bacteria these If largenumbers. in excreted is and animals warm-blooded of intestine the of (or corresponding risklevels. outlines typical levels of water quality and table following The source. water ticular Some pollution:lowrisk E. coli E. Extremely low Risk level ), which is a normal inhabitant normal a is which ), intervention Priority of Urgent None High Low ------245 14 Water 34. In cases where the water is disinfected 37. Work with community leaders to or- by chlorination, it is easier and more ap- ganize the refugee community and make propriate to test for the presence of free the community aware of the possibilities available chlorine at household level than and dangers of existing water sources and for bacteria. The presence of a water tur- convey the idea of trying to prevent pol- bidity of <5 NTU and a free chlorine in lution of these sources by excreta. If the the range between 0.2 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l source is flowing, supplies must be drawn at the distribution point indicates an ad- off upstream and a special area set aside equate quality water. for this. Then allocate an area for washing, and finally downstream of the settlement, 35. The water must, of course, be safe allow any livestock to drink (see Figure at the time of consumption or use in the 2). Fence off parts of the river banks as household, not just at the distribution necessary, and beware of any dangers in point. Domestic hygiene and environmen- the water, such as reptiles. tal health measures to protect the water between collection and use are important. 38. Where the source is an open spring, The water in storage tanks and any tanker fence off, cover and control the source trucks should also be tested regularly. and if the source is a well prevent refugees from drawing water with individual con- 36. Where drinking water is scarce, use tainers that may contaminate the source non-potable, brackish or salty water for by providing a windlass or hand pump. washing. 39. If possible, arrange to store water and Immediate response to distribute it at collection points away  If even the minimum amount of from the source. Not only does this help water cannot be made available in avoid direct contamination but storage can time from local sources, the refugees make water safer. should be moved to more suitable site 40. From the start, families will need to be or water trucking should be organized able to carry and store water at the house- until longer term supply evaluations hold level. They must be able to transport can be finalized. at least 50 litres (from water distribution  Whatever the water source, take im- points to the household) and store at least mediate action to prevent pollution 20 litres per household (1 household = 5 by excreta. (See chapter 17 on sanita- persons). Suitable containers (10-20 li- tion and hygiene for further details). tres) are essential. Collapsible jerrycans  Organize a distribution system that are recommended, especially when their prevents pollution of the source and transportation to the site may involve air- ensures equity if there is insufficient lifts. Jerrycans must have narrow inlets water. to prevent contaminating objects and chil-  Ensure that refugee families have dren’s hands from getting in. For this rea- adequate means to fetch and store son, buckets and other wide necked con- water. tainers are not recommended. Sometimes  If in doubt on water quality, chlorin- empty cooking oil containers are available ate the supply, or in emergency epi- which may be appropriate. As jerrycans demic outbreaks, distribute chlorine are subject to much wear and tear, bi-an- tablets (or compatible other com- nual redistribution of jerry cans should be mercially available products) for use undertaken in camps. at the household level, if boiling of water is not feasible.

246 sections outline themainconsiderations. following The plans. long-term the mind water supply system as a whole keeping the in consolidate and improve to taken be must action steps, these to parallel In 42. rationing isunnecessary. strict that so available water of quantity the increase to made be effortmust Every arrangements. special need may groups Vulnerable organized. be should site the ing daylight hours for different sections of dur times fixed at Distribution abuse. to open are distributions uncontrolled sary; neces if guards full-time using tothe sources, access tocontrol organize.is to step first difficult The is Rationing 41. Environmental HealthinEmergencyanddisasters,WHO(2002) Figure 2–Useoffencestodemarcatehumanandanimalwateringplaces;From bution willbeapriority. water are insufficient, action to ration supplies action insufficient, are water If the immediately and to ensure available equitable upstream zone Drinking-water from supplies distri of - - -  ual) UNHCR’sof 12 chapter (See WaterMan □ □ □ □ □ □ Water supplysystems

A watersupply systemisacombina purposes: tion ofstructureswiththefollowing

(including tapstands);and hold; balancing supply, service, house or settlement; ter; protection; waste-water disposal. distribution network/reticulation storage –collection,treatment, transmission totherefugeecamp purification/treatment ofthewa extraction fromthesource,andits downstream only Animal access bathing zone Washing and - - - - 247 14 Water  It is vital to ensure the system compo- alternative plans to take into account nents are compatible with each other implementation time, technology and appropriate in view of the supply considerations and cost-effectiveness. and demand, and can be maintained v. Commission detailed surveys to from locally available resources and refine all aspects and details of the at the lowest possible overall (capital, adopted design. operation and maintenance) costs. vi. Produce final designs and estimates.  The system will have to be planned, vii. Organize refugees involvement on the designed, constructed and put into project. operation in a short period of time viii. Implement the project, including (involving the refugee population technical supervision, maintenance, as much as possible). The complex- monitoring and reporting. ity of the task requires professional ix. Organize operation and maintenance, expertise which should be sought including the establishment of a com- at the beginning of the project. Pay mittee in which refugees and relevant attention to long-term operation and assistance sectors are represented maintenance requirements from the (health, sanitation, community serv- start such as diesel, chlorine, new ices). taps and maintenance personnel. 44. See UNHCR’s Water Manual for ad- 43. As soon as possible, make an overall ditional information and details on these plan for the longer-term water supply sys- issues (chapter 6, paragraphs 1, 36; chap- tem. At least some elements of the plan ter 11, paragraphs 2, 3, 11; chapter 12, will be problematic – there is often a lack paragraphs 5, 12-8, 16). of basic data or difficulty in obtaining the planning or design tools (cartography, hy- 45. An ill-conceived or badly managed drological data, etc.). The following steps water supply system will soon create prob- should be taken: lems. The long-term needs of the refugees should be considered while searching for i. Search for potential sources within a solutions to the emergency needs. All reasonable distance from the pro- efforts to avoid long-term problems will posed camp site. prove, with time, very valuable. ii. Carry out preliminary surveys to assess water quantity and quality (see 46. All information gathered during the above). In addition, collect relevant assessment and planning as well as design information on the beneficiaries us- data, including sketches and maps locating participatory assessment on the ing pipeline and water supply facilities socio-economic characteristics of the should be properly documented for future host community and on the physical reference. This basic data collected and environment of the refugee sites. maintained during the emergency phase, is iii. Outline implementation arrangements often subsequently lost or misplaced, and for construction and operation. is essential for operation and maintenance of the system and for its upgrading, and iv. Produce a preliminary design con- for monitoring the level of services to see cept (see chapter 12, paragraph 2, if the basic minimum standards are met. of UNHCR’s Water Manual) with

248 lution. so sound a often is pollution against tion protec improve to action with combined techniques, familiar and well-proven of locally.use in Adoption already methods and systems of account careful Take 49. i. gency include: emer an in water of sources alternative between choosing in Considerations 48. emerging assprings)andrainwater. or (underground groundwater lakes), ers, riv (streams, water surface water: fresh of types natural main three are There 47. Introduction      (SeeUNHCR Water Manual,chapter6) vii. vi. v. iv. iii. ii. Water sources

Develop adatabankofwatersources. New orrepairedsourcesandequip Physical protection of the source from Surface watershouldbeconsideredto Rain water, groundwaterfromsprings speed withwhichthesourcecanbe relative costcomparisonconsider simplicity oftechnologyandease rights and welfare of local population; water quality, riskofcontamination reliability ofsupply(takinginto volume ofsupply; maintenance expenditure. ing capitaloutlayandoperation maintenance; and and easeoftreatmentifnecessary; necessary, logistics); account seasonalvariationsand,if made operational; use. ment shouldbedisinfectedbefore pollution willbeessential. prior touse. be contaminatedandmusttreated and shouldbeusedifavailable. sources suchasrivers,lakesordams better qualitythansurfacewaterfrom and privatesystemsareusuallyof and wellsorwaterfrommunicipal ------adequate and reliable year-round rainfall; year-round reliable and with adequate areas in water of source be major the only can method This suitable. and clean are these if roofs be the from collected can water rain pure Reasonably 53. Rainwater Surface water longer-term needs. and immediate both cover efficiently to systems develop to need the account into take should used be to approaches logical on techno the and develop decision to sources which The solutions. alternative of analysis cost-benefit simple a allow to sources water different the on possible as 51. Gather as much technical information reliable. cult and requires trained supervision to be diffi be can areas, remote in particularly water,unsafe of treatment. treatment The require not do that sources use possible if However, necessary. be may of treatment form some supply, water the protect to measures organizational Besides 50. when otherwaterisplentiful butunsafe. time a at use individual for water safe of source useful a be may water Rain tres. cen feeding and health as such services example community for collection special for through sup needs, useful general a to be plement may water Rain 54. gee emergencies. refu most in solution suitable a not fore, there is, It facilities. storage household individual and shelter suitable requires it plicated tion table. lakes, 52. most refugeeemergencies. treatment Water and dams Its to disinfection) measures direct from plan and streams, use reservoirs and (at is implement that least likely rivers, may is sedimenta to rarely be require ponds, during com po ------249 14 Water Groundwater of the water table, yield, soil conditions 55. Groundwater is contained in aquifers. and availability of expertise and equip- Aquifers are rocks or groups of rocks ment. (ranging from sediments to porous and 60. Without good groundwater resource fractures rocks) capable of transmitting, surveys, preliminary test drilling, or clear storing and yielding water. local evidence from nearby existing wells, 56. The use of groundwater during refu- there is no assurance that new wells or gee emergencies would almost always boreholes will yield the necessary amount be the preferred solution: if available, of water of the right quality. They can groundwater usually provides the most also be expensive. cost-effective alternative to obtain quickly the necessary quantity and the best quality. A hydrogeological survey must be undertaken before starting any extensive However, the decision to use it for long- drilling programme. term needs should be made after a detailed assessment of the aquifer and all factors 61. Any new well or borehole must first relating to the recharge, transmission and be developed to full and sustainable yield release of water and on the availability of by an initial period of pumping (usually relevant expertise and equipment. up to 48 hours). This allows the safe yield to be calculated and pumps out finer soil Springs are the ideal source of groundwater and should be protected against particles, allowing water to pass more eas- pollution at the source. ily into the well. Yields can be raised by increasing the size of the well below the 57. Water from a spring is usually pure at water table, for example in the case of a the source and can be piped to storage and shallow well, by an infiltration gallery distribution points. It should be taken off across the line of groundwater flow. If from above the refugee camp site if possi- wells are sited too close together, yields ble. Care should be taken to check the true will be reduced. source of spring water, as some apparent springs may really be surface water which 62. Wells, boreholes, infiltration galleries has seeped or flowed into the ground a and pumps should be disinfected immedi- short distance away. The yield of water ately after construction, repair or installa- from a spring may vary widely with the tion, as they may have been polluted dur- seasons. It will be at its minimum at the ing the work – two or three buckets of a end of the dry season and early in the rainy 2.5% chlorine solution in water would be season. Seek local advice. a suitable disinfectant which would then be cleaned from the well by removing 3 to 58. The intake or collection chamber can 5 well volumes. They should be located be by a simple structure built of bricks, where surface water and, in particular, any masonry or concrete, from which the wa- seasonal rain or flood water, will drain ter flows directly through a pipe to a tank away from the well head. They should be or collection point. Care must also be above and at least 30 metres away from taken to prevent contamination above the any sanitation facilities and their dis- take off points (see TSS toolkit). charge. Special techniques are used in the 59. Groundwater can be raised by infil- design and construction of these facilities tration galleries, tube wells, dug wells or to avoid the pollution of their water. boreholes. (Infiltration galleries extract groundwater horizontally, for example Sea water through tunnels and/or ditches). The 63. Sea water can be used for almost eve- choice of method will depend on the depth rything but drinking, thus reducing fresh 250 minimum needs. ed to store and distribute the water to meet need are arrangements established, been 65. Once an adequate source of water has    (See UNHCR Water Manual,chapter7) and yield quality ofsuchsystemsmaybepossible. the in increase substantial A sources. other develop to measures essary unnec taking before possible where used during the emergency phase and should be may be able to meet part or all of the need establishments, agricultural or industrial to belonging those example for refugees, the of vicinity the in systems supply ter wa private and municipal Existing 64. Municipal andprivatesystems as amatterofurgency. considered be must refugees the of cation relo site, given a at available are sources water fresh no If discouraged. strongly major refugee emergency, and is therefore a in requirements water fresh meet immediate to likely is – plants desalinization modern of use the nor heat sun’s the ing of thetwobasicmethods–distillation us Neither option. costly but possible one is but where sea water is near, desalinization exist water fresh of sources adequate no where locations In requirements. water to maintainthan pumpingsystems. systems gravity The Pumping equipment

Emergency watersupplysolutions As muchaspossible,usegravity Pumps willgenerallybeneededin operation: avoidad-hocsolutions. to ensurelong-termandeffective involving pumpsshouldbedesigned tion andtreatmentsystems. rather thanpumpsforwaterdistribu spare partswillbeneeded. remember thatoperators,fueland local adviceonwhatissuitable,and refugee emergencies. Seekexpert distribution whenever are much less possible: system costly should gravity and easier use fed ------es, for example, feeding water treatment water feeding example, for es, purpos other for equipment pumping use to need a be may there Additionally 69. i. in refugeewatersupplysystemsare: 68. The main uses of pumping equipment reliable andmuchcheaperthanapump. more is system The bucket. captive this from containers own their fill refugees – water draw to used is well the to fixed is that bucket and rope single the only tem, sys this In risk. pollution lower a carries A captive rope and bucket (i.e. a windlass) (which may be driven by hand or pumps engine). using by or bucket, or container basic two water in of kind some using hand, raised by ways: be can Water 67. be necessary tomountapumponraft. even may It systems. treatment and storage distribution, pumps, any placing in taken be must care markedly,great ies var source river a of level the where or flooding, seasonal to subject areas In 66. ocnrto o pol rqie maxi mum output of available water. Motorized requires people of concentration a refugee emergency, the sudden and large in However, fuel. and parts spare of ply sup outside on dependence reduce they because appropriate be may Hand-pumps the selection. pump be in will considerations major reliability, all, above and, maintenance of ease spares, supplies, fuel familiarity, Local pumps. of placing and selection the on sought be should advice Professional maintenance. regular quire re and parts moving have pumps 70. All long through pipelines, feedingwatertankers. flow the boosting plants, iii. ii. more a wellwithoneropeandbucket. Where operated pumping waterfromwellsorbore pumping waterintostoragereser pumping waterfromsurface voirs. intakes; and holes; than it can system 200 meet people is the to should be demand, preferred. depend a hand - Not - on ------251 14 Water pumps have a far greater output and may,  Water purification at household level therefore, be indispensable. using chlorine tablets or sachets or 71. In some circumstances, pumps pow- boiling are not generally appropriate ered by solar panels may be suitable. Such for large-scale water treatment but pumps have relatively high capital costs may be useful in epidemic outbreaks. but are usually reliable and involve no di- Introduction rect running costs, just maintenance costs. 73. The potability of any source has to be The pumps naturally work best in direct assessed before a decision to use it for hu- sunlight but will still work with light cloud man water supply is taken. cover. A solar pump might be a solution when the output of a hand pump would be 74. The importance of trying to find a insufficient but large mechanized pumps source that does not require treatment is are not necessary. obvious.

72. The minimum daily period during If treatment is necessary it should be the which a pump should be idle is that re- minimum required to ensure acceptably quired to allow the level of water in the safe water, using appropriate technol- source to recover to its old level. Pumps ogy and a reliable operational and main- should not be operated for more than ~14 tenance system. hours a day and preferably not be run at 75. Correct plant operation and mainte- night. Always have a pump on standby nance must be assured. Besides disinfec- in a major supply system to cover repairs tion, other types of treatment should be and maintenance. considered in accordance with the characteristics of the raw water. 76. Determining how to treat water on a Treatment large scale is best done by experts. How- (See Water Manual, chapter 8) ever, simple and practical measures can be taken before such help is available.  The most serious threat to safety of All methods require regular attention and a water supply is contamination by maintenance. faeces.  Only treat water to the extent neces- 77. Besides physical measures to protect sary. Disinfection of drinking water water at its source and initial disinfection is required if large numbers of refu- of water sources (usually by chlorine), gees are concentrated in camps. there are four basic methods of treatment: storage, filtration, chemical disinfection  All water treatment methods require and boiling. These can be used singly or some expertise, regular attention and in combination. maintenance.  In refugee emergencies, the prior- Storage and sedimentation ity is to improve the physical and 78. Storage is the simplest method of the bacteriological characteristics improving water quality. It causes some of drinking water. Only under very pathogens to die off and any heavy matter special circumstances would the in suspension to settle (“sedimentation”). improvement of chemical quality be considered. Leaving water undisturbed in containers,  Cloudy or turbid water should be tanks or reservoirs improves its quality. clarified before disinfection because 79. Storage of untreated surface wa- chlorinating cloudy or turbid water is ter for 12 to 24 hours will already cause ineffective. 252 playing orswimminginthewater. children prevent to guarded, necessary if The storage area should be fenced sunlight. off, and direct of advantages the offset than more tanks open of contamination of dangers the covered: be always must tanks Storage water. stored of pollution prevent to taken be should care Great 82. necessary. if storage for used one third a and tank, second the in disinfection) done be can it required, chemical is (e.g. treatment Ifadditional water. clarified the storing second the with tank settling a being tank first the used, often is system two-tank A (Alum). sulphate aluminium of addition the by up speeded greatly be can which water cloudy clarifies Sedimentation 81. snails orpeopledonotenterthetank. provided disease, the of transmission to storage would provide an effective barrier of leaving infected snails. Thus two day’s hours 48 within host animal or human a reach not do they if or person, infected an by excretion of hours 24 within snail ter wa not reachthefresh they do sites dieif para the as (bilharzia), schistosomiasis control help can time storage Longer 80. allowing thus sedimentation totakeplaceovernight. consumption, day’s equal one should alone capacity their used, are tanks sedimentation Where users. to distributed is it before hours few a than more for stored be to purposes drinking for intended water the allow to enough be would available water of amount the that seldom very is it emergencies, refugee in that however, aware, Be the greater improvement. the temperature, the higher the and storage of period the longer the quality; its in improvement considerable - - er types of sand filters include slow sand slow include filters sand of types er drawn off is simply added to the top. Oth used, unfiltered water equal to the amount is tap a If drum. litre 200 a for hour per litres 60 exceed not should that rate a off at drawn is and gravel of layer cm 5 a on sand through down passes water The centre. health a for example for quickly, providing limited quantities of safer water of way good a be may this and available are sand and drums if improvised be can (see key references). A packed drum filter guides technical de available the are in filters scribed sand of types Many 85. treated waterisverygood. the of quality the enough, fil slow of is tration rate the Provided mm. 1 - 0.3 is sand the of range size usual The surface. the sand the of level the above water of depth and passed, is water which through on sand of depends type and depth filtration area, surface of the rate The 84. organisms breakdownorganic matter. micro- where “schmutzdecke”, the called ops on the surface of the sand bed. This is ton, bacteria and other forms of life devel plank algae, of layer active very and thin importantly, more and, solids, out filters a physically sand the through water the of Passage two ways. in works filter sand an effective be method of water treatment. A can proper slow filtration Sand 83. Filtration been filteredthroughthe bed andbank. recovered will be river water but will have bank. the to close well a dig water to The is measure intermediate possible a source to effectively.and quickly up set river a For difficult more be to likely are but ter can be used to treat larger amounts of wa These permeable). is bed the where only andriver bed filters or infiltration galleries (suitable filters sand horizontal filters, ------253 14 Water 254 water. untreated prefer therefore people if effect desired the of reverse the have will and unpleasant tastes water over-chlorinated water; the drink to prepared be not may people million, per parts 0.7 than higher significantly is chlorine amount available free the of If pollution. of level the of indication broad a usually is this achieve to required chlorine of amount The teria. bac kill to available still words, other in solution, in left chlorine available free of million) per parts (0.5 mg/l 0.5 be should there dosage) after minutes 30 (about ed, react has chlorine After once and chlorination, distribution. before and dis infection each after levels residual chemical for water the test to particularly and ess strict control of any chemical disinfection proc ensure to taken be must Care 87. at leastthirtyminutestoact. requires It undertaken. been has process filtration or sedimentation any after place take therefore should Chlorination tion. disinfec chemical the before filtration or and/ sedimentation requires usually water turbid chlorination, requires only usually water clear Whilst reliable. fully not is it if value little of be will it attention; lar regu requires disinfection methods, ment large-scale for chlorination. essential As with all other water treat is advice pert Ex option. another are wells for tablets Slow-releasing (HTH), Hypochlorite TestHigh chlorine, powder. hypochlorite calcium is emergencies refugee for rine chlo of form suitable generally most The available. readily more often and cheaper used, widely more is Chlorine rification. pu and disinfection for used be can rine chlo of forms various initially.or Iodine pumps required be will filters, systems water piped and sand wells, of rification Pu emergencies. refugee all in rule a is largescale a on water of Disinfection 86. Chemical disinfection ------Boiling should, however, be continued for assumed to be free of pathogenic bacteria. be can boil rolling a to brought simply is that water altitudes, low At sterilization. water of method surest the is Boiling 91. Boiling supplementary feedingcentres. or health in used be may They ulations. suitable for water treatment for large rarely pop are but available, also are tablets 90. Chlorine and iodine water purification water treatmentplant. any in available be should equipment tion chlorina back-up supply, water tinuous be distributed. Therefore to ensure a con normally not should water the working, not is equipment chlorination When 89. able chlorinetoberegardedassafe. avail free of million) per parts (or mg/l 0.5 of content chlorine residual a least, at have, should plant the leaving water any ensure to important is it time, with drop to tend levels chlorine residual that mind in bearing and distribution, some before time for chlorination, after storage, kept in be may water that fact In the of view quality. water the check frequently to it use to trained be should attendants levels. plant treatment all and simple is chlorine test This residual for tests type) DPD1 the of preferably kit, comparator (chlorine chloroscope size pocket A 88. less urgent. make the need for other types of might treatment initially, least at and, encouraged be should this so, do to continue can and ugees have traditionally boiled their water this amount of wood. However, if the ref reduce can stoves friendly vironmentally en although water, of litre per wood of kg 1 about requires boiling as option this of feasibility the limit may supplies fuel Domestic altitude. with reduces perature tem boiling the as level, sea above tude alti of metres 1,000 every for minute one ------255 14 Water Storage iii. at distribution points in tanks, including public stand-pipes or other  All refugee sites must be provided as service points at health centres, camp soon as possible with adequate water administration facilities, staff houses, storage facilities, in the distribution etc.; and system as well as at household level; iv. at the refugee household level in  Water storage may be the only means small containers. These containers of ensuring a constant availability of should not be the same as the ones water to cover the needs of a camp used to collect and transport water population; from distribution points.  In general, use local technology for 94. Whatever the type of storage needed, the design and construction of storage adequate enclosure should be provided to tanks or reservoirs. However, using prevent any contamination from humans, prefabricated tanks may sometimes animals, dust or any other source. A tight be the only way to provide water cover and dark storage also prevent algal quickly enough in emergencies. growth and breeding of mosquito larvae. Whereas large ferro-cement tanks 3 (45 to 90 m ) (see TSS toolkit for 95. In areas with pronounced dry and details) are a good solution to use in rainy seasons, the construction of a pond long-term operations while prefab- reservoir to collect water may be an op- ricated tanks are used in the initial tion (depending on the local topography), emergency phase; despite the dangers of pollution and of  Ensure that the size, location and mosquito breeding. Catchment tanks for overall design of storage tanks are the collection of surface water can also be compatible with all other system considered. Pits are dug in the ground to components and design characteris- catch and hold the water which runs off tics. hard ground during heavy storms. They 92. In nearly all systems, it will be nec- need a special lining to hold the water and essary to store water in covered tanks be- should be covered if possible. tween the sources and distribution points. 96. Tanks above ground may be needed As well as providing an essential reserve where the water table is very high and both during the emergency and for long- contamination cannot otherwise be avoid- term use, storage will facilitate monitored. Many types of simple and portable ing, collecting, treating and distributing storage tanks are available, and some can safe water. be supplied with a complete distribution system. Headquarters’ advice should be All refugee sites and families must be sought if local resources cannot meet this provided with facilities as soon as pos- need. sible to store an adequate reserve of water. 93. The size of the reserve to be used will Distribution depend on the number of people and on the nature of the water supply system. (See UNHCR Water Manual, chapter 10) Water can be stored in various locations:  An appropriate water distribution sys- i. at the water collection point in tanks; tem should ensure an even coverage ii. in central storage tanks (before or af- of water needs among camp benefici- ter treatment) to balance supply with aries. demand and to allow for gravity-fed  Keep the distribution system simple. distribution; 256 te ik wudd ms svrl mal severely most wounded, sick, needs (the special with persons While 100. tions. connec private with provided be should buildings administrative and Service 99. es shouldbeavoided. sourc water primary to consumers vidual indi by access Uncontrolled conditions. local on depending ways, many in users 98. Water can be distributed to individual proper drainage. by boards, with a run off structure to allow protected or gravel, or stones be with paved should points distribution the areas round The collection. water of task the have who children and women is it often as burdens social other against mitigate and (SGBV) violence gender-based and the site toavoidpotentialsexual layout of the in consideration important an be will Water distribution sources. contaminated but closer from water collect to or eases dis water-washed limit to enough fetch to not either tend they distances, erable consid from water where fetch to that have people shown has Experience 97.    ods tohaveaccess. Ideally, Equity people that ensure to outlets of number ficient A is than from distributionpoints.

distribution an Refugees musthaveeasybutcontrol Every measureshouldbetakento Under normalcircumstances,water led accesstowater. as atthestand-pipes. ter inthedistributionsystemaswell minimize wastageandleakageofwa with safeaccess. bution stand-pipeslocatedcentrally be carriedoutthroughpublicdistri distribution inrefugeecampsshould 200 extremely in do no the metres not dwelling distribution system need important or to a should should few wait of consideration. minutes’ for scarce have be long further a water

peri walk suf ------pervised –guardsareoftenneeded. su and controlled carefully be must system, this distribution final the Whatever damage. and pollution of risk the greater the water, of outlet or source single a ing us people of number the larger The 102. shut maybetheonlyeffective solution. chained be can which points distribution valve crowded, is site the and limited are supplies water Where available. be must individual spares Tapsand taps. vulnerable very are 6 and 2 between usually ing hav installation each constructed, mally where possible. Multiple tap standpipes are nor outlets as used be to ommended rec are taps push with Standpipes 101. and reducingwastage/leakage. use excessive identifying of way fective ef and cheap a proved have meters water situations, some In abuses. prevent and detect to monitored carefully be should Arrangements distribution. equitable for responsibility assume to encouraged be should Refugees population. the of rest the among shared evenly be must water scarce allocations, assured and adequate have should disabled) the and women ing lactat and pregnant children, nourished, via asoakaway. of bediposed or else latrines clean pour-flush gardens, vegetable irrigate stock, live water to example for recycled, fully to public health, and it may instead be use danger a become to allowed be not must water.waste of This amount certain a ate 104. The community itself will also gener or pumping. ter sources or on those requiring treatment portant in systems based on low yield wa im particularly is This etc.) pipes taps, the need to minimize water wastage (from be carriedoutbearinginmind tem should sys supply water the of maintenance and operation construction, design, The 103. gees rope andbucket. There 100 refugees per should hand and be pump at no least more or per one than well tap 200 with per refu one 80------257 14 Water Potential environmental impacts: • Impact on social environment caused by potential conflicts with the host 105. The following provides a generic list communities when sharing the same of potential environmental impacts asso- water sources. ciated with water and related activities in • Camps and settlements may be sub- a camp situation: ject to flooding if wrongly located • Depletion of the source as a result of (e.g. in river beds, in wadis, low-ly- unsustainable extraction or collection ing flood-plains). of water. • Inappropriate drainage, soil and water • Contamination of the local water conservation measures as well as (surface and sub-surface) regime due poor water management in irrigation to improper disposal of waste water systems may lead to erosion, floods, and human-waste, faulty design and groundwater contamination and soil operation/maintenance of the piped salinization. water network, excessive extraction • Camps or settlements close to open of groundwater (salt water intrusion streams or over unconfined aquifers in case of coastal zones and other may cause downstream contamina- harmful constituents in the local geo- tion. logical formation) and other related activities in the camp. • Impacts to local environment due to construction and operation of water supply system (physical structures and chemicals if used), intensity and magnitude of which would largely depend on the nature and size of the project and the sensitivity of the local ecosystem.

258 2004 .* Geneva, WHO, Edition, Third Volumes, Water3 Quality,Drinking for Guidelines Wisner, J. Adams, WHO Geneva2002.* B. by edited Disasters, Guide; Apractical Environmental Health in Emergencies and Chichester, 1983. cross S., Feachem R., John Wiley & Sons, in Text,Cairn Introductory Tropics: Engineering An the Health Environmental 2 5, 545 85339 1 ISBN London, Ltd., tions Publica Technology Intermediate RedR. of behalf on Publications ITDG R., bert Lam Workers,J., Relief Davis for Guide Practical A Emergencies, in Engineering sity, 1997.* Univer Loughborough (WEDC), Centre Development Engineering Water Reed, B. & House S. Treatment, and Selection Emergency Water Sources, Guidelines for 806-3860-2, July2005.* grammes, UNICEF, New York, ISBN: 92- Pro Emergency of Office staff, UNICEF for guide AHandbook, Field Emergency # =availableontheTSStoolkit) Key references(*=availableontheweb, nd Edition,2002. # # # - - - - - neva 2005(revisedfrom1996). Ge Guidelines, Environmental UNHCR guide (WEDC,2002).* practical A - Surveillance Quality Water manual (WEDC,2002).* reference A - surveillance supply Water tion, UNHCR,Geneva,1992.* Sec Support Technical Situations, and Programme Refugee for Manual Water 2006. January (p12-14), No.3 Vol.24, LINES, WATERCronin, A. & Shrestha D. gees, Refu Protecting and Waterto Right The erations –2005revision,Geneva2005.* op UNHCR in Indicators and Standards ISBN 92-9139-097-6,2004.* Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, Sphere project: Humanitarian Charter and Sanitary Surveying(WEDC,1999).* and Sanitation, The Hague,1982. ence Centre for Community Water Supply Refer International 11, Series Paper cal A Design Countries, and Construction Manual, Techni Developing in Supply ter WaCommunity for Filtration Sand Slow # # # # # ------259 14 Water 15 Sanitation and hygiene

260

Table 2: Table 1: Figure 5: Figure 4: Figure 2: Figure 1: Figures andtables Annex 2: Annex 1: Annexes Key references Potential environmentalimpacts Disposal ofthedead General hygiene Pest andvectorcontrol Waste water Pour-flush(PF)latrine Solid wastes Human excretadisposal Human resourcesandorganization Basic principlesandstandards Introduction Overview CONTENTS Figure 3: ik Vectors whichmaypose significanthealth risks Pour-flushlatrine Sanitation:ResourceInventoryForm SanitationSurveyForm

Ventilated improveddoublepit(VIDP)latrine Borehole latrines Pit latrines Trench latrines Selection ofasystem:basicconsiderations Immediate action Introduction Chemical control Physical control General considerations Treatment General considerations Dust andsmoke Garbage management General considerations Stabilization ponds Number andtypes ofsanitaryfacilitiesrequired VIDP pitlatrine Pit latrines Considerations inexcretadisposal Borehole latrines

6 271 269 269 267 46 267 39 266 37 32 265-272 27 20 265 20-51 263-265 13-19 5-12 Page Paragraph 7 277 277 87 276 82-86 275 275 77-81 274 72 274-276 70 274 65 273 65-76 273-274 63 273 59 273 59-64 272 58 272-273 55 272 52 271 52-58 271 51 50 47

263 1- 4

275 264 272 271 271 276 268 282 279 278

261 15 Sanitation and hygiene Situation them on an individual or family basis. Overcrowding, a lack of access to basic Refuse disposal should be arranged services, a harsh environment and disrup- on a community basis. tion of normal sanitation habits can threat- • Wherever possible, restrict the use en the lives and well-being of the refugees of chemicals (for the control of rats, in emergencies. Proper sanitation is a flies and other pests particularly) key aspect of the hygiene cycle involving to specific places and for a limited water and health and is fundamental to a period of time. Environmental meas- multi-sectoral approach in emergency re- ures should be favoured instead. sponse. Action Objective • Localize defecation and prevent To prevent the spread of disease, and to contamination of the water supply promote a safe hygienic living environ- sources. ment for the refugees. • Collect baseline data on the site and draw a sketch of the area to locate Principles of response potential zones for sanitary facilities. • Programmes must be developed in • Develop appropriate systems for dis- cooperation with the refugees and, posal of excreta, garbage, and waste as far as possible, run by them with water. Control vectors of public gender-balanced approaches. The health importance such as mosqui- measures taken must be culturally toes, flies, fleas, lice, bugs, rodents acceptable to the refugees. and other vermin. • Swift provision of a basic system • Plan the amount of facilities and for human waste disposal is better services to be provided. Optimum than delayed provision of improved standards are: for excreta disposal systems. - one latrine per family; for refuse • Take full account of sanitation needs - one bin of 100 litre capacity for 10 in site selection and layout. families or • Make full use of locally available 50 persons; for solid waste management - one landfill of about 60 3m human, material and technological 2 resources. This includes using both (50 m by 1.2 m deep) for 500 people skilled and unskilled refugee labour, (WEDC, 2002); one sanitarian for using public health or sanitary engi- every 5,000 persons, and one sanita- neering expertise available in the nation assistant for every 500 persons. tional institutions, and relying on the • Establish sanitation teams for the con- traditional practices of the refugees struction and maintenance of infra- and the local people. structure; • The materials and technology chosen • Set up services for vector control and should be as simple as possible. burial of the dead. • The sanitation programme must in- • Establish a monitoring and reporting clude provisions for continuous main- system for all environmental health tenance of the sanitation facilities and services in coordination with the services. Allied to this are on-going general health surveillance system. hygiene promotion activities. • Include sanitation and hygiene pro- • The best guarantee that latrines will motion as an integral part of health be used and kept clean is to allocate education.

262 i. constraints include: refugee camps can be difficult. Additional im in programmes sanitation of plementation the habits, socio-cultural or factors environmental unfavourable to 3. Due may conditions need tochange. normal under practice cultural so and health to threat serious a poses waste other and human of disposal indiscriminate conditions, these In ing. lack often are services Basic portance. im critical of sanitation adequate makes conditions, crowded less and different in ple together who are accustomed to living peo of crowding the and 2. Disruption on water, healthandsiteplanning. chapters the with conjunction in read be should chapter this particular, In gether. to considered be should and inter-related much very are care, health of provision mental health. All these activities, and the environ and public in improvements ing achiev to practices, hygiene community and household personal, good with essential, along are measures Such drainage. safe control; food-handling practices; and effective site rodent and insect bodies; dead and garbage water, waste excreta, safeguarding human of disposal proper quality; water includes: 1. Sanitation v. iv. iii. ii. Introduction inappropriate sitesthatareeasily lack ofqualifiedpersonnel. limited timeforthecommunitytoget limited availabilityoflocalmaterials lack ofspace; way; and organized ifonlyinarudimentary protection; siderations relatedtoenvironmental due toeithernaturalfactorsorcon flooded, barrenand/orinaccessible; ------refugee emergency is a difficult; but correct in sanitation adequate 6. Developing other with community services. integrated be must services sanitation the of operation and ganization or the and layout, site in consideration important very a be will sanitation ning,      nance andinspection. mainte thorough and regular on degree significant a to depend will services the of effectiveness the essential, be will ing with the refugees are important. Monitor and by work promotion hygiene effective with integrated measures 4. Sanitation should berequested. assistance Headquarters' need, the cannot meet these If contractors. or sultants con universities, NGOs, system, UN the departments, government as such sources from locally sought be first should ance Assist emergencies. refugee of perience ex has possible if and asylum, of country the of nationals and refugees the of habits the with familiar is who engineer health pert advice should be sought from a public Ex difficult. more even is mistakes ing 5. Basic principlesandstandards

As stressed in the chapter on site plan Integrate hygienepromotionac Consult andinvolvetherefugeesin Seek professionaladvicefromthose Analyse sanitationandhygieneis Take fullaccountofsanitationneeds refugee children. to sanitationmattersatschoolsfor programme andpayspecialattention tivities intothecommunityhealth tenance. facilities, andparticularlytheirmain the designandlocationofsanitary with localknowledge. resources assessment. sues aspartoftheinitialneedsand in siteselectionandlayout. ------263 15 Sanitation and hygiene 7. Good sanitation depends to a great Whatever the success of the sanitation extent on the attitudes of the community system with adults, children will present and the people who run the system. The both a special opportunity and a special systems and services developed should be challenge. able to operate effectively with a minimum of outside involvement. Refugees them- Children are both the main sufferers from selves must be trained to run the sanitation excreta-related diseases and also the main and hygiene promotion programmes. excreters of many of the pathogens that cause diarrhoea (it is important to remem- 8. The public health education pro- ber that children’s faeces have higher gramme must place proper emphasis on concentrations of pathogens than adults). the importance of sound sanitation prac- Teaching sanitation measures and sound tices. The link between excreta contami- hygiene practice in schools is therefore nation and disease must be clearly under- essential. stood by all. 9. Measures to contain human excreta and to dispose of refuse should be taken immediately.

Table 1: – Number and types of sanitary facilities required

FIRST OPTION SECOND OPTION THIRD OPTION EXCRETA DISPOSAL 1 latrine / family (or 1 1 cubicle / 20 persons 1 cubicle / 100 persons or latrine / two families) defecation field STORAGE TRANSPORT FINAL DISPOSAL REFUSE/GARBAGE 1 bin, 100 litres /10 1 wheelbarrow /500 1 landfill (50m2 and 1.2 m families or 50 persons persons and 1 tipper deep) / 500 persons and 1 /5,000 persons incinerator and 1 deep pit for each clinic

Since it is almost impossible to estimate Sufficient bathing cubicles (separate for how long refugees will stay in a given male and female) should be allowed for site, more long-term facilities should also when communal facilities are required. be established simultaneously. For ex- Domestic waste water drainage requires a ample, once a defecation field has been combination of both individual and com- established, latrine construction should munal systems. Drains collecting waste begin at once. The greater the time lag be- water from each household have to be tween those two actions, the more difficult connected to main ones which will chan- to shift people from their previous habit nel those waters away from the living (defecation in the open) to subsequent quarters. building and use of latrines. Even in hot, 11. General norms and standards related dry climates, human excreta disposed of to specific activities (excreta disposal, on the ground can favour the transmission solid waste, vector control, etc.) should be of diseases. seen as indicative only and be adapted in 10. Communal facilities, especially la- each case to the prevailing social, cultural trines are difficult to maintain and keep and physical conditions. Table 1 above clean. However, refuse management (es- gives standards which can help to work pecially transportation and final disposal) out a preliminary quantitative estimate of is better organized on a communal basis. the most urgent needs.

264 yinc otimn o hmn excreta, human of of containment why” hygienic and “how the on focus should related activities. Education on sanitation supervising and sanitation to people ing sensitiz both for responsible agency one 16. It is always more efficient to have only aspects). engineering and medical (including tion sanita of knowledge good have that staff by headed be should team Each neously. simulta launched be promotion should programme hygiene A disposal). waste and excreta for pits or trenches (digging tasks urgent out carry to up set be should hand-tools, or basic with provided brigades, teams sanitation level, camp At 15. not available. has to be contemplated if local expertise is assistance outside to ideal Recourse example). an as engineering sanitary in ized special engineer civil (a expertise local of availability the investigate to is point focal the appointing in step first The 14. cies specializinginsanitation. clearly defined. There are not many agen cy, and responsibilities of various partners appointed at the very start of the emergen be must sanitation for point focal A 13.    nex 1,SanitationSurveyForm). (see An taken action corrective and larly regu out carried sanitation be should of programmes status the of 12. Surveys sons shouldberecruited. Human resourcesandorganization One and

Community participationisthekeyto One sanitarianforevery5,000per Appoint afocalpoint. successful sanitationprojects. sources. among therefugeesorfromother 500 personsshouldberecruitedfrom sons andonesanitationassistantper one sanitarian sanitation for assistant every 5,000 per persons 500 per ------hygiene promotionwork. and sanitation for needed resources rial mate and human the of checklist a gives 19. nance tasks. mainte the of most do should themselves refugees the that being goal ultimate the teams, sanitation the into integrated ally gradu be should They conditions. living own their of improvement the to tribute con to them encourage to cases) some in incentives (and materials basic with and tools provided be should 18. Refugees port environmentalhealthprogrammes. places are therefore very important to sup other or market clinics, near latrines pilot as such examples Concrete environment. asanitary from expect can they benefits both the community and individuals about convince to time takes it that recognized be nevertheless should It participation. that to prerequisite a is Hy education giene projects. sanitation of success the to key a is participation 17. Community volved insuchaprogramme. in actively be should children school and Women, leaders, etc.). teachers, hygiene, personal and habitat home, the in storage (water level household a at hygiene disposal and waste for methods simple and     Human excretadisposal

Ensure thatlatrinesarelocated in Communal trenchlatrinesmaybe Carefully considerculturaland Take immediateactiontolocalize children. at nightandaresafeforwomen and secure areassothattheycan beused stances pitlatrinesaremuch better. needed initially, butinmostcircum hand-washing facilitiesareavailable. propriate analcleaningmaterialsand physical factorsandensurethatap nation ofthewatersupply. excreta disposalandpreventcontami ne 2 Rsuc Ivnoy Form, Inventory Resource 2, Annex ------265 15 Sanitation and hygiene  Facilities should be designed in such to trench or pit latrines may help control a way that they can be used by all insect breeding and reduce odours. people including children, the elderly, pregnant women and people with dis- Disinfectants should not be poured into ability or illness. the pits or tanks of latrines. 24. Two main factors will affect the Introduction choice of an excreta disposal system: the 20. The priority is to create an efficient traditional sanitation practices of the refu- barrier against faecal contamination. This gees and the physical characteristics of the can be assured through a careful planning area, including the geology, the availabil- of camp layout and the provision of a suf- ity of water, rainfall and drainage. Failure ficient number of sanitary facilities, ensur- to take proper account of these can easily ing that these facilities are properly used result in the system itself rapidly becom- and kept clean, and do not become the ing a health hazard. source of problems such as bad smells and flies, and do not collapse when it rains. 25. The essential starting point is to find out the traditional sanitation practices of The most common cause of breakdown the refugees and how these can be modi- is inadequate maintenance, even for fied to reduce health risks in a refugee properly designed and installed sys- emergency. The following information tems. will be required: 21. The best guarantee of proper mainte- □ previous sanitation system and prac- nance is the individual family allocation tices; of latrines. Breakdown of latrines will □ method of anal cleaning; lead to contamination of the environment □ preferred position (sitting or squat- and a high risk of infection and disease. ting); There must be regular inspection and maintenance. □ need for privacy; □ segregation of sexes and other groups Even when in working order, latrines will or individuals with whom it is cultur- not be used unless they are clean. La- ally unacceptable to share a latrine; trines must be cleaned daily. □ cultural practices of children; 22. Individual families will be responsi- □ cultural taboos (for example, against ble for their own units, but where com- contact with anything that may have munal latrines are unavoidable, special touched excreta of others); arrangements to keep them clean will be □ social factors, including likelihood of essential. Particular attention must be giv- community action to ensure proper en to the maintenance and cleanliness of use of proposed system; the latrines serving community facilities □ need for special orientation (direc- such as health centres. Refugee workers tion) of latrines in some cultures; and with proper supervision will be required. □ systems used locally in neighbour- It may be necessary to pay or otherwise hood of site. compensate those who are responsible for 26. Arrangements must be made to assure keeping communal latrines clean and op- the availability of appropriate anal clean- erational. ing materials at or near all latrines. This is 23. Disinfectants prevent the biological essential for hygiene. degradation of excreta. However the regular addition of soil or ashes, if available, The latrines must be safe for children, and must be able to be used at night.

266 sible. Covering excreta with ash, lime or lime ash, with excreta Covering sible. pos if spades, and strips) the (in trenches shallow and partitions pri of means by provide vacy and area(s) the 30. Fence fields beyondonemonthisnotadvisable. defecation Operating weeks. two during 250 people during a month, or 500 people about for sufficient be would above size the of fields defecation paths, access of m 0.25 of 29. Based on a recommended surface area the entrance. from farthest strips with beginning other, the after one used, be will – path access central a of side each on long, m 20 wide, m 1.5 roughly – land of strips field, tion defeca the Within desirable. usually are women and men for areas Separate used. and down wind, but sufficiently close to be dwellings the from away each) m 50 x m 50 (about areas or area an 28. Designate excreta. and contain localize to fields defecation demarcate to is step first best the leaders, community the with consultation In ply. their environment and often the water sup to contaminating indiscriminately, likely defecate are refugees the 27. Initially Immediate action sary toprovideguards. neces be may it and lighting provided be should of form some units communal for women: for security to attention Pay 2 per person per day, exclusive day, per person per - - - - - iue ilsrts oe considera some illustrates 1 34. Figure standards. sanitation adequate maintain to order in possible, as soon as others by replaced or immediate needs, will have to be improved 33. the veryoutsetofanemergency. of choiceisalwaysmuchmorelimitedat ate sanitationmeasures. Thus therange risks, cannotbestoppedwithoutimmedi ronment byexcreta,withallitsattendant is thecriticalfactor. Pollutionoftheenvi factors. Inanemergency, however, time requires considerationofanumber system suitableforaparticularsituation 32. considerations Selection ofasystem:basic should alwaysbeinstallednearby. facility hand-washing field. A defecation each to assigned be should attendant one least At supply. water the near or dwellings indiscriminately defecate not and areas these use to refugees encourage to 31. with cut-off ditches. area the Protect contamination. cause not run-offwater will surface the where areas such Locate risks. health lessens soil just disposal. excreta in account into taken be to tions prove later. In emergency sanitation, act first and im A publicity campaign will be required Temporary systems, to meet the most the Temporarymeet to systems, The selectionofanexcretadisposal

- - - - 267 15 Sanitation and hygiene Figure 1 – Considerations in excreta disposal

Discuss problems with refugees, Government officials, NGO’s, etc. Assess available resources Immediate action: localize excreta away from dwellings and water supply

Hot, Identify and designate dry climate? Yes areas for defecation

Excreta must be contained: cover it with soil if possible, pending a better solution designed in consultation with users

Rocky Raised latrines soil? Yes (VIP, VIDP)

High water Must go direct into table, flooded or Yes watertight or raised marshy ground? container, e.g. VIDP unit

At least ensure raised structure to separate Choose most Is water defecator from marshy appropriate wet system, nevertheless available Yes ground e.g. pour-flush toilets and used or dry system by refugees?

Bury excreta: 1. Deep trench – simplest 2. Appropriate family latrine – better e.g. ventilated improved pit, borehole, VIDP latrines 3. Communal latrines are a less favourable option but may be a necessity

268 . Fliesandsmells. i. considerations: following the by and factors above) (discussed cultural by governed be should 35. iv. iii. ii. Cleanliness andprivacy. Life-span. Flooded pitsor siderations often makeitcompulsory individual level, socio-culturalcon within eachblock. At afamily and Cubicles shouldbepartitioned off ties shouldpreserveusers’ privacy. whenever possible.Sanitary facili family latrinesshouldbepreferred transmission ofdiseases. Therefore short periodoftimeandencourage and becomeunusablewithinavery nal installationsarerarelykeptclean number oflatrineswhichcanbebuilt. addition, shortageofspacelimitsthe matter hazardoustohumanhealth.In some containingun-stabilizedfaecal site wouldbecomecoveredwithpits, ably bereluctanttodothisandthe munity memberswouldunderstand a newpitshorttimelater. Com calculated, peoplewillhavetodig its dimensionshavenotbeenproperly cubic metresperpersonyear).If of adrypitshouldbeatleast0.07 last twotothreeyears(thecapacity mally, thepitshouldbedesignedto not averyexcitingexercise.Nor environmental healthproblems. and cheaplywillnotnecessarilysolve large numberoflatrinesbuilt quickly financial considerations.However, a not takenbecauseof,forinstance, drainage. Sometimesthesestepsare base andmound,pitlining,good ing araisedsuperstructure,well-built proper constructionincludinghav These canbeavoidedbyensuring control flylarvae,usingtraps,etc. latrines withbiologicallarvicidesto faeces regularlywithash,treating with anti-corrosivescreens,covering duced by:installingventpipestopped h dsg o sntr facilities sanitary of design The To digapitforexcretais collapsedwalls. These canbere Commu

------38. dug asoldonesfillup. being trenches new with periods, longer for continue can solution this available, is space where necessary,and If months. 37. Trench latrines struction andeaseofmaintenance. con of simplicity cost, low are consider have been taken into account, the key factors to factors physical and cultural once ture. superstruc a and plate) (or slab squatting a base, a pit, a components: basic four of consists It latrine. trench a over vantages ad major has It 2a). Figure (see world the around used system disposal excreta 39. Pit latrines ger ofcollapse. dan a is there if up shored be must sides Trenchcompacted. and soil with covered filled to within 30 cm of the top, it must be is trench the When lid. with appropriate, as hole squatting or seat a providing ed, 36. v. ed lengthper100personsis3.5m. Trench m

deep Location. from shelters if possible). harming the population (at least 6 m smells and pests from bothering or other buildings to prevent potential must be far enough from shelters and their use (not more than 50 m). They enough to users’ shelters to encourage the water table. Latrines must be close tom of any latrine at least 1.5 m above any groundwater source and the bot Latrines should be at least 30 m from creta of water resources should occur. abandonment offacilities. criteria mightresultinmisuseand women. Disregardforthesesimple to buildseparatedunitsformenand A platform and structure will be need rnhs a b ue fr few a for used be can Trenches h pt arn i te ot common most the is latrine pit The There are a number of latrine options: latrines and 75-90

No contamination by ex should cm wide. be dug Recommend 1.8 to 2.5 ------269 15 Sanitation and hygiene 40. If used by only one or two (a maxi- around the base to divert surface run off. mum) families these latrines are usually The pit wall should always be reinforced well maintained. Pit latrines can also be for one metre below ground level to pre- used in clusters as communal facilities. vent collapse. 41. Pit latrines are most suitable in condi- 44. The basic variety has both odour and tions of low to medium population density insect problems, which can be consider- – up to about 300 persons/hectare – but ably reduced by making the simple im- have been used satisfactorily in areas with provements in another version of pit la- twice this density. Space is needed not trine, commonly know as the ventilated only for the construction of one pit latrine improved pit (VIP) latrine (see Figure 2b), per family, but also for new pits when the and also by adding soil and ashes in the pit old ones are full. This is an important and using lids. consideration when pit latrines are used as communal facilities. Where pit latrines are used, the ventilated improved version should be built 42. When the pits are three-quarters full, whenever possible. they must be filled with soil and the su- perstructure and squatting plate moved to 45. In a VIP latrine the vent pipe should a new pit. Applying layers of ashes as the be at least 15 cm in diameter, about 2.5 m pit fills will speed up the decomposition high, painted black and placed on the sun- of excreta and in time the site can be used ny side of the latrine for maximum odour again. and insect control. Blackening the external surface of the vent pipe only margin- 43. The pit should be about one metre ally increases the venting velocity, but this across and over two metres deep. The rim factor may be of greater importance under of the pit should be raised about 15 cm ”no wind” conditions. The vent pipe must off the ground and ditches should be dug be fitted with an insect proof gauze screen

Figure 2a Figure 2b

270 Figure 3 ground). vation isdifficult(forexampleinrocky because thewatertableishighorexca where itisnotpossibletodigdeeppits 47. Raised (orbuilt-up)pitscanbeused latrine Ventilated improveddoublepit (VIDP) depth. contamination isgreaterbecauseofthe systems andtheriskofgroundwater breeding, theyaresmellierthanvented the sidewallsareliabletofoulingandfly are available. The disadvantagesarethat structed quicklyasafamilyunitifaugers the boreholelatrineisthatitcanbecon depth upto7metres. The advantageof borehole is35-45cmindiameterandany and requireasmallerslabthanpit. The with ahandaugerormechanicaldrill 46. Borehole latrines(Figure3)aredug Borehole latrines air flow. not be covered by a lid as this impedes the (so it works as a fly trap). The hole should

- - pouring ~1-3litresofwaterintoapitor squatting panorseat.Itisflushedby by aU-pipefilledwithwaterbelowthe for theirsoak-away. A water sealismade simple indesignbutneedpermeablesoil 50. Pour-flush latrines(Figure5)are Pour-flush (PF)latrine used atthesametime. be not must pits two The used. is pit er While the full pit is decomposing, the oth hazard. health a pose not and easily more removed be can it that so decompose, and out dry to soil night the for time enough then stand for at least one year. This gives fills up in two to three years, and it should 49. the space neededforreplacementlatrines. preserves it as crowded, more even become may which areas crowded in tion pipes vent op good a is It separate screens. fly with capped by ventilated are which of both pits, shallow two has trine) la ventilated pit twin alternating called 48. Figure 4 Two pits give more flexibility. A pit flexibility. A more give pits Two (also 4) (Figure latrine VIDP The

- - - 271 15 Sanitation and hygiene soak-away. This system is suitable where Solid wastes water is used for anal cleaning and where  Improper garbage disposal increases refugees are used to flushing. It is not the risk of insect and rodent-borne suitable where paper, stones, corncobs diseases, and an effective system or other solid materials are used for anal must be established for the storage, cleaning. Pour-flush latrines will be used collection and disposal of garbage. properly only if water is readily avail-  Garbage disposal areas must be desig- able. A large container with a 3 litre nated and access to them restricted. dipper should be made available close by the latrines.  Large amounts of dust and/or smoke can damage health. Preventing destruction of vegetation is the best Figure 5 preventative measure against dust. General considerations 52. The quantity of garbage generated by refugees is often not considered substantial and it therefore tends to be neglected. However, the daily amount of garbage as well as its weight can be significant, in market places in particular.

Uncontrolled accumulation of garbage is unhealthy, and promotes an increase in rodent and insect borne disease. At the beginning of an emergency hygiene and waste disposal is usually poor, so vermin and other pests including rodents pro- liferate very rapidly. 53. Food is occasionally distributed to refugees in metal cans. How those are disposed of should be given particular consideration not only for aesthetic reasons but also because of health hazards (injuries to children, potential breeding sites for mosquitoes, etc.). In addition, this kind of garbage is not biodegradable. Stabilization ponds 54. Medical waste (used syringes and needles, contaminated bandages, labora- 51. Where liquid effluent has to be dis- tory specimens, etc.) generated by health posed of in impermeable soil, stabilization centres, are a hazard. Access to medical (oxidation) ponds are a simple and cheap sanitary services should be well control- solution, particularly in hot climates. Var- led, and the waste should be treated sepa- ious systems are described in the techni- rately, without delay (see below). cal references (see references and the TSS technical resources toolkit). If ponds are The safe disposal of all medical waste used they must be securely fenced off. requires particular attention.

272 i. 57. Disposal andtreatment: usually moreappropriate. are carried) animal or (hand carts and/or Wheelbarrows camps. populated densely ered as a last option and only for large and trailers is expensive and should be consid existing from refuse-dump services. Using benefit tractors with could city a near con tainers regularly, daily if the possible. Camps from collected be should gar bage transportation: and 56. Collection around thearea. dispersed is garbage and encouraged are they rodents so properly empty to difficult practical: are nor economical neither is bins refuse as structures concrete ing than about 15 metres away from one. Us such a manner so that no dwelling is more ers should be placed throughout the site in contain The effective. be to proved has families 10 per capacity) l (100 container one of ratio A bottom. the drain in and holes age possible if lids have should Bins used. often is half in cut drum litre 200 A level. dwelling individual at bins Storage: metal drums can be used as refuse high-density sites. – thiswillbeparticularlyimportantin age, collectionanddisposalofgarbage 55. Garbage management iii. ii. Sanitary land-filling(alsoknownas Composting is an attractive option but Incineration isjustifiedonasmall good compost. garbage must besortedtoproduce may notbeavailable.Inaddition, requires technicalknowledge, which the wastewithalayerofsoil. waste. After eachincineration,cover scale andusuallyonlyformedical away fromdwellings,andfencedoff. for buryinggarbageshouldbewell advisable method. Areas designated controlled tipping)remainsthemost There shouldberoutinesforthestor

------i. in costandeffectiveness (WHO,2004): four categoriesofinterventionsthatvary ning traffic.Smokecanbecontrolledby feeding centres,andlimitingorevenban ter, especiallyaroundhealthfacilitiesand be controlledbysprayingroadswithwa vegetation aroundthesite.Dustcanalso for dustistostopthedestructionof ing food. The bestpreventivemeasure tory systemandskin,bycontaminat man healthbyirritatingeyes,therespira carried intheaircanbeharmfultohu 58. Large amountsofdustandsmoke Dust andsmoke waste wateroriginating fromvarious drains therainfall aswelldomestic ing aroundwater distributionpoints,and Drainage preventswaterfrom stagnat always beconsideredfrom thebeginning. 59. General considerations  iv. iii. ii. Waste water

Waste watermustbecontrolledas behavioural modificationstoreduce interventions toenablepeopleuse improvements tocookingstoves household changestoimproveven based keroseneandliquidpetroleum or gaseousfuels(e.g.petroleum- higher-quality, lower-emission liquid incomplete combustion);and damaging tohealthareproductsof tion efficiency-nearlyallpollutants chimneys, orincreasesincombus (e.g. ventilationbyflues,hoodsor ing thestoveoutoflivingarea); between theroofandwalls,ormov of windowopenings,providinggaps tilation (e.g.increasingthenumber the fire); to keeptheiryoungbabiesawayfrom exposure (e.g.encouragingmothers must beprevented. the localenvironmentbywastewater ed. Any potential contaminationof soon aspossibleanddrainageprovid bio-gas). gas, orbiomass-basedalcoholand This aspectofsanitationshould

------273 15 Sanitation and hygiene sources (toilets, showers, kitchens, etc.). 64. However, there is a broad range of Other measures to help control vectors waste water treatment technology. Sani- include eliminating ponds. tary engineering professionals should be 60. Drainage can very quickly become a consulted to select the most appropriate problem and corrective measures are dif- technology. ficult once shelters and other infrastructure have been built. For example, people Pest and vector control often wash next to water sources, causing  Insects and rodents carry and spread problems which could be avoided if spe- diseases and can spoil food supplies. cial separate washing areas are construct-  Physical screens are the best immedi- ed with duckboards or stones and proper ate measures. drainage.  Preventive action to eliminate or limit 61. Some families manage to channel breeding areas and conditions favour- waste water away from their homes and able to the vectors is the best long- use it to irrigate vegetable gardens. Al- term solution. though this should be encouraged it should  Specialist supervision of all chemi- not disrupt the main drainage system. cal measures and local knowledge of resistance is necessary. 62. Good drainage should be a priority at  Avoid chemical control where pos- the following locations: sible. i. water points (standpipes, taps, hand- General considerations pumps); 65. The environment in a refugee emer- ii. sanitary facilities such as showers, gency is typically favourable to the prolif- toilets and washing areas: waste wa- eration of disease-carrying insects and ro- ter from these places should either be dents (“vectors”), which can also destroy used to irrigate vegetable gardens and or spoil large quantities of food. fruit trees or drained into absorption trenches or soak-away pits; 66. Flies tend to breed in areas where iii. shelters: household members usually food or human excreta are present; mos- manage to protect their shelters from quitoes where there is stagnant water; runoff waters by means of perimeter and rats where there is food, garbage and drains; it is nevertheless important cover. As a result of overcrowding and to ensure that such water is collected inadequate personal hygiene, lice, fleas, and disposed of through main drains; mites, ticks and other arthropods may also and cause health problems. Table 2 gives an iv. markets and slaughter areas where indication of common vectors and related water will be used to clean slaughter diseases. slabs. 67. Reducing the numbers of flies, mos- Treatment quitoes and rodents quickly in an emergency is difficult and physical screens may 63. In some circumstances waste water be the best immediate measure. Over the should be treated, for example waste from longer term, the most effective method of sewers collecting effluent from pour-flush controlling insects and rodents is preven- toilets. Some treatment package units are tive: to improve personal hygiene, sanita- available on the market; but these are usu- tion, drainage, garbage disposal and food ally expensive, complex, and difficult to storage and handling practices and thus operate and maintain. make the environment less favourable for

274 Table 2–Vectors whichmayposesignificanthealthrisks the drainage network must be maintained. and important is drainage through quitoes mos for sites resting and breeding other 71. particularly). rodents and (flies pests control help also will disposal waste and excreta with deal to chapter this in described 70. Measures Physical control cals. pests can develop resistance to the chemi Also, chemicals. the spraying course, of and, handling storage, transport, during environment. There is a risk of poisoning the and beings human both to toxic and costly are products Such etc.). luscicide, mol rodenticide, (insecticide, pesticides of means by control chemical to recourse pests, one should avoid having systematic 69. ex carefully plained. be must these employed, are refugees the to unfamiliar solutions Where control. vector of significance the on given education and refugees the with 68. lic healthmeasures. spection and be integrated with other pub in regular for provide should programme of The month. per person per g supply 250 is soap monthly recommended The washing. for water sufficient and soap of provision the and excreta of disposal led waste stagnant water, regular garbage collection, control of removal the are ures meas practical of Examples vectors. the Rats Ticks Fleas Lice Mites Mosquitoes Flies VECTOR The elimination of stagnant water and Whatever the nature of nuisances and discussed be should problems The Rat bitefever, leptospirosis,salmonellosis, Lassafever Relapsing fever, spottedfever Plague (frominfectedrats),endemic typhus Epidemic typhus,relapsingfever Scabies, scrubtyphus Eye infections(particularlyamong infantsandchildren),diarrhoealdiseases RISKS Malaria, filariasis,dengue,yellow fever, encephalitis ------rats – because destroying the rats will sim the than rather fleas, the i.e. – themselves to important vectors the against directly measures take more is it present be may diseases these When typhus. murine and of plague bubonic of carriers fleas) as (such vectors favoured are Rats staff. cal medi with agreement in adopted be ways 75. (mask, clothing boots, gloves,etc.). adequate of means by protected and pesticides, of spraying and informed aspects, handling linked with health hazards about technical on trained be must tasks such to assigned 74. Staff fore therainssoastobeeffective. ing must be carried out in enough time be spray Outdoor target-species. on impact to minimize the risks and to maximize the sought be should entomologists, medical 73. priority. list of pesticides if any) should be the first registered (i.e. country the in used be to authorized or used on are which chemicals information precise 72. Obtaining Chemical control to people. ies of the rats and become more of a threat bod dead the leave to fleas the cause ply rules country. routine Insecticide any die rm pcait, particularly specialists, from Advice h ue f oetcds hud al should rodenticides of use The event and basis procedures should spraying must be be consistent in carried avoided, force in out the with and on host the in a ------275 15 Sanitation and hygiene 76. The body louse is the only proven □ Reduce faecal/oral transmission risks vector of louse-borne epidemic typhus by ensuring systematic hand-washing and relapsing fever. If there is a serious with soap (or ash and water) before increase in body louse infestation, quick cooking and eating and feeding in- action is required by properly trained per- fants and after latrine use or handling sonnel. This generally involves dusting of babies’ faeces. Washing the face individuals’ inner clothing and bedding everyday helps to prevent trachoma with an insecticide or the use of clothing and other eye infections. fumigants. There is widespread resistance □ Encourage personal hygiene includ- in lice to some insecticides and expert lo- ing clean clothes by providing ameni- cal advice must be sought. ties such as showers and laundering areas and basins. This will also General hygiene reduce contact with water bodies that  Sanitary engineering must be com- have been polluted by excreta and plemented with sufficient hygiene urine, reducing the risk of disease in- promotion work with adequate com- cluding bilharziasis (schistosomiasis). munity participation. 81. Communication of key messages on 77. Habitat hygiene, food hygiene and the importance of hygiene will have no personal hygiene, while being integral effect if they do not reach or are not ac- parts of sanitation, are also related to wid- cepted by the affected community. It is er health education and community issues extremely important that messages be dis- and so it is worth constantly repeating that cussed with vulnerable groups, especially the most effective manner to sustain effec- women and children. The key steps to re- tive sanitation activities is to complement member in conveying these messages are them with visible and concrete participa- (adapted from UNICEF, 2005): tory hygiene promotion activities on the ground. i. Establish and train a team that is familiar with local practices and social 78. Gender-balanced community partici- structures. pation in sanitation activities is a key to ii. Use the local language or pictograms successful implementation, however, to if possible. make participation work in practice, the iii. Keep messages clear and simple. community members must have the nec- iv. Work through existing social structures. essary resources – human, institutional and material – to enable them to take on v. Consider existing culture, practices their responsibilities. and gender roles. vi. Reach people during times of emer- 79. Activities to improve living condi- gency at clinics, feeding centres, tions should take place at all levels – site, distribution centres, water collection community, family and individual – and points, etc. not be restricted to just one level. Elemen- vii. Use a variety of ways of reaching tary rules of hygiene should be observed people that can include megaphones, by everyone. radio, broadcasts, announcements, 80. There are three essential steps to im- meetings, posters, home visits, large prove living conditions: and small group discussions, local newspapers and community newslet- □ Avoid overcrowding and overpopu- ters, as well as street theatre, slides, lation, which increase transmission films, video presentations, games, (through direct or indirect contact) drama, songs, role-play and simula- of diseases brought about by vectors tion, if possible and appropriate. such as fleas and lice. 276 larly incrowded conditions. account at the site planning stage, particu into taken be to need will burial for space for shrouds, should be met. The necessary example for needs, Material allowed. be should ritual and practices traditional the and used, be should disposal of method beavail customary the possible, not Whenever able. for which often may fuel sufficient cremation, no for provide justification considerations 84. Health by legislation,asappropriate. or education health intensive by dead, the of washing ritual and feasting restrict to and diseases, three these of any from ing dy persons of gatherings funeral restrict to made be always should Efforts death. of place the near quickly, held be should cholera from dying persons for Funerals cholera. or fleas) or lice infected with ed typhus or plague (when negligible they may be was infest death of a cause the unless risk health present bodies 83. Dead assistance asnecessary. for and procedures, national with pliance be com ensure to should outset the from contacted authorities The conditions. "normal" under than higher be well may rate mortality The emergency. refugee a al of the dead are required from the start of     viii. Itisimportantnottoblamethecom Suitable arrangements for the dispos the for arrangements 82. Suitable Disposal ofthedead

Before burialorcremation,bodies Burial isthesimplestandbestmethod Action should be coordinated with the Suitable arrangementsfordisposalof tions recorded. must beidentifiedandtheidentifica to allowtraditionalrituals. sible. Arrangements shouldbemade where acceptableandphysicallypos national authorities. an emergency. the deadarerequiredfromstartof practices. munity forpreviouspoorhygiene ------i. emergency operation: an during avoided be should which tion, sanita to related impacts, environmental are residing in it, who listed below are those potential or location a to damage term 87. So as not to cause irreversible or long- body,care shouldbetakenwithbodilyfluids. dead a in long for survive cannot water afterwards. Although the HIV virus ers should wash thoroughly with soap and gloves, face masks, boots and overalls. with The work themselves protect should 86. to lookafterthem. adult an without left are death, a of result en to assure the care of minors who, as the tak be must steps and notified; be should relation immediate most the known, are relatives of whereabouts the If disease. of tracing and registration control, the for important particularly is This recorded. death of cause possible, if and, recorded, identification the and identified be bodies must cremation, or burial 85. Before iv. iii. ii. Potential environmentalimpacts Poor controlofexcretacanleadto Dust carriedintheaircan be irritat Inadequate provisionofgarbage Poor managementofwaterdistribu pollution, withresultanthumanand population thanthatwhichcausedthe spread ofdiseasetoamuchgreater groundwater. This canresultinthe pollution ofsurfacewateraswell system orskin, cancontaminatefood ing orharmful totheeyes,respiratory animals, insectsorvermin. tential spreadofdiseaseby humans, nation oftheenvironment and thepo and recycling,couldleadto contami disposal andstabilization, or reuse storage nearpointofuse,collection, for diseasecarryingvectors. dles) canprovidebreedinggrounds is allowedtocollectandstandinpud tion pointsandwastewater(i.e.ifit financial costs. hn adig ope, workers corpses, handling When ------277 15 Sanitation and hygiene and damage sensitive camp equip- Emergency Sanitation: Assessment and ment. Under some conditions, dust Programme Design, Harvey, P. Baghri, can be heavily contaminated with S., Reed. B., Water Engineering Devel- faecal matter and may be a direct opment Centre (WEDC), Loughborough cause of disease. University, 2002.*# v. Smoke generated as a result of de- Emergency Vectors using Chemicals, La- ficient cooking practice and wrong carin, C., Reed, B., Water Engineering design of shelter can be a concern, as Development Centre (WEDC), Lough- it is hazardous to human health and borough University, 1999.*# other local biological entities. vi. Insects and rodents are primary vectors for the spread of disease within Excreta Disposal in Emergencies: A the refugee camp and between the field manual, Harvey, P., WEDC, 2005 refugee and local population. These (Draft).# pests can also contaminate food supplies, either before or after distribu- Manuel d’Utilisation des Désinfectants, tion to refugees. UNHCR, Geneva, 1994.# vii. Some of the measures used to control Indoor smoke from solid fuels: Assessing pests (i.e. chemical applications) can the environmental burden of disease at na- be toxic to humans (both beneficiar- tional and local levels, ISBN 92 4 159135 ies and workers), to non-target organ- 8, WHO (2002).* isms and to the environment (regard- Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects ing biodegradability of chemicals). of Excreta and Wastewater Management, Key references (* = available on the web, Feachem & al, Wiley & Sons, 1983. # = available on the TSS toolkit) Sphere project: Humanitarian Charter and Chemical Methods for the Control of Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, Arthropod Vectors and Pests of Public ISBN 92-9139-097-6, 2004 .*# Health Importance, WHO, Geneva, 5th edition 1997. Standards and Indicators in UNHCR operations – 2005 revision, Geneva 2005.* Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters, A Practical Guide; edited by B. Vector and Pest Control in Refugee Situ- Wisner, J. Adams, WHO Geneva 2002.*# ations (also in French), PTSS, UNHCR, Geneva, 1997.*# Emergency Field Handbook, A guide for UNICEF staff, Office of Emergency Pro- Vector Control: Methods for Use by Indi- grammes, UNICEF, New York, ISBN: 92- viduals and Communities, WHO, Geneva, 806-3860-2, July 2005.* 1997.

278 B. Refusedisposal I. Prepared by: Camp/Settlement &coordinates: Country: Annex 1:SanitationSurveyForm Comments: Public latrines Private latrines A. Excretadisposal **P.F. =pour-flush * V.I.P. = ventilatedimprovedpit Comments: Communal refusepits long___xWide___xDeep___x – Garbagebins

– Transportation: – Finaldisposal – Individualpits: Living areas Total Ratiooflatrineseatstopeople:1/...... he-arw Truck Wheel-barrow iesos Number Dimensions Capacity Landfill (litres) □ □ □ □ Basic latrine

V.I.P. Incineration Number □ □ □ □ □

P.F.** Date: ...... /...... /...... Camp population: from dwelling(m) Max distance Other Other Other □ □ □ □

279 15 Sanitation and hygiene Annex 1

II. Public places

C. Existing facilities Schools *Latrine Type P.F. V.I.P. Basic Other □ □ □ □ 1 seat /______boys 1 seat /______girls 1 urinal /______boys Hand washing facilities: Yes No *Refuse collection Yes No □ □ Hospitals *Latrine Type P.F. V.I.P. Basic Other □ □ □ □ Hand washing facilities: Yes No

*Refuse collection Buried Burnt □ □ Markets & food distribution centres *Excreta disposal Good Poor None □ □ □ *Refuse collection Good Poor None □ □ □ Comments:

D. Drainage – at water posts Good Poor None □ □ □ – around latrines Good Poor None □ □ □ – camp drainage network Good Poor None □ □ □ Comments:

280 iifcin hoie Other Chlorine – chemicalusedforwaterdisinfection – sanitationatsource F. Communitywatersupply – pointsofapplicationabovechemicals – individualwatercontainers – sanitationatdistributionpoint – storageathome

groundsurface – watertabledistancefrom – soil – topography E. Generalcharacteristics Rainy season ______m Rocky Flat □ □ _____ litres

Capacity Capacity Source Good Good □ □ □ □

______litres ______m Dry season Moderate Clay □ □

Storage Clean Y –N Poor Poor tank □ □ □ □

Sandy Steep □ □ container Covered Home Y –N None None None □ □ □ □

281 15 Sanitation and hygiene Annex 2: Sanitation – Resource Inventory Form

Country: Prepared by: Camp: Population: Date: ...... /...... /......

A. Implementation Name(s) Governmental authorities ______International organizations ______Private sector ______NGO’s ______

B. Human resources Number of workers Is there a spraying team? Y N ______Is there a drainage team? Y N ______Is there a sanitation team? Y N ______Is there an organized workshop? Y N ______Number of sanitarians: Number of health workers: (assigned to sanitation tasks)

C. Tools Description Specification Quantity Axe ______Crowbar ______Iron bar cutter ______Pickaxe ______Shovel ______Spade ______Tape metre ______Other (please specify) ______

D. Equipment Description Specification Quantity Cement mixer ______Mortar bucket ______Mould (latrine slab) ______Mould (brick) ______Wheelbarrow ______Sprayer ______Spraying equipment ______– overall clothing ______– masks ______– gloves ______– boots ______Other (please specify) ______

E. Chemicals Item Unit Quantity (stock in hand) Comments Vector control ______– ______– ______Water treatment ______– ______

282 283 15 Sanitation and hygiene 16 Food and nutrition

284

Keydefinitions Infant andyoungchildfeedinguseofmilkproducts Selective feedingprogrammes General feedingprogramme Nutrition assessments Organization offoodsupport Introduction Overview CONTENTS

Food deliveryanddistribution Introduction Cooking fuel Related non-foodneedsandotherprogramming Role ofrefugeesandnutritioneducation Coordination Initial assessment Joint assessmentandplanning WFP/UNHCR cooperation UNHCR’s policyrelatedtotheacceptance, distribution HIV and AIDS and infantfeeding Criteria forclosingprogrammes Monitoring selectivefeedingprogrammes Planning and organizing a selective feeding programme Identifying thoseeligible Starting aselectivefeedingprogramme Community-based managementofsevere Community-based managementofsevere Therapeutic feedingprogrammes(TFP) Supplementary feedingprogrammes(SFP) General principlesofselectivefeedingprogrammes Monitoring thegeneralfeedingprogramme Micronutrients General foodration Response tofoodandnutritionalneeds Moderate andseveremalnutrition Recognizing andmeasuringmalnutrition and useofmilkproducts malnutrition inthecontextofhighHIVprevalence malnutrition inchildren Nutrition, foodandHIV AIDS elements

7 302 57 04 296-298 295 294 30-43 294 29 294 27 291 290 25 289 23 19 289-296 14 288-289 7 7-29 1-6 Page Paragraph 314-320 313 114-127 313 311 308 112 308 108 308 99 96 307 93 90 306 305 82 305 73 69 305-314 303 64 303 64-113 300 63 299 58 51 44 299-303 298 297 44-63 296 43 35 30

319 318 315 299 cont. 285 16 Food and nutrition CONTENTS cont. Paragraph Page

Key references 320

Glossary 321

Annexes Annex 1: Basic facts about food and nutrition 322 Annex 2: Characteristics of common foods 325 Annex 3: Main nutritional deficiency disorders in emergencies 326 Annex 4: Reporting form: supplementary feeding programme 329 Annex 5: Reporting form: therapeutic feeding programme 330 Annex 6: Example of anthropometric nutrition survey format 331 Annex 7: Rapid assessment: measuring malnutrition 333 Annex 8: Emergency phase action plan 334 Annex 9: Checklist for adjustments to the initial reference figure of 2,100 kcal 334

Figures and tables

Figure 1: The complex causes of malnutrition 288 Figure 2: Typical sequence of joint assessment activities 292 Figure 3: Integrated programme strategies 302 Figure 4: Response to food and nutritional needs 304 Figure 5: Selective feeding programmes 309 Figure 6: Admission and discharge criteria 311

Table 1: Summary of key malnutrition indicators 299 Table 2: Micronutrient needs of groups with specific needs 301 Table 3: Types of selective feeding programmes 310 Table 4: Organization of selective feeding programmes 312 Table 5: Projected demographic breakdown 313

286 • • • • • Principles ofresponse tection risks. being, nutritional status and eliminate pro quate food in order to maintain their well- ade to right fundamental the reaffirm to foods appropriate of quantity sufficient and quality with refugees the provide To Objective those whoarealreadymalnourished. for required be will rehabilitation tional Nutri micronutrients. as well as ments, require protein and energy basic meet to support food full or partial need will gees quate provision and intake of food. Refu and ade ensure to required threatened are actions urgent severely often is curity se nutritional and food emergencies, In Situation Promote breastfeeding and pay par The food distribution system should Measures to meet food supply should Every effort should be made to ensure Based on the Memorandum of Under malnutrition. with specific needs who are prone to young children, women and those mentary feeding for older infants and ticular attention to adequate comple ties and fuel. related needs, such as cooking facili cially women, and provide non-food involve refugee participation, espe quality and safety. groups affected in terms of quantity, nutrition needs of all population sub- be adequate to cover the overall to UNHCR. ceptable to the population of concern requirements and are culturally ac the food-aid items meet nutritional and non-food needs. consequently the provision of food in relation to joint assessment and nation with WFP and other agencies gramme (WFP), ensure close coordi UNHCR and the World Food Pro standing (MOU) 2002 between

------• • • • • Action • • • • • • Arrange community education on use of Organize a general feeding programme Ensure the availability of appropri Once the initial emergency phase is Ensure an initial nutrition, food and non- Every effort should be made to provide Ensure the active involvement of a Maintain close coordination with the Enhance outreach activities and nutri Review general food ration composi Provide fortified food items includ malnourished. ing women as well as the moderately mentary feeding for pregnant and lactat for the severely malnourished, supple needs such as community-based care feeding programmes to meet specific tonal status, organize necessary targeted for all refugees and, based on the nutri necessary transport and storage. cooking fuel and utensils, including the ate food and non-food items such as population. to establish the nutrition status of the stablized, conduct a nutrition survey food needs assessment is carried out. facilities should be made available. grain; if wholegrain is provided, milling cereal in fortified flour form instead of nutritionist. with existing services. etc.) and aim for maximum integration ronmental sanitation, HIV and AIDS other vital sectors (health, water, envi tion monitoring. portunities. physical activity and self-reliance op demographic distribution, level of mental temperature, nutritional status, tion taking into consideration: environ aid). population is fully dependent on food populations micronutrient needs (if the ing blended food to meet the general practices and behavioural changes. propriate infant and young child feeding food-aid commodities and promote ap ------287 16 Food and nutrition Introduction 2. The causes of malnutrition are often complex and multi-sectoral (see Figure 1. In an emergency, refugees and people 1). Therefore, examining the causes of of concern to UNHCR may be completely malnutrition and possibilities for response dependent on the provision of external is essential. Coordinating the food and food sources. An initial assessment of the nutrition programmes with health, water, beneficiary numbers, health and nutrition- environment, food security, gender roles al situation, food security and other related and other vital sectors is necessary for in- information (e.g morbidity, micronutrient forming programme strategies. deficiencies) is fundamental for calculating food needs and to make necessary 3. Assistance must be appropriate to the adjustments to the initial planning figure. nutritional needs of the refugees and be Continuous monitoring will ensure that culturally acceptable. Infant feeding poli- the programmes can be adjusted in order cies require particular attention. to reflect changing conditions. Figure 1 – The complex causes of malnutrition Figure 1 – The complex causes of malnutrition

288

6. This chapter should be read in conjunction with: i. Food and Nutrition Needs in Emergencies (UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2002). ii. Sphere Handbook, (2004). iii. Management of Nutrition in Major Emergenices (WHO, 2000). iv. The UNHCR/WFP Joint Assessment Guidelines (UNHCR/WFP, 2004).

Organization of food support

The World Food Programme (WFP), the food aid arm of the United Nations system, shares with UNHCR responsibility for meeting the food and nutritional needs of refugees.     i. junction with: 6. sponse setoutinthischapter. time may be and needed to develop the full re locally available be not might food accept able to the is refugees. However, acceptable which locally available food provide to taken be must action mediate im shortage, food severe of effects the suffering already are refugees the 5. If meet theiradditionalrequirements. to needs specific with persons and ished malnour the identify to required is action Special elderly. and sick the women, ing lactat and pregnant children, young and infants of as such risk others, than at malnutrition more are groups 4. Certain iv. iii. ii. Organization offoodsupport

In mostrefugee emergencies a The aimofthefoodprogrammeis The MemorandumofUnderstand The World FoodProgramme(WFP), Food andNutritionNeedsinEmer The UNHCR/WFP Joint Assessment Management ofNutritioninMajor Sphere Handbook,(2004). hs hpe sol b ra i con in read be should chapter This culturally acceptable. tritionally balanced,palatable and assessed requirementsand isnu through afoodrationthatmeets the tenance ofsoundnutritional status to ensuretherestorationand main operations. internally displacedpersonsfeeding mechanisms forrefugeereturneeand of responsibilitiesandcoordination and UNHCRestablishesthedivision ing (MOU)signedbetween WFP needs ofrefugees. for meetingthefoodandnutritional shares withUNHCRresponsibility tions system, the foodaidarmofUnitedNa Guidelines (UNHCR/WFP, 2004). Emergenices (WHO,2000). and WHO, 2002). gencies (UNHCR,UNICEF, WFP

------Joint objectives i. to contributeto: seek WFP and UNHCR items, non-food related of and food right the of quantity right the of provision timely the through 8. On the basis of the above principle and needed foranactiveandhealthylife. food enough to times all at people all by ad dressed. adequately Food security is are defined as access assist and protect to mandated is UNHCR that population the of related needs the security and that food ensure to is WFP and UNHCR partnership between the of goal ultimate The 7. WFP/UNHCR Cooperation   1 ii. WFP/HCRMOU 2002,paragraph2.1

Simple nutritioneducationisan The refugees,andinparticularrefu the restorationand/ormaintenanceof the promotionofhighestpossi tion groupsandthatisnutritionally requirements ofthedifferent popula food basketthatmeetstheassessed a soundnutritionalstatusthrough nutrition support. integral partofeffective foodand organization oftheseprogrammes. gee women,mustbeinvolvedinthe nutrition programmewith WFP. dination ofallaspectsthefoodand have overallresponsibilityforcoor nator shouldbeappointed,whowill UNHCR foodandnutritioncoordi development-oriented activities. targeted assistanceandsustainable food distributiontowardsmore progressive shiftfromgeneral relief generation, whichwillfacilitate a develop foodproductionorincome- tation ofappropriateprogrammesto beneficiaries, throughtheimplemen ble levelofself-relianceamongthe Joint Plansof Action; and jointly agreeduponandspecifiedin balanced andculturallyacceptable,as 1

------289 16 Food and nutrition 9. A revised Memorandum of Under- UNHCR is responsible for the transpor- standing (MOU) (see Appendix 1) signed tation of all commodities from the EDP between UNHCR and WFP in July 2002 to the final destination and for final dis- recognizes the importance of examining tribution to beneficiaries. In targeted op- both food and non-food aspects relevant erations, UNHCR and WFP may jointly to food security, and of capitalizing on op- agree to transfer the responsibility for portunities to increase self-reliance. Un- general distribution to WFP. der the terms of the MOU, WFP meets 12. Under the MOU, UNHCR is respon- the emergency food needs of refugees (in- sible for mobilizing and transporting com- cluding asylum seekers), returnees, and, plementary food commodities and for the in specific situations, internally displaced provision of the necessary micronutrients persons, and provides associated logisti- (vitamins and minerals) when they cannot cal support. The terms of the MOU apply be met through the ration. when the beneficiaries in the country of asylum number more than 5,000, irrespec- UNHCR resourced commodities tive of their country of origin or their loca- include: tion within the country of asylum, unless i. Complementary foods otherwise determined and agreed upon (including fresh foods) by WFP and UNHCR on a case-by-case ii. Therapeutic foods basis. UNHCR and WFP will separately iii. Occasionally spices, other meet the food needs of persons of their condiments, tea concern that lie outside the scope of the iv. Related non-food items MOU. 13. UNHCR, WFP and their partners have developed a common set of guide- 10. Within the scope of the MOU, WFP 2 has the lead responsibility for mobiliz- lines for estimating food and nutritional needs in emergencies and in selective ing the following food commodities 3 (whether for general or selective feeding feeding programmes. These guidelines programmes) and the resources to deliver should be used to assess the food needs them. for both the general and selective feeding programmes. WFP resourced commodities include: i. Cereals Joint assessment and planning ii. Edible oils 14. Contingency planning: UNHCR and iii. Pulses (or other sources of protein) WFP will establish early-warning sys- iv. Blended foods tems, undertake contingency planning and v. Iodized salt vi. Sugar maintain contingency plans for countries vii. Occasionally high energy biscuits where this is deemed appropriate. Each will seek to ensure joint participation of 11. WFP is responsible for mobilizing the others in the process, and share relevant necessary resources for milling and pro- contingency plans. vide milling facilities for the beneficiaries where feasible. Women will be particu- 15. Joint plan of action (JPA): At the larly encouraged to play a key role in the field level, a JPA setting out the agreed management of the milling services. WFP upon objectives, the implementation ar- is also responsible for the timely transport and storage of the commodities at 2 Food and Nutrition Needs in Emergencies, agreed extended delivery points (EDPs), UNHCR-UNICEF-WFP-WHO, WHO 2002. 3 UNHCR/WFP Guidelines for Selective Feeding and for the operation and management Programmes in Emergency Situations, WFP- of the EDPs. Unless otherwise agreed, UNHCR, 1999.

290 WFP, June2004. (with Tools andResource Materials),UNHCR- 4 • ess: proc integrated an of part as following 18. Joint assessment activities include the al partners,asappropriate. UNHCR, WFP and prospective operation emergencyof from pation teams response partici the involve would This agencies. both by mobilized emer being response the gency of framework the within out carried be normally will needs non-food of beneficiaries and the most urgent number food and the determine to assessment emergency,new major initial a the 17. In groups. vulnerable and children women, of views and needs the to given be will sideration Special con inputs. related non-food and assistance, of duration food size, ration basket, the of composition the assistance, food of modalities the on agree will cies agen Both requirements. non-food lated re and aid food will overall the assess jointly WFP and UNHCR appropriate, as experts and beneficiaries, partners, tional opera representatives, donor authorities, consultation with the relevant government 16. persons. displaced internally recognized officially to provided assistance any include should Package and subject to further agreements, the JPA Policy (IASC) Committee ing Stand Inter-Agency agreed the with In line applicable. where plans repatriation and situations refugee of monitoring and JPAstrategy,analysis The include should tion and updated regularly, at least anually. developed at the onset of each joint opera be shall assessments joint of mendations recom the and operations for rangements UNHCR/WFP Joint Assessment Guidelines

initial assessment(normally starting flux; the onsetofarefugeeemergency/in with arapidinitialinvestigation) at Joint assessment mission (JAM): mission assessment Joint 4 In ------sitne rgams ih operational with programmes assistance weeks) to provide a basis for the 2-3 design of (e.g. weeks few a within completed and assessment rapid the from directly on 2. A ting preliminaryrequeststodonors. and distribution of assistance, and submit immediate delivery initiating the for basis a provide to days) 2-3 (e.g. days few first 1. A be undertakenintwophases: will assessment the assistance, prompt of rive in significant numbers and are in need ar refugees new when cases, most 19. In Initial assessment implemented). where processes, planning participatory tion with UNHCR’s situation analysis and inter-ac the shows also (which 2 Figure tivities, in a country of asylum is shown in of and relationships among the various ac The whole process, including the sequence • • • • • ment inOperations, 2006. 5 assessment or weeks, several only UNHCR-WFPorganized be may joint a and delayed be may assistance for international request government the cases, such In area. the in working already NGOs or and/ communities local authorities, local take period by of care taken are or themselves of care initial an and for and possessions supplies, some with gressively pro arrive refugees cases, some 20. In plans andbudgetsforatleast6months. SeeTheUNHCRTool ForParticipatory Assess

monitoring onanongoingbasis. nutrition surveysandsurveillance; assessment inpreparationforrepa in-depth assessmentsoffoodsecurity/ periodic reviews/re-assessmentsofan and triation andreintegration; self-reliance; ongoing operation; detailed initial assessment rapid initial investigation 5 following within the ------291 16 Food and nutrition even months, after the initial influx.6 In going operation. If needs are urgent and such cases, a detailed initial assessment there are no partners or other staff in the may be undertaken without a preliminary locality able to arrange to acquire sup- rapid investigation phase, if needs are not plies locally and/or receive supplies sent urgent. However, the 2-phase process is from elsewhere, and to organize initial still needed in many cases. distributions, members of the assessmentANNEXES team may have to fulfil these responsibili- 21. A new rapid investigation and follow- ties while also continuing with the assess- on detailedFigure assessment 2 may be required ment. in case of a major Typical new influx sequence in an on-of Joint Assessment Activities Figure 2 - Typical sequence of joint assessment activities Situation/events Joint assessment activities Programming action

Initial Rapid initial WFP IR-EMOP influx investigation (2-3 days) HCR ELOI

Food & self-reliance Detailed initial strategy assessment (2-3 weeks) Joint Plan of Action (JPA) WFP EMOP HCR Operations Plan Monitoring Tripartite agreements Nutrition Nutrition survey surveillance Refinement of JPA and of operations during implementation As soon HCR situation In-depth food as the analysis & security/ self- situation participatory reliance stabilizes planning assessment Updated food & self- reliance strategy Revised/up-dated JPA Periodic (annual) WFP EMOP revision or review/ re-assessment PRRO HCR Operations Plan

In case of Rapid If needed: a major investigation/ WFP PRRO revision new influx assessment HCR ELOI

Periodic nutrition surveys Refinement of JPA and of operations during implementation When needed: self-reliance / coping strategies review

Periodic review/ re-assessment Updated food & self- reliance strategy When moving including assessment in Revised/updated JPA towards a preparation for voluntary WFP PRRO revision or durable repatriation, when appropriate new PRRO solution HCR Operations Plan

6 This was the case for the Sudanese refugees who arrived in Chad in 2003, for example. 292 (2-3 days) □ Phase-2: Detailedinitialassessment □ □ □ □ Phase-1: Rapidinitialinvestigation ment Typical objectivesforaninitialassess (2-3 weeks)

To determinewhatmeasuresarenec To identifyfactorsthatcouldposi To identifythelocalitiesandprior To begincompilingdatathatwillbe To determinewhethertherefugees mum possible levelofsustainable (ii) progressively achievethemaxi months; and nutritional healthinthenext 6-12 protection tomaintain(orrestore) non-food supplies,services and their nutritionalneeds,and torelated equate inquantityandquality tomeet (i) haveaccesstofoodthatisad to ensurethattherefugees: essary andwhatassistanceisrequired camps andsettlements. determining thelocationsforrefugee the noticeofauthoritieswhoare fuel-wood, etc.),bringconstraintsto proximity of markets, access to water, bilities forself-reliance(e.g.location, tively ornegativelyinfluencepossi detailed assessmentshouldfocus. ity topicsonwhichfollow-onmore months. be requiredinthecomingweeksand the scaleofassistancethatcould to beprovideddonorsconcerning and enablepreliminaryinformation required foroperationalplanning, should bedistributed. delivered, andhowbywhomit required, howthatassistancecanbe ties offoodandrelatedassistance provided for, thetypesandquanti days): thenumberofpeopletobe if so,todefine(forthenext15-30 and well-beingintheshorttermand, prepare foodandensuretheirsurvival and/or otherformsofassistanceto need immediatefoodassistance

------□ □ □ □ □ □

To determinewhetherimmediate To assessthelogistic(transport, To definethetypesoffoodand To enablespecific, credibleproject To assemblethedatarequiredfor To identifyandassesstheresources the localpopulation. food shortagesormalnutritionamong refugees; and(ii)addressanyacute fuel-wood collectionactivitiesofthe undermined bytheself-relianceand ral resourcebaseoftheareaarenot local hostpopulationandthenatu ensure thatthefoodsecurityof what assistanceisrequiredto:(i) measures arenecessaryand,ifso, overall programme. be consideredinthedesignof including anylogisticconstraintsto losses throughoutthesupplychain, proper accountabilityandminimum operational reservestocks,with to therefugeesites,andmaintain in-country supplies,deliversupplies receive importedsupplies,acquire management capacitiesavailableto storage andhandling)means to self-relianceshouldbeprovided. and distributed;howinitialassistance ance shouldbedelivered,targeted for; howthefoodandrelatedassist the numberofpeopletobeprovided related non-foodassistancerequired; able survivalstrategies). tion (avoidingdamagingorundesir self-reliance pendingadurablesolu donors forfunding. to beelaborated andsubmittedto proposals (forthenext6-12 months) be measured,totheextent possible. which programmeperformance can sary toestablishabaseline against includes dataonkeyindicatorsneces and toinitiateimplementation:this operational planningandbudgeting, toring activities. distribution, self-relianceandmoni menting partnerstoundertakefood and capacitiesofpotentialimple ------293 16 Food and nutrition 22. UNHCR and WFP should also con- methods of cooking cannot be avoided. sider the food security situation of com- This should be organized in conjunction munities surrounding refugee camps and with providing skills on appropriate infant of individuals and families hosting refu- feeding, community-based therapeutic gees, and address these needs as appropri- care, diarrhoea treatment, basic food hy- ate. giene and preparation for maximum nutritional benefit. Coordination 23. A UNHCR coordinator should be Related non-food needs and other pro- appointed as focal point for food and nu- gramming elements tritional issues. In smaller operations, 27. Related non-food needs include what- either the programme officer or the lo- ever non-food items, services or other gistics officer could be appointed as food measures may be needed to: coordinator. If technical expertise is not  ensure that refugees are able to available initially within UNHCR or WFP prepare and cook their food – e.g. then assistance should be sought from utensils, stoves, cooking fuel, water government nutritionists, UN agencies or (for food preparation and cooking), NGOs. grinding/milling facilities (when 24. The food and nutrition coordinator’s needed); responsibilities are to establish standard  address other factors that could procedures, including procedures for gen- undermine nutritional status and eral food distribution, coordinate feeding well-being – e.g. shelter, clothing, programmes, monitor and evaluate the blankets, water quantity (for hygiene feeding programmes, and ensure close purposes), water quality (for drink- coordination and integration with coming), sanitation, feeding practices, munity services, health and other sectors. communicable diseases and psycho- The coordinator should act as the focal social distress, access to education point within UNHCR for coordination and health care including essential with WFP and NGO’s. Where the food drugs, personal (in)security; and coordinator is not her/himself a nutrition  enhance sustainable self-reliance specialist, an experienced nutritionist will – e.g. the materials, facilities, techni- also be needed to provide the food coordi- cal assistance, training, administra- nator with the necessary technical advice. tive measures, etc. 28. Joint assessment teams must consider Role of refugees and nutrition education all of the above. This will be done largely 25. The refugees must be involved from on the basis of secondary data, especially the start in the organization and manage- the reports of surveys, assessments, ongo- ment of the feeding programmes. Special ing monitoring, and evaluations conduct- training will be necessary for refugees. ed by competent organizations, but will 26. The provision of simple outreach nu- also include discussions with key inform- trition education and skills for the refugees ants and groups of refugees as well as the is necessary when unfamiliar foods or new team’s own observations during visits to refugee sites.

294 asn lsig aae o h environ ment, with direct effects on the health and the to damage lasting site causing the around and in vegetation the of destruction to lead quickly can this with in the vicinity of the camp. Failure to deal resources natural the of management and control the and fuel cooking of provision 29. Particular attention must be paid to the Cooking fuel cook food: and water, andtoprepare Requirements tostorefood Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Topic Requirements forself-reliance: status andwell-being: Factors thataffectnutritional Administrativemeasures Training Technical assistance Facilities Materials Personal(in)security Accesstoeducation,health Prevalenceofdiarrhoea, Feedingpractices Shelter, clothing,blankets, Grinding/millingfacilities Water Cookingfuel Stoves Utensils (where needed) trient deficiencies sanitation care andessentialdrugs previously existingmicronu and psychosocialdistress, communicable diseases water quantity, What isexpectedofjointUNHCR-WFP water to non-foodneedsandotherprogrammingelements quality, - □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Approach Reviewthefindings,conclusionsandrecommendations ofrelevant

firm theplausibilityofavailabledata. reliance athouseholdandcommunitylevels. risks andpossibilitiesforself-reliance(seechapter5). for action. to enhanceself-relianceandconfirmorupdaterecommendations development workersandagenciestheeffectiveness ofactivities Observe self-relianceactivitiesanddiscusswithrefugeegroups, assessment, monitoringandevaluationreports. nutritional status. them, andtheadditionalactionsrequiredtoprotecthealth Summarize currentrecommendations,thestatusofactionon of malnutrition. and generalwell-being,includinganyspecifically-identifiedcauses Summarize availabledataandtheimplicationsfornutritionalstatus Discuss withrefugeesinfocusgroups. assessments assoonpossible. and trytoarrangeforcompetentbodiesundertakeprofessional source, gatherwhateverinformationyoucanduringyourvisits, Exceptionally, ifnoinformationisyetavailablefromacompetent if dataarenotconsistentwithyourownobservations. update thedataandrecommendationsforaction;seekclarification groups, publichealthworkers,nutritionistsandNGOstoconfirmor Observe conditionsandpracticesdiscusswithrefugee ment, monitoringandevaluationreports. Review theconclusionsandrecommendationsofrelevantassess compare withthestandardsbelow. Examine availablesecondarydataonthecurrentsituationand households areabletoadequatelyprepareandcooktheirfood. Specify what(ifanything)needstobedoneensurethatall to-date data. If needed,undertake(ororganize)asurveytogatherreliableup- Discuss withrefugeesinfocusgroups. Observe foodpreparationandcookingathouseholdleveltocon holds andcomparewiththestandardsbelow. Examine availablesecondarydataonwhatistohouse Specify theactions(ifany)thatneedtobetakenenhanceself- If needed,organize(orrecommend)anin-depthassessmentof - i. include: erably population. local consid vary consumption and needs Fuel the with friction and people local and refugees of well-being assessmentteamsinrelation Food preparation,cooking tech suring lidsare usedonpots,ensuring Soaking beans priortocooking,en niques, fueltypeandpreparation 7 Fcos fetn te s o fuel of use the affecting Factors .

- .

- - - - - 295 16 Food and nutrition wood is dry and chopped, and that  Regular nutrition assessment is neces- fires are put out after cooking – all sary both to monitor the nutrition these make considerable fuel savings status of the community including and can be incorporated into environ- identifying individuals who have mental awareness raising and training specific needs. programmes.  Information must be gathered on in- ii. Type of stove. It may be possible fant feeding practices, micronutrient to use local technology to modify deficiencies, morbidity and mortality existing types of wood or charcoal as well as malnutrition rates, in order burning stoves in order to make them to understand the underlying causes more fuel efficient. Simple improve- of malnutrition. ments and local technologies are best. Note that the social and economic Introduction implications of a new technology are 30. An initial assessment of the nutrition usually more important in determin- status of the refugees should be made as ing whether it will be adopted than soon as possible and should be carried out the effectiveness of the technology by an experienced nutritionist. The extent itself. The promotion and use of of malnutrition has important implications improved stoves must closely involve for what form the emergency response will the refugees. take, and will enable early decisions to be iii. Type of food. Freshly harvested foods taken on the components of the rations take less cooking time, also using and on the requirement for any additional milled rather than whole grain and selective feeding programmes. using pre-cooked food make consid- 31. The initial nutritional assessment erable fuel savings. The environmen- should be followed by regular nutrition tal implications of the food basket surveys under specialist supervision to need to be taken into account with monitor the nutrition situation of the pop- WFP. ulation as a whole. iv. Availability (or “price”) of fuel itself. 32. Where results of the initial assess- This is often the most significant fac- ment or later surveys indicate a need for tor affecting per capita fuel consump- selective feeding programmes, individu- tion. The provision of fuel wood and als will need to be identified and regis- managing and controlling the use of tered for these programmes. Their indi- natural resources around a refugee vidual progress should then be monitored camp is discussed further in chapter regularly. 12 on site planning.

8 33. The initial nutrition assessment and Nutrition assessments the periodic nutrition surveys of the  The nutrition assessment should be population as a whole should be done by carried out as soon as possible by an measuring the weight and height of a ran- experienced nutritionist.  A nutrition survey should include an- 8 WHO released new growth standards in thropometric measurements, morbid- April 2006 which are available at www.who. ity as well as food security informa- int/childgrowth. This is accompanied by the tion. release of software which allows calculation of the prevalence of malnutrition using the NCHS/WHO reference data and the WHO 2006 growth standards. UNHCR is in the pro- 7 Average fuel-wood consumption per person per cess of assessing programming implications day in different refugee camps has varied from of these new standards. For more information 0.9kg to 4kg. contact [email protected] 296 cm and 110 cm height are used as the cut off points instead of 6 and 59 months. 6 andof as59 the cut points instead used are off cmcm110 and height 65 known, are not children ages the When of shortageaffected. food the severely most and are surveys,nutrition because young children the are showfirst malnutritionsignsof into times of status of adults by assessingthe adults status degree by of thinness of 1). (see table 38. 38. nutritionsurvey. analysing continuous asvariables such the height and weight of sample the a of in population a standardtaking into consideration the reference the deviation of isindistribution. Z-score used individual’s an Z-score: Thevalu of deviation programs) expressionresults as (such when will be as a programmatic tool in selectiveused feeding repopresented to in Z-scoresaddition the survey in median can the Percentage of be surveys. nutrition indicators in anthropometric presenting mode of and the preferred score.the standard a Z as are or Z-scores that of a normalheight, child actual a weight as The weight standard for ais the of percentage populations. child of calculated 37. mortality are rates important. particularly Child specific on interventions. focus the malnutritionrelationship malnutritionthecharacteristicand and between mortality determine to of the causes underlying understanding in willassist morbidity information and 36. Mortality allowsat time, situation in time. and one point over comparisons the status,nutritional quantifies which nutritional of assessment an heightas objective used are measurements). (body defiencies)anthropometry such andMeasurementsweight-for- as by 35. clinical Malnutrition be can recognized by si malnutrition measuring Recognizing and trigger level beensee has reached). not Please Appendix 1 Emergency: Key Indicators. the even if action rapid some stillrequire might situation low (deteriorating rapidly but trends on malnutrition rate in information diarrhoeal diseases). a requiressituation Such Body mass index Weight-for-height in children . It children aged 6 measuredisyoung monthsbetween andin who 59 usually are comparisons overtime. allows and nutritional time, in point one at situation the quantifies which status, nutritional of assessment objective an as used are weight-for-height as such ments Measure measurements). (body pometry or micronutrient defiencies) and by anthro oedema nutritional as (such by signs clinical recognized be can 35. Malnutrition Recognizing andmeasuringmalnutrition ments made in the assistance programmes. can thus be detected and status nutritional appropriate in adjust trend or change Any established. be should system monitoring 34. In addition, a nutrition surveillance and is sufficient. months twelve to six every once survey a months. When conditions have stabilized, three to two every out carried be should surveys such Initially below). (as explained population child the of sample dom diseases). Suchasituationrequiresur of respiratoryinfectionanddiarrhoeal gravating factors(e.g.highprevalence There Key EmergencyIndicators. been reached).Pleasesee action evenifthetriggerlevelhasnot but stilllowmightrequiresomerapid of thesituation(deterioratingrapidly rates whichwouldgiveabetterpicture information ontrendsinmalnutrition gent action.Itisimportanttotryget either 15%ormore,10-14%withag where theacutemalnutritionrateis

(BMI) (Weightm) kg)/(Heightin in is cm and 110 cm height are used as the cut off points instead of 6 and 59 months. 6 andof as59 the cut points instead used are off cmcm110 and height 65 known, are not children ages the When of shortageaffected. food the severely most and are surveys,nutrition because young children the are showfirst malnutritionsignsof into times of status of adults by assessingthe adults status degree by of thinness of 1). (see table 38. 38. nutritionsurvey. analysing continuous asvariables such the height and weight of sample the a in of population a standardtaking into consideration the reference the deviation of isindistribution. Z-score used individual’s an Z-score: Thevalu of deviation programs) expressionresults as (such when will be as a programmatic tool in selectiveused feeding repopresented to in Z-scoresaddition the survey in median can the Percentage of be surveys. nutrition indicators in anthropometric presenting mode of the and preferred thescore. standard a Z as are or Z-scores that of a normalheight, child actual a weight as The weight standard for ais the of percentage populations. child of calculated 37. mortality are rates important. particularly Child specific on interventions. focus the malnutritionrelationship malnutritionthecharacteristicand and between mortality determineto of the causes underlying understanding in willassist morbidity information and 36. Mortality allowsat time, situation in time. and one point over comparisons the status,nutritional quantifies which nutritional of assessment an heightas objective used are measurements). (body defiencies)anthropometry such andMeasurementsweight-for- as by 35. clinical Malnutrition be can recognized by si malnutrition measuring Recognizing and trigger level beensee has reached). not Please Appendix 1 Emergency: Key Indicators. the even if action rapid some stillrequire might situation low (deteriorating rapidly but trends on malnutrition rate in information diarrhoeal diseases). a requiressituation Such a serious Body mass index Weight-for-height in children nutritional . , is monitorthe best indicator, to assess and nutritional status of It children aged 6 measuredisyoung monthsbetween andin who 59 usually are Appendix 1: emergency

(BMI) (Weightm) kg)/(Heightin in s which would give picture a of swould better which the es from the mean value reference of a from the es population - - gns (such as nutritional oedemaas nutritional micronutrientgns (such or - - - urgent try to important get action. is It urgent

rt if there is a specific need for this alternative alternative this rtfor there isif specific need a ouain aig no osdrto the consideration into taking population referencea fromof values value mean the individual’san of deviation The Z-score: points insteadof6and59months. off cut the as used are height cm 110 and the ages of children are not known, 65 cm affected.severely most the are and When shortage food of times in malnutrition of signs show to first the because are children young surveys, nutrition in measured are who months 59 and 6 between aged programs) feeding selective in tool programmatic a as used be will results when as (such sion expres alternative this for need specific a is there if report survey the in Z-scores to addition in presented be can median the of Percentage surveys. nutrition in cators indi anthropometric presenting of mode preferred the and standard the are scores mal child of that height, or as a Z score. Z- nor a for weight standard the of per centage a as calculated is child a of weight actual The populations. of status tritional nu monitor and assess to indicator best 37. are particularlyimportant. rates mortality Child interventions. cific spe on focus the determine to mortality and malnutrition between characteristic causes of malnutrition and the relationship will assist in understanding the underlying nutrition survey. a in population the of sample a of weight and height the as such variables tinuous con analysing in used is Z-score bution. referencethe of distri standarddeviation Mortality and morbidity information morbidity and 36. Mortality Weight-for-height in children Weight-for-heightin , is monitorthe best indicator, to assess and nutritional status of 2 , is used for , is used assessing thefor nutritional . t s sal yug children young usually is It s which would give picture a of swould better which the es from the mean value reference of a from the es population gns (such as nutritional oedemaas nutritional micronutrientgns (such or urgent try to to important action. is get It urgent rt if there is a specific need for this alternative alternative this rtfor there isif specific need a , is the is , 2 , is used for , is used assessing thefor nutritional ------297 16 Food and nutrition 38. Body mass index (BMI) (Weight in 41. However, it should be noted that: kg)/(Height in m)2, is used for assessing i. In addition to WFH <70% of the me- the nutritional status of adults by assess- dian and bilateral oedema, MUAC ing the degree of thinness (see table 1). <110 mm is an independent criterion 39. Oedema is an essential nutrition infor admission to a therapeutic feed- dicator and may indicate kwashiorkor ing program for children 6-59 months (see Annex 4). Oedema is characterized old. by swelling in both feet due to an abnor- ii. In infants less than 6 months old, mal accumulation of fluid in intercellular there are no clear anthropometric spaces39. of the Oedema body. is an essential nutritioncriteria forindicator admission and to a therapeuticmay indicate kwashiorkor (see Annex 4). ChildrenOedema with nutritional is characterized oedema should by swellingfeeding programin both and feet it is due recom to- an abnormal accumulation of fluid in always be classified as having severe acute mended that “severe visible wast- malnutritionintercellular regardless spaces of their of weight- the body.ing” be used until further studies are for-heightChildren or height-for-age with nutritional Z-score oroedema undertaken should to always develop criteria. be classified as having severe acute malnutrition percentage of the median. iii. MUAC is a simple and practical tool regardless of their weight-for-heightwhich canor beheight-for-age used by minimally Z-score or percentage of the median. 39. Oedema is an essential nutrition indicator and may indicatetrained workers kwashiorkor for detecting (see the Annex 4). Oedema is characterized by swelling in both feet due to severelyan abnormal malnourished accumulation in the commu of -fluid in intercellular spaces of the body. nity and for achieving high program Children with nutritional oedema should always be classifiedcoverage. as having severe acute malnutrition 42. Weight-for-age and height-for-age regardless of their weight-for-height or height-for-ageare Z-score not such oruseful percentage assessment of indicators the median. in emergencies as age is often difficult to 40. Mid-upper40. Mid-upper arm circumference arm circumference. The determine.. The This mid-upper can be used for arm growth circumference (MUAC) is measured on mid-upperthe left arm circumferencearm, at the (MUAC) mid-point is monitoring between ofelbow individual and children,shoulder. and MUAC is not recommended to measured on the left arm, at the mid-point partially in assessing long-term (chronic) betweenmeasure elbow and the shoulder. prevalence MUAC of is malnutritionmalnutrition. in young children in a population. MUAC is more not recommendedsuitable as to a measurescreening the preva tool- for determining admission to selective feeding programmes and for lence of malnutrition in young children in 40. Mid-upper arm circumferencerapid assessments.. The mid-upper If MUAC armModerate is circumference included and severe in malnutrition a(MUAC) population-based is measured nutrition on survey of children, it is the left arm, at thea population. mid-point MUAC between is more elbow suitable and as shoulder.a 43. The standardMUAC cut-off is not points recommended to de- to screeningessential tool for that determining weight-for-height admission scribe indices malnutrition are are:also included. measure the prevalenceto selective of feedingmalnutrition programmes in young and for children in a population. MUAC is more i. between 70% and 80% weight-for- rapid assessments. If MUAC is included suitable as a screening tool for determining admission toheight selective of the feedingmedian NCHS/WHO programmes and for in a population-based nutrition survey of rapid assessments. If MUAC is included in a population-basedreference valuesnutrition (or between survey -3 of and children, it is children, it is essential that weight-for- -2 Z scores) for moderately malnour- essential that weight-for-heightheight indices are alsoindices included. are also included. ished; and ii. less than 70% weight-for-height of the median NCHS/WHO reference values (or < -3 Z scores) for severely malnourished.

41. However, it should be noted that: 298 i. In addition to WFH <70% of the median and bilateral oedema, MUAC <110 mm is an 41. However, it should beindependent noted that: criterion for admission to a therapeutic feeding program for children 6-59 i. In addition to WFH <70%months of theold. median and bilateral oedema, MUAC <110 mm is an independent criterionii. Infor infants admission less to than a therapeutic 6 months feeding old, there program are nofor clearchildren anthropometric 6-59 criteria for admission to a months old. therapeutic feeding program and it is recommended that "severe visible wasting" be used until ii. In infants less than 6 months old, there are no clear anthropometric criteria for admission to a further studies are undertaken to develop criteria. therapeutic feeding program and it is recommended that "severe visible wasting" be used until further studies areiii. undertakenMUAC isto adevelop simple criteria. and practical tool which can be used by minimally trained workers for iii. MUAC is a simple anddetecting practical the tool severely which can malnourished be used by minimally in the community trained workers and forfor achieving high program detecting the severelycoverage. malnourished in the community and for achieving high program coverage. 42. Weight-for-age and height-for-age are not such useful assessment indicators in emergencies 42. Weight-for-age andas ageheight-for-age is often difficult are not tosuch determine. useful assessment This can indicators be used in for emergencies growth monitoring of individual as age is often difficultchildren, to determine. and partially This can in be assessing used for growth long-term monitoring (chronic) of individual malnutrition. children, and partially in assessing long-term (chronic) malnutrition. Moderate and severe malnutrition Moderate and severe malnutrition

43. The standard cut-off43. pointsThe standard to describe cut-off malnutrition points toare: describe malnutrition are: UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP, WHO, 2003. 11 median “reference” weight-for-height values. 10 weight-for-height values. 9       Response tofoodandnutritionalneeds * Resultsexpressed bydifferent methodsare notdirectly comparable Table 1:Summaryofkeymalnutritionindicators* Percentage belowthemedian “reference” Severe Moderate Malnutrition FoodandNutrition NeedsinEmergencies, Standard deviations(SDs, orZscore) belowthe General feedingprogramme

The dietmustmeetessential vitamin The leveloffatintakeshouldprovide Every effort shouldbemadetopro The food basket should be nutritional Everyone inthepopulation,irrespec A meanfigureof2,100kcalper and mineralrequirements. energy. provide atleast10-12%ofthetotal of theration.Proteinintakeshould at least17%ofthedietaryenergy traditional foodhabits. vide familiarfoodstuffs andmaintain and othergroupsatrisk. ly balancedandsuitableforchildren same quantityandtypeoffoods). exactly thesamegeneralration(i.e. tive ofageorsex,shouldreceive and youngchildren amongst therefugees,oronlywomen unusually highnumberofadolescents is not‘normal’,e.g.whentherean except whenthepopulationpyramid emergencies indevelopingcountries, energy requirementsofrefugees in ning figureforcalculatingthefood person perdayisusedastheplan or oedema ence valuesvalue NCHS/WHO refer (W/H)% ofmedian Weight-for- height less than70% 70% to79% Children under5yearsold

- 9

scores oroedema less than-3Z -3 to-2Zscores reference values dian NCHS/WHO or SD’s oftheme (W/H) inZscores Weight-for- height -

- - - oa aalblt o fo commodities. Staple food should not be changed simply food of availability local of account full take should and essential is composition and size ration the on vice maintain ad Expert and habits. food traditional sound items food familiar vide of Valuegeneral foodrations. Nutritional the of monitoring and calculation planning, the for cation Heath, Child London, of Institute the and WFP tool NutVal. Jointly updated by UNHCR, interactive the use to advised is it ration, food general a anlyse and design To 44. General foodration  tion (TSS),[email protected] obtained from theUNHCRTechnical SuportSec 12 to eachrefugeewithoutdistinction. provided be should ration complete a er, Howev groups. age different of children and women men, containing population average an on calculated is requirement gy and protein requirements are met. This 46. gees. to waste and lower the morale of the refu lead often foods Inappropriate available. readily are substitutes unfamiliar because Every effort should be made to pro to made be should effort 45. Every CopiesoftheNutVal CDand TSStoolkitcanbe

Particular attentionshouldbepaid deficiencies. to locallyprevalentmicronutrient 10 The first concern is to ensure that ener - to<125 mm MUAC < 110 mm,oedema 110 mm NutVal

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16 -<18 Adults BMI less than16 ------299 16 Food and nutrition A minimum requirement of 2,100 kcal Corn soy blend (CSB) for beans 1:1 per person per day is used as the plan- Sugar for oil 2:1 ning figure for the affected population at Cereal for beans 2:1 the beginning of an emergency. Cereal for oil14 3:1 14 A population which contains mostly ac- Note that oil cannot be used in place of cereal. tive adults may require considerably higher average energy intakes. In addition, a For example, the energy from 20g of sugar higher ration is vital for survival in a cold can substitute for that from 10g of vegeta- climate. ble oil. 47. The daily energy requirement can 50. Fortified cereal flour, rather than be adjusted when the situation has stabi- whole grain, should be provided, especial- lized13 and detailed data is available. Fac- ly at the beginning of an emergency. Con- tors to be taken into consideration are: siderable fuel savings are made by using milled rather than whole grain. If whole i. age and sex composition of the popu- grains are provided, local milling should lation; be made available and the cost compen- ii. activity level; sated for. iii. climatic conditions; iv. health, nutritional and physiological Micronutrients status; and 51. Micronutrient deficiencies represent a v. people’s access to other food sources less visible, but often devastating, form of e.g. agriculture, trade, labour. malnutrition that can be particularly prev- 48. The food basket should comprise: a alent among a population affected by an staple food source (cereals), an additional emergency or already lacking sufficient energy source (fats and oils), a protein quantity and/or quality of food. There is source (legumes, blended foods, meat, a close relationship between malnutrition, fish), iodized salt and possibly condiments which is often linked to lack of food, and (such as spices). Fresh foods should be in- specific micronutrient deficiency diseases cluded in the food basket for essential mi- that are associated with the consumption cronutrients. The level of fat intake should of foods poor in micronutrients. Since provide at least 17% of the dietary energy populations affected by an emergency of- of the ration, and protein intake should ten have limited access to a varied diet, provide at least 10-12% of the total energy a large proportion of these are also likely (see above). to suffer from multiple micronutrient deficiencies. 49. When certain food commodities are not available, they can be replaced for a 52. Populations that are highly dependent maximum of one month by other avail- on food assistance, which is not adequate, able food items in order to maintain the are often at risk of micronutrient-defi- adequate energy and protein level. Substi- ciency diseases. Such micronutrient-de- tution in energy value, should an item not ficiency diseases include scurvy (vitamin be available, is: C deficiency), pellagra (niacin deficiency) and beriberi (thiamine deficiency) have been experienced in previous emergency situations. In addition, anaemia, iodine deficiency and vitamin A deficiency are also the three most common micronutri- 13 Food and nutrition needs in emergencies, ent deficiencies even in non-emergency UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP, WHO, 2003. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2004/a83743.pdf situations. For details on the micronutrient 300 population targeted the among status micronutrient of deterioration further against protecting to or deficiencies micronutrient venting rations in emergencies with a view to pre food of part as provided usually are salt, iodized and A, vitamin with enriched oil vegetable foods, Fortified met. are takes in micronutrient daily recommended that blend (CSB) should be provided to ensure soya corn as such foods fortified nutrient in sufficient quantities. In addition, micro well-bal and anced in content, distributed adequate regularly and are rations aid met through ensuring that the general food adequately are refugees of needs nutrient essential toensurethatthemicro It is 54. with specificneeds Table 2:Micronutrient needsofgroups dren. chil young and women lactating women, pregnant are deficiencies micronutrient to vulnerable most groups deficiencies.The micronutrients to contribute diseases ble laria and pneumonia. In turn, communica ma measles, diarrhoea, to due dying of risk the or diseases communicable of risk 53. Micronutrient deficiencies increase the see Annex 1. content of selected food-aid commodities, specific childeren Young mothers Lactating women Pregnant needs Groups with

development. to impairedphysicalandcognitive infectious diseaseandcontribute increase theriskofdyingdueto months oflife. period, especiallyforthefirst6 infant duringthebreastfeeding the health and development of her Micronutrient statusdetermines baby. underweight ormentally-impaired childbirth orofgivingbirthtoan Greater riskofdyingduring Micronutrient deficiencies Micronutrient deficiencyrisk ------fuel and provides an opportunity to gener only not improves and diversifies the diet but refugees saves by food fresh of tion produc the themselves: vegetables grow to encouraged and supported be should ii. i. ing vitaminsandmineralsare: provid for options Possible sources. food with the access the population has to other combination in ration general the of tion composi the from estimated be can cies 55. pellagra, scurvy etc.) beri-beri, of definition table a and photos (with 3 see Annex definitions, and signs deficiency micronutrients For rences. prevention andassessement,pleaseseekey refe 15 cess invariousrefugeesituations. agrcicultural activities proved to be a suc scale small- However, land. to access of problems and stay their of length the to as uncertainty their of because food fresh produce to refugees encourage to lenge chal a be can it that consideration, taken into be should It this. facilitate would skills and seeds appropriate of provision ate some income. Larger plot sizes and the 56. v. iv. iii. Formore detailsonmicronutrints including health components. approach withfoodsecurityandpublic of malnutritionrequiresanintegrated nutrient defienciesandotherforms The preventionandcontrolofmicro promote theproductionofvegetables provide freshfoodproducts; provide supplementsintabletform, ensure provisonofvitamin A supple add totherationafoodrichin necessary. ment; and foods, orcondiments; ent suchasfortifiedcereals,blended particular vitaminandmicronutri and fruits; The risk of specific nutrient deficien nutrient specific of risk The hrvr osbe h refugees the possible Wherever 15 - - - - if ------301 16 Food and nutrition Nutrition, food and HIV and AIDS c) Micronutrient intakes at daily recom- 57. For people living with HIV and AIDS mended levels need to be assured among populations of concern to UNHCR, in HIV-infected adults and children adequate nutrition is recognized as essen- through consumption of diversified tial to maintain an individual’s immune diets, fortified foods and micronutri- system and desirable weight for an optimal ents supplements as needed. quality of life, as well as to ensure opti- d) WHO’s recommendation on vitamin mal benefits from the use of antiretroviral A, zinc, iron, folate, and multiple treatment which can help prevent mother- micronutrient supplements remain the to-child transmission of HIV. same. e) Optimal nutrition of HIV-infected Based on current scientific evidence: women during pregnancy and lac- a) HIV-infected adults and children have tation increases weight gain and greater energy needs than uninfected improves pregnancy birth outcomes. adults and children. Energy needs Source: World Heath Assembly 2005, increase by 10% in asymptomatic Resolution WHA57.14 HIV-infected adults and children, Figure 3 below outlines the types of food and in adults with more advanced and nutrition as well as HIV and AIDS ac- disease, by 20% to 30%. For HIV-in- tivities which should be considered for infected children experiencing weight tegrated programme strategies at the indi- loss, energy needs are increased by vidual, household and community levels. between 50% and 100%. b) There is no evidence to support a For more practical programming strate- need for increased protein intake by gies on integrating nutrition, food, HIV people infected by HIV over and and AIDS, consult the UNHCR, WFP and above that required in a balanced diet UNICEF: Integration of HIV/AIDS ac- to satisfy energy needs (10%-12% of tivities with food and nutrition support in total energy intake). refugee settings, 2004.

Figure 3 Integrated programme strategies

302 advantages over cooked food distribution. tribution (which is taken home) has major dis food Dry meals. cooked of tribution dis for need some a be on might there occasions distribution, dry on is pref erence the although emergencies, In 61. in allselectivefeedingprogrammes. food of distribution for responsibility its maintains UNHCR basis. case by case a on situations other in implementation for arrangement optimum an be would bour la of division this whether determining to view a with operations selected infive jointly distribution food final of sibility respon the over take to WFPfor reached been has agreement an 2002) with (July WFP (MOU) Understanding of randum joint operation. In the most recent Memo every in signed be will agreements partite Tri WFP. and UNHCR by upon agreed partner, whose designation shall be jointly implementing an through UNHCR of ity modities willnormallybetheresponsibil com of food distribution final The 60. ity distributionguidelines. commod established the with conformity in and committees, women’s particularly beneficiaries, with consultation in WFP, and UNHCR Government, the by jointly upon agreed are beneficiaries to food of 59. Arrangements for the final distribution final distributiontobeneficiaries. their for and (FDPs) points delivery final the to EDPs the from commodities food also WFPof transportation the for responsible is UNHCR agreed, otherwise less Un etc.). milk therapeutic commodities, food complementary beneficiaries, 5,000 than (less mobilizing for responsible is it that food of storage and transport the timely for responsible is UNHCR (EDPs). points delivery extended agreed-upon at of commodities food storage of quantities sufficient and transport mobilization, timely the for responsible is con WFP cern, of people 5,000 exceeds beneficiary the caseload where countries In 58. Food deliveryanddistribution ------  be monitoredby: can programme feeding general The 63. gramme: Monitoring thegeneralfeedingpro be useful. will their bags grain and tins Oil store rations. food and protect to sacks and ers contain have must refugees the utensils, and fuel pots, cooking to addition In 62. cooking fuelandininsecuresituations. and/or water adequate to access have not tional circumstances when the refugees excep do under provided only therefore is population whole the to distribution meal Cooked personnel. trained and cooking) is less than the amount required for family requirement (the fuel and water utensils, adequate with kitchens centralized re quires distribution meal Cooked diseases. reduces the risk of the spread of infectious also It acceptable. socially and culturally more is and unit a as together eat to them food and their to use their time as they wish, permits prepare to families allows It kit, UNHCR 2006. Section’sToolTechnical Support the of section food the see checklist, monitoring distribution food and report monitoring distribution the on information more For  

Post distributionmonitoring Food basketmonitoring Investigating complaints. Discussing thequalityandquantityof Monitoring afterthedistributionat beneficiaries actuallyreceive. the plannedration.Confirmingwhat tion siteondistributiondayswith lected bytherefugeesatdistribu the quantityandqualityoffoodcol gees. the rationsregularlywithrefu security situation. identifying anychangesinthefood of foodaidbybeneficiariesand use madeofthefoodandlength through visits.Learningaboutthe household and/orcommunitylevels : Comparing : ------303 16 Food and nutrition Selective feeding programmes and at-risk groups – this food must be  The objective of a selective feeding in addition to (not a substitute for) the programme is to reduce the preva- general feeding programme. lence of malnutrition and mortality  The programme must actively iden- among the groups at risk. tify those who are eligible for the  Selective feeding programmes pro- selective feeding programmes, using vide extra food for the malnourished criteria described in this chapter.

Figure 4 – Response to food and nutritional needs

Two basic considerations

Sufficient quantities Action on of right food now mainutrition and for the future and its causes

Assess Draw up simple general nutritional status ration based on appropriate familiar foods Calculate bulk quantities required Ensure that food can be delivered Is there No much malnutrition?

Do groups No at risk need special Yes programmes?

Is the Decide what selective feeding required food No programmes are required available locally!

Are appropriate No foods available locally?

Yes Yes

Can local No health system Action to ensure and refugees fair distribution, cope? cooking fuel, utensils Bring in outside assistance (and equipment if needed)

Monitor nutritional Yes situation and the feeding programme Set up the necessary supplementary therepeutic feeding programmes 304 ly those without family support. In some In support. family without those ly parent families, and the elderly, particular single- disabled, the children, companied or economic reasons. These include unac social for malnutrition of risk at be may individuals or groups other 66. Certain and toprovidemorefrequent meals. volume), less in nutrients required the ing (giv form concentrated a in food prepare to necessary is it food, of volume large a eat diar to unable are children Because rhoea. have or vomiting, are appetite, an must eat and drink even if they do not have children Sick malnutrition. of and infection cycle this to susceptible particularly are children Small malnutrition. further in results turn in which infection, to ance resist lower in results Malnutrition ies. antibod of production and tissues of pair re milk, breast of production the growth, with associated requirements nutrient er great the from stems vulnerability Their sick. the and elderly the mothers, nursing particularly among infants, children, pregnant women, develops 65. Malnutrition needs). nutritional to response 2: Figure (see care health emergency and health public ing, feed selective of strategy combined a be should mortality excess preventing ever, How mortality. excess prevent to sure mea emergency an pro of part are feeding grammes selective operation, an of phase emergency the In and risks. associated malnutrition of degree the account into take which programmes feeding tive organized through different types of selec are required to provide extra food. This is arrangements special ration, general the of the groups at risk cannot be met through 64. Where malnutrition exists or the needs programmes General principlesofselectivefeeding care programmes(MCH). especially withmotherandchildhealth with should beintegratedfromthebeginning The organizationoftheseprogrammes community and health services and ------i. ing programmesarecontemplated: 68. i. malnutrition suchas: of causes other be may there sufficient is food of quantity overall the if 67. Even nursing mothersorevensickchildren. persons, for example pregnant women and on meeting the nutritional needs of certain constraints put may taboos or cultural and practices social specific communities esn ado idvdas eetd on selected individuals and/or persons older or adults children, be could These malnourished. moderately are who those 70. spot feedingforalimitedperiod oftime. on-the- wet or take-home dry as ration, general the to addition in risk, at groups feeding programmes provide extra food to 69. (SFP) Supplementary feedingprogrammes ii iv. iii. ii. ration. a substituteforaninadequategeneral Selective feedingprogrammesarenot substitute for, thegeneral ration. in SFP To beeffective,theextrarationprovided Supplementary feedingprogrammes inequities inthedistributionsystem b) community-based a) hospitalandfeedingcenters Therapeutic feedingprogrammes b) blanketSFP a) targeted SFP inappropriate feedingpracticesor infections; and inaccuracies inregistrationorunfair (TFP): (SFP): food preparationhabits. distribution ofrationcards; groups; reducing accesstofoodforcertain tree SP is o rehabilitate to aims SFP targeted A The following types of selective feed agtd n bakt supplementary blanket and Targeted mustbeadditionalto,andnota - 305 16 Food and nutrition medical or social grounds, e.g. pregnant ing treatment and monitoring the and nursing women and the sick. This is condition of the child at home. This the most common type of supplementary applies to the treatment of severe feeding programme. malnutrition when a health worker is involved in identifying a severely 71. A blanket SFP provides a food (and/or malnourished child and in providing micronutrient) supplement to all members treatment that may include a mineral of a certain vulnerable group regardless of and vitamin supplement or ready-to- their individual nutritional status in order use therapeutic food (RUTF). to prevent a deterioration in the nutritional status of those groups most at risk (usually 75. Managemnent of severe malnutrition children under five, pregnant women and at the community level using ready-to-use nursing mothers. therapeutic foods (RUTF) is a new development. As such, it is highly desirable to 72. Supplementary feeding programmes manage severe acute malnutrition, with no can be implemented either by giving wet medical complications, in the community or dry rations. and without an inpatient phase. These are severely malnourished children who are Therapeutic feeding programmes (TFP) alert, have good appetite, are clinically 73. A TFP aims to reduce deaths among well, and have reasonable home circum- infants and young children with se- stances who can be rehabilitated at home. vere malnutrition. The forms of severe malnutrition are described in Annex 3. 76. The following points should be con- Generally the target group is children un- sidered for manamgement of severe mal- der 5 years old with severe malnutrition. nutrition at the community level: Therapeutic feeding can either be imple- □ Children with severe malnutrition mented in special feeding centers or in and medical complications should a hospital or clinic or at the community be referred to an inpatient treatment level. TFP involves intensive medical and facility with trained staff. These chil- 16 nutritional treatment. Therapeutic foods dren include severely malnourished such as, Therapeutic Milk™, and/or children with anorexia, children with ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF), severe oedema, or children with any are used for treatment of severely mal- acute severe medical condition. nourished children. □ Children less than 6 months old who 74. The management of severe malnutri- are suspected to be severely malnour- tion in children can take place as follows: ished should always be referred for i. Facility-based management refers to assessment and treatment. Treatment treatment in a hospital or center that should be based on promotion of provides skilled medical and nurs- breastfeeding (if possible). ing care on an inpatient basis. This 77. In addition, the following guiding includes therapeutic feeding centres. principles17 for community-based man- ii. Community-based management re- agement of severe malnutrition in children fers to treatments that are implement- should also be considered: ed with some external input, such as 17 The guiding principles for community-based the presence of a health worker for management of severe malnutrition in children diagnosing the condition, institut- were agreed in a consultation meeting (WHO, UNICEF, the UN Standing Committee on Nutrition (SCN) and other partners, including UNHCR in 16 Procurement of therapeutic foods and techni- November 2005: http://www.who.int/child-ado- cal advice could be facilitated by UNHCR HQs lescent-health/New_Publications/NUTRITION/ technical unit (TSS and SMS). CBSM/Meeting_report_CBSM.pdf 306 hlrn wt n cmlctos cn be can complications, no with children, component, so that severely malnourished facility-based a and community-based a have usually should malnutrition severe of management the for Programmes 82. Community-based management ofse for objective key therapeutic feedingprogrammes. a be minimum must SPHERE standards the in established achieved as activities, finding programmes, case active through the of and spatial) temporal (both coverage High 81. admission criteriafortreatment. precise more develop to undertaken are studies further until criteria admission as used be breastfeeding in difficulties with conjunction in oedema, severe and/or “visible wasting” that recommended is it old, months six than less infants In 80. children. community by used workers to identify severely malnourished be should which tool practical and simple a is MUAC 79. weight-for-height. their of regardless malnutrition severe of management the for programme a to ted with a MUAC < 110 mm should be admit Children months. 6-59 aged children for programme feeding therapeutic a admis to sion for criterion a as independently used be can mm 110 < MUAC bilateral oedema, and/or values reference NCHS/ median WHO the of Z-scores -3 < or 78 provide fortreatment children inthecommunityorderto Identification ofseverelymalnourished □ □ □ vere malnutritioninchildren

. Community-based managementof Management ofseverelymalnour Identification ofseverelymalnour high HIV prevalence. severe malnutritioninthecontextof ished childreninthecommunity. order toprovidefortreatment. ished childreninthecommunity In addition to weight-for-height < 70% - - - - - e eerd o assmn ad further and assessment for referred be should home at deteriorate who Children community. should the in continued be normally management control, under are malnutrition severe of complications the after inpatients, as treated those For 85. who areclinicallyunwell. and mild or moderate oedema, or children reference) NCHS/WHO the of Z-scores -3 < or 70% < weight-for-height or mm 110 < (MUAC children wasting severe both with oedema, severe anorexia, with with children children severely include malnourished children These staff. trained with facility treatment an inpatient to referred be should complications and malnutrition severe with Children 84. patient phase. can also be treated at home, without an in wasted severely not are who but appetite malnutrition severe having mild or moderate with oedema and good Children 83. treatment facilitywithtrainedstaff. inpatient an to referred are complications treated in the community while those with fully designed diets using low-cost family care of means RUTF,by without munity complications can be managed in the com without malnutrition severe foods, dense 87. When families have access to nutrient- should beprovided. kcal/kg/day 150-220 malnutrition, severe with children to given is RUTF 86. When management. malnourished childrenwithnocompli It ishighlydesirabletomanageseverely are usefulfortreatingseveremalnutri Ready-to-use therapeuticfoods(RUTF) local dietsfornutritionalrehabilitation. ties withlimitedaccesstoappropriate tion withoutcomplicationsincommuni reasonable home-carecircumstances. are notseverelyoedematous,andhave have goodappetite,areclinicallywell, malnourished childrenwhoarealert, inpatient phase.Theseareseverely cations inthecommunitywithoutan ------307 16 Food and nutrition foods, provided appropriate minerals and lence of malnutrition and other aggravat- vitamins are given. Efficacy of local ther- ing factors. Aggravating factors include apeutic diets should be tested clinically. high mortality (more than 1 person per 10,000 per day), measles epidemic, 88. Treatment of young children should high prevalence of infectious diarrhoea, include support for breastfeeding and general ration below minimum require- messages on appropriate infant and young ments. The prevalence of malnutrition children feeding practices. Children less is assessed from the initial and on-going than 6 months old should not receive nutrition assessments and surveys. RUTF, nor solid family foods. These children need milk-based diets and their moth- In all situations, remember that it is ers support to re-establish breastfeeding. more important to understand and They should not be treated at home. address the root causes of malnutrition, focusing on prevention in the first 89. Monitoring the effectiveness of treat- place rather than to address symptoms ment should be based on a weight gain through selective feeding programmes. of at least 5 g/kg/day for severely wasted 94. The effectiveness of these programmes children,18 low case fatality, defaulting will be severely compromised if an ad- and treatment failures, and length of stay equate general ration is not provided. under treatment. 95. Figure 5 provides guidance on de- Community-based management of se- ciding when to initiate selective feeding vere malnutrition in the context of high programmes. Clear criteria for the termi- HIV prevalence nation of these programmes should be de- 90. The general principles and guidelines fined from the beginning. for the care of severely malnourished chil- Identifying those eligible dren in areas of high HIV prevalence do not fundamentally differ from those where 96. Selective feeding programmes must HIV is rarely seen. be based on the active identification and follow up of those considered at risk. Ben- 91. In areas where HIV prevalence is eficiaries can be identified by: high, there should be unfettered access to HIV services (e.g. VCT, cotrimoxazole □ house to house visits to identify all prophylaxis, nutritional counselling, ART) members of a targeted group (e.g. and seamless articulation from the onset children under five years old, elderly between levels of care (community, health people); centre and hospital) and between HIV □ mass screening of all children to treatment and malnutrition programmes. identify those moderately or severely malnourished; 92. All therapeutic foods used, including □ screening on arrival (for example RUTF, should be chosen to be appropri- with the registration exercise); and ate for HIV infected persons and severely □ malnourished children, based on current referrals by community services and scientific evidence. health services. 97. Table 3 below summarizes the main Starting a selective feeding programme objectives, target groups and criteria for 93. The decision to start a selective feed- selection of beneficiaries of selective ing programme is based on the preva- feeding programmes.

18 Rate of weight gain was deliberately changed to a lower level than the SPHERE minimum standards which referred to inpatient treatment of severe malnutrition. 308 Selective Programmes Feeding Source: Figure 5–SelectiveFeedingProgrammes < 2,100 Kcals/ < 2,100 person/day GENERAL GENERAL IMPROVE A RATION RATION Highprevalence diarrhoealor respiratory of diseases Epidemicmeasles of whoopingor cough rate>1 per10,000 mortality Crude perday Generalfood belowration themean energy requirements. Factors Aggravating LWAYS Modified from “Nutrition Guidelines”, 1995 MSF, A A ALNUTRITIONMA TERA LNUTRITIONMA TERA LNUTRITIONMA TERA LNUTRITIONMA TERA LNUTRITIONMA TERA ALNUTRITIONMA TERA GGRAVATINGFACTORS GGRAVATINGFACTORS A A in presence of of inpresence of inpresence of inpresence GGRAVATING GGRAVATING GGRAVATING FACTORS(*) FACTORS 10 - 14%10 - 1014 - % WITHNO >=15% 5 - 9%5 - <10% OR OR <5% ( * ) Malnutrition rate Malnutrition is belowlessis or than-2Z-scores 80% the of months (6 5whose years)to weight-for-height Proportionchildof population medianNCHS/WHO reference values, and/or oedema. No need for populationNo needlevel for regular community services) community regular TARGETED supplementaryTARGETED BLANKETsupplementary THERAPEUTICfeeding THERAPEUTICfeeding (individual for attention malnourished through malnourished feeding programme feedingprogramme feeding programme feedingprogramme ACCEPTABLE : interventions programme programme programme SERIOUS ALERT ALERT 309 16 Food and nutrition Table 3 – Types of selective feeding programmes

Programme Objectives Criteria for selection and target group Targeted • Correct moderate malnutrition • Children under 5 years old moderately malnour- SFP ished: • Prevent the moderately malnourished from becoming severely - between 70% and 80% of the median malnourished weight-for-height or: • Reduce the mortality and morbidity - between -3 and -2 Z-scores weight-for-height risk in children under 5 years old • Moderately malnourished individuals (based on • Provide nutritional support to se- weight-for-height, BMI, MUAC or clinical signs) lected pregnant women and nursing including: mothers - older children (between 5 and 10 years old) • Provide a follow-up service to those discharged from therapeutic feeding - adolescents programmes - adults and elderly persons - medical referrals e.g T.B patients • Selected pregnant women (from date of confirmed pregnancy) and nursing mothers (until 6 months after delivery), for instance using MUAC <22 cm as a cut-off indicator for pregnant women • Referrals from TFP • People living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) Blanket SFP • Prevent deterioration of nutritional • Children under 3 or under 5 years old situation • All pregnant women (from date of confirmed • Reduce prevalence of acute malnutrition in children under 5 years old pregnancy) and nursing mothers (until maximum • Ensure safety net measures 6 months after delivery) • Reduce mortality and morbidity risk • Other at-risk groups • Reduce excess mortality and morbidity risk in children under 5 years old TFP • Provide medical/nutritional treatment Children under 5 years old severely malnour- for the severely ished: malnourished □ < 70% of the median weight-for-height and/ or oedema or: □ < -3 Z-scores weight-for-height and/or oedema MUAC <110mm including children with HIV and AIDS

Note: TFP includes community-based • Severly malnourished children older than 5 management of severe malnutrition in years, adolescents and adults admitted based on children available weight-for-height standards or presence of oedema including PLWHA

• Severely malnourished low birth weight babies

310 SFP include: for rations wet of instead dry of vantages ad The preferable. are programmes SFP i. viding wetrationsordryrations. pro by either implemented be can (SFP) programmes feeding 99. Supplementary programme (SFP) Organizing asupplementaryfeeding Noconsensusyetexistsaboutthepreferred Weight-for-height ** * Figure 6– and discharge fromaprogrammeareshowninfigure6below. 98. feeding programme Planning andorganizingaselective n ot iutos r take-home dry situations most 100. In ii. * WherenoTargeted SFP *** (or <-3Z-scores**) PROGRAMME*** THERAPEUTIC and/or oedema from TFP indicator tobeused,%W/HorZ-score Wet rationsarepreparedinthekitch Dry rationsaredistributedtotake once aweek. tion. Rationsareusuallydistributed home forpreparationandconsump to thefeedingcentreeveryday. caregiver, havetocomeforall meals on-site. The beneficiary, orchildand en ofafeedingcentreandconsumed W/H* <70% The links between different selective feeding programmes and the criteria for entry for criteria the and programmes feeding selective different between links The Admission FEEDING Admission anddischargeCriteria isW/H*

≥ 85%(or-1.5Z-score) existsdischargecriteria 2) Appetite restored (or ≥2.5Z-score**) 3) Freeofillness 1) W/H*≥75% Referral

- - -

selective feedingprogramme. a organizing when considerations main the of some for below 4 Table See ited. where access to cooking facilities are lim or safely home taken being from rations dry prevents insecurity where situations in given typically are rations Wet tution. substi and sharing for compensate or to der in feeding wet for than higher be to has however feeding dry for ration The v. iv. iii. ii. i. -3 and-2Z-scores**) SUPPLEMENTARY (or <-3Z-score**) PROGRAMME W/H* between the mother’s responsibilityforfeed less time-consumingforthemother; lower riskoftransmissioncommu fewer staff areneeded; much easiertoorganize; and nicable diseases; ing thechildispreserved. Return toTFP W/H* <70% TARGETED 70 and80% (or between FEEDING Admission

(or ≥-1.5Z-score**) Modified from: MSF, 1995 Nutrition Guidelines; W/H* ≥85% Discharge

- - - - -

311 16 Food and nutrition Table 4: Organization of selective feeding programmes

Organization of Selective Feeding Programmes Supplementary Feeding Programme Therapeutic Feeding Programm (facility-based ) Organization • On site wet • Take home dry • On site wet feeding (only for those who feeding feeding are severely malnourished with medical • Some medical This is the preferred complications) care option for both blan- + On site feeding ket and targeted • Intensive medical care would usually only programmes + be considered for • Psychological stimulation during targeted SFP rehabilitation phase Size of extra • 500 - 700 kcal/ • 1,000 - 1,200 • 150 kcal/kg body-weight/day/patient. ration person/day, and kcal/person/day, and • 15-25 g protein and • 3-4 g protein per kg body-weight/ • 35-45 g protein day/patient Frequency of Minimum Ration distributed meals 2 meals/day once per week Frequent meals. Phase 1: 8-10 meals over a 24 hour period Rehabilitation phase: 4-6 meals Note: In addition, see guiding principles for community-based management of severe malnutrition in children19

Organizing a therapeutic feeding pro- nized as outpatient and be treated in the gramme (TFP) community using RUTF. Inputs including 101. Therapeutic feeding programmes RUTF supply, community mobilization, (TFP) are either implemented in specially monitoring of progress indicators and fol- organized feeding centers, hospitals, clin- low-up are essentials for the success of the ics or at community level. They involve programme. medical and nutritional treatment as well as rehydration. The programme should be Planning the quantity of food needed for easily accessible to the population, near selective feeding to or integrated into a health facility. The 103. The amount of food needed for the treatment should be carried out in phases selective feeding programme will depend (see Table 4), the length of which depend on: on the severity of malnutrition and/or i. the type of selective programme; medical complications. For complicated ii. the type of commodities; and cases in an inpatient facility, at least during the first week of a TFP, care has to be iii. the expected/eligible number of ben- provided on a 24-hour basis. eficiaries. 104. This information should be based on 102. One of the main constraints to the precise demographic information and on implementation of a TFP is the lack of the prevalence of malnutrition taken from experienced or insufficient staff to man- the results of the nutritional survey. The age the programme. Proper training of both medical and non-medical personnel 19 The guiding principles for community-based ma- is essential before starting the programme. nagement of severe malnutrition in children were The refugees, particularly the mothers of agreed in a consultation meeting (WHO, UNICEF, patients, must be involved in managing the UN Standing Committee on Nutrition (SCN) the TFP centres. Management of severe and other partners including UNHCR in November 2005: http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-health/ malnutrition for cases with no compli- New_Publications/NUTRITION/CBSM/Meeting_ cations as mentioned above can be org- report_CBSM.pdf. 312 follows: as beneficiary, each for appropriate scale ration the by programme each for ciaries benefi of number estimated the tiplying mul by calculated be can requirements food estimated the numbers these With tion (2%)gives90-120children malnutri severe of prevalence Estimated trition (15%)gives675-900children malnu moderate of prevalence Estimated = old 4,500 –6,000(15-20%) years 5 under number Estimated If thetotalpopulation=30,000 and SFP TFP, bothforchildrenunder5yearsold: a targeted for beneficiaries of 107. For example, to estimate the number Table 5:Projected demographicbreak i. made forplanningpurposes: emer be can nutritional assumptions following the major gency, a be, to is likely or is, there that apparent is it 106. If cal population. jected demographic breakdown for a typi pro a for below 5 Table been See out. carried yet not have assessment nutrition and registration a example for when es, may need to be made for planning purpos beneficiaries of number expected and tion malnutri of prevalence the on estimates circumstances, some in 105. However, commodities andtypeofprogramme. appropriate the on advise will nutritionist iii. ii. down Lactating Pregnant 0-4 orunder5 Age groups Projected breakdownbyage 15 to20%maysuffer frommoderate The breakdownofatypicalpopula 2 to3%maybeseverelymalnour tion, byage,isasfollows: ished. malnutrition. 3-5% 15-20% 1.5 -3% % Total population ------survey results form (weight-for-height) is (weight-for-height) form results survey nutrition A5. and 4 Annexes as attached are programmes feeding therapeutic and supplementary on reporting monthly for of feeding centre statistics. Specific forms nutrition surveys and the regular collection ing programmes can be measured through □ □ tion andanalysisof: collec regular the involve evaluation will objectives. established the to relation in performance their programmes sess as to evaluated and monitored be feeding should 109. Selective monitored atregularintervals. be should programme feeding selective 108. programmes Monitoring selectivefeeding number ofdays Xbeneficiaries of number X day / person Quantity of commodity required = ration / significantly reduced, it may be more ef more be may it reduced, significantly 112. Once the number of malnourished is Criteria forclosingprogrammes explain apositiveoutcome. help may services water, community or as shelter, such sectors other in Actions factors. different many to related be can dicators 111. also attached(Annex7). 110. Nutrition Guidelines. Evaluation ofFeeding Programmes intheMSF 20 Forfurtherreference, consultChapter 8:

impact indicatorssuchasmalnutrition process indicatorssuchasattendance, ness andefficacyoftheprogramme. bers served,toevaluatetheeffective prevalence, mortalityrateandnum and trends intheprogrammeovertime; ate thesuccessinimplementationand coverage and recovery rates, to evalu rns n elh n ntiin in nutrition and health in Trends The effectiveness of selective feed selective of effectiveness The h efciees f mat f the of impact of effectiveness The 20 oioig and Monitoring

------313 16 Food and nutrition ficient to manage the remaining severely ing for the first six months of life and malnourished individuals through health continued breastfeeding for 2 years or facilities and through community-based beyond, with timely and correct use programmes. The specific criteria for of adequate complementary foods. closing each selective feeding programme  The use of milk products in refugee will depend on the degree of success in settings must conform with the Inter- reducing the main aggravating factors national Code of Marketing of Breast mentioned in Figure 5 and on the degree Milk Substitutes and the Operational of integration between these feeding pro- Guidance on Infant and Young Child grammes and mother and child health Feeding in Emergencies, as well as (MCH) activities and other support serv- the revised UNHCR policy on the ac- ices offered by the refugee community. ceptance, distribution and use of milk 23 113. After closing selective feeding pro- products in refugee settings. grammes, any deterioration of the situa-  Breastfeeding and infant and young tion should be detected by nutrition sur- child feeding support should be inte- veys undertaken at regular intervals and grated into other services for mothers, review of morbidity and mortality data. infants and young children. This is especially important if the overall  Foods suitable to meet the nutrient situation remains unstable. needs of older infants and young children must be included in the general Infant and young child feeding and ration for food aid dependent popula- use of milk products 21 22 tions.  The protection, promotion and sup-  Breast milk substitutes, other milk port of breastfeeding and appropriate products, bottles or teats must never complementary feeding are essen- be included in a general ration distri- tial to the well-being of infants and bution. These products must only be young children. distributed according to recognised  Inappropriate handling of milk strict criteria and only provided to products in situations of concern to mothers or caregivers for those in- UNHCR, can negatively impact on fants who need them. infant feeding practices and directly  UNHCR will actively discourage the contribute to increased morbidity inappropriate distribution and use and mortality in infants and young of breast milk substitutes (BMS) in children. refugee settings. UNHCR will uphold  UNHCR supports the policy of the and promote the provisions of the World Health Organization (WHO) International Code of Marketing of concerning safe and appropriate Breast milk Substitutes and subse- infant and young child feeding, in quent relevant WHA resolutions. particular by protecting, promoting  For infants requiring infant formula and supporting exclusive breastfeed- in emergencies, generic (unbranded) formula is recommended as first 21 Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergen- choice, after approval by a senior cies, Operational Guidance for Emergency Relief staff member and the coordinating Staff and Programme Managers, Inter-Agency body. Working Group on Infant and Young Child Feed- ing in Emergencies/Infant Feeding in Emergencies Core Group , version 2.0. 23 22 Other relevant publications are: WHO Guiding Policy of the UNHCR related to the Acceptance, Principles for Feeding Infants and Young Children Distribution, and use of Milk Products in Refugee in Emergencies, relevant World Health Assembly Settings, Revised Edition, 2006. (WHA) resolutions and the Sphere Project. 314 agae Ifn frua, f unavoid or health from distributed be should able, if formulae, Infant language. foreign a in often are instructions the and formulae, infant of use the with familiar be to unlikely are mothers control; to cult diffi but importance critical of the is feeds of dilution careful available, rarely emer but essential is water boiled gency.Clean refugee a in exacerbated are tles bot feeding and products milk formulae, 115. feeding programmes. the required. through done be should This nutrients and calories additional the vide pro and breastfeeding encourage to food extra receive to need may Mothers eases. ing protection against some infectious dis giv antibodies as well as food, of source only the initially food, of source hygienic and secure a provides Breastfeeding old. years two under children and infants for 114.    stand theseandworkwiththemsensi tively whilepromotingbestpractice. lives. Preservingbreastfeeding,inpar support forgoodpracticecansave Careful attentiontoinfantfeedingand ticular, isimportantnotjustforthedu young traditions aboutfeedinginfantsand Every groupofpeoplehascustomsand on women’s futurefeedingdecisions. lifelong impactsonchildhealthand ration ofanyemergency, butmayhave

Foods suitabletomeetthenutrient Breastfeeding andinfantyoung In refugeesettingsandinaccordance tions ration forfoodaiddependentpopula dren mustbeincludedinthegeneral needs ofolderinfantsandyoungchil infants andyoungchildren. grated into other services for mothers, child feedingsupportshouldbeinte proval byitsHQtechnicalunits. infant formulaafterreviewandap tional guidance,UNHCRwillsource with UNHCR policy as well as opera

The problems associated with infant with associated problems The ua ml s h bs ad safest and best the is milk Human children. . It is important to under ------iais mnrl upeet o medi or supplements mineral vitamins, the exception of drops or syrups consisting of with water, even not solids, or uids ceives breastfeeding: Exclusive two to years oldorbeyond. up while for foods continues breastfeeding complementary safe and adequate nutritionally by followed life, of months six first the for breastfeeding sive exclu breastfeeding, exclusive of birth) ing: feed child young and infant Optimal who.int/whr/2005/en/). (http://www. p.155 2005, Report Health World the in defined as months) (12-23 toddler of definition the to equivalent is (12-23 completed months). Young child: Infant: definitions Infant andyoungchildfeeding:key Key definitions and cup spoon ifnecessary. clean by fed be should Babies dangerous. therefore are and conditions to impossible sterilize and keep sterile under almost emergency are they used; or distributed be never must bottles feeding Infant supervision. proper and conditions controlled strictly under centres feeding i mnh, elcmn feig should feeding replacement months, six be fully fed on family foods. During can the first they which at infants age the nutrients until need the provides that diet a with milk breast no receiving are who feeding: Replacement substitute. milk breast a or milk breast to addition in adequate and safe solid or semi-solid food ing’ ferred to as ‘ re accurately more and ‘weaning’ called feeding Complementary cines. ): the child receives age-appropriate, receives child the ):

early initiation (within one hour of hour one (within initiation early

only breast milk and no other liq other no and milk breast only achildagedlessthan12months. timely complementary feed a child aged 12-<24 months edn infants Feeding This age group n nat re infant an (previously ------315 16 Food and nutrition be with a suitable breast milk substitute. tive of whether they have been purchased, After six months the suitable breast milk subsidized or obtained free of charge. substitute should be complemented with Breast milk substitute (BMS): any food other foods. being marketed or otherwise represented Note: This terminology is used in the con- as a partial or total replacement for breast text of HIV/AIDS and infant feeding. The milk, whether or not suitable for that pur- current UN recommendation states that pose. “when replacement feeding is acceptable, Note: In practical terms, foods may be feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, considered BMS depending on how they avoidance of all breastfeeding by HIV-in- are marketed or represented. These infected mothers is recommended during the clude infant formula, other milk products, first months of life.” If these criteria are therapeutic milk, and bottle-fed comple- not met, exclusive breastfeeding should be mentary foods marketed for children of up initiated, and breastfeeding should be dis- to 2 years old and complementary foods, continued as soon as it is feasible (‘early juices, teas marketed for infantsof under 6 cessation’), taking into account local cir- months old. cumstances, the individual woman’s situation and the risks of replacement feeding Infant formula: a breast milk substitute (including infections other than HIV, and formulated industrially in accordance with malnutrition). applicable Codex Alimentarius standards [developed by the joint Food and Agricul- International Code: The International ture Organization (FAO) / World Health Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Sub- Organization (WHO) Food Standards stitutes, adopted by the World Health As- Programme]. Commercial infant formula sembly (WHA) in 1981, and subsequent is infant formula manufactured for sale, relevant WHA resolutions, referred to here branded by a manufacturer and may be as ‘the International Code’ (4). The aim of available for purchase in local markets. the International Code is to contribute to Generic infant formula is unbranded and the provision of safe and adequate nutri- is not available on the open market, thus tion for infants, by the protection and pro- requiring a separate supply chain. motion of breastfeeding, and by ensuring the proper use of breast milk substitutes Follow-on/follow-up formula: These are when these are necessary, on the basis specifically formulated milk products de- of adequate information and through ap- fined as “a food intended for use as a liq- propriate marketing and distribution. The uid part of the weaning diet for the infant Code sets out the responsibilities of the from the sixth month on and for young manufacturers and distributors of breast children” (Codex Alimentarius Standard milk substitutes, health workers, national 156-19871). Providing infants with a fol- governments and concerned organizations low-on/follow-up formula is not neces- in relation to the marketing of breast milk sary (See WHA Resolution 39.28, 1986, substitutes, bottles and teats. para 3 [2]). In practice, follow-on formula may be considered a BMS depending on Supplies: In the context of the Interna- how they are marketed or represented for tional Code, supplies means quantities infants and children of under 2 years old of a product provided for use over an ex- and fall under the remit of the Internation- tended period, free or at a low price, for al Code. social purposes, including those provided to families in need. In the emergency con- Note: Acceptable milk sources include text, the term supplies is used generally to expressed breast milk (heat-treated if describe quantities of a product irrespec- the mother is HIV-positive), full-cream 316 mrec feig rgams o the for programmes feeding emergency in used and ration general a supplement to intended commodities are foods tary Supplemen old. months (completed) six under infants for marketed be not foods should complementary Infant spices. or e.g. fresh fruit and vegetables, condiments ration, the complement and intake etary di their diversify to population affected an to given commodities, aid food the basic beyond foods, (i.e. Aid Food of text con the in used food complementary and feeding, complementary child young infant and of context the in to complementary referred food between distinguish to Guidance Operations the in used food’is Note: age. of months six after introduced be should milk or to a breast milk substitute and that breast to complement a as used prepared, locally or produced industrially whether no alternative. is there when infants feed to resort last a as used be only should milks animal fied added micronutrients. tional adequacy with such milks, even with nutri obtain to difficult is It (22b). given recipes, and micronutrients should also be according specific adapted/modified to be must milks These (but milk. condensed) evaporated not reconstituted or milk, (UHT) Temperature High Ultra pow dered), or (liquid milk include animal full-cream sources milk Acceptable Note: micronutrients. and sugar of addition the with and water with diluted suitably milk, animal essed proc or fresh from home at prepared old milk substitute for infants up to six months milk: animal Home-modified yoghurt. (Seeref (9)). or milk fermented and milk, not condensed) (but evaporated reconstituted milk, (UHT) Temperature High Ultra sheep, camel), buffalo, goat, (cow, milk animal Infant complementary food: complementary Infant

h tr ‘nat complementary ‘infant term The

Thus, home-modi any food, any breast a ------Therapeutic milk: International Code. substitute and come under the remit of the a milk breast of definition the fulfil would they mean would infants old months in six under milk breast for replacement total or partial a as RUTF otherwise representing or marketing Also, age. that before RUTF given be never should and old months to 6 before reflex foods solid the swallow have not do Infants Note: level. international or national at manufactured settings. They may be locally produced or based home and community in typically malnutrition, severe of management the in use for products specialized are RUTF Ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF): mented milkoryogurt. fer milk, soya condensed or evaporated milk, milk, skimmed or semi-skimmed whole, liquid milk; skimmed or skimmed products: Milk id foods. sol semi-solid or packets of branded jars, foods) complementary infant produced foods baby Commercial and mortalityinvulnerablegroups. malnutrition of reduction and prevention tity paig tee r nt milks not are these speaking, F100. Strictly and F75 e.g. children, nourished to describe formula diets for severely mal anaemia. deficiency iron to and lead will use term ironlong no old. contain months milks six Therapeutic under infants for load solute a high a too has F100 of dilution standard The malnourished. not are who children young and infants feed be to not used should milks Therapeutic Note: of avitaminsandmineralscomplex. addition the with (DSM), milk skimmed dried from prepared or pre-formulated be may milk Therapeutic so. less F75 and – F100 comprises only 42% milk product, Term commonly used re woe semi- whole, dried (industrially

- - : -

317 16 Food and nutrition Infant feeding equipment: bottles, teats, general ration, appropriate in quantity and syringes and baby cups with or without quality. In situations where supplemen- lids and/or spouts. tary foods are available but sufficient food for the general population is not available, World Health Assembly (WHA) reso- consider pregnant and lactating women as lutions: see definition for International a target group. Code. 117. Complementary feeding for older HIV and infant feeding infants (over six months old) and young  Emphasize primary prevention of children (12-<24 months old) in emergen- HIV/AIDS through such means as cies may comprise: provision of condoms. i. basic food-aid commodities from  Where the HIV status of the mother is general ration with supplements of unknown or she is known to be HIV inexpensive locally available foods; negative, she should be supported ii. micronutrient fortified blended foods, to exclusively breastfeed. Exclusive e.g. corn soya blend, wheat soya breastfeeding is recommended for blend, (as part of general ration, blan- HIV-infected women for the first ket or supplementary feeding); and six months of life unless replace- iii. additional nutrient-rich foods in sup- ment feeding is acceptable, feasible, plementary feeding programmes. affordable, sustainable and safe (AFASS) for them and their infants 118. In all situations, special attention before that time. When replacement should be given to the nutritional value of feeding is acceptable, feasible, af- the food ration distributed to infants and fordable, sustainable and safe avoid- young children, whose particular nutri- ance of all breastfeeding by HIV-in- tional requirements are often not covered fected women is recommended. by the general ration. Nutrient dense foods  Where a mother is HIV positive, for children, whether fortified or non-for- UNHCR will support replacement tified, should be chosen, taking into ac- feeding (see key definitions). count possible micronutrient deficiencies. In all circumstances, because of the 119. Where a population is dependent on existing research and experience gaps, food aid, a micronutrient fortified food consult relevant senior staff for up-to- should also be included in the general ra- 24 date advice. tion for older infants and young children. Ready-to-Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) Protect, promote and support optimal are formulated for the management of infant and young child feeding with inte- malnutrition and are not an appropriate grated multi-sectoral interventions infant complementary food (see key definitions above). Basic interventions 116. Ensure that the nutritional needs of 120. Before distributing an industrially the general population are met, paying produced infant food during an emer- special attention to access to commodities gency, the cost compared to local foods suitable as infant complementary foods for of similar nutritional value and the risk of young children. In situations where nutri- undermining traditional complementary tional needs are not met, advocate for a feeding practices should be considered. As a rule, expensive industrially produced commercial baby foods have no place in 24 For most up-to-date scientific evidence, refer to http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-health/NU- an emergency relief response. TRITION/HIV_infant.htm 318 ucts: 1. UNHCR’s policyrelatedtotheaccept ties, foodandnon-fooditems. facili sanitation and water to for caregivers access secure and easy Ensure 123. refer forimmediateassistance. and problems feeding severe with infants or mothers any refer and identify to rivals ed areas for breastfeeding. Screen new ar seclud appropriate, culturally where lish, 122. Ensure rest areas in transit and estab tion entitlement. ra household additional to access ensure timely to delivery of weeks two within new-borns of registration Establish 121. ance, distributionanduseofmilkprod 2. and allrelevantWorld Health and complywiththeInternationalCode controlled, bottles andteatsshouldbestrictly milk substitutes(BMS),products, agement, anddistributionofbreast enhance orre-establishbreastfeeding. support mothers/caregiverstomaintain, onset. Knowledgeandskillsshould as soonpossibleafteremergency optimal infantandyoungchildfeeding ers topromote,protectandsupport Train health/nutrition/communitywork Resolutions. Targeting anduse,procurement,man UNHCR willnotaccept UNHCR willonlyaccept sections 5.5-5.8) oftheUNHCRpol where keyconditions aremet(see ing establishedandagreed criteria, assessment bytrainedpersonnel us when basedoninfantfeeding needs donations orsourceinfant tion inrefugeesettings. ited donationsthatendupincircula agency tolimittherisksofunsolic HCR willworkwiththecoordinating ‘baby’ foods(seedefinitions). UN bottles andteatscommercial donations ofbreastmilksubstitutes, based ontechnicaladvice unsolicited solicited Assembly

formula , ------

------a b ue i rcntttd form reconstituted in used be may milk (DSM) and skimmed dried whole dried milk both (DWM), powder, Milk 124. Dried milkpowder products Guidelines forthesafeuseofmilk it suitableforfeedingolder infants. should be mixed with other foods to make DSM Unreconstituted prevented. be can milk reconstituted of away carrying the where supervision, under areas enclosed in conducted be should programmes, ing programmes, e.g. supplementary wet feed feeding On-the-spot programme. feeding therapeutic a in milk therapeutic a as e.g. environment for on-the-spot consumption, foods where it can be mixed carefully with other 4. 3. feeding. high soluteload and isnotsuitableforinfant 25 DSM,ifnotmixed withotherfoods,hasavery UNHCR willonlyaccept,supplyand UNHCR willdiscouragethedistribu by UNHCRHQtechnicalunits. WHO, andafterreviewapproval ordinating body, withUNICEFand (WFP), inconsultationwiththeco- with the World FoodProgramme randum ofUnderstanding(MOU) guidelines, andinlinewithMemo (CMV) inaccordancewiththe WHO combined mineralandvitaminmix ment ofacuteseveremalnutrition,or prepare therapeuticmilkfortreat or driedskimmedmilk(DSM)to tic milkproducts(seedefinitions) distribute pre-formulatedtherapeu feeding isencouraged. young childisnotbreastfed,cup In anyinstancewhereaninfantor and artificialteatsinrefugeesettings. tion anduseofinfant-feedingbottles by UNHCRHQtechnicalunits. WHO, andafterreviewapproval ed coordinatingbody, UNICEFand icy, inconsultationwiththedesignat 25 n hgeial i a supervised a in hygienically and

- only - - - - -

319 16 Food and nutrition 125. DSM should always be mixed with WFP/UNHCR Guidelines for Selective oil in order to supply sufficient energy. Feeding Programmes in Emergency Situ- Both DSM and DWM should be prepared ations, WFP/UNHCR, 1999. with sugar to increase their energy con- Nutrition Guidelines, MSF, 1995 tent. For information on micronutrints includ- UHT liquid milk ing prevention and assessement refer to 126. UHT liquid milk should not be in- TSS took kit: cluded in general distributions in refugee The mangement of Nutrition in Major settings. Emergencies, WHO, 2000.

Breast milk substitutes (BMS)26 Micronutrient Malnutrition - Detection, 127. UNHCR will only handle BMS in Measurements and Intervention: A train- refugee settings when based on infant ing Package for Field Staff, UNHCR and feeding needs assessment by trained per- Institute of Child Heath. sonnel using established and agreed cri- Preventing and controlling micronutri- teria, where distribution can be targeted, ent deficiencies in populations affected by where the supply chain is secure, where an emergency, WHO, UNICEF and WFP conditions for safe preparation and use Joint Statement, 2005. can be met, and in strict accordance with A Manual: Measuring and Interpreting the International Code, in consultation Malnutrition and Mortality, CDC and with UNICEF and WHO, and after review WFP, 2005. and approval by UNHCR HQ technical units. The Sphere Project: Humanitarian Char- ter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Key references Response, 2004. WHO, UNICEF and SCN Informal Con- Guiding principles for feeding infants and sultation on Community-Based Manage- young children during emergencies, Ge- ment of Severe Malnutrition in Children, neva, World Health Organization, 2004 Geneva, 21-23 November 2005. (Full text in English: http://whqlibdoc. Mental Health and Psychosocial Well-Be- who.int/hq/2004/9241546069.pdf). ing among Children in Severe Food Short- Infant Feeding in Emergencies: Policy, age Situations, WHO/MSD/MER/06. Strategy and Practice. Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) Report of the Ad Hoc Group on Infant on the Joint Working Arrangements for Feeding in Emergencies, 1999 (http:// Refugee, Returnee and Internally Dis- www.ennonline.net). placed Persons Feeding Operations, WFP, UNHCR, 2002 (also available in The SPHERE Project: Humanitarian French). Charter and Minimum Standards in Dis- aster Response. 2004 (http://www.sphere- Food and Nutrition Needs in Emergencies, project.org/handbook or The SPHERE UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP, WHO, 2003. Project, P.O. Box 372, 1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland). 26 When indicated, an appropriate BMS must be regularly supplied until each infant is six months Acceptance, distribution and use of milk old or has established re-lactation, together with products in feeding programmes in refu- clear instructions in the local language for safe mixing and for feeding with a cup and a spoon, gee settings, UNHCR,1989 (Currently and conditions established for safe preparation under revision,contact: HQTS01@unhcr. and use. org). 320 Glossary Wasting Therapeutic milk Take-home rations Stunting Therapeutic milk Ready-to-use therapeu Mid-upper armcircum Body massindex(BMI) Baseline data Stunting (chronicmal Wasting (acutemalnu ference (MUAC) nutrition) Z-score Weight-for-height Xerophthalmia On-site feeding Oedema Nutrients Micronutrients Marasmus Kwashiorkor Kilocalorie Fortification Fortified blendedfood Anthropometry trition) tic foods(RUTF) - - - - nutrition e.g.F75,F100. gumes, fortifiedwithvitaminsandminerals,e.g.cornsoyablend(CSB),wheat Anthropometric measuredefinesweightinkilogramsdividedbyheight Special milkusedforrehabilitationofseverelymalnourishedpersons. Dry rationsthataregiventopeopletakeandprepareathome. chronic malnutrition. height ofreference(healthy)childrenthesameageindicateslevel Low heightforage.Comparingtheofachildcertainagewith complex. from driedskimmedmilk(DSM),withtheadditionofavitaminsandminerals Specialized milkproductsindicatedforuseinthemanagementofseveremal produced ormanufacturedatnationalinternationallevel. trition, typicallyincommunityandhomebasedsettings. They may belocally RUTFs arespecialisedproductsforuseinthemanagementofseveremalnu Cooked mealeatenatthefeedingcentre. drate, protein,fat,alcohol,vitaminsandminerals. Those partsoffoodthatareabsorbedand/orusedbythebodyi.e.carbohy malnutrition andusedasatoolforscreening. Circumference atthemid-pointofleftupperarm,whichisanindicator Minerals andvitamins. Severe formofmalnutritioninwhichthepersonbecomeswasted. the lowerpartsofarmsandlegs. Severe formofmalnutritioncharacterizedbyoedema(swelling)particularly soya blend(WSB)usedforgeneralandselectivefeedingprogrammes. nutritional statusofadolescentsandadults. meters squared.(weightinkg)/(heightm). or tomonitortrends. similar datacollectedlaterandsousedtoevaluatetheimpactofinterventions Data collectedatthebeginningofaprogrammethatcanbecomparedwith tions ofthehumanbody. The techniquethatdealswithmeasurementsofthesize,weight,andpropor children areshort fortheirage.Itismeasuredby theheightforageindex can occurevenbeforebirthandit isnotpossibletoreverseitlater. Stunted Growth failureinachildthatoccurs overaslowcumulativeprocess.Stunting tion. wasting (below-2SDfromthemedina weightforheightofreferencepopula survey continuous variablessuchasheightsandweightsofasamplein nutrition standard deviationofthereferencedistribution.Z-scoreisusedin analysing from themeanvalueofareferencepopulationtakingintoconsideration the Z-score isstatisticalterm.Itindicatesthedeviationofanindividual’s values for thatheight. The weightofapersonatcertainheightcomparedwiththereference weight for height,alowbodymassindexorobservation(thinness). Abnormal lossoffatand/ormuscletissuewhichisindicatedbyalow weight Clinical signsintheeyecausedbyvitamin of nutritionaloedemathisisduetoadeficiencyinthediet. An abnormalaccumulationoffluidinintercellularspacesthebody. Incase Unit ofenergyusedinnutrition,1Kcal=4.17kilojoules. Adding micronutrientstofoods,e.g.iodizedsaltandfortifiedblendedfood. A Percentage of flourcomposedofpre-cookedcerealsandaproteinsource,mostlyle children under Therapeutic milkmaybepre-formulatedorprepared the age of five A deficiency. suffering 2 Itisusedforassessingthe from moderate or - severe - - - - - 321 16 Food and nutrition Annex 1 – Basic facts about food and Energy and protein intakes nutrition If the energy intake is inadequate, some All foods are made up of five basic types protein will be burnt to provide energy. of nutrient in addition to variable amounts That is, it will be used in the same ways as of water. carbohydrate or fat. More than 20% of the Carbohydrates, the main source of energy, energy requirement should be supplied provide 4 kcal/g. They are mostly starch- from fats and oils which greatly enhance es and sugars of vegetable origin, and are the palatability of the diet and increase en- a major component of cereals and tubers. ergy density (important for younger children). Energy requirements vary widely Fats and oils provide the most concentrat- even in normal individuals. They are ed source of energy, and have more than also increased by physical activity. Much twice the energy content per weight of higher energy and protein intakes are re- carbohydrates and proteins (9/kcal/g). quired for the treatment of malnutrition, Proteins are body-building substances re- when the aim is rehabilitation rather than quired for growth and tissue repair. Pro- maintenance. tein is found in foods of animal origin and in cereals and legumes and provide 4 Food and Diets kcal/g. Most diets in most countries contain adequate amounts of all the nutrients re- Vitamins and minerals are needed in small quired for good health if enough of the quantities for the adequate functioning of diet is taken to satisfy the individual’s en- the body and protection against disease. ergy requirements. Even a growing child, Fresh vegetables and fruits are a good if healthy, requires no more than 10% of source of vitamins. Water soluble vita- total calories to be supplied from protein mins are fragile and cannot be stored (Vi- sources. tamins Bs and C), whereas fat soluble vitamins can be stored in the body (Vitamin A and D). Important minerals are iron, sodium, iodine, zinc, magnesium, potas- sium, etc. Individual vitamins and minerals or combinations are found in all foods in very variable amounts.

322 offices inthe field. is regularly updated and published by WFP and is available from WFP HQ’s or from their tation costs. The prices shown are as of 2006 and will vary over time. This information Note: The prices quoted are free-on-board (FOB) and therefore do not include transpor Programme (WFP)-suppliedcommodities(forprojectcostingandgeneral PROCESSED CEREALS Cereals, General(EMOPs) OILS &FATS Canned fish MEAT &FISH MILK Soya-fortified maizemeal BLENDED FOODS Wheat flour planning) March2006 High energybiscuits Iodized salt Sugar MISCELLANEOUS Lentils Peas Beans PULSES Edible fat Vegetable oil Canned meat Dried wholemilk Dried skimmilk(plain) Dried skimmilk(enriched) Wheat soyablend Corn soyablend Bulgur wheat Maize meal Maize Sorghum/Millet Rice Wheat CEREALS Annex 1(cont.)–Prices,nutritionalvalueandunitcostofWorld Food AND CHEESE 875 80 300 430 310 475 740 900 1,550 2,500 2,600 2,100 2,500 220 320 300 260 250 220 180 150 120 245 160 (US$/MT) Price FOB

450 0 400 340 335 335 900 885 305 220 500 360 360 390 370 380 350 350 360 350 335 360 330 (Kcal) ENERGY Nutritional value

0 22.0 21.0 25.0 36.0 36.0 13.0 20.0 18.0 11.0 11.5 9.0 10.0 11.0 7.0 12.3 (g) PROTEIN 12.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 22.0 20.0 0

4.0 3.0 0.5 1.5 (g) FAT 15 0 0 0.6 1.4 1.2 100 100 24.0 15.0 27.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 6.0 6.0 1.5 1.5 3.5

4.3 3.6 6.8 4.8 ENERGY 19.4 0.0 7.5 12.6 9.3 14.2 8.2 10.2 50.8 113.6 52.0 58.3 69.4 5.6 8.6 7.9 7.4 7.1 6.1 (1000 Kc)

Cost perunit (US cents)

(100 g) 15.0 10.9 35.0 13.0 PROTEIN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.5 119.0 104.0 58.3 69.4 16.9 16.0 16.7 23.6 21.7 24.4

- 323 16 Food and nutrition Annex 1 (cont.) – Micronutrient content of selected food-aid commodities Micronutrients per 100 g edible portion Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Folate Vitamin (mg) (mg) (µg) B1 (mg) B2 (mg) B3 (mg) (µg) C (mg) Cereals Wheat 36 4 0 0.3 0.07 5.0 51 0 Rice (parboiled) 7 1.2 0 0.2 0.08 2.6 11 0 Sorghum 26 4.5 0 0.34 0.15 3.3 U 0 Maize whole yellow 13 4.9 0 0.32 0.12 1.7 U 0 Wheat flour 15 1.5 0 0.10 0.03 0.7 22 0

Processed Cereals Maize flour 10 2.5 0 0.3 0.10 1.8 U 0 Wheat flour* 29 3.7 0 0.28 0.14 4.5 U 0 Bulgur wheat 23 7.8 0 0.30 0.10 5.5 38 0

Blended Foods Corn-soya blend 513 18.5 500 0.65 0.5 6.8 U 40 (CSB) Wheat-soya blend 750 20.8 498 1.50 0.6 9.1 U 40 (WSB) Soya-fortified bulgur 54 4.7 0 0.25 0.13 4.2 74 0 wheat Soya-fortified maize 178 4.8 228 0.70 0.3 3.1 U 0 meal Soya-fortified wheat 211 4.8 265 0.66 0.36 4.6 U 0 flour Soya-fortified 40 2.0 - 0.2 0.10 1.7 50 0 sorghum grits

Dairy Products Dried skim milk (DSM) 1257 1.0 1,500 0.42 1.55 1.0 50 0 Dried whole milk 912 0.5 280 0.28 1.21 0.6 37 0 (DWM) Canned cheese 630 0.2 120 0.03 0.45 0.2 U 0

Meat & Fish Canned meat 14 4.1 0 0.20 0.23 3.2 2 0 Dried salted fish 343 2.8 0 0.07 0.11 8.6 U 0 Canned fish 330 2.7 0 0.40 0.30 6.5 16 0

Oil & Fats Vegetable oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Butter oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pulses Bean (kidney-dry) 143 8.2 0 0.5 0.22 2.1 180 0 Peas 130 5.2 0 0.6 0.19 3.0 100 0 Lentils 51 9.0 0 0.5 0.25 2.6 U 0

Miscellaneous Sugar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dates 32 1.2 0 0.09 0.10 2.2 13 0 U: unknown *: medium extraction Reference: Adapted from Food and Nutrition in the Management of Group Feeding (Revision 1) FAO, Rome 1993 (Annex 1, p. 149-54). 324 Reference: Food&Nutrition NeedsinEmergencies (UNHCR,UNICEF, WFP andWHO,2002) its of the population, the acceptability and availability of the commodities in the region. Five types of rations are shown to illustrate differences due to factors such as the food hab Source: entirely reliantonfoodassistance Examples ofadequatefullrationsintermsenergy, proteinandfatforpopulations Annex 2-Characteristicsofcommonfoods Energy: kcal Fortified blendedfoods Oil (vit. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Fat (ingandin%kcal) Protein (in g and in % kcal) Iodized salt Sugar Fish/meat Pulses* Cereal ITEMS Fats andoils Fish, dried products, eggs,etc Meat, milkanddairy Vegetables andfruits etc.) sweet potato, (yams, taro,cassava, Whole tubersandroots groundnuts, etc.) (beans, peas,soya, Legumes /oilseeds oats, etc.) (rice, corn,sorghum, Cereal grains A Food andnutritionneedsinemergencies, UNHCR,UNICEF, WFP, WHO,2003 fortified) Food type

43 g;18% 58 g;11% Example 1 RATIONS (quantitying) 2,113 5 15 50 - 25 60 400 D, exceptforredpalm-oil. ble fatscontainnovitamin A and of vitamin A andD,whilevegeta Fats derivedfrommilkaresources Contains Bvitamins. Rich sourceofcalciumandiron. of calcium. eggs providesignificantamounts source ofvitamin A. Milkand Whole milkandeggsalsogood Good sourcesofBvitamins. indicates vitamin A compounds. or yellow/redpigmentationusually and Cvitamins.Darkgreenleaves minerals. Variable quantitiesofB Important sourceofvitaminsand vitamin C. for potatoeswhicharerichin Variable butgenerallylow, except calcium. significant quantitiesofironand B complexvitamins.Mostcontain the lossofvitamins. i.e. thewhiterflourgreater ever thesearereducedbymilling, Contain vitaminBandiron.How Vitamins andminerals 43 g;18% 71 g;13% Example 2 2,075 5 - 40 10 25 60 450 42 g;18% 65 g;12% Example 3 2,113 5 20 50 - 25 100 350 - - emergencies. them unsuitableasstaplefoodsin Bulk andlowproteincontentmakes complement eachother eaten withcerealsastheproteins Legumes areparticularlyusefulwhen protein inmostdiets. The mainsourceofbothenergyand preparation. proves palatabilityandhelpsinfood without increasingbulkofdiet.Im Useful waytoincreaseenergyintake ability trialsessentialbeforeuse. those wholikeit. Therefore accept A concentratedsourceofproteinfor of diet. improve thequalityandpalatability Therefore smallquantitiesusefulto than proteinsofvegetableorigin. are morereadilyusedbythebody quantities innormaltimes. They Usually consumedinverysmall 2,146 5 - 40 30 30 60 400 42 g;17% 55 g;10% Example 4 Comments 2,100 5 25 45 - 30 50 400 39 g;17% 65 g;12% Example 5 - - -

325 16 Food and nutrition Annex 3 – Main nutritional deficiency disorders in emergencies15 Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is likely to be the most important health problem and a leading cause of death during an emergency. There are several forms: Marasmus is marked by the severe wasting of fat and muscle, which the body has broken down for energy, leaving “skin and bones”. It is the most common form of PEM in nutritional emergencies. Kwashiorkor is characterized essentially by oedema (swelling which usually starts in the feet and legs), sometimes accompanied by a characteristic skin rash and/or changes in hair colour (reddish). The hair becomes sparse. In Marasmic kwashiorkor there is a combination of severe wasting and oedema. Chil- dren under 5 years old are usually the most affected, but older children and adults are also often at risk or affected. The treatment of severe forms of acute malnutrition is presented in the section on selective feeding programmes. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies can cause long-lasting or permanent disabilities and can be fatal. The deficiencies most likely to occur include: Iron deficiency (1) causes anaemia. (signs: pallor of skin and eyelids, fatigue, weakness and shortness of breath); (2) increases the risk of haemorrhage, infection and death associated with childbirth; (3) increases rates of low-birth-weight and (4) impairs the cognitive development of infants and children. Iron Deficiency Anaemia

Pale mucous membranes in the eye and the tongue are signs of anaemia. You may see these signs in males and females of all ages.

ICH/UNHCR MNDD Slide Iodine deficiency causes not only goitre but also some impairment of intellectual development in children and of reproductive performance in women (see illustrations below). Severe maternal deficiency can cause cretinism in the offspring. Best prevented in emergencies by the use of iodized salt. Photo taken by Internal Displacement Division (IDD)

15 Adapted from: The management of nutrition in major emergencies. WHO, Geneva 2000. 326 tions, particularlymeaslesanddiarrhoea. infec prolonged or acute following or diet, inadequate an of months several after material on the conjunctiva or clouding of the cornea itself. These signs may appear below). Eye signs: poor vision in dim light, dryness of conjunctiva or cornea, foamy VitaminA deficiency most oftenbeseeninchildren. not toconfusethemwithothertypesofeyeproblems.These signs will Bitots spots*X1B(arefoamywhiteareasontheofeye. Becareful Vitamin A DeficiencyXeropthalmia Corneal Xerosis(X2) causes xerophthalmia , blindness and death (see illustrations (see death and blindness , Keratomalacia (X3) ICH/UNHCR MNDDSlide20

- 327 16 Food and nutrition Vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency causesberi-beri . Symptoms and signs: loss of appetite, malaise and severe weakness, especially in the legs; may also lead to paralysis of the limbs or swelling of the body, heart failure and sudden death. Beri-beri occurs when the diet consists almost exclusively of white polished rice or starchy staple such as cassava. Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy. Signs: swollen gums which bleed easily, swollen painful joints, easy bruising. This occurs due to a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits.

Niacin deficiency causes pellagra. Signs: skin rash on parts of body exposed to sunlight; diarrhoea; and mental changes leading to dementia. This occurs especially where maize and sorghum are the staples and there is a lack of other foods.

Niacin Deficiency – Pellagra

Casal’s collar

Butterfly sign

A rash (dermatitis) which is on both sides of the body, and on skin normally exposed to sunlight is a sign of pellagra. Check the face, neck, hands, arms and legs. ICH/UNHCR MNDD Slide

Prevention involves ensuring that people receive or have access to a variety of foods that contain sufficient quantities of essential vitamins and minerals. This also includes fortified food items distributed in food aid, access to local markets, and produce from home gardens. Treatment consists of administering therapeutic doses of the missing nutrients. The distribution of multi-vitamin tablets to the entire refugee population is a waste of time and money, since they contain insufficient quantities of individual vitamins to correct deficiencies.

328 Comments: (from allorasampleof30 recoveredchildren)(target <60 days) = Average lengthofstayintheprogramme Agency: Location: Country: Annex 4–Reportingform:supplementaryfeedingprogramme Defaulters (G) Deaths (F) Discharges (E) in thisperiod: Discharged (D=B+C) Total admissions Re-admissions (C) admissions (B) Total new Others <-2Z-score < 80%WFHor New admissions: month (A) Total atendoflast (J=A+D-I) of thismonth New totalatend (I=E+F+G+H) Total discharged Referrals (H) Total number ofdaysadmissionall(or30)recoveredchildren

M < 5years No ofrecovered children(or30) Period: F ≥ 5years M CATEGORIES F Target <5(moderatemalnutritionrate*<5pop): Moderate malnutritionrate: Under (<)5population Total population: Theoretical coverage<5(newtotal(J)/Target): women Pregnant women Lactating

TOTAL 329 16 Food and nutrition Annex 5 – Reporting form: therapeutic feeding programme Country: Period: Total population: Location: Under (<) 5 population Agency: Moderate malnutrition rate: Target <5 (moderate malnutrition rate *<5 pop): Theoretical coverage <5 (new total (J)/Target):

Total at end of last < 5 years ≥ 5 years Adults TOTAL month (A) New admissions: M F M F M F

< 70% WFH or < -3 Z-score

Kwashiorkor

Others Total new Admissions (B) Re-admissions (C) Total admissions (D=B+C) Discharged this month: Discharged (E) Deaths (F) Defaulters (G) Referrals (H) Total discharged (I=E+F+G+H) New total at end of this month (J=A+D-I)

Causes of death: Average weight gain during last month (from all or a sample of 30 children) (target: >8 g/kg/day) =

weight at end of month (or on exit) – lowest weight recorded during month

lowest weight recorded in last month x number of days between lowest weight recorded and end of month (or on exit)

Average weight gain for marsmus (include only children in phase II) = Average weight gain for kwashiorkor (include only children in phase II after complete loss of oedema) = Average length of stay in the programme (from all or a sample of 30 recovered children) (target <30 days) =

Total number of days of admission of all (or 30) recovered children

Number of recovered children (or 30)

330 Nutrition Annex 6–Exampleofanthropometricnutritionsurveyformat(source:Emergency IEFGH (I=E+F+G+H) Assessment,Save 2004).Children, the – 6 Annex (target = <30 days) lengthAverage of stayin programme the oedema) = weight for Average gain weight for Average gain = weightAverage gain Causesdeath: of (J=A+D-I) thistotal end of New month at lowest weight recorded in last month x number of days between lowest weight recorded and end lowest recorded weight number days month x between lastof in recorded lowest weight Assessment, SavetheChildren,2004). Example of anthropometric nutrition survey format (source: Emergency Nutrition Emergency Nutrition format survey (source: of nutrition Exampleanthropometric weight at end of month (or on exit) – lowest weight recorded during month during recorded month (or –atof exit) lowest on weight end weight Total number of days number of Total of days admission all(or of 30) recovered children during last month (from all or a sample of sample>8 30 or g/kg/day) (target: of children) a (from month all during last kwashiorkor marsmus Number of recovered children (or children 30) recovered of Number (include only children in phase II) = II) in phase children only (include (include (include only children loss of after phase II complete in of month (or on exit) monthon (orof (from all or a sample of 30 recovered children) 30 recovered (from sample a of or all

331 16 Food and nutrition 332 values). reference (NCHS/WHO/CDC population healthy a for values reference ternational in to measurements individual compare For all 3 indicators (W/H, W/A, H/A), we    growth hasbeenadequate. on measurementsofthebodytoseeif of malnutritioninchildrenarebased crises. Moststandardizedindicators toring andcomparinglarge-scalefood ing nutritionalprogrammesandmoni assessment isnotpracticalformanag has bilateraloedema.However, clinical emaciated andachildwithkwashiorkor obviously amarasmicchildisextremely cal signsusefulfordiagnosis,butmost kwashiorkor. Therearevariousclini - marasmus,kwashiorkorandmarasmic severe proteinenergymalnutrition There are3majorclinicalformsof malnutrition Annex 7:Rapidassessment:measuring

Weight forheight(W/H),isanindica Weight forage(W/A),isacomposite Height forage(H/A),isanindica (wasting). if achildistoothinforgivenheight tor ofacutemalnutritionthattellsus weight/ "wasting"). and currentmalnutrition(deficitin trition (deficitinheight/"stunting") indicator ofbothlong-termmalnu children ofthesameage(stunting). a lowerheightcomparedtoother reduced growthrate-andtherefore a longperiodoftimewillhave exposed toinadequatenutritionfor tor ofchronicmalnutrition. A child

------H randomsurvey. tion to determine the need for a proper W/ popula the of situation nutritional the of for quick screening and rapid assessments used only is MUAC therefore high, very However, the risk of measurement error is groups). age month 6-12 the in rates overestimates it (although months 6-59 mal from acute nutrition measure to used be can and a circumference is good predictor of immediate risk of and death, fast simple, is MUAC arm dicator. in anthropometric another is upper (MUAC), Middle define acutemalnutrition. to oedema bilateral of presence the W/H and assess to essential is it Therefore, W/H. their acutely of irrespective severely malnourished, being of as regarded indicator are oedema with an children All is kwashiorkor. oedema Bilateral - - as: indicator best the is emergencies,W/H In Nutrition NeedsinEmergencies, 2001 UNHCR/UNICEF/WFP/WHO EstimatingFood& Adapted from: - - it issensitivetorapidchanges(prob it reflectsthepresentsituation; it canbeusedtomonitortheevolu it isagoodpredictorofimmediate population. tion ofthenutritionalstatus mortality risk;and lems andrecovery);

- - - - - 333 16 Food and nutrition Annex 8: Emergency phase action plan PHASE I OF THE EMERGENCY From the outset and during initial ⇒ Adopt the 2,100 kcal/person as a reference figure. stages of the emergency ⇒ Adjust 2,100 kcal figure based on information available immedi- (i.e. during initial rapid assess- ately using the factors outlined in Section V. ments). ⇒ Ensure that food ration is adequate to address the protein, fat and micronutrient requirements of the population. ⇒ Ensure that food ration is adequate to address the nutritional needs of all sub-groups of the population. ⇒ Outline strategies for collecting information for making further adjustments. ⇒ Food management issues are considered. ⇒ Food-related conditions are considered. ⇒ Monitoring system is established to ensure adequacy of the ration. PHASE II OF THE EMERGENCY Situation stabilized ⇒ Through periodic reassessment, further revision and adjustment of the reference figure based on additional information about all the factors affecting energy requirements specific to the situation (outlined in Section V). ⇒ Plan for longer term assistance or phase out strategies.

ANNEX 9: Checklist for adjustments to the initial reference figure of 2,100 kcal

□ Are the majority of the population undertaking strenuous physical activities such as carrying heavy loads over long distances? □ Is the average temperature significantly lower than 20oC? □ What is the prevalence of malnutrition among the population? □ Is the crude mortality rate (CMR) significantly higher than normal? □ Are there significant public health risks for the affected population? □ Is the demographic profile of the affected population as expected? □ Is the population receiving a regular supply of some food from other sources? □ What is the percentage of energy from protein in the ration? □ Is the energy obtained from fat at least 17%?

334 335 16 Food and nutrition 17 Health

336 CONTENTS Paragraph Page Overview 1-3 338-340 Health Assessment, Planning, Monitoring and Surveillance 4-41 340-348 Initial Assessment 4 340 Monitoring and Surveillance: 9 342 The Health Information System 9 342 Mortality 15 342 Morbidity 19 343 Indicators 33 345

Main Health Programmes 42-103 348-358 Curative Care 42 348 Immunizations 45 349 Communicable Disease Control 52 350 Reproductive Health 65 353 Tuberculosis Control 83 355 Mental Health 86 355 Capacity Building 91 356 Medical Supplies 95 357 Laboratory Services 102 358

Organization of Refugee Health Care 104-121 358-361 Introduction 104 358 Community Level Health Care 107 359 The Health Centre 109 359 Referral Services 112 360

Human Resources and Coordination 122-148 361-364 The Refugees 122 361

Staffing Needs 124 361 Health National Health Authorities 129 362 UNHCR Health Coordinator 130 362 17 Other Specialized Staff 134 363 Role of the UN and Specialized Agencies 136 363 Role of NGOs 141 363 Organization of Response 147 364

Key References Annexes Annex 1: Weekly Reporting Form - Mortality Annex 2: Outbreak Alert Form Annex 3: Weekly Reporting Form – Morbidity Annex 4: Indicative Health Staffing Levels Annex 5: Rapid Health Assessment Form

Figures and Tables Figure 1: Assessment and Response Table 1: Crude Mortality Rate Benchmarks Table 1A: Baseline Reference Mortality Data by Region Table 2: Common Diseases 337 Situation there must be parity - providing that It is well known from experience that minimum international and UNHCR emergencies result in excess loss of life standards are met. (high mortality) and increased incidence • The health services must be of a of diseases (high morbidity). In develop- quality that ensures that programmes, ing countries, the diseases mainly respon- providers and institutions respect sible for high mortality and morbidity patients’ rights and comply with na- are measles, diarrhoeal diseases (includ- tionally and internationally accepted ing cholera), acute respiratory infections health standards and principles of (pneumonia), malnutrition and malaria. medical ethics. The factors which increase the risk of • The health programme should also disease and which should be addressed in be sustainable. It is sometimes better any emergency response include an unfa- not to start activities which cannot be miliar environment, poverty, insecurity, maintained, than to cease supporting overcrowding, inadequate quantities and activities which both implementing quality of water, poor environmental sani- partners and beneficiaries have taken tation, inadequate shelter and inadequate for granted (of course this does not food supply. apply to vital activities or urgent life saving measures). Objectives • Many countries will not have suf- • To prevent and reduce excess mortality ficient human and material resources and morbidity and to promote a return to to respond adequately to the ex- normalcy to ensure refugees’ right to the traordinary needs generated by an highest attainable standard of physical emergency. Experienced national and mental health.1 and international Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) should be Principles of response mobilized to initiate urgent life sav- • Priority should be given to a Primary ing measures and rapid integration Health Care (PHC) strategy which in- with the Ministry of Health (MOH) is cludes preventive and basic curative essential. health services and integrate a multi- • Health services should take into ac- sectoral response with a strong vital count the particular vulnerability of sectors component including water, children under five years old during food, sanitation, shelter and physical emergencies. Priority should be given planning. to the prevention and management • Refugee participation, in particular of the five main causes of excess women, in the development and pro- mortality and morbidity: malaria, vision of health services is essential. acute respiratory infections, measles, • All members of the population in- malnutrition, diarrhoeal diseases. cluding groups with specific needs, • Health services should also take into women and men, girls and boys, eth- account the special needs of women nic and other minorities should have who play a central role as primary access to health services. health care providers and also bear • Services provided for refugees should a disproportionate share of suffering be at a level equivalent to that appro- and hardship. It includes a minimum priate to host country nationals, i.e. package of reproductive health services, aiming in particular at reducing 1 International Covenant on Economic, Social and maternal and newborn mortality and Cultural rights, 1966, Article 12. morbidity and reducing the transmis- 338 sion of Human Immunodificiency Vi- • Establish an early warning and sur- rus (HIV)2. It should be implemented veillance system to detect outbreaks immediately. and prepare rapid response actions. • A UNHCR Health Coordinator Introduction should be appointed with responsibility for the health programme and for 1. Good health, depending as it does on ensuring that national and interna- so many non-medical factors, is too big a tional standards and best practices are subject to be left only to medical workers. adhered to, in close coordination with This chapter is directed at non-specialist the national health authorities and staff in the field. It does not pretend to other organizations. give “medical answers” to health problems. It does, however, seek to show that Action proper assessment of problems, needs and • Assess the health and nutritional sta- resources, appropriate organization and tus of the population by age and sex coordination of public health and medical and identify the critical health risk services based on a Primary Health Care factors in the environmental condi- (PHC) strategy are more important to the tions. overall health status of refugees than cura- • Establish priority needs, define the re- tive medicine alone. These crucial organi- quired activities to meet those needs zational factors are often the responsibil- and determine the required human, ity of non-medical UNHCR staff. material and financial resources to 2. During an emergency, many refugees perform these activities. will be exposed to insecurity, poor shel- • In accordance with these activi- ter, overcrowding, a lack of sufficient safe ties, set up community-based health water, inadequate sanitation, inadequate services and devise the appropri- or inappropriate food supplies and a pos- ate organizational and coordination sible lack of immunity to the diseases of mechanisms with both the health the new environment. Furthermore, on partners and other relevant sectors of arrival, refugees may already be in a de- assistance. bilitated state from disease, malnutrition, • Promote basic health education for hunger, fatigue, harassment, physical vio- Health

the refugees and train refugee health lence and grief. Poverty, powerlessness 17 workers (50% women) and ensure and social instability, conditions that often female to female health services prevail for persons of concern to UNHCR, (including community health workers can also contribute to increased sexual vi- and midwives). olence and spread of sexually transmitted • Monitor and evaluate the effective- diseases including HIV. ness of the services and adjust as 3. The World Health Organization necessary. (WHO) has summarized the concept of • Ensure that decisions about the health Primary Health Care as follows: “PHC services are based on proper assess- is essential health care made accessible ment and surveillance, including to everyone in the country. It is given in participatory assessment. a way acceptable to individuals, families • Communicate information about the and the community, since it requires their emergency situation and the health full participation. Health care is provided services for advocacy purposes. at a cost the community and the country can afford. Though no single model is ap- 2 Please refer to Chapter 19 for more information plicable everywhere, Primary Health Care on HIV and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) should include the following: 339 i. promotion of proper nutrition; iii. mass health screening on arrival; and ii an adequate supply of safe water; iv. information collected by community iii basic sanitation; health workers. iv reproductive and child care, including 5. The aim of the initial health assess- family planning; ment is to first define the level of the v appropriate treatment for common emergency, identifying basic problems diseases and injuries; and needs to establish priorities. It should vi immunization against major infec- be carried out by people with appropriate tious diseases; qualifications and relevant experience. There are obvious advantages in using vii prevention and control of locally national or locally-based personnel, but endemic diseases; and appropriate outside expertise can be made viii education about common health available quickly and should be requested problems and what can be done to through the Technical Support Section prevent and control them. at Headquarters if necessary. Attention At the heart of such a strategy there is an should be paid to gender balance among emphasis on preventive, as against cura- health staff. tive care alone. 6. The priority should be to evaluate the Health assessment, planning, incidence of the major causes of excess monitoring and surveillance mortality and morbidity – measles, diarrhoeal diseases, pneumonia, malaria and  An assessment of the health and nu- malnutrition; the availability and access to tritional status is an essential start to basic and emergency care and resources the provision of health services. (in particular basic emergency obstetric  This must be done by experts with care) and to identify the level of risk of a experience of emergencies and, if possible outbreak (cholera, malaria, men- possible, local knowledge. ingitis, AHI (avian/human flu), VHF (vi-  The factors affecting the health of ral haemorrhagic fever). the refugees must be identified and a surveillance and reporting system 7. Relevant information can be obtained established. from: i. direct observation; Initial assessment ii. reviewing baseline information 4. First, information should be obtained 3 regarding the country/areas of origin on the number of refugees segregated and asylum; by age (percentage of children under five iii. analysing records at health facilities years old) and sex (male/female ratio). and interviewing health workers; See chapter 10 on registration for more information on estimating the total number iv. undertaking sample surveys (nutrition of refugees. and mortality, i.e. retrospective mortality surveys) which must be done Age/sex breakdown can be estimated by experts; from: v. population estimation and registration i. information collected during surveys; (see chapter 10 on population estima- ii. information collected during mass tion and registration); and immunization campaigns; vi. mass health and nutrition screening on arrival. This should focus on: (i) nutrition screening through visual 3 Health experts sometimes call this number “the inspection and measurement of the denominator”. 340 Mid Upper Arm Circumference usually impractical to try to provide (“MUAC”), (see chapter 15 on food treatment in the screening line itself. and nutrition), (ii) checking for com- 8. Figure 1 illustrates key management municable diseases and vaccination considerations for action in light of the coverage, and (iii) identifying pa- initial assessment. tients in need of urgent referral. It is

Figure 1 – Assessment and Response

Assess the situation, including nutritional status

Major health No (to checklist) problem?

Yes

Organize expert Are causes No epidemiological understood? survey

Yes Health Take immediate action to Summary checklist remove causes 1. Evaluate the vital sectors, 17 (public health measures) e.g. water, sanitation, shelter, Control communicable food diseases and treat refugees 2. Have effective health services been organized and does surveillance indicate that they work? 3. Is the referral system in Can health Continuous place and have children been Yes system and refugees vaccinated against measles? monitoring cope? 4. Have health care guidelines been issued No and are they followed? 5. Are drug supplies Bring in necessary appropriate, standardized outside assistance and available?

341 Monitoring and surveillance: the health and will be acted on should be collected. information system Communication and exchange of views 9. The role of the health information sys- among all the actors in the health infor- tem is to generate, analyse and disseminate mation system are essential to secure the health data. This is a continuous activity, functionality of the system. conducted regularly and closely linked 12. A reporting calendar is essential to to public health decision-making and the the function of the health information sys- implementation of programme activities. tem. It should be standardized among all From the earliest stages of an emergency, health partners at all levels of health man- a health information system should be put agement. Copies should be distributed in place under the responsibility of the throughout each camp and made easily UNHCR Health Coordinator. visible to all staff. This calendar should The objectives of any health information specify the dates on which each week be- system are to: gins and ends; the last day of the week should represent the date on which daily i. rapidly detect and respond to health information sources (daily sheets and reg- problems and epidemics; isters) are compiled and reported using a ii. monitor trends in health status and Weekly Report Form. continually address health-care priorities; 13. Health information in the initial stages iii. evaluate the effectiveness of interven- of an emergency should concentrate on: tions and service coverage; i. demography iv. ensure that resources are correctly ii. mortality and its causes targeted to the areas and groups of iii. nutritional status greatest need; and iv. morbidity v. evaluate the quality of health inter- 14. Only when the situation stabilizes ventions. can the system be made more comprehen- 10. UNHCR website (www.unhcr.org/ sive. After the emergency phase is de- health) provides a number of tables and clared over, the health information system forms for collecting health related infor- should be expanded to include more de- mation. This chapter also contains report- tailed reporting and from a greater number ing forms on mortality and morbidity. of primary health sections (e.g. Inpatient However, to have a more comprehensive Department and Referral Services, Ex- idea of the situation, information regard- panded Program on Immunization (EPI), ing water, food, sanitation, shelter and and more detailed Reproductive Health availability of soap should also be collect- and HIV/AIDS information). ed and analysed (see the relevant chapters on water, nutrition, sanitation, and physi- Information on mortality and morbidity cal planning). should be collected as follows:

11. The health information system should Mortality (death) be simple, reliable, and action oriented. 15. Each health facility should keep a log The information to be collected should of all patient deaths with cause of death be adapted to suit the collectors’ qualifi- and relevant demographic information. cations. Training in collection of infor- This information should be summarized mation should be organized in a standard in tables (see tables 2.1 and 2.2 of Annex manner. Overly detailed or complex re- 1), reported centrally and consolidated porting requirements will result in non- with other data. compliance. In addition, only data that can

342 16. Because many deaths occur out- Morbidity (illness) side the health-care system, a commu- 19. Each health facility providing out-pa- nity-based mortality surveillance system tient services should report age, sex, and should also be established. This system cause-specific data for each consultation. requires identification of sites used as Information should be recorded systemati- cemeteries, employing grave watchers on cally, using data sources and guidance that a 24 hours basis, routinely issuing burial are standardized between health agencies. shrouds, and using community inform- ants. Deaths that occur outside hospitals, Monitoring and surveillance by unknown causes, should be validated 20. The principal source of routine moni- through verbal autopsy by health workers toring in the out-patient department should specifically trained for this task. be a daily tally sheet (see www.unhcr. 17. Depending on the requirements of the org/health). Before any record is made, health partner, certain primary causes of the clinical officer must first determine death should invoke a more detailed in- whether a patient is presenting with a new vestigation of the exact cause and circum- health problem (‘New visit’), or is seeking stances surrounding the death (see table treatment for a pre-existing health prob- 2.2 in Annex 1). The investigation should lem (‘Revisit’). This distinction is critical be led by a multi-disciplinary team com- to the correct calculation and interpreta- prised of health agency staff, UNHCR, tion of morbidity indicators at the end government counterparts and community of each month. The definitions of these leaders. Guidance on when to begin an terms should be specified for each disease investigation into a death, the team com- and health event under surveillance, and position, methods of enquiry, and the pro- stated in clear, written guidelines that are cedure for producing a final report should available to all clinical officers. be clearly stated by each agency. The 21. Case definitions are an essential tool outcome should be documented in a nar- to any surveillance system. They state rative report, covering terms of reference clear and objective criteria that must be that have been established in advance. met, before a diagnosis is reported. This

Depending on the cause of death under re- guarantees consistency of reporting and Health view, the investigation may also be linked helps to ensure that accurate and compa- with wider outbreak alerts and response rable morbidity data is collected and re- 17 efforts [see paragraph on morbidity (ill- ported by all health partners. Definitions ness)]. should be simple, clear and adapted to 18. Death certificates should be issued available diagnostic means. They should by the health agency for every death re- be adhered to by all agencies, and used by ported within the camp. This acts as both staff in all reporting facilities (including a legal record of death and as a means of outpatient department [OPD], inpatient triangulating data within the hospital and department [IPD] and laboratory). The community mortality sources. No burial case definitions of the Ministry of Health should take place without evidence of a should be adopted where available; in death certificate that has been issued by the their absence, standard WHO case defini- main camp hospital/dispensary. This will tions can be used but should be adapted help to prevent under-reporting of deaths according to the local context. that occur in the community but might not otherwise be reported to a health agency. No diagnosis should be recorded unless it meets the case definition.

343 Health information systems diagnosis data, and for facilitating the re- 22. An early warning system for detection porting of statistics each week. However, of outbreaks should be established within it does not replace the need to maintain the routine health information system. detailed history and examination notes. All diseases of outbreak potential should These should be written legibly, in long- be assigned a corresponding alert thresh- hand, in the individual patient records that old, which defines the basis upon which are maintained by each health agency. an outbreak should be reported. As for all 27. A summary of case-based informa- conditions under surveillance, the deci- tion from each consultation should also be sion on which diseases are selected should logged in an OPD Register. One register be based upon epidemiological priorities book should be kept in each consultation in each country. room within the outpatient department and 23. To promote a predictable and timely should record information on the identity intervention once these thresholds are ex- of the patient, presenting signs and symp- ceeded, the alert thresholds should be vis- toms, diagnosis and treatment, and nec- ible and easily referenced by all clinical essary follow-up / admission details (see officers. The number of reported cases Annex). should also be plotted in a graph at the end 28. The centralized summary of case- of each week. This graph is known as an information within each register acts as epidemiological curve, and uses “Number a useful monitoring and evaluation tool. of Cases” on the vertical axis and time in Health Managers should periodically au- “Weeks” on the horizontal axis. dit the registers, to review diagnosis and 24. Trends in morbidity should be ob- prescription practices in each OPD and served over time and monitored for any certify adherence to Standard Treatment rapid or unusual increases that could sig- Guidelines. The case-based information nal instability and/or possible outbreaks. collected in the register also plays a crucial Historical data should be used to generate role in tracing individuals in the event of and update baseline information regularly an outbreak and is an important reference in the graphs (e.g. for malaria and menin- for the completion of the line listing in the gitis) to watch to see if these alert thresh- Outbreak Alert Form (see Annex 2). olds are exceeded. 29. In addition, the patient should be is- 25. Alert thresholds should be moni- sued a health record card (or “Road to tored per health facility on a daily and/or Health” card) on which the date, diag- weekly basis, and an outbreak alert form nosis, and treatment are recorded. The (Annex 2) should be completed for each ‘Road to Health’ card provides a use- threshold that is exceeded. The triggering ful medical summary of a child’s health of an outbreak alert should lead to a num- in the first five years of life. These are ber of pre-determined actions, which are most important in a child’s development, familiar to all clinical officers and facility and should be closely monitored to ensure supervisors. timely detection of problems and early diagnosis and treatment. The card is given Outbreak preparedness plans should be es- to mothers when their infant is born and tablished, including a system for early de- should be updated regularly at the health tection, investigation and response should unit, until the child is five years old. be established, identifying key actors. 30. The health information system should 26. The daily Outpatient Department be periodically assessed to determine its (OPD) Tally Sheet is a useful tool for con- accuracy, completeness, simplicity and densing large volumes of consultation and timeliness. The way programme planners 344 and key decision-makers use the informa- 35. An emergency is defined by mortality tion should also be assessed. The system rates double that of the baseline. Where should evolve as the need for information baseline mortality of the population prior changes (flexibility). to displacement, or of the population in the host country, is known, then this figure 31. Camp and centrally controlled moni- should be used. toring of health and nutritional status is essential if problems are to be identified in Table 1 – Crude Mortality Rate time to allow preventive and/or corrective Benchmarks actions to be taken and to adjust resource allocation. The refugees’ health status Average rate in most 0.5 developing countries deaths/10,000/day should improve as public health services Relief programme: <1.0 start to function adequately and the refu- under control deaths/10,000/day gees adjust to their new environment. Relief programme: >1.0 32. However, a vigilant surveillance very serious situation deaths/10,000/day system must be maintained. Seasonal Emergency: >2.0 changes will affect health (for example out of control deaths/10,000/day temperature changes, and especially the Major catastrophe >5.0 rainy season) so seasonal variations in deaths/10,000/day the incidence of disease will remain. The UNHCR Health Coordinator and her/his 36. Where baseline mortality is not counterparts in the government and other known, the figure of 0.5 deaths /10000/day partners will be responsible for the quality (1/10,000/day under five) is used in devel- of this surveillance, the data required, who oping countries. In this case, the objective will interpret it and how, to ensure action of the overall assistance programme in the on the results and feed-back to all actors. emergency phase should be to achieve CMR of <1/10,000/day and U-5MR of Indicators Mortality (death) <2/10,000/day as soon as possible. These rates still represent approximately twice 33. The most important and specific indi- the “normal” CMR and U-5MR for non- Health cators of the overall status of the refugee displaced populations in most developing population are the Crude Mortality Rate nations and should not signal a relaxation 17 (CMR), for the whole population and Un- of efforts. Other situations are given in der-5 Mortality Rate (U-5MR) for children table 1A below (the Sphere Project, 2004 under five years old. These indicators are edition, page 261). of crucial importance to managers of the operation and are also of great interest to the media, donors and relief agencies. A priority for the health surveillance system is to produce reliable information on death rates.

345 Table 1A: Baseline Reference Mortality Data by Region

Baseline Reference Mortality Data by Region Region CMR CMR CMR CMR (deaths/ emergency (deaths/ emergency 10,000/day) threshold 10,000 U5s/day) threshold Sub-Saharan Africa 0.44 0.9 1.14 2.3 Middle East and North Africa 0.16 0.3 0.36 0.7 South Asia 0.25 0.5 0.59 1.2 East Asia and Pacific 0.19 0.4 0.24 0.5

Latin America and Caribbean 0.16 0.3 0.19 0.4

Central and Eastern European 0.30 0.6 0.20 0.4 Region/CIS and Baltic States Industrialised countries 0.25 0.5 0.04 0.1

Developing countries 0.25 0.5 0.53 1.1

Least developed countries 0.38 0.8 1.03 2.1

World 0.25 0.5 0.48 1.0

Source: UNICEF’s State of the World’s Children 2003 (data from 2001).

37. Age and sex-specific mortality rates Morbidity incidence is the number of have to be collected systematically and new cases of a given disease among the may indicate the need for targeted in- population over a certain period of time, terventions. Table 1 below shows some usually expressed 1,000/population. It is benchmarks for developing countries more useful to follow this than to keep a where baseline data is not known against simple tally of cases, as trends can be fol- which the daily Crude Mortality Rate lowed over time, or compared with other (CMR) can be compared. Under-5 Mor- situations. Morbidity incidence should be tality Rate benchmarks are usually twice recorded as set out in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 the CMR. of Annex 3. 39. The more common diseases are out- Morbidity (illness) lined in table 2 below which illustrates 38. Knowing the major causes of illness the environmental impact on disease and and the groups at greatest risk helps effi- indicates those improvements in living cient planning of intervention strategies conditions which will bear directly on the and the most effective use of resources. health of the refugees.

346 Table 2 – Common diseases

Disease Major contributing factors Preventive measures Diarrhoeal Overcrowding, contamination • adequate living space diseases of water and food • public health education Lack of hygiene • distribution of soap • good personal and food hygiene • safe water supply and sanitation Measles Overcrowding • minimum living space standards as defined in chapter Low vaccination coverage 12 on site planning • immunization of children with distribution of vitamin A. Immunization from 6 months up to 12-15 years (rather than the more usual 5 years) is recommended because of the increased risks from living conditions Acute respira- Poor housing • minimum living spcae standards and tory infections Lack of blankets and clothing • proper shelter, adequate clothing, sufficient blankets Smoke in living area Malaria New environment with a strain • destoying mosquito breeding places, larvae and adult to which the refugees are not mosquitoes by spraying. However the success of vec- immune tor control is dependent on particular mosquito habits Stagnant water which be- and local experts must be consulted comes a breeding area for • provision of mosquito nets mosquitoes • drug prophylaxis (e.g. pregnant women according to national protocools) Meningococcal Overcrowding in areas where • minimum living space standards meningitis disease is endemic (often has • immunization only after expert advice when surveys local seasonal pattern) suggest necessity Tuberculosis Overcrowding • minimum living space standards (but where it is Malnutrition endemic it will remain a problem) High HIV prevalence • immunization Typhoid Overcrowding • minimum living space standards Poor personal hygiene • safe water, proper sanitation Contaminated water supply • good personal, food and public hygiene and public Inadequate sanitation health education WHO does not recommend vaccination as it offers only low, short-term individual protection and little or no protection against the spread of the disease Worms Overcrowding • minimum living space standards especially Poor sanitation • proper sanitation, good personal hygiene hookworms • wearing shoes Health Scabies* Overcrowding • minimum living space standards

Poor personal hygiene • enough water and soap for washing 17 Xerophthalmia Inadequate diet • adequate dietary intake of vitamin A. If not available, Vitamin A Following acute prolonged provide vitamin A fortified food. If this is not possible, deficiency infections, measles and vitamin A supplements. diarrhoea • immunization against measles. Systematic prophylaxis for children, every 4 - 6 months Anaemia Malaria, hookworm, poor • prevention/treatment of contributory disease absorption or insufficient intake • correction of diet including food fortification of iron and folate Tetanus Injuries to unimmunized • good first aid population • immunization of pregnant women and subsequent Poor obstetrical practice general immunization within EPI causes • training of midwives and clean ligatures, scissors, neo-natal tetanus razors, etc. Hepatitis Lack of hygiene • safe water supply Contamination of food and • effective sanitation water • safe blood transfusions STD’s/HIV Loss of social organization • test syphilis during pregnancy Poor transfusion practices • test all blood before transfusion Lack of information • ensure adherence to universal precautions • health education • availability of condoms • treat partners

* Scabies: skin disease caused by burrowing mites 347 40. It is not possible to monitor every-  The psychological stress of displace- thing to the same level of detail in a health ment, often compounded by harass- information system. Each country must ment, violence, fear and grief will im- identify the priority diseases and health pact on the mental and psychosocial events that present the most significant health of the affected population. threat to the health of the refugee and host  Early emphasis should be placed on population. The selection process must be correcting environmental factors done in coordination with UNHCR, Min- which adversely affect health. istries of Health, and health implementing Priority health and nutrition activities are partners, and should take into account the outlined in Box 1 (adapted from Refugee following factors: Health, MSF, 1997). i. Does it result in high disease impact? ii. Does it have a significant epidemic Curative care potential? 42. Curative medical care is extremely iii. Is it a specific target of a national, important at the early stage, when refu- regional, or international control gees are most vulnerable to their new en- program? vironment with the health hazards it poses iv. Will the information collected lead to and before it has been possible to achieve public health action? any major public health improvements. Curative services contribute to reduce 41. All health conditions selected for in- the excess of loss of lives and create conclusion in the surveillance list should be fidence among the refugees towards the assigned a case definition, and each should health services. be mutually exclusive of one another. Priority health and nutrition activities in Main health programmes emergencies  The main causes of death and dis- 1. Measles immunization: at least 90% cov- eases in emergency situations in erage for children aged 6 months to 14 years. developing countries are measles, di- 2. Nutritional support: including selective arrhoeal diseases (including cholera), feeding programmes (Therapeutic Feeding Programmes for severely malnourished and acute respiratory infections, malnutri- Supplementary Feeding Programmes for tion and malaria (where prevalent), in moderately malnourished) where the preva- particular but not only among chil- lence of acute malnutrition is >10% among dren. children 6-59 months (5% in the presence  However reproductive health prob- of aggravating factors) on baseline survey. lems (in particular pregnancy and ob- 3. Control of communicable diseases stetric complications) are the leading and epidemics: outbreak response planning, controlling diarrhoea, measles, acute cause of life loss among women 15 to respiratory infections and malaria. 44 years old. Experience underlines 4. Minimum initial services package for the importance of meeting the re- reproductive health: nomination of a co- productive health needs of refugees, ordinator; prevention and response to gen- and most particularly of women and der-based violence; ensure adherence to adolescents. universal precautions against HIV/AIDS;  condom distribution; clean delivery and Priority should therefore be placed midwife kit distribution; planning for com- on programmes targeting the issues prehensive RH services. mentioned above. 5. Public health surveillance: monitoring  Other causes of morbidity include and reporting standardized health data us- tuberculosis, meningitis, vector-borne ing UNHCR’s Health Information System; diseases, sexually transmitted infec- and core indicators as outlined in the UN- tions, HIV/AIDS. HCR Standards and Indicators Guide. 348 43. Appropriate diagnosis and treatment delayed by, distribution of vitamin A. The protocols of major diseases must be de- decision will be based on the vaccination fined in accordance with national pro- coverage reported in the country and area tocols, if they are suitable to the refugee of origin and its reliability, and if there context. There may be some exceptions has been a recent epidemic or vaccination to this rule, but implementation of refugee campaign. specific protocols should always be previ- 48. If there is a need for a measles vacci- ously agreed upon with national authori- nation campaign, it should not be delayed ties. until other vaccines are available, and it 44. Remember to take into account deaths should have appropriate mechanisms to occurring outside the health care system. ensure new arrivals are vaccinated. The A commonly documented error, commit- provision of vaccines, vitamin A, cold ted by even excellent clinicians who have chain and other equipment should be dis- become absorbed in a health facility, is cussed with UNICEF (see the Memoran- to fail to notice that cemeteries are being dum of Understanding [MOU] between filled by refugees dying in their shelters, UNICEF and UNHCR, Appendix 3). without having been identified or referred 49. There are strong reasons, both medical to receive appropriate curative services. and organizational, not to have a mass immunization programme with all vaccines. Immunization The most common causes of disease and 45. Measles has been documented as be- death in the emergency phase cannot be ing responsible for excess loss of lives, cured or prevented by immunizations particularly but not exclusively among (except measles). Mass immunization children under five years old. Measles has programmes require a large number of a high potential of outbreaks and mortality, workers, and vaccines need to be careful- mass vaccination of children against this ly handled and controlled, in refrigerated disease is therefore a high priority: risk of conditions. Therefore undertaking such a outbreak is higher in crowded emergency campaign may represent a misuse of time settings, in large population displacement and resources in an emergency.

and in case of high malnutrition levels. Health Expanded programme of immunization

46. In some settings older children may 17 have escaped immunisation campaigns 50. As soon as the emergency has stabi- and measles disease. This is the reason lized there should be a complete Expanded why immunization of all children under Programme of Immunization (EPI), which the age of 15 is recommended. should form an integral part of the ongoing long-term health programme. A stand- Immunization against measles for young ard EPI includes diphtheria, pertusis and children is the only essential immuniza- tetanus toxoid (DPT), oral polio (OPV), tion in the early stages of an emergency. and BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin) vac- Children 6 months to 15 years should be vaccinated in emergencies (rather than cines as well as measles. However, there the more usual 5 years old). Infants vac- should not be a vaccination campaign cinated at 6 months old will need to be against any of these (apart from measles), revaccinated once over 9 months old. nor should there be a complete EPI, unless the following criteria are met: the popu- 47. The decision as to whether to under- lation is expected to remain stable for at take a measles vaccination campaign at least 3 months; the operational capacity the onset of an emergency should be the to administer vaccine is adequate, and the responsibility of an expert. The campaign programme can be integrated into the na- should ideally be associated with, but not tional immunization programme within a 349 reasonable length of time (see the MOU 52. The main communicable diseases between UNICEF and UNHCR). causing illness and death among refugees in emergencies are: Immunization records i. measles 51. It is essential that adequate immuni- ii. diarrhoeal diseases zation records be kept. At the very minimum, personal immunization (or “Road to iii. acute respiratory infections Health”) cards should be issued. In ad- iv. malaria (where prevalent) dition, an independent central register of Moreover, the interaction between malnu- all immunizations is desirable, to enable trition and infection, particularly among analysis of vaccination coverage. young children, contributes to increased rates of mortality. Communicable disease control4 53. Other communicable diseases –  Emergency conditions, particularly meningococcal meningitis,5 tuberculosis, overcrowding, poor sanitation and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), deficient water supply etc. will fa- hepatitis, typhoid fever, lassa fever and cilitate the spread of communicable other haemorrhagic fevers, typhus and re- diseases. lapsing fever – have also been observed  The aim is to prevent, detect, control among refugee populations. However, and treat diseases. the contribution of these illnesses to the  Refugees are at greatest risk if they overall burden of disease globally among might be exposed to a disease against refugees has been relatively small. which they have not acquired immunity (e.g. measles, malaria etc.). Diarrhoeal diseases  During an emergency situation 54. Diarrhoeal diseases represent a ma- measures that may be put in place for jor public health problem and acute epi- preparation and response to a sharp demics of shigellosis (causing bloody increase in the number of cases of a diarrhoea dysentery) and cholera,6 have disease are: become common in refugee emergencies – a surveillance system to ensure and have resulted in excess loss of lives. early warning; In risk areas, it is essential to set up ap- – close coordination of the response propriate preventive measures as soon as with the national authorities, possible. These measures include: WHO and partners as appropriate; i. adequate supply of potable water and – outbreak response plan; an appropriate sanitation system; – standard treatment protocols; ii. provision of soap and education on – stockpiles of essential treatment personal hygiene and water manage- supplies; ment; – operative laboratory; and iii. promotion of food safety and breast- – relevant vaccines identified if a feeding; mass vaccination campaign is required. 5 See World Health Organization. Control of Epidemic Meningococcal Disease: WHO Practical Guidelines 2nd edition, 1998. 6 First steps for managing an outbreak of acute diarrhoea, 2003. WHO, Geneva; Acute diarrhoeal control in complex emergencies, critical steps, 2004. WHO, Geneva; Cholera 4 Communicable disease control in emergen- outbreak: assessing outbreak response and cies, a field manual, 2005 WHO, Geneva. improving preparedness, 2004. WHO Geneva. 350 iv. reinforced home visiting and early Measles case detection; and 59. WHO has classified refugees and dis- v. identification of an area (“cholera placed populations, especially in camps, management unit”) to manage pa- as groups at highest risk for measles tients with cholera in case an epidem- outbreaks. Indeed, this disease has been ic occurs. devastating in many refugee situations. Measles vaccination coverage should be It is essential to stockpile the basic medi- as close as possible to 100% (and must be cal supplies for a rapid response (Ringer greater than 90% to be effective). If not, lactate, SROs, adequate antibiotics…) measures should be taken immediately to 55. It is not possible to predict how a control the situation (see the MOU be- cholera outbreak will develop. If proper tween UNICEF and UNHCR and para- preventive measures are taken less than graphs on immunization above). 1% of the population should be affected. Usually however, 1 to 3% are affected but Malaria in extreme cases it can be more – even as 60. Malaria is one of the major causes much as 10%. of illness and death in populations coming from, passing through, or arriving in 56. To be prepared to respond quickly to a malarious area. Effective treatment and an outbreak, the above preventive meas- prevention will require expert advice.8 ures should be accompanied by the establishment of appropriate protocols on case 61. Treatment management. These protocols should be i. The mainstay of response in an emer- based on National or WHO protocols and gency is prompt access to effective should be founded on rehydration therapy, treatment. Health education to the continued feeding and appropriate antibi- 7 population on seeking care in time otics (especially for shigellosis). In ad- should be a priority. dition, there should be a reliable surveil- ii. In emergency settings endemic for lance system for early detection of cholera falciparum malaria,9 first-line treat- cases, to follow trends and determine the ment should usually be with arte- effectiveness of specific interventions. Health mesinin-based combination therapy

57. A significant amount of material, fi- (ACT). These drugs are rapidly 17 nancial and experienced human resources effective in most settings. If the na- are likely to be needed to respond to a tional protocol is not based on recent cholera outbreak and reduce the case fa- efficacy data, interim protocols will tality rate. need to be established for the emer- 58. To facilitate an immediate response, gency setting, in collaboration with cholera kits can be obtained from the Sup- the national health authorities. plies Management Service at Headquar- iii. Diagnosis of falciparum malaria ters at short notice. Each kit can cover the should be laboratory confirmed overall management of some 500 cases. (except during confirmed malaria epi- There is some experience in using an oral demics). Rapid tests should be used cholera vaccine to prevent outbreaks in in most settings. emergency settings, but its use is only appropriate in specific circumstances and expert guidance should be sought. 8 Malaria control in complex emergencies: An Inter-Agency Field Handbook 2005, WHO 7 See World Health Organization. Guidelines for 9 Falciparum malaria is the most dangerous form the control of Epidemics due to Shigella Dysente- of malaria and is the most common form in most riae Type 1, 2005 sub-saharan African countries. 351 iv. All pregnant women, severely mal- protective effect for the community, nourished children, and those with less than this the nets will have an suspected HIV/AIDS attending health individual protective effect. facilities should be actively screened v. During an emergency in sub-Saharan for malaria (usually using rapid tests). Africa, indoor residual spraying can v. Active fever case findings in the com- be considered provided that: there is munity should be instituted for all adequate insecticide, water, equip- pregnant women and children under ment, trained staff, a well organized five as soon as possible. implementation plan, training and 62. Prevention supervision; and adequate time for implementation ahead of the rainy i. Sites should be selected away or season. Experience from UNHCR upwind from potential breeding sites, programmes shows that implementa- and site planning should ensure ad- tion is usually too late to be effective equate drainage to prevent the devel- following the onset of the malaria opment of breeding sites for malaria transmission season. transmitting mosquitoes. vi. Intermittent preventive treatment in ii. Insecticide treated nets (preferably pregnancy should be implemented long-lasting insecticidal nets that do according to national policy. Where not need retreatment) should be fitted there is moderate to high transmis- to all inpatient beds in clinics, hospi- sion intensity, antenatal services are tals and therapeutic feeding centres. established and the drug (“sulfadox- iii. Other chemical control measures ine-pyrimethamine”) remains moder- such as insecticide treated nets, or ately efficacious. indoor residual spraying, may seem vii. Prevention strategies not usually quite attractive but should only be recommended for malaria control in taken upon expert advice as several emergencies are larvaciding, brush factors must be considered such as: cutting and space spraying. the habits of the refugees, seasonal viii. New tools including other insec- variations, mosquito biting habits, ticide treated materials (e.g. plastic transmission levels, national proto- sheeting) are under investigation but cols about chemicals and registered are not yet accepted for use as stand- lists of chemicals and cost. Please see ard emergency response. chapter 15 on sanitation and hygiene for guidance on vector control. 63. In the early stages of an emergency, those most at risk of severe illness and iv. During an emergency in sub-Saharan death should be targeted first: Africa, insecticide treated nets could be considered for distribution among i. Priority 1: pregnant women, severely the beneficiary population provided malnourished (admitted to Therapeu- that: good access to diagnosis and tic Feeding Programme) and children treatment is already in place; trans- under 2 years old. mission intensity is moderate to high; ii. Priority 2: children under 5, mod- nets are stockpiled in advance; the erately malnourished (admitted to community is already familiar with Supplementary Feeding Programme) sleeping under nets; indoor residual and people with known HIV infection spraying is not being conducted in the or clinical suspicion of AIDS. same shelters; and there is adequate access to food. Coverage of greater Acute respiratory infections than 60% of households will have a 64. Pneumonia is the acute respiratory

352 infection that has been documented as a of reproductive health care in an emer- cause for excess mortality, most particu- gency are to: larly in the under five population. It is i. ensure a coordinated response to therefore essential to make sure that refu- reduce reproductive health related gees are provided with adequate shelter morbidity and mortality by identi- and blankets as soon as possible. Health fying an organization and a person staff must be appropriately trained to di- responsible to facilitate the coordina- agnose and treat respiratory infections. tion and implementation of reproductive health activities; Reproductive health10 ii. prevent excess neonatal and maternal 65. Reproductive health care in refugee morbidity and mortality by providing situations should be provided by adequate- clean home delivery kits, ensuring ly trained and supervised staff and should clean and safe deliveries at health be guided by the following principle: facilities and managing emergency • Reproductive health care should obstetric complications by establish- be available in all situations and be ing a referral system; based on refugee, particularly wom- iii. prevent and manage the consequences en’s, needs and expressed demands. of gender-based violence; • The various religious, ethical values iv. reduce HIV transmission, by enforc- and cultural backgrounds of the refu- 11 gees should be respected, in conform- ing respect of universal precautions ity with universally recognized inter- and guaranteeing the availability of national human rights. free condoms; and v. plan for the provision of compre- 66. The provision of quality reproductive hensive reproductive health services health services requires a collaborative ef- to be integrated into primary health fort by a number of sectors (health, com- care, as soon as possible. munity services, protection, education) 68. As soon as it is feasible, when the and organizations, which should provide situation has stabilized, comprehensive reproductive health services based on reproductive health services based on the

their mandates. Health needs of refugees should be put in place.

67. While resources should not be divert- These services should be integrated within 17 ed from addressing the problems of the the primary health care system and should major killers (measles, diarrhoeal diseas- address the following aspects: es, acute respiratory infections and malaria), there are some aspects of reproductive Safe motherhood health which must also be dealt with in the 69. Maternal and neonatal deaths can be initial phase of an emergency. The Mini- prevented: mum Initial Service Package (MISP) is a series of objectives and actions needed to • by reducing delays in (1) recognising respond to the reproductive health needs a complication, (2) seeking care, and of populations in the early phase of a refu- (3) reaching a facility; gee situation. Documented evidence of its efficiency justifies its use without prior needs assessment. The major objectives

10 See: United Nations High Commissioner for 11 “Universal precautions” means procedures and Refugees: An Inter-Agency Field Manual on Re- practices by health workers to limit transmission productive Health in Refugee Situations, 1999. of disease. 353 • by having access to skilled attend- Family planning ants12 and comprehensive emergency 73. Women who give birth more than 4 obstetric care; times face dramatic higher maternal risks. • by supporting breast-feeding and essential newborn care; and Family planning can prevent 25-30 per- • by preventing unwanted and mis- cent of all maternal deaths fighting the 4 too rule: too young, too old, too many, timed pregnancies. too close together. Furthermore, spac- Services should cover antenatal care, de- ing pregnancies more than 2 years increases child chances of survival. livery care, post-natal care as well post- abortion care. 74. Family planning services should be initiated as soon as feasible, the first inter- 70. All pregnant women should receive vention being to ensure continuity of fam- antenatal care services at least 3 times dur- ily planning supplies for those men, wom- ing pregnancy. Antenatal services should en and couples already using a method. include routine medical assessment, detection and management of complica- 75. Information, education and commu- tions, preventive medical treatments, teta- nication should be designed by and for nus immunization, nutritional and health the refugees according to their culture and promotion, as well as systematic syphilis knowledge, but without taboo and in an screening. open and respectful manner. 71. All deliveries should be accompanied 76. Family planning methods need to be by a trained health care provider (nb: Tra- easily and confidentially accessible, and ditional Birth Attendants [TBAs] are not diversified ensuring that refugees can considered as trained health care provid- make an informed and free choice in child ers and their intervention should be lim- spacing matters. ited to community-based preventive and support services) and a referral system to Prevention and response to sexual manage obstetric emergencies should be violence put in place. 77. Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) prevention and management re- 72. Within the first 4-6 weeks, mothers quires a coordinated multi-sectoral team and their newborn should visit the health approach involving refugees. Education, services and receive nutritional supple- information, communication, protection ments, support for breast-feeding, coun- and comprehensive response are para- selling on infant health and nutrition and mount in addressing the different SGBV family planning (see paragraph on family issues in a culturally sensitive manner, planning). Women who have complica- and respect of children, women and men’s tions, such as spontaneous or unsafe abor- rights prevail. Please refer to chapter 18 tion should be cared for by the referral on SGBV. system. 78. In situations which may give rise to SGBV, the following measures may be considered in addition to actions to 12 Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) are not address the specific causes of the prob- considered as a skilled attendant. They should not lem: be supported to attend deliveries. However they should be supported and trained to perform health and hygiene promotion, immunization promotion, breast feeding support, and other activities to promote healthy and health seeking behaviour.

354 Policy and management: 82. It is important to ensure that sufficient • Include SGBV management in health female health workers are trained in repro- coordination meetings and ensure that ductive health in order to provide cultur- refugees are informed of the avail- ally appropriate health services, including ability of services. education within the community and at the health facilities. At least some of these Medico-legal: health workers should be recruited from • Document case respecting survivor among the refugee community. wishes and confidentiality (including medical report). Tuberculosis control 14 • Collect, label and store forensic evi- 83. The prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) dence. has significantly increased world-wide, however, a TB control programme is not Medical: a priority in the early stages of an emer- • Prevent unwanted pregnancy through gency when mortality and malnutrition emergency contraception. rates are very high and the situation is still • Prevent HIV transmission with PEP. unstable. • Provide wounds and injuries care. 84. Expert advice and involvement of the • Prevent sexually transmitted infec- national TB control programme (often tions (STIs) transmission with medi- supported by WHO) are needed before cal treatment. starting a TB programme. Bad planning • Prevent tetanus and hepatitis B and poor implementation could result in through vaccination. more harm than good. • Provide follow-up care. 85. TB treatment takes many months. To Psychosocial support: increase the chances of success, TB pro- • Provide counselling and treatment for grammes should only be started in stable psychological trauma. situations, that is, when Directly Observed Therapy15 can be implemented, and when Other reproductive health concerns funds, drugs, reliable laboratory serv- 79. Programmes to eradicate harmful tra- ices and trained staff are available. Pro- Health ditional practices, including female genital grammes should be expected to remain 17 mutilation, should be implemented once stable for at least 9 months. Interruption the situation has stabilized. It is crucial to to treatment creates drug resistance, a work closely with the refugee community public health menace.16 in tackling this issue.13 17 80. Culturally appropriate sanitary sup- Mental health plies should be distributed to women as 86. The psychosocial needs of refugees soon as possible. Inadequate sanitary pro- have often been neglected or even forgot- tection may prevent women from collect- ten. However, health services should aim ing material assistance. 14 World Health Organization and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Guidelines for 81. Health workers should pay particu- Tuberculosis Control in Refugees and Displaced lar attention to meeting the reproductive Populations, 2006. health needs of young people as they may 15 Directly Observed Therapy is where the health worker is able to observe the treatment including be at greater risk and have more limited that the medication is taken correctly. access to appropriate services. 16 Guidelines for TB control among refugees and displaced populations, 2005, WHO, Geneva. 17 13 World Health Organization and United Nations See IOM/FOM (83/97; 90/97), Policies on High Commissioner for Refugees Manual of Men- Harmful Traditional Practices, UNHCR, 1997. tal Health of Refugees, 1996. 355 to promote the highest standard of both iv. family tracing; physical and mental health. It is easy to v. briefing of field officers, health recognize that there is a heavy burden workers, food distribution workers, placed upon refugees from, for example, community services workers, and physical violence, grief and bereavement, registration workers on grief, diso- fear and stress, an uncertain future and a rientation and the need for active sense of powerlessness. participation (including vulnerable 87. During the acute emergency groups); and phase,18mental health issues should be ad- vi. dissemination of empathic informa- dressed primarily through social intervention on normal stress reactions and tions and linkages should be made with expectation of natural recovery protection and community services sec- (avoiding mention of abnormal tors. Interventions should not interfere reactions as this may have negative with basic service provision. Adequate, consequences). culturally appropriate and gender sen- 89. The health sector should provide: sitive provision of food, water, shelter, i. essential psychotropics at the primary clothing, and primary health care services health centre level in the manage- should be ensured. Shelter should be safe ment of urgent psychiatric complaints and arranged to keep family groupings in- (e.g. dangerousness to self or others, tact (see chapter 12 on site selection, plan- psychoses, severe depression, mania); ning, and shelter). Communities must be ii. ‘psychological first aid’ (empathetic consulted in decisions about camp layout, listening, provide company, encour- which should include cultural, religious age but do not force social support) and recreational spaces. Appropriate rec- and individual psychological debrief- reational activities should be introduced ing that pushes people to talk may (avoid distribution of goods that were not have negative consequences and available before the emergency such as should be avoided. teddy bears or plastic toys). Community 90. As the situation stabilizes, outreach members should be involved in common psychosocial activities can be expanded activities such as food distribution, vacci- (including engagement of community nation programmes, organizing shelter. leaders and traditional healers), commu- 88. Social interventions during the emer- nity workers trained in core psychosocial gency phase may include: and mental health skills, referral networks established, and health workers trained i. re-establishment of cultural and and supervised in basic mental health religious events, including grieving knowledge and skills.19 rituals; ii. avoidance of disposal of dead bod- Capacity building: health education ies in an unceremonious manner. In 91. The importance of health education most settings, dead bodies will not is widely recognized. However, there are carry risks of communicable disease significant difficulties in persuading those transmission; most at risk to change long-established iii. dissemination of simple and empathic habits. information about the emergency, relief efforts, and if possible location In the emergency phase, the priority top- of relatives; ics should be those directly related to the immediate public health problems. 18 WHO Mental Health in Emergencies, Mental and Social Aspects of Health of Populaitons Ex- 19 Mental Health of Refugees, 1996. WHO/ posed to Extreme Stressors, 2003. UNHCR, Geneva. 356 92. Health education should therefore fo- drugs for UNHCR operations. The essen- cus on the disposal of human excreta and tial drug list and the procurement guide- refuse, water management and personal line aim to ensure a supply of safe, effec- hygiene. Many governments and organi- tive and affordable drugs to meet priority zations produce simple health education needs of the refugees. materials that may be useful. Trained 96. In order to foster the appropriate use refugee teachers and respected elders are of drugs, standard treatment protocols likely to be more effective than outsiders should be established. This will help rain communicating the basic principles and tionalize prescription habits among the practices of health to their own people. At various partners and organize training a later stage, information, education and activities. Protocols are usually based on communication should also be a major national standards. tool for the prevention and reduction of sexually transmitted diseases, including 97. In the early stage of an emergency, it HIV. is often useful to resort to pre-packaged emergency health kits. The best known is Training the Inter-Agency Emergency Health Kit 93. As suggested by the definition of an which has been developed through col- emergency, extraordinary mobilization laboration among many agencies (WHO, of resources, including human, will be UNICEF, MSF, ICRC, UNHCR and oth- needed to cope with the situation. Annex 4 ers, see www.who.int/medicines for up- sets out a suggested structure of the health dates). The contents of the kit are intended service and numbers and qualifications of to cover the needs of 10,000 people for 3 staff needed. Full staff support includ- months during an emergency. The kit can ing health workers, doctors and nurses at be obtained at short notice through the health centres, community health workers Supplies Management Section at Head- and health posts and clinics, with the nec- quarters and can be used at the community essary qualifications and experience, will level of health care and at health centres. not be instantly available. The emergency health kit should only be used at the early stage of an emergency

Training will be a cornerstone of an ef- and not relied on for longer term needs. Health fective health and relief programme. 98. Reproductive Health Kits for Crisis 17 94. Training activities must be well target- Situations also exist . These have been de- ed to meet the objective of the programme, signed by members of the Inter-Agency and this is dependent on the definition of Working Group on Reproductive Health roles and responsibilities among various to complement the Emergency Health levels of health care and identifying the Kits. The Reproductive Health Kits are necessary qualifications. Training must available through the United Nations Pop- be part of the main health programme. ulation Fund (UNFPA) [see Reproductive Health Kits for Crisis Situations, UNFPA, Medical supplies updated 2005 or www.unfpa.org for more 95. Decisions concerning drug and medi- details]. In many situations UNFPA will cal supplies procurement should follow provide these supplies free of charge to UNHCR guidelines.20 The Technical Sup- UNHCR operations as part of the Memo- port Section and the Supplies Manage- randum between UNHCR and UNFPA ment Section at Headquarters issued an through the national UNFPA office or the essential drugs list, which is used to order HIV/AIDS Unit at Headquarters. 99. As soon as possible, arrangements 20 UNHCR Drug Management Guideline, 2005. should be made for a regular supply of 357 appropriate quantities of essential drugs are usually adequate. Simple to use rapid from the UNHCR essential drugs list. The tests should be used to aid in the diagno- requests should be based on epidemio- sis of important diseases. Rapid tests are logical surveillance and disease patterns. available for diseases including malaria, The Supplies Management Section can typhoid, meningitis and hepatitis. also provide support for the purchase of 103. Reference laboratory services are re- quality assured drugs and their transport quired for epidemic management and con- to the field. Local purchase is usually not trol, (e.g., meningitis, shigellosis, cholera, indicated unless drug quality procedures hemorrhagic and relapsing fevers, high are followed.21 malarial endemicity, hepatitis etc.) to con- 100. It is of utmost importance to estab- firm/clarify diagnosis and perform antibi- lish a system to monitor drug consump- otic sensitivity. This should be discussed tion and ensure drug quality. In major with the national authorities and WHO. operations, a full-time pharmacist may be Where blood transfusions are provided, needed to work with UNHCR. Over-pre- laboratory services will be absolutely es- scription of medicines by health workers sential to test all blood for HIV, syphilis following pressure by refugees is not un- and hepatitis before transfusion. common in refugee emergencies. Organization of refugee health care 101. Donations of unsolicited drugs are often a problem during emergencies. A • There is no single model for organiz- number of agencies (UNDP, UNHCR ing health services in refugee situa- UNICEF, WHO, MSF and others) have tions, but it is usually structured on jointly developed guidelines on drug do- three levels: community health posts nations22 that provide donors and users and clinics, health centres, and refer- with a list of drugs and supplies, which ral hospitals. can be sent to emergency situations. This • It is of the utmost importance to is to help ensure that personnel in the ensure good communication and field do not waste time sorting out “use- feed-back between the various levels less” donations (small quantities of mixed of health care. drugs, free samples, expired medicines, • Priority should be given to using host inappropriate vaccines, and drugs identi- country health facilities as referral fied only by brand names or in an unfa- centres and support should be agreed miliar language). UNHCR’s policy is that upon and provided to the facilities overseas medical supplies should be sent (see MOU between WHO and only in response to a specific request or UNHCR). after expert clearance. The WHO Repre- Introduction sentative, local diplomatic missions and 104. The four levels of health care are all others concerned should be briefed ac- summarized in Annex 4. The first level cordingly. is at the community level with outreach Laboratory services services. At the second level is a health centre with basic facilities for outpatient 102. Refugees are often remote from departments, dressings and injections, and laboratory facilities. However, very sim- a pharmacy. At the third level is a cen- ple laboratory services at the site level tral health facility with outpatient and inpatient departments. At the fourth level is a referral hospital for emergency ob- 21 UNHCR Essential Drugs Manual, 2006. stetric care and surgery, management of 22 WHO, Guidelines for Drug Donations, May 1996. very complicated cases, performance of 358 laboratory tests etc. Referral hospitals are shows that to decrease maternal deaths, usually national facilities at the district, deliveries should be conducted in health regional or national level. facilities with trained health assistants and not by TBAs. In order to be effective, 105. The refugees must have easy and CHWs and TBAs must be trained, sup- equitable access to effective treatment for ported and closely supervised. The role diseases of public health importance. If of CHWs and TBAs includes: the local national health facilities cannot be strengthened to meet the needs, al- i. home visiting, identification and ternative arrangements will be required. referral of sick people and malnour- Unless treatment is provided at the right ished children; level, the hospitals or health centres will ii. identification of pregnant women and be swamped by refugees demanding treat- referral for antenatal, delivery and ment for simple conditions. Thus, a compost natal care; munity-based health service is required iii. basic health and nutrition education that both identifies those in need of health (including breast-feeding support); care and ensures that this is provided at iv. data-gathering for the health informa- the appropriate level. Close coordination tion system (deaths and their causes with community services is essential. and the incidence of major communi- 106. Health services utilization and qual- cable diseases); and ity should be monitored. Key indicators v. responding to the needs of refugees are: who have been sexually assaulted, referring promptly for medical and i. Consultation rate: number of new other care. visits/refugee/year to outpatient services, usually around 4 in an emergen- As a guide, 1 CHW per 500-1,000 popu- cy setting. If higher this may suggest lation and 1 TBA per 2,000 population over-utilization, if lower this may should be the goal. Ideally, 50% of those suggest that services are not readily trained should be women as same sex care accessible. is often preferred.

ii. Number of consultations per clini- Health The primary health centre cian per day (outpatient care): If the number exceeds 50 consulta- 109. There should be a health centre for 17 tions per clinician per day, corrective each refugee settlement (approximately measures should be taken. 10,000 people). Very large settlements may require more than one. The health Community level health care post centre should be a simple building 107. Whether refugees are in camps or with facilities for consultation, basic cura- spontaneously settled among local vil- tive care (drugs from the New Emergen- lages, community level services are es- cy Health Kit), oral rehydration therapy, sential. clinical procedures such as dressings (but not injections because of the risks of HIV Community-level health care must be transmission), a small lock-up pharmacy, the mainstay of health services from the simple equipment and sterilization facili- very beginning of the emergency. ties (electricity may not be available), data 108. Outreach services can be delivered collection (log books to record patients by Community Health Workers (CHWs) and activities). Water and sanitation and and Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs). equipment for universal precautions are TBAs might be recruited among tradition- essential in all health facilities. al midwives in the community. Evidence 359 110. An indication of the number and nel as well as some financial and/or mate- qualifications of health staff required is rial support (drugs, supplies, food). Care given in Annex 4. must be taken not to swamp the local hospital. Close and direct coordination with The central health facility the district or regional medical officer is 111. A central health facility providing essential. 24 hour service, inpatient and outpatient 116. An agreement should be signed be- facilities should serve each population of tween the parties, under the aegis of the approximately 50,000. Adequate infec- Ministry of Health, which clarifies the tion control must be ensured. Basic labo- conditions of assistance including cost ratory facilities may be available. Indica- per patient per treatment, conditions to tive staffing levels are given in Annex 2. be referred and in-kind support (food and The central health facility should also or- drugs). A written agreement is essential to ganize the main health programmes (EPI, avoid controversies. reproductive health) and the supervision and training of staff (at both first and sec- 117. It is only in certain circumstances ond level). that special refugee hospitals will need to be established, but generally this should be Referral services avoided. They should only be established 112. The health centre must be able to re- when the needs cannot be met by exist- fer patients to hospitals for treatment. Re- ing or strengthened national hospitals, for ferral hospitals should provide emergency example when refugee numbers are very obstetric and surgical care, treatment for large (much larger than the local popula- severe diseases, laboratory and x-ray serv- tion), when the nearest national hospitals ices as well as supply and support for na- are too far away, or for security reasons. tionally controlled programmes (TB, lep- The Supplies Management Section and rosy, HIV/AIDS). the Technical Support Section should be consulted prior to establishing or acquir- 113. Refugees should have access to ing refugee specific field hospitals. treatment equivalent to that of the majority of the local host population. Expensive 118. Whatever arrangements are made interventions that are inaccessible to the for hospital treatment and referral, there majority of the population or of limited must be suitable transport to and from the success should not be supported. referral hospitals. Facilities at the hospital must also provide for the needs of rela- 114. Only a small proportion of patients tives and allow parents to be with young will require referral services. These serv- children. ices will usually be organized in national health facilities at the district, regional or 119. Arrangements for referral must be national level, and ideally, referral should such that only those patients specifically be made to the nearest national hospital. referred from the health centres are at- This has obvious advantages, not least the tended to, with no refugees presenting fact that the infrastructure already exists. themselves directly to the hospital. 120. Refugee emergencies are not usu- Community-level health care must be ally characterized by large numbers of in- the mainstay of health services from the very beginning of the emergency. jured persons. However, when this is the case, there may be an initial requirement 115. The hospital(s) should be expanded for the rapid deployment of a surgical unit or supported as necessary, for example which is normally quickly available. Pre- with tents and additional health person- packaged (expensive) surgical kits can be 360 obtained through Supplies Management ing countries at best recover 5% of costs, Section at short notice. and act as barriers to those most in need of health services. Local populations liv- 121. The UNHCR Health Coordinator ing nearby may also be extended free-of- should ensure that there is a system to charge services, and this should be nego- record referrals and subsequent treatment tiated with the health authorities in line and follow-up of the patients. with national policy. Human resources and coordination Staffing needs • The health services must be devel- 124. As a general principle, the order of oped with and not just for the refu- preference for selecting health personnel, gees and in accordance with their in cooperation with the national authori- needs and demands. ties, is: • The early appointment of a suitably experienced health coordinator to i. refugees UNHCR’s staff has proved essential. ii. experienced nationals or residents A reproductive health focal point iii. outsiders should also be identified as early as Most emergencies will require some com- possible. bination of these sources. Efforts should • While the use and development of lo- be made to ensure gender balance and cal expertise is preferable, it is often same sex services. necessary to mobilize outside assist- 125. Strong emphasis should be placed ance in an emergency. on the training, supervision and upgrad- • The issue of staff salary and incen- ing of medical skills of selected refugees, tives should be discussed and solved particularly in their former roles within from the outset. the community. When selecting refugees, • The Ministry of Health at all levels care must be taken to include women must be as closely involved as pos- who may not come forward as readily as sible. men. Full account should be taken of the experience of the traditional healers and The refugees Health midwives. Refugees may seek traditional 122. Participation by women and men, treatments and experience has demon- 17 girls and boys is essential from the out- strated the advantages of encouraging set . From the beginning, health services traditional methods of health care which should be developed and operated together complement other organized health serv- with, rather than for, refugees or displaced ices. populations. Health programmes must address and incorporate community knowl- 126. An important consideration may be edge, attitudes, behaviours and practices. the government’s attitude to foreign medi- Outside health workers must understand cal personnel, including, for example, rec- the refugees’ own concepts of health and ognized qualifications and permission to disease. If not, the services will be less practice medicine. effective, may be distrusted and poorly 127. The issue of staff salary and incen- used, and are unlikely to be sustainable. tives should be addressed at the onset. All 123. In emergencies preventive and cura- agencies and organizations involved in tive health services should be provided the refugee programme should adhere to free of charge to refugees and displaced the same standards. The determination of populations. Evidence has shown that salaries and incentives should be based on systems of ‘cost recovery’ in develop- the national (or country of origin) stand- 361 ards and due account should be taken of here to nationally and internationally ac- assistance (free food, water, shelter etc.) cepted standards and medical ethics. received by refugees. In principle, all Other main tasks and duties include: staff performing work on a daily basis, with clearly identified responsibilities and i. participating and facilitating the strict working hours, should receive a sal- consultation process among all con- ary or an incentive. cerned parties in order to carry out an appropriate problem, needs and 128. Special attention should be given resources assessment; to the recruitment of local staff. The salary or incentive offered to them should ii. participating in, and facilitating the be in line with national standards. Very creation of, health and nutrition com- frequently refugee emergencies attract mittees with the Ministry of Health, national personnel working in the public other UN agencies and non-govern- and private sector (commonly referred to mental organizations (NGOs) where as “brain drain”) to the detriment of these coordination will take place to jointly services which can create serious tension. identify priority activities, and to plan for their implementation by defining The national health authorities needed human, material and financial resources; 129. Early involvement of the host government’s central, provincial, and district iii. facilitating cooperation among all health services is essential. To the extent partners to ensure an appropriate possible, services provided to refugees implementation and monitoring of should be integrated with national serv- the programme as agreed upon at the ices. It will be particularly important to coordination committee meetings; ensure integration and compatibility with iv. setting up and participating in the certain treatment protocols, immunization implementation of an effective Health programmes, communicable disease con- Information System; trol and surveillance practices. Promoting v. ensuring that joint protocols for medi- good health for the refugees is clearly in cal treatment, staffing and training the interest of the local population. In ad- are established and that implementing dition, supporting existing structures will partners adhere to them; help ensure that health services for refu- vi. ensuring the identification of a quali- gees are sustainable and are at a standard fied and experienced person to coor- equivalent to that of the host country na- dinate reproductive health activities tionals. at the start of the relief programme; 130. In major emergencies, (e.g. when vii. facilitating inter-sectoral coordina- there are disease outbreaks/many part- tion; ners/large population numbers involved) viii. consolidating the reporting about UNHCR must ensure that a Refugee Health the refugees’ health and nutritional Coordinator is appointed. The Health Co- status; and ordinator should be a key member of the ix. assisting in setting up a medical UNHCR programme staff. The person evacuation plan for UNHCR staff. should take the lead role in this sector, or play a key supporting role to the national 132. Experience shows that it is in the institution which takes the lead role. first days and weeks of an emergency that excess mortality is recorded. 131. The Health Coordinator’s primary responsibility will be to ensure that the level and quality of services provided ad- 362 tion (see Memorandum of Understanding It is vital that a UNHCR Health Coordi- nator is fielded immediately, at the very between UNICEF and UNHCR for more start of the emergency. details, Appendix 3) 133. The quickest and most practical way 138. UNFPA. Collaboration with UNF- to deploy a Health Coordinator is usu- PA focuses on reproductive health matters ally to send UNHCR staff or consultants. and demography and there is a Memoran- Headquarters should be consulted imme- dum of Understanding between UNFPA diately on this. At a later stage, posts can and UNHCR which details this collabora- be created or staff seconded from other tion. UN agencies (UNICEF or WHO), or from 139. UNAIDS. UNAIDS is an inter-agen- the Ministry of Health. cy mechanism created in 1995 to support national HIV/AIDS programmes. Refugee Other specialized staff health services must be integrated in these 134. The need for specialized staff national programmes. should be carefully assessed by the 140. Through a standby arrangement with UNHCR Health Coordinator or by the UNHCR, the Centre for Disease Control Health and Community Development and Prevention (CDC Atlanta, USA) can Section at Headquarters. Such special- supply, at short notice, experts for rapid ists include epidemiologists, specialists health and nutritional assessment, im- in public, reproductive and mental health, provement of epidemic preparedness and nutrition, tropical medicine, paediatrics, response in emergencies and set up Health midwifery, pharmacy etc. Information Systems. Deployments are Experienced personnel with the right usually limited from four to eight weeks personality are more important than and can be arranged upon request through highly trained specialists, whose skills the Health and Community Development are often inappropriate. Section at Headquarters. 135. Familiarity with the local culture, Role of NGOs patterns of disease and the public health services and previous experience in emer- 141. Operational and implementing Health gencies are equally important as an ad- partners are essential collaborators for 17 vanced knowledge of medicine and medi- UNHCR. All collaborators in the emer- cal techniques. gency health programme must be brought together to form health sub-committees Role of the UN and specialized agencies at the central and field level as appropri- 136. WHO. The World Health Organi- ate. Initially, these committees may have zation works directly with the Ministry to meet daily or at least weekly, usually of Health in almost every country in the under the chairpersonship of a representa- world. The response to the health needs tive of the Ministry of Health, supported of the refugees and surrounding local by the UNHCR Health Coordinator. Ide- populations should be closely coordinated ally, members of the committee should with WHO. Details of this collaboration have been identified at the contingency are described in the WHO and UNHCR planning stage. Memorandum of Understanding. 142. Activities of the health sub-commit- 137. UNICEF. Collaboration with tee include: allocation of tasks, exchange UNICEF in emergencies will focus on and pooling of information on health ac- supply of measles vaccines and delivery/ tivities and other sectors (e.g. food, water, midwifery kits, as well as on health educa- sanitation etc.), setting up jointly agreed 363 protocols for medical procedures, staffing Organization of response levels and training, and problem-solving 147. A possible hierarchy of health serv- in general. ices is outlined in Annex 2. It is based on 143. During emergencies, urgent outside a large-scale emergency involving a great assistance in the health sector is almost number of health staff, both national and invariably necessary. This is because international. A smaller emergency will the immediate and specialized attention require fewer levels of organization. Note needed represents a burden that existing that the numbers and qualification of staff local structures are not designed to bear. suggested is no more than an indication. District health services will almost never Actual needs will depend on the health have the needed reserve capacity in terms problems, the degree of isolation of the of staff at all levels, infrastructure, medi- area and so on. cal supplies and technical expertise. This All organizations providing health care capacity can be developed over time, with to the refugees should be involved in the support from the central government and preparation and be required to observe other UN agencies. standard guidelines. 144. NGOs (international, regional or na- 148. Once the pattern of disease and over- tional) must be chosen with care and this all needs have been determined, situation- is usually done by the government of the specific guidelines on standard procedures country of asylum. However, it is also the for health workers should be prepared, responsibility of UNHCR to advise the based on national or internationally rec- government on which organizations have ognized standards. These should cover all proven competence in emergencies. Some aspects of the services, including subjects agencies have experience in long-term such as: situations but less in emergencies; others may be too narrow in focus, preferring to i. basic principles (how the services are do purely curative work to the exclusion to be organized, including any selec- of public health, prevention, sanitation tive feeding programmes); etc. ii. standardized treatment protocols; iii. drug lists and supply; and 145. Small NGOs, especially those created in response to a specific situation, should iv. vaccination and reporting. first demonstrate appropriate competence before being engaged in the emergency The guidelines should be prepared by the phase. UNHCR Health Coordinator in consultation with all concerned, issued under the The number of agencies involved should aegis of the Ministry of Health if possible, be kept to a minimum. and reviewed periodically, for example 146. During the early stages of an emer- by a health coordination sub-committee. gency it is essential that the number of At least part of the guidelines should be NGOs involved should be kept to the translated into the language of the com- minimum necessary, and that those chosen munity health workers. should be professional, capable of deploy- ing experienced personnel and with proven past experience in collaborating with both governments and UNHCR in the effective management of an emergency.

364 Key references Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Refugee Health: An approach to emergen- Guidelines for Gender-Based Violence in cy situations MSF, 1997. Humanitarian Settings, 2005. UNHCR Drug Management Manual 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Sexu- – Policies, Guidelines, UNHCR List of ally Transmitted Infections, WHO, 2003. Essential Drugs, 2006. UNHCR, IOM/FOM (83/97; 90/97) Poli- WHO Model Formulary, WHO, 2004. cies on Harmful Traditional Practices, UNHCR, Geneva 1997. Famine-affected, Refugee, and Displaced Populations: Recommendations for Pub- Vector and Pest Control in Refugee Situa- lic Health Issues, July 24,1992/Vol.41/No. tions, UNHCR, Geneva 1997. RR-13, The Centres for Disease Control First steps for managing an outbreak of (CDC). acute diarrhoeal, WHO, Geneva 2003. Tuberculosis Control In Refugee Situ- Acute diarrhoeal control in complex ations: An Inter-Agency Field Manual emergencies, critical steps, WHO, Geneva WHO and UNHCR, Geneva 1997. 2004. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Cholera outbreak: assessing outbreak Guidelines for HIV interventions in emer- response and improving preparedness, gency settings, 2004. WHO Geneva 2004. Manual of Mental Health of Refugees, Malaria control in complex emergencies: WHO and UNHCR 1996. An Inter-Agency Field Handbook WHO, IASC Guidance on Mental Health and 2005. Psychosocial Support in Emergency Set- Communicable disease control in emer- tings (Draft, May 2006). gencies: A Field Manual, WHO, Geneva An Inter-Agency Field Manual on Repro- 2005. ductive Health in Refugee Situations UN- The Sphere Project: Humanitarian Char- HCR, Geneva, 1999. ter and Minimum standards in disaster re- Sexual and Gender-Based Violence sponse, second edition: Chapter 5, Health. Health against Refugees, Returnees and Inter- The Sphere Project, Geneva, 2004. www. 17 nally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for sphereproject.org Prevention and Response. UNHCR 2003 The Inter-Agency Emergency Health Kit, (SGBV guidelines). WHO 2006. Clinical Management of Rape Survivors: Manual: Inter-Agency Reproductive Developing Protocols for Use with Refu- Health Kits for Crisis Situations, 2005. gees and Internally Displaced Persons (revised edition), WHO/UNHCR 2005 (Clin- ical Management of Rape protocols).

365 Annex 1: Weekly Reporting Form – Mortality

Health Information System Name of Organisation

Weekly Reporting Form Name of Camp

2.0 Mortality Current Week & Month

2.1 Mortality by Age

Refugee National

< 1 ≥ 1 to < 5 ≥ 5 < 5 ≥ 5

Male Female

2.2 Mortality by Cause

Refugee National < 5 ≥ 5 < 5 ≥ 5 Male Female Male Female Malaria ARI Watery diarrhoea Bloody diarrhoea Tuberculosis Measles Meningitis AIDS Maternal death Neonatal death Acute malnutrition Other

366 Annex 2: Outbreak Alert Form

Health Information System Name of Organisation Name of Camp & Unit 3.0 Outbreak Alert Form Date ______/ ______/ ______

Name of reporting officer:

Suspected Disease / Syndrome Symptoms and Signs (Tick ONE box only) (You can tick several boxes)

Watery or loose stool Malaria Visible blood in stool Watery diarrhoea Acute paralysis or weakness Cholera Fever Bloody diarrhoea Rash

Cough Polio (Acute Flaccid Paralysis) Vomiting Measles Neck stiffness

Meningitis Other (describe):

Total number of cases reported (refer to weekly thresholds):

Line listing (continue on separate sheet) Health

Lab. 17 Final Serial Age Sex Date of specimen Treatment Address Outcome Classification No. (M / F) onset taken given (I / R / D)* (S / C)** (Y / N)

* Outcome: ** Final Classification: I = currently ill S = suspected case with clinical diagnosis R = recovering or recovered C = confirmed case with laboratory diagnosis D = died

367 Annex 3: Weekly Reporting Form – Morbidity

Health Information System Name of Organisation

Weekly Reporting Form Name of Camp

3.0 Morbidity Current Week & Month

3.1 Consultation Refugee National § M F Number of full-time trained clinicians Number of full days OPD functioning New Visits § enter average number holding OPD consultations on each day Revisits of the week

3.2 Morbidity Refugee National < 5 ≥ 5 Total Total Total < 5 + ≥ 5 < 5 ≥ 5 < 5 + ≥ 5 M F < 5 M F * Malaria ARI * Watery diarrhoea * Bloody diarrhoea Skin disease Eye Disease Intestinal worms Tuberculosis Leprosy * Acute Flaccid Paralysis / Polio * Measles * Meningitis HIV/AIDS ** STI (non-HIV/AIDS) Acute malnutrition Anaemia Angular Stomatitis Iodine deficiency *** Injuries Dental Gastritis Surgical Gynaecological Hypertension Diabetes Mental illness Other Total

* Disease with outbreak potential. Refer to weekly alert thresholds (see reverse) ** Also enter information on syndromic diagnosis; < 18 / ≥ 18 age group; and treatment of contacts in STI table (see reverse) *** Includes SGBV. Ensure incident report form has been completed each case

368 3.3 Outbreak Alert and Response

Number of outbreaks reported Number of reported outbreaks investigated within 48 hours

3.4 Sexually Transmitted Infection Refugee (STI) < 18 Total ≥ 18 Total Contacts National Treated M F < 18 M F < 18 + ≥ 18

Urethral Discharge Syndrome (UDS) Vaginal Discharge Syndrome (VDS) Genital Ulcer Disease (GUD) Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) Opthalmia Neonatorum Congenital syphilis Others Total

Suspected Cholera Health

369 Annex 4: Indicative health staffing levels (adapted fromThe Sphere Project, 2004)

Community level Community health worker One per 500 -1,000 population Traditional birth attendant (not One per 2,000 population for midwifery/obstetrical tasks) Supervisor One per 10 home visitors Senior supervisor One Primary health facility Total staff Two to five (for approximately Qualified health worker At least two, maximum 50 consulta- 10,000 population) tions per worker per day

Non-qualified staff At least one for oral re-hydration therapy (ORT), dressings, registration, administration etc Central health facility Qualified health workers At least five, maximum 50 consultations per worker per day (out-pa- (for approximately tient care), 20- 30 beds per worker 50,000 population, per shift (in-patient care) 24 hour service, Midwife At least one 25-30 in-patient beds) Doctor At least one Laboratory technician At least one Pharmacist At least one Non-qualified health worker At least one for ORT; at least one for pharmacy; at least one for dressings, injections, sterilization etc Non-qualified staff Registration, security, etc Referral hospital Variable Doctor with surgical skills At least one Nurse At least one: 20-30 beds per shift

370 Annex 5 – Rapid health assessment (Source: Communicable disease control in emergencies, a field manual. 2005. WHO, Geneva) Health 17

371 Annex 5 – Rapid health assessment (Source: Communicable disease control in emergencies, a field manual. 2005. WHO, Geneva)

372

Health 17

373 374 Health 17

375 18 Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in emergencies (SGBV)

376 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1-6 378 Definition 1 378 Causes and factors contributing to SGBV 2 378 Consequences 6 379

Prevention of and Response to SGBV 7 379 Objectives and key actions 380

Identification of potential sources of SGBV 380

Emergency actions to respond to and prevent SGBV incidents 380 Community based mechanisms 381 Protection sensitive shelter and site planning 382 Effective food and non-food items and distribution 382 Effective protection systems and services 383

Referral and reporting mechanisms for victims/survivors of SGBV 384

Identification and analysis 384

Referral 384 Health and psychosocial response 385

Measures to ensure the safety and security of the displaced population 386

Awareness with staff and the community on SGBV prevention and response 387 Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence 18

377 Prevention of and response to Sexual Causes and factors contributing to and Gender-Based Violence in emergen- SGBV cies (SGBV)1 2. Gender inequality and discrimination Introduction are the root causes of SGBV, but displacement increases the risks due to flight, the 1. Everyone who is displaced is likely exposure to armed groups, tensions with to find their right to personal liberty and host communities, and the mingling with security violated, perhaps in numerous other unknown displaced persons. While ways. Displaced persons are also unable war, conflict and internal strife are the pri- to find safety and security because com- mary causes of flight and displacement; munity structures and groupings break rape and other forms of SGBV may also down during flight and displacement. provoke flight, especially when such violence is used as a weapon of war, including Definition: in the context of ethnic cleansing. These forms of SGBV may also occur during The term SGBV refers to violence that is flight at the hands of bandits, traffickers, directed against a person on the basis of gender or sex. It includes acts that in- border guards, and/or other individuals in flict physical, mental or sexual harm or authority. Like men and boys fleeing con- suffering, threats of such acts, coercion, flict and persecution, women and girls are and other deprivations of liberty. increasingly obliged to pay people-smug- glers and undertake perilous journeys if While women, men, boys and girls can be they are to reach a country where they can victims of gender-based violence, women claim asylum. The problems of violence and girls are the main victims.2 Nonethe- and SGBV may continue during displace- less, in the context of an emergency it is ment, where prior exposure often leads to also important to pay close attention to continuing problems, including further vi- the situation of men and boys as rape and olence. This is particularly true if women sexual abuse is also used against men and and girls have to travel long distances in boys in conflict as a means to humiliate and search of food, fuel and work and if camps as a form of torture. For the same reasons, or displacement locations are raided by the affected men and boys might be less militia. likely to seek assistance. The term SGBV may sometimes be used interchnagably 3. The dangers and uncertainties of emer- with violence against women or gender gencies and displacement place great psy- based violence. (More detailed guidance chosocial strain on individuals, families can be found in UNHCR’s Guidelines on and communities which can, in turn, pro- prevention and response to SGBV and in voke domestic violence in camp, rural and those issued by the Inter-Agency Standing urban settings. High levels of violence Committee.3) that result from the flight from conflict, the disruption of social structures, men’s loss of their traditional roles, rapid chang- 1 This section is adapted from Sexual and Gender- es in cultural traditions, poverty, frustra- based Violence against Refugees, Returnees, and Inter- tion, alcohol and drug abuse, and lack of nally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response, UNHCR, May 2003; UNHCR Handbook for the Protection of Women and Girls, provisional release, 2006,and Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 3 See UNHCR, Sexual and Gender-based Violence Guidelines for Gender-based Violence in Interventions against Refugees, Returnees, and Internally Displaced in Humanitarian Settings, September 2005. Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response, May 2 This definition is based on the 1993 Declaration 2003; and Inter-Agency Standing Committee, Guide- on the Elimination of Violence against Women, Arti- lines for Gender-based Violence in Interventions in Hu- cle 2. For further details, see Chapter 5, section 5.3.3. manitarian Settings, September 2005. 378 respect for human rights are all factors Consequences that contribute to the violence that is in- 6. The consequences of SGBV include flicted upon women and children. When unwanted pregnancy, contracting sexu- communities flee, they bring with them ally transmitted infections, HIV/AIDS, their customs and traditions. Among these or acute and chronic physical injury,6 re- are harmful traditional practices, such as productive health problems, emotional female genital mutilation (FGM). While and psychological trauma, stigmatization, often viewed as cultural traditions that rejection, isolation, and increased gender should be respected, these harmful prac- inequality.7 Women and girls who have tices are human rights violations. been raped may be treated as criminals, as 4. Women and girls who are single heads- has been the case in Darfur, Sudan, where of-households and/or without family sup- some have been imprisoned and fined by 8 port are among those particularly at risk police for illegal pregnancy. Traditional of SGBV. Girls at heightened risk include dispute-resolution systems must be iden- unaccompanied girls, girls in foster fami- tified and monitored as they often do not lies, girls in detention, girl soldiers, fe- generally provide adequate redress to male adolescents, mentally and physically women and girls. disabled girls, working girls, girl mothers, children born to rape victims/survivors.4 Prevention of and Response to SGBV 7. To prevent and respond to SGBV from 5. Perpetrators are sometimes the very the earliest stages of an emergency, a people upon whom the individual con- minimum set of activities must be under- cerned depends upon to assist and protect

taken speedily and in a coordinated man- them, including humanitarian workers

ner, with all partners (women’s groups and peacekeepers. The sexual exploitation and organizations, NGOs, Government, scandals in refugee camps in West Africa UN agencies and the displaced and host and Nepal of the early 2000s, involving community). Survivors/victims of SGBV humanitarian workers, raised awareness need assistance to cope with the harm- of this problem and resulted in the issu- ful consequences. They may need health ance by the Secretary-General of a Bulle- care, psychological and social support, tin on special measures for protection from security and legal redress. At the same 5 sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. The time, prevention activities must be put in Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence Bulletin applies to all UN staff includ- place in coordination with the community 18 ing UN forces conducting operations un- to address causes and contributing factors der UN command and control, as well as to SGBV particularly in the design of the NGO in contract with UN.. emergency response. Effective action to

4 UNHCR, Sexual and Gender-based Violence infrastructure and childbirth care are poor, and is against Refugees, Returnees, and Internally Displaced common in girls subject to early marriage. It can Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response, May also be caused by rape. Surgery can repair the 2003, p. 71. injury, but several operations may be required if the 5 Secretary-General, “Bulletin on special measures case is particularly severe. When fistula results from for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual rape, survivors are routinely rejected and ostracized abuse,”ST/SGB/2003/13,9/October 2003, available by their husbands, parents, and communities. at http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/ 7 UNHCR, Sexual and Gender-based Violence against N03/550/40/PDF/N0355040.pdf. Refugees, Returnees, and Internally Displaced Persons: 6 One such example is the medical condition Guidelines for Prevention and Response, May 2003, pp. of fistula, which occurs when the wall between 23–24. the vagina and the bladder or bowel is ruptured 8 Médecins sans Frontières, “The Crushing Burden during obstructed labour. Severe pain and chronic of Rape: Sexual Violence in Darfur,” 8 March 2005, incontinence ensue. Fistula is found where health p. 6. 379 prevent and respond to SGBV forms part programme, community services, field, of UNHCR’s protection mandate. It must security, other sector specialists – medi- be incorporated into the early stages of cal doctors etc) who work together to en- emergency preparedness and later inte- sure interventions consider the whole pic- grated into the country programme. ture and strategies are adequate, as well For more details refer to UNHCR’s 2003 Sexual and as maximizing resources. Together with Gender-based Violence against Refugees, Returnees, the people of concern, they undertake par- and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Preven- ticipatory assessment and analyse and dis- tion and Response and the IASC’s 2005 Guidelines for cuss solutions to protection risks and as- Gender-based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Settings. sistance problems faced by the displaced communities. Objectives Conduct a participatory assessment to In an emergency setting, multi-functional identify potential sources of SGBV and emergency teams should work together to positive community prevention actions establish a coordinated multi-sectoral and and responses. interagency response with the community to achieve the following: Key actions • Conduct a participatory assessment to □ Through participatory assessments identify potential sources of SGBV with women, girls, boys and men and positive community prevention identify the places in the displace- actions and responses. ment location and surrounding areas • Design the emergency actions to which pose risks and danger and respond to and prevent SGBV inci- where people perceive security risks dents. relating to SGBV and organize ob- • Establish coordinated confidential servation/spot checks in the displace- referral and reporting mechanisms for ment area. victims/survivors of SGBV and pro- □ Ensure all assessments undertaken are vide health, psychosocial, legal and participatory and include the subject material support as well as strength- of security and health needs and col- ening prevention. lect data by age and sex. • Establish and maintain appropriate □ Undertake participatory assessments measures to ensure the safety and with small groups of women, girls, security of the displaced population boys and men and triangulate the in coordination with the host govern- information to assess security and ment and population. SGBV risks. • Raise awareness with staff and the □ Target groups with specific needs displaced community on SGBV pre- such as unaccompanied boys and vention and response including Code girls, child-headed households, of Conduct and the Secretary Gener- persons with disabilities and older al’s Bulletin on Sexual Exploitation persons during participatory assess- and Abuse. ments as experience has shown they can be particularly exposed to SGBV. □ The key actions to be undertaken by mul- As much as possible, ensure that tech- ti-functional teams to achieve these objec- nical experts (water and site planners, tives in an emergency setting have been engineers, nutritionists, health spe- outlined below. Multi-functional emer- cialists, etc.) join the multi-functional gency teams should comprise of UNHCR inter-agency team in participatory and partner staff members (protection, assessments. 380 □ Pay careful attention to the following □ Summarize all the key risk areas and areas/situations which often present share the information with all staff security risks: and partners including the protec- • border crossings security check tion working group (if established), points; technical, security and programme • registration points and situations personnel. where there are exchanges with those □ Follow up with staff to ensure that in authority (when documentation is the community perspective on the required, or with those responsible prevention of and response to SGBV for distributing assistance or authoriz- is incorporated into the planning and ing/signing papers or for assistance); design of the emergency response as • distribution points and challenges well as the budget requirements. some might face in accessing assistance, especially sufficient assistance, particularly plastic sheeting, blankets, Design the emergency actions to soap and food; respond to and prevent SGBV inci- dences • areas where displaced persons, especially women and children, collect The design of an emergency operational firewood, water and graze animals, response with government and non-gov- including in host community areas; ernmental organizations that is sensitive • communal latrines and showers (even to SGBV issues should include the five if separate for women and girls) espe- main areas outlined below. cially during the nights;

a.Establishment of appropriate com- • communal reception and collective munity management structures and centres where there is a lack of pri- support to promote a community-based vacy; approach to protect women, men, girls • monitor host population areas where and boys from different backgrounds the displaced population accesses services such as schools, community □ Promote the meaningful and equal centres to ensure that access routes participation of women and men in all community management com-

are safe and secure; Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence • market places and local community mittees and other decision-making entertainment centres where there is community-based structures (camp, 18 scope for the exchange of money and food/NFI, shelter, health, etc). goods for specific services that could □ In communities where women do not put individuals at risk; and normally participate in public and • isolated locations which can create community activities, provide them risks especially for young children. with support and opportunities to ensure that their proposed solutions are considered and put into practice. □ Discuss and agree on best solutions/ □ Mobilize the community to identify mechanisms with the community, in those individuals and groups most particular with women and girls, to at risk of SGBV and agree on com- address the risks identified. munity support and joint monitoring □ Check if women and girls are able mechanisms including community to move around on their own, if not “watch” teams with female participa- ensure female staff are available to tion. visit them at home and discuss their □ Identify members of the community protection concerns. with skills, including women repre- 381 sentatives, to support SGBV preven- □ If firewood is scarce or far away and tion and response mechanisms and will lead to protection risks introduce train them. alternative fuel arrangements based □ Work with men and boys specifically on the community’s assessment of on preventing to SGBV in all activi- the best alternatives. This is a prior- ties. ity prevention action in areas where women and children will be exposed to SGBV or where men are physi- b. Protection sensitive shelter and site cally attacked. planning □ Where women and children are □ Through registration identify groups collecting firewood and selling it with specific needs and plan accord- for income and this poses a danger ing to their risk analysis and taking to them, introduce alternative and into consideration cultural consid- equally remunerative income generat- erations which can expose them to ing activities. further protection risks. □ In consultation with women and if □ Ensure sufficient space and privacy they consider it appropriate, provide is provided for, especially for female for women’s centers to enable safe headed households including the meeting spaces for different activities potential to be able to lock the door. including health, psychosocial and □ Design communal shelters with suf- legal services in response to SGBV. ficient space and adequate material for partitions between families. c. Effective food and non-food items □ Check that the solution provided is distribution the right one in the cultural context (e.g. in certain contexts it will not be Age and sex disaggregated data should be correct to place single or widowed collected to ensure effective planning and women together on their own) and distribution based on the specificities of monitor such groups regularly. the population. □ Make arrangements for alternative □ All decisions in relation to food and sources such as solar energy for light- non-food items should be taken with ing in communal areas (especially la- the direct participation of the commu- trines and showers) and for individual nity and in particular with women of use (e.g. torches for families). diverse backgrounds and ages. □ Plan location and design of shelter ar- □ All distribution must be monitored eas to promote community spirit and regularly, especially during the emer- reinforce community-based protec- gency phase. Follow up focus group tion, while preserving privacy, safety discussions should be held with the and security of individuals and the different members of the community, family unit. especially groups with specific needs, □ Ensure that women and minority to monitor equitable distribution and group community members are pro- identify any risks of sexual or other vided opportunities to participate in types of exploitation or abuse. decision-making pertaining to the lo- □ Set up community based distribution cation of services and shelter design. services to support child and grand- □ Ensure areas children use are safe and parent headed households, single can be monitored by the community older persons and those with disabili- including roads to school. ties and monitor the system for any

382 potential abuse. □ Work with the community to institute □ Facilitate distribution of individual arrangements for community watch identity documentation and avoid committees with fifty percent female using ration cards as a substitute for representation and participation and documentation. provide appropriate knowledge and □ Decide with women who should skills training. receive the family ration card. □ Work with partners to promote enrol- □ Provide sanitary materials, selected ment of girls in schools and skills and distributed on the basis of dis- training centers for boys and girls and cussions with women and girls, to ensure that such institutions are pro- all those of reproductive health age tected from attack and recruitment. (estimated 25% of total population). □ Promote equal numbers of female teachers in schools and training centers who serve as role models for girls d. Effective protection systems and and the community at large. services □ Provide specific training/briefings □ Establish a system for the early iden- on the implementation of Security tification of persons who might be at Council Resolution 1325 on Women, heightened risk of SGBV Peace and Security and SGBV pre- □ Identify relevant national laws and vention and response for teachers, policies (especially those pertaining schools administrators and commu- to marriage and divorce laws, rape nity representatives and leaders.

and domestic violence laws, inherit- □ Promote food security and liveli-

ance laws etc) in coordination with hood strategies, particularly for girls local women’s associations and ana- with children, single women headed lyse them to see if they conform to households, young widows, older international human rights laws and women and men who are most at risk promote the rights of the victim/sur- of abuse, exploitation, and rejection. vivor. □ Ensure that programmes for child sol- □ Understand how the displaced com- diers address the particular concerns munity members handled SGBV of young mothers and their children. Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence from a legal perspective prior to □ Promote other measures, including

displacement by conducting partici- family reunification, skills training 18 patory focus group discussions with for income earning and recreational women and men, including adoles- activities, both as preventive meas- cent girls and boys. ures and for girls and boys who have □ If customary practices and informal been demobilized. justice systems are activated by the Finally, establishing schools and educa- community work with leaders ensure tion structures early in an emergency will they respect international human facilitate the prevention of and monitoring rights and if necessary provide train- of sexual and gender-based violence and ing on human rights and conduct a it is important to work with teachers on comparative analysis with the com- this. munity on how their system can respect individual human rights.

383 SGBV or lead them to be dissuaded Establish coordinated confidential from seeking assistance and psycho- referral and reporting mechanisms for victims/survivors of SGBV and social support. provide health, psychosocial, le- □ Establish same sex health, psychoso- gal and material support as well as cial and legal counselling and serv- strengthening prevention. ices for SGBV victims/survivors and their family members in such a way so as not to draw attention to their Key actions situation. Identification and analysis □ With the inter-agency protection □ As a multifunctional team with and/or SGBV working group agree partners, agree on measures to gather on mechanisms for sharing statisti- information on SGBV including a cal data and establish a database to close review of existing information. provide daily/weekly reporting with In refugee settings, UNHCR will nor- a breakdown of cases by age and sex, mally take the lead coordination role as well as type (rape, sexual abuse, and in internally displaced persons sexual exploitation, domestic vio- (IDP) settings United Nations Popu- lence, etc). lation Fund (UNFPA) will normally □ Based on an age, gender and diversity take the lead and UNHCR should analysis of assessments, and in coor- actively support the process. dination with key persons (if possible □ If a protection working group exists, at this stage selected by the commu- share all relevant information, and if nity) from the displaced mechanisms, necessary establish an inter-agency, develop a plan of action for preven- multi-sectoral SGBV working group. tion and response. This should be □ Identify key actors/partners, both based on the guiding principles set local and international with access out in the SGBV guidelines to ensure to the fleeing population, in particu- that the rights and dignity of women lar women and girls, who may have and girls are respected, as well as information about SGBV incidents, those of men and boys. in particular health partners and tradi- □ As soon as possible establish Stand- tional midwives among the displaced ard Operating Procedures for preven- population to gather first impressions. tion of and response to SGBV with Review findings of any health assess- the action plan coordination with ments undertaken to check for signs partners. of reported incidents of SGBV. □ Analyse local legal responses to SGBV and cultural perceptions of Referral causes of SGBV among the displaced □ Agree on confidential mechanisms and the host population. to refer and report on incidents of □ Identify key people with relevant SGBV and which agencies will pro- skills among the displaced popula- vide which kind of assistance (health, tion who can assist, such as doctors, psychosocial, legal and security). nurses, midwives, and women and □ Jointly with partners draw up a SGBV men in leadership roles. prevention and response information, □ Be on the look out for information education and communication plan relating to community practices that and disseminate SGBV prevention might be harmful to survivors of messages.

384 □ Inform the community in as many monitoring. If the alleged perpetrator ways as possible on these mecha- is in the community the best option is nisms and do not rely only on leaders to discuss this with security services to transmit the information, work and provide discreet and specialized with young adolescent girls and boys, security services for the survivors single women, etc. and whenever possible make ar- □ Ensure the safety of the victim/survi- rangements for the perpetrator to be vor and his/her family at all times. removed. □ Respect the wishes, rights and dignity □ Work with the local police and justice of the victim/survivor while also system to ensure a sensitive, appro- bearing in mind the safety of the priate and just response to SGBV wider community as well as the indi- cases. vidual concerned. □ When necessary and appropriate □ In the case of children, ensure expert consider emergency resettlement for support to enable age sensitive inter- SGBV survivors or those persons at viewing and appropriate counselling. heightened risk with no safe alterna- In some cases it might be necessary tives. to conduct a Best Interests Determi- nation assessment especially in the case of unaccompanied and separated Health and psychosocial response children. □ Ensure all medical staff are trained □ Ensure that all allegations of rape and in the Clinical Management of Rape 9 other forms of SGBV are promptly, Survivors and prevention of and

thoroughly and independently inves- response to SGBV. tigated and followed up as per inter- □ Check that medical centres have agency agreed response mechanisms. sufficient supplies of treatment for □ Set up a confidential case file man- STI’s, emergency contraceptives and agement system. post exposure prophylaxis according □ Provide training to interpreters. to national, international and WHO □ Prior to counselling survivors to file standards. □ Promote female to female health serv-

for legal recourse, conduct a thorough Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence analysis of the security consequences ices and translators as required. for the individual and his/her family, □ Work with the community to identify 18 as well as of the effectiveness of the and understand how the community national legal justice system. normally responds to SGBV and the □ Ensure clear and timely referral sys- subsequent emotional trauma. tems for affected persons to receive □ Analyse whether these mechanisms medical and psychosocial support. respect individual rights and if appro- □ Accompany any survivor who opts priate strengthen community-based for legal redress to the authorities mechanisms for psychosocial support involved and ensure appropriate as well as providing for individual standards of treatment, including counselling. confidentiality during interviews. □ When necessary make arrangements for persons at heightened risk or who 9 Clinical Management of Rape Survivors fear for their safety in the community – Developing protocols for use with refugees and to relocate to a safe area and provide internally displaced persons (Revised Edition) individual follow-up support and World Health Organization and United Nations High Commissioner for refugees, 2004. 385 □ Ensure health centers monitor and □ Assess existing local security re- provide pre-natal maternal health sponses to identify and respond to services for pregnant women who protection gaps including gender may be rape survivors and could imbalance and gender insensitive require specific support, particularly strategies in protection management if they have to be discreet about the and implementation. pregnancy, due to possible negative □ Build partnerships with local authori- repercussions from the family, com- ties and seek their views and under- munity or local authorities. stand their attitudes on the safety and □ Early identification of pregnant security of the displaced persons in women in the emergency phase can particular women and children, and facilitate safety and security and identify interventions to address the emotional support when “unwanted” safety and security gaps. babies are born. □ Ensure community policing and secu- □ Be aware of possible negative per- rity structures take into consideration ceptions towards children born of the specific risks faced by women rape and make arrangements with and men of different age groups and the community for possible “foster backgrounds and that high risk areas care” of children, if appropriate and are monitored. feasible. □ Arrange for regular patrols by police, □ Medical centers should follow agreed security guards or community watch upon reporting mechanisms and refer teams of all areas identified by the survivors who consent for individual community and women and children psychosocial counselling and refer to in particular, as being unsafe. legal support centers as required. □ Identify with all actors, including □ Ensure that former girl and boy child members of the host community soldiers receive medical assistance, through focus group discussions, the especially related to sexual and repro- causes of tension, in particular issues ductive health and sexually transmit- in relation to sharing of natural re- ted infections (STIs), and psychoso- sources such as forests, grazing lands, cial counselling and follow-up.10 irrigation and water sources, waste □ Make sure that forensic evidence lands etc and opportunities for farm is collected according to national labour and other paid work activities protocols to support legal follow up if for displaced women and adolescents. desired. Work with all actors to seek solutions. □ Agree on joint mechanisms with host Government and population to ensure Establish and maintain appropriate safety and security in partnership measures to ensure the safety and with civil society and displaced com- security of the displaced population in coordination with the host govern- munities. ment and population □ Provide support and capacity building to local/host authorities as required, Key actions participate in and take an active inter- □ Review location of displaced persons est in their and the host community’s and relations with host population. welfare and promote joint benefits as far as possible. 10 Save the Children, Forgotten Casualties of War: Girls in Armed Conflict, 2005. 386 □ Ensure there are adequate numbers of □ Clarify the psychosocial consequenc- properly trained police and security es of SGBV (fear, anxiety, panic at- personnel and promote gender parity tacks, withdrawal, depression, feeling among all security staff. hopeless, isolation, etc.).11 □ If a camp situation, armed security □ With the community leaders explain personnel should be situated outside the mechanisms jointly proposed for the camp. preventing, reporting and responding to SGBV cases, as well as sexual exploitation and abuse cases and other Raise awareness with staff and the complaints involving humanitarian community on SGBV prevention and workers or peacekeeping and security response, including Code of Conduct personnel. and the Secretary General’s (SG’s) □ Bulletin on Sexual Exploitation Obtain feedback from different and Abuse as well as coordination members of the community on the mechanisms. proposed reporting and complaints procedures. Once they are functioning monitor them carefully with the Community community to check their effective- □ Identify key, well respected women ness. and men from the community who □ Provide information on UNHCR’s will be able to gain broad support for Code of Conduct and the Secretary the work on SGBV prevention and General’s Bulletin on Sexual Exploi- response and promote the commutation and Abuse (SEA) and good nity-based SGBV reporting mecha- practices related to good conduct of nism. humanitarian personnel. □ Agree with the community the best □ Use different methods (leaflets, post- method to disseminate information ers, radio talk programmes, classes, on the prevention of and response to and exhibitions, street theatre) to SGBV and the key messages to be reach out to people through mass transmitted. campaigns and focus group discussions in market places, distribution

□ Consult with women and girls in par- Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence ticular to verify that the information and community centres, schools and is culturally appropriate, clear and health centers. 18 conveys the intended message. □ Work with the community leaders and Security personnel members on their role and responsibility to protect and care for survivors □ Coordinate with host/local authori- and not blame or reject them. ties to assess the level of knowledge □ Emphasize that SGBV reporting, and skills available on prevention referral and response services, includ- and response to SGBV, as well as on ing complaints related to sexual ex- Code of Conduct and SG’s Bulletin ploitation and abuse are confidential on sexual exploitation and abuse. and explain how confidentiality will □ Agree on training needs and deliver be respected. mini-trainings/briefings as soon as □ Explain potential consequences of possible and as the situation allows SGBV (unwanted pregnancy, HIV/ infections, etc.) and the treatment and 11 See Inter-Agency Guidance on Mental Health services that will be made available. and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, to be released in 2006 (IASC). 387 in the emergency phase. As far as □ Ensure that all partner agencies possible use national legislation to whether Governmental or NGOs sign support the messages, as well as re- agreements with UNHCR to include gional and international legal instru- an Annex on complying with Codes ments, particularly those relating to of Conduct. the rights of women and children. □ All UNHCR and partner staff should □ Include in the training/briefings sign the Code of Conduct. information on UNHCR’s Code of □ Establish systems for SEA focal Conduct and the Secretary’s Bulletin points as required by the SG’s Bul- on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse. letin. □ Promote gender balance in all secu- □ Monitor and report on SEA cases to rity forces (military, police and local). the UNHCR Inspectors Generals Of- UNHCR and partner staff fice, and report on SGBV prevention and response activities in situation □ Assess knowledge and skills on reports. prevention and response to SGBV □ Promote 50% female staffing in all among UNHCR and partner staff functional areas including senior and arrange for mini-training/brief- management, both in relation to ing sessions using Inter-Agency UNHCR and partners. Standing Committee, Guidelines for Gender-based Violence Interventions □ Finally, all staff, UNHCR, partners in Humanitarian Settings, UNHCR’s and security personnel, should wear Code of Conduct and the Secretary clear identification tags and names General’s Bulletin on prevention and and functions should be provided in response to sexual exploitation and writing to the community so that fol- abuse (SEA). low-up can be provided in the case of complaints.

388

Prevention of and response to Sexual and Gender-Based in emergencies (SGBV) Violence 18

389 19 HIV and AIDS

390 CONTENTS Paragraph Page Overview

Introduction 1-3 393-396

Initial response 4-14 393 Protection 6 394 Coordination 8 394 Assessing the HIV situation 11 395 Establishing a monitoring and evaluation system 12 396

Health response 15-31 396 Universal precautions 16 396 Blood transfusions 18 397 Blood donations 21 397 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) 24 397 Provision of condoms 26 398 Condom distribution and quality 29 398 Calculation of condoms supplies 31 398

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) 32-36 399 Introduction 32 399 Responding to SGBV 33 399

People living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHAs) 37-41 399-400

Introduction 37 399

Key actions for UNHCR’s anti-retroviral treatment (ART) policy 38 399 Additional assistance 40 399

Establishing comprehensive HIV/AIDS prevention and care services 42 400 HIV and AIDS HIV and Food and nutrition 43-44 400 19 Education 45-46 400

Information on behaviour change and communication (BCC) 47-49 401

HIV information system (HIVIS) 50-52 401

Humanitarian staff 53-56 401

Key references 402

Glossary 402

Annexes 403

391 Situation as surrounding host populations, in Conflict, displacement, food insecurity coordination activities together with and poverty have the potential to make at risk groups (e.g. women, minority affected populations more vulnerable groups, adolescents) is important. to HIV transmission. In addition, HIV/ • When implementing minimal es- AIDS may reduce the coping mechanisms sential HIV/AIDS interventions, the and resilience of such populations. While programme should be established populations affected by conflict often have according to the Inter-Agency Stand- lower HIV prevalence than surrounding ing Committee (IASC) guidelines host populations, they must be included for HIV Interventions in Emergency in any successful effort to combat the epi- Settings that highlight the following demic. It is incumbent upon UNHCR to sectors: protection, health, commu- incorporate HIV/AIDS interventions into nity services, camp management and the overall emergency response from the shelter, water and sanitation, educa- onset. If not addressed, the impacts of tion, and food security and nutrition HIV/AIDS will expand beyond the cur- services. rent crisis, influencing the outcome of the • Ensure access to prevention and response and shaping future prospects for response services for sexual and gen- rehabilitation and recovery. der-based violence (SGBV). • For persons that have started anti-ret- Objectives roviral treatment (ART), continued • Refugees and asylum-seekers live in access to ART must be made avail- dignity, free from discrimination, and able. their human rights are respected. • Ensure that people living with HIV • Reduced HIV transmission through and AIDS (PLWHAs) have continued access to prevention, care and treat- access to support, care and treatment ment programmes. services. Principles of response • Under no circumstances must refugees be persecuted on the basis of • Oppose mandatory testing of asylum- their HIV infection (e.g. prevent seekers and refugees since this does restrictions to freedom of movement not prevent the spread of the virus imposed on the grounds of HIV sta- and is at variance with relevant hu- tus). man rights standards. • Humanitarian staff must be protected • To direct HIV and related pro- from occupational and non-occupa- grammes, ensure that key information tional exposure to HIV. is available using the HIV Informa- • During all operations, the code of tion System (HIVIS) in order to conduct must be emphasised and determine how to implement HIV adhered to by members of staff. programmes and provide a baseline to monitor and evaluate programme • Ensure staff have access to HIV pre- response. vention measures, including information and condoms and health insur- • Ensure that multi-sectoral coordina- ance benefits. tion systems are established in all sectors of the operation. The inclusion of affected populations, as well

392 Actions education. It is important that HIV and • Establish multi-sectoral inter-agency AIDS interventions start at the onset of an coordination systems and meetings to emergency and continue throughout the ensure that HIV/AIDS is addressed programme cycle. in all aspects and phases of the re- 2. During a humanitarian crisis, the ef- sponse. fects of poverty, powerlessness and social • Assess baseline HIVIS data and based instability are intensified. Unfortunately, on this information establish priority these are the very conditions that favour needs and determine required hu- the spread of HIV. Such conditions in- man, material and financial needs and clude: necessary resources. i loss of income, livelihood, homes, • Assess whether the HIV status of health care and education; affected populations is being used in a discriminatory manner and react ii. increased powerlessness that often accordingly. Oppose mandatory HIV leads to sexual exploitation and vio- testing and any discriminatory meas- lence; ures based on HIV status. iii. severe impoverishment that often • Protect women, children and other leaves women and girls with few at risk groups and ensure that SGBV alternatives but to exchange sex for programmes establish programmes survival; for appropriate social and medical iv. mass displacement that leads to the response to rape and violence, includ- break-up of families and relocation ing HIV prevention measures such as into crowded camps; post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). v. breakdown of school, health and • Include HIV/AIDS interventions in communication systems; and all sectoral activities such as protec- vi. limited access to health and prevention, health, community services, tion services. camp management and shelter, water and sanitation, education, food secu- 3. Displacement generally brings popu- rity and nutrition services. lations, often with different HIV preva- • Follow the IASC guidelines on HIV lence, into varying degrees of contact. Interventions in Emergency Settings While populations affected by conflict do as well as national and World Health not necessarily have high HIV prevalence AIDS HIV and

Organization (WHO) protocols and and in fact, often have lower HIV preva- 19 guidelines. lence than surrounding host populations, • Establish proper monitoring and sur- they must be included and integrated veillance systems using HIVIS. into host country HIV policies and pro- • Provide staff members with access grammes in any successful effort to com- to HIV information and prevention bat the epidemic. interventions. Initial response 4. There is an urgent need to include HIV Introduction and AIDS into the overall emergency response. If HIV/AIDS is not addressed 1. HIV and AIDS are a policy priority for at the onset of the emergency, its impact UNHCR with the ultimate goal of inte- will expand beyond the current crisis, in- grating such programmes across all sec- fluencing the outcome of the response and tors, including protection, community shaping future prospects for rehabilitation services, health, food and nutrition and and recovery. 393 5. Prioritising the response should be principle. HIV status would also not fall based on the implementation of the mini- within the permitted grounds for expul- mal essential HIV/AIDS interventions sion to a third country. in line with the Inter-Agency Standing 4. Protection from arbitrary detention Committee (IASC) guidelines for HIV and unlawful restrictions on freedom Interventions in Emergency Settings (see of movement: Detention or restrictions matrix in table 1, page 403) and adapted to on the freedom of movement of persons each situation according to its context. The living with HIV and AIDS is in violation matrix outlines the areas for emergency with the fundamental rights to liberty and preparedness, the minimum response and security of the person, as well as the right the comprehensive response. The IASC to freedom of movement. booklet provides detailed guidance in the form of fact sheets on activities required 5. Respect for confidentiality and pri- in the minimum response. It is essential vacy: The HIV status of a person is con- that HIV is taken into account in all stages fidential and should not be shared without of operation planning and vulnerability the consent of the individual concerned. assessments, participatory assessments 6. Provision of voluntary counselling and programme planning should also in- and testing (VCT): UNHCR supports the clude HIV and AIDS. use of VCT programmes as long as international standards are met and promotes Protection equal access for persons of its concern to 6. There is a strong and inextricable link- existing VCT programmes. age between protection, human rights and HIV/AIDS. 7. Freedom from mandatory testing: UNHCR strictly opposes mandatory HIV 7. As a result, UNHCR has established testing of asylum-seekers, refugees, IDPs the following 10 key points on HIV/AIDS and other persons of concern as this is and the protection of refugees, IDPs and at variance with relevant human rights other persons of concern. standards. 1. Non-discrimination: Refugees, IDPs 8. Access to durable solutions: The at- and other persons of concern to UNHCR tainment of a durable solution should not who are living with HIV should live in be jeopardized by the HIV status of a refu- dignity, free from discrimination and stig- gee or a family member. The right to re- matization. turn to one’s country may not be denied 2. Access to HIV and AIDS health on the basis of HIV status. With respect care: Refugees, IDPs and other persons of to local integration, ensure access to local concern to UNHCR benefit as any other health and HIV- and AIDS-related serv- individual from the “right of everyone to ices on an equitable basis with nationals the enjoyment of the highest attainable in the host country. In the context of reset- standard of physical and mental health”. tlement, ensure that where testing is done, human rights are respected and voluntary 3. Access to Asylum Procedures and counselling and testing standards are met. Protection from Expulsion and Refoule- Automatic waivers should be given for ment: The HIV status of an asylum-seeker HIV-positive resettlement cases. does not constitute a bar to accessing asylum procedures. The right to be protected 9. HIV-related protection needs of against refoulement is the cornerstone of women, girls and boys: Women and girls international refugee law and HIV status are disproportionately affected by HIV is not a ground for any exception to this and AIDS. Ensure their protection against sexual or physical violence and exploita- 394 tion. Special attention must also be paid Services Officer, Protection Officer to children affected by HIV, including or Health Coordinator), a government those orphaned or otherwise made vulner- official or someone from UNHCR’s able by HIV. implementing or operational partners. 10. Access to HIV information and • Promote the incorporation of HIV/ education: Ensure widespread provision AIDS prevention, care and mitigation of information about HIV and AIDS to into situation assessments, participa- refugees, IDPs and other persons of con- tory assessments and programme cern, particularly with regard to HIV-re- planning and response. lated prevention and care information as • Institute an ongoing review to ensure well as information related to sexual and that HIV/AIDS issues are addressed reproductive health. in all aspects of the operation. • Work closely with the National AIDS Coordination Control Programme and UNAIDS 8. The main goal of the coordination ef- co-sponsors. fort is to meet the needs of the affected • Ensure that both populations of population in an effective, coherent and concern and surrounding host popula- complimentary manner. The presence of tions are involved in the development HIV and AIDS adds a further dimension of programme activities (e.g. com- to both the crisis and the aftermath. It is munity leaders, women’s representa- therefore essential that all efforts are made tives, adolescents). to ensure that a multisectoral coordination • Develop a joint plan for implementa- mechanism is established. tion; use the HIV/AIDS and Conflict/ Displaced Persons Assessment and UNHCR must ensure that the affected Planning Tool. (See Frame work at communities are involved in planning page 406) coordination activities, including host surrounding communities. It is impor- 10. Provide information and technical tant that women, educators, minority support: and religious groups, and adolescents • Ensure that appropriate support is are represented. provided to all stakeholders for stra- The following key actions listed below tegic planning, assessment, monitoring and analysis in relation to HIV/ should be considered when establishing AIDS HIV and a coordinated response from the outset of AIDS. an emergency response. These include es- • Ensure that national or WHO HIV 19 tablishing and strengthening coordination and AIDS protocols are available and mechanisms, providing information and shared with all stakeholders. technical support, assessing the HIV situ- • Ensure that HIV/AIDS is taken into ation, and establishing a monitoring and account in all stages of planning of evaluation system. the operation; provide support to pro- 9. Establish and strengthen coordination gramme implementation as required. mechanisms: Assessing the HIV situation • Identify an HIV/AIDS focal person 11. In order to coordinate and collaborate to take the lead in the coordination with other organizations and authorities, of the response to HIV and AIDS. it is essential to set up a standardized da- This can be someone from UNHCR tabase. This database will improve the (e.g. Programme Officer, Community understanding of the situation, guide pro-

395 gramme implementation, and provide a 13. Using the basic indicators provided in baseline for future monitoring and evalu- the Assessment and Planning Tool Frame- ation. work item 10 on page a census needs to be carried out in order to harmonize with • Review and use existing baseline data existing government indicators. from HIV/AIDS programmes. • Perform HIV/AIDS rapid risk and Only a minimum amount of indicators vulnerability assessment. should be collected to direct programme • Review existing information and decision-making and to ensure sufficient undertake local needs assessments to baseline data for future monitoring and identify populations most at risk and evaluation. priority areas for interventions. 14. Collect and analyse the data and then • Important information that should be provide feedback to the government, part- collected is: ners and the affected communities. i. existing sero-prevalance rates in country of origin and host-country Health response (use nearest sentinel surveillance 15. Health coordinators need to consider sites); the special needs of people at risk particu- ii. HIV/AIDS services to which popu- larly children and women who are usually lation had access in the country of the most severely affected by any crisis. origin, including ART, and preven- All PLWHAs and their families should, of tion of mother-to-child transmission course, be included in any response. programmes; Special attention should be given to high- iii. current level and quality of health risk groups such as commercial sex work- services in host country; ers, injecting drug users, and men having iv. background information on demo- sex with men. graphic and education levels; and v. type and level of risk factors that It is important that programmes are in- make women, children, single-headed tegrated with existing health and reproductive health services; vertical pro- households, minority groups, persons gramming should be avoided. with disabilities and drug abusers more vulnerable to HIV transmission. Universal precautions • Use the Assessment and Planning 16. Infection prevention measures are cru- Tool Framework on page 406 to cial to the safety of health workers, patients guide your work. and communities. Even with limited staff, Establish a monitoring and evaluation equipment and funds, essential measures system must be taken to avoid the transmission of 12. During the acute phase of an emer- infectious diseases such as HIV (as well gency, the core programmes described in as syphilis and the various types of hepati- the IASC matrix should be implemented. tis) through a comprehensive plan for pre- Beyond these basic activities, other HIV/ vention of disease transmission (for more AIDS programmes may be continued de- details see chapter 17 on health). pending upon the ongoing programmes 17. The following key actions should be in the country of origin and host coun- taken into consideration during a health try. Monitoring must be conducted with response: short-term, mid-term and long-term goals in mind. • Ensure running water is available in the health facilities.

396 • Ensure gloves, needles and syringes er than blood from paid donors. Thus, paid are available in sufficient quantities. donors should be avoided: at the earliest In health facilities that perform surgi- opportunity measures should be instituted cal interventions/caesarean sections, to recruit voluntary donors only. ensure availability of goggles and masks. Test all blood donated for transfusion in • Ensure aseptic techniques are used. line with the national or WHO protocols. • Ensure procedures are put in place for 22. Screening for HIV, Hepatitis B, syphi- proper sterilization of medical instru- lis and where possible also for Hepatitis ments and other medical materials. C, should be carried out using the most • Ensure that health staff are trained on appropriate assays. In acute emergencies, universal precaution procedures. rapid tests should be used and results of • Establish guidelines for proper waste all tests must be treated as strictly confi- management and ensure that all dential. health and support staff (e.g. clean- 23. If voluntary counselling and testing ers) are trained on safe waste disposal (VCT) exists, potential donors should be (numerous protocols exist from WHO encouraged to undergo VCT and results and other organizations). provided in a confidential and private • Ensure functioning incinerators in a manner with appropriate counselling and safe and fenced area to safely dispose follow-up. In those cases where VCT in of medical waste. unavailable, results of the HIV tests must not be linked to the potential donor (e.g. one does not inform the client).1 Blood transfusions 18. HIV is easily transmitted through Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) blood and thus a safe blood supply is es- 24. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) sential and fundamental. Where blood are responsible for significant morbidity transfusions are provided, they should be in adults (and newborns) and may result in safe and follow national and WHO proto- complications such as infertility in wom- cols for blood screening and transfusion. en and men, cervical cancer, congenital 19. Avoid unnecessary use of blood; only syphilis, low birth weight of newborns, give blood transfusions in life-threatening miscarriage and stillbirths. The presence circumstances and when no other alter- of an STI can increase both the acquisition AIDS HIV and native is possible (use as a reference the and transmission of HIV. 19 Clinical Use of Blood, WHO 2001). 25. Immediate actions for the prevention 20. Where blood transfusions are provid- and control of STIs are key strategies in ed in hospitals near the refugees, ensure reducing the spread of HIV/AIDS, and that basic supplies like reagents, test kits can be carried out as follows: and blood bags are available in sufficient • Provide early and effective STI case quantity. management.

Blood donations 1 Although this is an unsatisfactory situation, 21. Ensure that safe donors are selected. clients who wish to provide blood are not told of their HIV status unless they agree to undergo VCT Selection of donors can be promoted by because blood is only tested with a screening test giving clear information to potential do- and not a confirmatory test; thus, there will be some nors regarding when it is appropriate or false positives (persons who are negative but the inappropriate to give blood. Blood from test shows a positive). In the future, as ART becomes available and more routine voluntary testing voluntary, non-remunerated donors is saf- occurs, this situation may change. 397 • Provide standardized syndromic treat- both male and female condoms, together ment; use national treatment proto- with information leaflets. cols when available and appropriate; 28. UNHCR has a memorandum of under- if unavailable, use WHO protocols. standing with the United Nations Popula- • Ensure consistent availability of ap- tion Fund (UNFPA) that takes into account propriate drugs (see chapter 17 on the provision of condoms in emergency Health). situations as well as in more established • Ensure that partner tracing is under- refugee situations. Close collaboration taken (i.e. notification and treatment with the UNFPA country offices and the of partners). To facilitate this trac- UNFPA humanitarian unit at headquarters ing, each client should be provided is encouraged. with anonymous cards to give to their contacts; management of contacts Condom distribution and quality should be confidential, voluntary and 29. The location of condoms must be care- non-coercive. fully considered in order to ensure wide • Ensure that health education and STI and confidential access. Condoms should and HIV prevention awareness is be made available to the wider commu- provided to STI clients and that cli- nity and not only in health facilities (e.g. ents are provided with condoms and places such as food distribution sites, in- instructions on their use. formation sites, bars, market places and • Establish data collection systems for other relevant sites should be considered). the monitoring of the number of STI The decision should take into account cul- cases presenting for treatment by tural issues and the communities need to syndrome, sex and age group. be involved. • Plan comprehensive STI prevention, 30. Condoms of good quality are essen- management and surveillance pro- tial. Condom quality is determined by the grammes at the earliest opportunity. quality of the consignment, but also by the • Ensure that the health staff are trained handling and storage of condoms at the and able to diagnose and treat STIs site. When condoms are ordered locally it according to the syndromic approach. is important to ensure that condoms have Explain the importance of treating passed quality tests. the partner as well as promotion and explanation on the use of condoms. Calculation of condom supplies Provision of condoms 31. Male condoms: there are many for- 26. Condoms offer protection against mulas to calculate the number of male transmission of STIs and HIV as well as condoms required. The easiest formula unwanted pregnancy if they are used cor- is to take the total population and use the rectly and consistently. One of the most following formula: No. of condoms / pop- urgent tasks is to make sure that people ulation in 1 month. have access to correct information and In an emergency situation, the indicator that condoms are made free of charge and to reach is to distribute the equivalent of readily available. 0.5 condoms/person/month. In the post- 27. Male and female condoms should be emergency phase, the indicator increases to 1 condom/person/month considered as essential items in emergency relief supplies. At the onset of the Female condoms: For one month, 150 fe- emergency, Reproductive Health Emer- male condoms /10,000 population. gency Kits can be ordered which include

398 Sexual and gender-based violence 36. Together with the Protection Officer (SGBV) identify who is entitled to collect forensic evidence in line with country regula- 32. The prevention and response to sex- tions concerning the type of evidence that ual and gender-based violence (SGBV) needs to be collected. Forensic evidence should be a coordinated approach (see can only be released to the authorities chapter 17 on health, and chapter 11 on with the survivor’s consent. All types of CBA and community service). Clinical preventive treatment can start before the management of the consequences of rape evidence is collected. and the prevention of HIV transmission is essential. People living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHAs) Responding to SGBV 33. Ensure that health care providers are 37. With the introduction of the univer- trained to provide appropriate care. Fe- sal Access to anti-retroviral treatment male health care providers should be (ART) campaign, more and more people trained as a priority, but a lack of female will have access to ART. According to trained health workers should not prevent UNHCR’s policy on ART for refugees, the service from providing care to survi- refugees should have access to ART when vors of rape. surrounding host populations have access to ART. Consequently, over time, an in- 34. Medical examination should be con- creasing number of conflict-affected and ducted in privacy and should safeguard displaced populations will be on ART. the survivor’s confidentiality. Perform a medical examination only with the rape Key actions for UNHCR’s anti-retroviral survivor’s consent. treatment policy for refugees are as fol- 35. Provide treatment in a confidential lows: manner and in line with the national pro- 38. In collaboration with the national gov- tocols or the WHO/UNHCR guidelines ernment and with support from UNAIDS for clinical management of rape, revised and their co-sponsors, ensure the continu- edition, 2003: ation of ART for people affected by emergencies who were previously on ART, is ¡ presumptive treatment or treatment permitted.

for STIs; AIDS HIV and ¡ prevention of transmission of HIV Follow the country’s national treatment through provision of a 28-day course protocols for the provision of ART and 19 of post exposure prophylaxis within advocate for the inclusion of persons of 72 hours post rape; concern to the national programmes. ¡ provide emergency contraception 39. In line with country and/or WHO pro- within five days post rape; tocols, provide cotrimoxazole prophy- ¡ provide wound and injury care; laxis to PLWHAs. In addition, ensure ¡ provide tetanus and hepatitis B vac- that PLWHAs have access to insecticide cinations; treated nets to prevent malaria. ¡ provide follow-up care; ¡ provide counselling and treatment Additional assistance for psychological trauma; and 40. Facilitating access to safe water and ¡ refer to social, legal and protection sanitation for families with chronically care services. ill members, including PLWHAs, is essential. PLWHAs may have difficulty

399 obtaining water due to stigmatization and nets (note, this should be part of an discrimination, limited energy to wait in existing programme for all pregnant long queues, or insufficient strength to women); and transport heavy water containers. Provide • provision of ART. hygiene education and promotion and dis- pel myths and misconceptions about con- Food and nutrition tamination of water with HIV. 43. Special attention must be given to 41. As a part of the emergency response, the nutritional needs (micro and macro) ensure that supplementary feeding pro- including food rations in emergency op- grammes are established for people with erations with a high HIV prevalence. chronic diseases, including PLWHAs. Al- PLWHAs have special dietary and nutri- though targeting food aid to PLWHAs and tional needs that need to be taken into ac- their families is complex, ensure that tar- count. Adequate intake of energy, protein geted food aid does not further stigmatize and micronutrients is essential for coping affected and infected persons. with HIV and fighting opportunistic infections. Establishing comprehensive HIV/ AIDS prevention and care services 44. Specific guidance on food and nutrition as well as breastfeeding for HIV posi- 42. From the onset of the emergency, it is tive mothers is provided in chapter 16 on important to plan for the establishment of food and nutrition. More information can comprehensive HIV/AIDS programmes. also be found in the UNHCR and WFP The key actions regarding HIV/AIDS pro- document entitled “Integration of HIV/ grammes that should be expanded in the AIDS activities with food and nutrition stabilized phase are: support in refugee settings: specific programme strategies”, (2004). • voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) services; Education • prevention of mother-to-child transmission services; 45. Education provides an important pro- • development of more comprehensive tective function for children in emergen- and targeted HIV prevention and cies (see chapter 11 on CBA and commu- awareness programmes; nity services and chapter 20 on education). • development of palliative care and Schools are places not only for teaching home-based care programmes for traditional academic subjects but also for PLWHAs; the dissemination of HIV/AIDS aware- • ensure prophylaxis and treatment of ness and life skills training. opportunistic infections are estab- 46. When education programmes are be- lished; ing implemented, staff must: • as mentioned above, in line with • ensure that HIV prevention issues are country or WHO protocols, pro- included in the school curriculum; vide cotrimoxazole prophylaxis to • coordinate with other agencies to pro- PLWHAs; vide teaching materials that include • establish links between STI clinics, HIV prevention and life skills train- tuberculosis programmes and VCT ings; and services; • ensure that girls have access to • presumptive treatment for malaria schools and to HIV prevention for pregnant HIV positive women education through provision of a together with insecticide-treated safe environment free from fears of 400 harassment or sexual abuse by other 51. The HIVIS consists of 3 components: students and teachers. 1) surveys – behavioural surveillance surveys Information on behaviour change (BSS) and sentinel surveillance surveys; and communication (BCC) 2) monthly facility reporting (provided on 47. Communication in emergency situa- page 407); and tions is essential to assist people in main- 3) inspections by checklist (provided on taining or adopting behaviour which mini- page 408). mizes the risk of HIV transmission, as well as to ensure that PLWHAs have access to 52. Ensure that all data collected is used treatment and care services. Do not limit as a monitoring and evaluation tool to im- HIV prevention education to schools, but prove the integrated HIV and AIDS pro- ensure that HIV prevention information is grammes. Also, provide feedback on the disseminated at distribution sites, markets information collected to all partners and and other areas where many people gather governments. (i.e. formal and informal education). A Humanitarian staff key role for BCC lies with the communities themselves together with support from 53. There should be no discrimination Community Service Officers. against staff on the basis of real or per- 48. It is crucial that communities have ceived HIV status. Discrimination and ownership of HIV prevention activities stigmatization of people living with HIV/ through involving them in the identifi- AIDS (PLWHAs) inhibits efforts aimed at cation of priority topics, messaging and promoting HIV prevention. development of materials and strategies. Materials on HIV/AIDS prevention and Workplace information and educational programmes are essential to combat the transmission must be culturally and lin- spread of the epidemic and foster great- guistically appropriate and should be part er tolerance and understanding. of a comprehensive BCC plan early on during the emergency in order to imple- 54. Providing HIV/AIDS information ment it during the more stable post-emer- in the workplace, including information gency phase. about employees’ health insurance plans as well as basic HIV/AIDS materials (e.g. 49. Ensure that groups at risk are especial- information leaflets, condoms, location of AIDS HIV and ly targeted in the HIV prevention activities VCT sites), are some of the key actions and that these groups have confidential ac- in protecting humanitarian staff. Staff 19 cess to information on HIV/AIDS. should also have access to post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for occupational and HIV information system (HIVIS) non-occupational exposure to HIV. 50. Data is an essential requirement to di- 55. Also ensure that staff are aware of rect HIV and related programmes as well staff health insurance benefits regarding as to assess their effectiveness. The HIVIS HIV and related diseases. encourages integrated HIV programming by assessing and providing baseline data Create an open and supportive work for conflict affected populations as well environment; facilitate dialogue around as surrounding populations. It examines HIV and AIDS among the staff. interactions and HIV prevalence between 56. In addition, provide training on key is- the populations. It may also be used in a sues relating to HIV/AIDS including con- similar fashion for displaced populations fidentiality, protection and other human and populations of return. rights issues. 401 Glossary In all operations, emphasize the code of conduct and ensure that the code of con- AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency duct is adhered to by all staff members. Syndrome ART AntiretRivoral Treatment Key references 1. Guidelines for HIV/AIDS interventions BCC Behavioural Change Commu- in emergency settings – Inter-Agency nication Standing Committee, 2003. BSS Behavioural Surveillance 2. Directives concernant les interventions Surveys relatives au VIH/SIDA dans les situations HIV Human Immunodeficiency d’urgence – Inter-Agency Standing Com- Virus mittee, 2003. HIVIS HIV Information System 3. UNHCR Strategic Plan for Refugees, HIV and AIDS, 2005-2007. PEP Post-Exposure Prophylaxis 4. IOM/FOM 30/2006 – 30/2006 – Note PLWHAs People Living With HIV and on HIV/AIDS and the protection of Ref- AIDS ugees, IDPs and Other Persons of Con- PMTCT Prevention of Mother to Child cern. Transmission 5. Clinical Management of Rape Survi- STI Sexually Transmitted Infec- vors – Developing protocols for use with tions refugees and internally displaced persons VCT Voluntary Counselling and – revised edition – WHO/UNHCR, 2004. Testing 6. Strategies to support the HIV-related needs of refugees and host populations – UNAIDS Best Practice Collection, UN- AIDS/UNHCR, 2005. 7. Integration of HIV/AIDS activities with food and nutrition support in refugee settings: specific programme strategies, UN- HCR/WFP, 2004. 7. AIDS and HIV infection: Information for United Nations employees and their families, UNAIDS, 2000.

402 Tables Annex 1 - IACS Guidelines (matrix)

Comprehensive response • Strengthen IDP/refugee response • Continue fundraising • Strengthen networks • Enhance information sharing • Build human capacity • Link emergency to development HIV action with authorities • Work Assist government and non-state entities to promote • protect human rights4 • Maintain database • Monitor and evaluate all programmes Assess data on prevalence, knowledge attitudes and practice, • and impact of HIV/AIDS • Draw lessons from evaluations discrimination • Involve authorities to reduce HIV-related • Expand prevention and response to sexual violence exploitation • Strengthen protection for orphans, separated children and young people • Institutionalize training for uniformed forces on HIV/AIDS, sexual violence and exploitation, non-discrimination services for demobilized personnel • Put in place HIV-related • Establish water/sanitation management committees • Organize awareness campaigns on hygiene and sanitation, by HIV targeting people affected (Stabilized phase)

Minimum response (to be conducted even in the midst of emergency) 1.1 Establish coordination mechanism Assess baseline data 2.1 2.2 Set up and manage a shared database 2.3 Monitor activities 3.1 Prevent and respond to sexual violence and exploitation 3.2 Protect orphans and separated children 3.3 Ensure access to condoms for peacekeepers, military and humanitarian staff 4.1 Include HIV considerations in water/sanitation planning

HIV and AIDS HIV and

Emergency preparedness • Determine coordination structures • Identify and list partners • Establish network of resource persons • Raise funds • Prepare contingency plans • Include HIV/AIDS in humanitarian action plans and train accordingly relief workers • Conduct capacity and situation analysis • Develop indicators and tools • Involve local institutions and beneficiaries • Review existing protection laws and policies • Promote human rights and best practices • Ensure that humanitarian activities minimize the risk of sexual violence, and discrimination exploitation, and HIV-related uniformed forces and humanitarian Train • workers on HIV/AIDS and sexual violence on HIV/AIDS, sexual violence, staff Train • and non-discrimination gender, Assessment and 4. Water 2. and monitoring 3. Protection Sectoral Response sanitation 1. Coordination 403

• Develop strategy to protect long-term food security of HIV people affected • Develop strategies and target vulnerable groups for agricultural extension programmes • Collaborate with community and home based care programmes in providing nutritional support Assist the government in fulfilling its obligation to respect • human right to food • Plan orderly movement of displaced • Forecast longer-term needs; secure regular supplies; ensure appropriate training of the staff • Palliative care and home based TB control of opportunistic infections and Treatment • programmes treatment ARV • Provision of • Safe blood transfusion services • Ensure regular supplies, include condoms with other RH activities • Reassess condoms based on demand • Management of STI, including condoms • Comprehensive sexual violence programmes • Control drug trafficking in camp settings • Use peer educators to provide counselling and education on risk reduction strategies counselling and testing • Voluntary • Reproductive health services for young people • Prevention of mother to child transmission • Enable/monitor/reinforce universal precautions in health care

5.1 Target food aid to affected and at- food aid to affected Target 5.1 risk households and communities 5.2 Plan nutrition and food needs for population with high HIV prevalence 5.3 Promote appropriate care and feeding practices for PLWHA 5.4 Support and protect food security & at risk of HIV/AIDS affected households and communities 5.5 Distribute food aid to affected households and communities 6.1 Establish safely designed sites 7.1 Ensure access to basic health care for the most vulnerable 7.2 Ensure a safe blood supply 7.3 Provide condoms 7.4 Institute syndromic STI treatment 7.5 Ensure IDU appropriate care 7.6 Management of the consequences of SV 7.7 Ensure safe deliveries 7.8 Universal precautions

• Contingency planning/preposition supplies on special needs of HIV/AIDS staff Train • populations affected • Include information about nutritional in community care and support of PLWHA nutrition education programmes • Support food security of HIV/AIDS- households affected • Ensure safety of potential sites on HIV/AIDS, gender and non- staff Train • discrimination • Map current services and practices • Plan and stock medical RH supplies Adapt/develop protocols • health personnel Train • • Plan quality assurance mechanisms on the issue of SGBV and staff Train • link with HIV/AIDS • Determine prevalence of injecting drug use • Develop instruction leaflets on cleaning injecting materials • Map and support prevention care initiatives and peer educators staff Train • on RH issues linked with health staff Train • emergencies and the use of RH kits Assess current practices in the • application of universal precautions 6. Shelter and site planning 7. Health 5. Food security and nutrition 404

• Educate girls and boys (formal non-formal) • Provide lifeskills-based HIV/AIDS education • Monitor and respond to sexual violence exploitation in educational settings • Scale up BCC/IEC • Monitor and evaluate activities and their • Build capacity of supporting groups for PLWHA families • Establish workplace policies to eliminate discrimination against PLWHA • Post-exposure prophylaxis for all humanitarian workers available on regular basis

8.1 Ensure children’s access to 8.1 Ensure children’s education 9.1 Provide information on HIV/AIDS prevention and care 10.1 Prevent discrimination by HIV management status in staff 10.2 Provide post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) available for humanitarian staff HIV and AIDS HIV and

• Determine emergency education options for boys and girls teachers on HIV/AIDS and sexual Train • violence and exploitation • Prepare culturally appropriate messages in local languages • Prepare a basic BCC/IEC strategy • Involve key beneficiaries • Conduct awareness campaigns • Store key documents outside potential emergency areas • Review personnel policies regarding who work in the management of PLWHA humanitarian operations • Develop policies when there are none, aimed at minimising the potential for discrimination • Stock materials for post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) 9. Behaviour communication change and information education communication 10. HIV/AIDS in the workplace 8. Education 405 Annex 2 HIV/AIDS and Conflict/Displaced Persons Assessment and Planning Tool Framework

July 6, 2005 1) Background d) HIV/AIDS Coordinating Committee at camp/ site level (including key members/groups of a) Refugee situation community as well as representatives from b) HIV situation in country or origin and host host surrounding communities) country (use UNAIDS/WHO country epidemiological fact sheets (http://www.who. 7) Prevention int/GlobalAtlas/PDFFactory/HIV/index.asp); a) Safe blood supply. use sentinel sites nearest to areas where b) Universal precautions. refugees left in country of origin and live in c) Condom promotion and distribution. host country; should add map (see figure d) Behavioural change and communication below) i) Development of educational/ awareness materials in appropriate languages c) HIV situation in refugee context ii) Programmes for in-school and out-of-school 2) Funding youth a) Does host country have access to MAP, iii) Peer education GFATM, PEPFAR or other sources of funds? iv) Youth centres b) Do refugees benefit from them and how can v) Sports/ drama groups they? vi) Programmes aimed at reducing teen pregnancy and combating sexual violence. 3) Policy e) Integration with local surrounding host com- a) Existing National AIDS Control Policy, Guide- munities lines and Manuals. f) Uniformed services b) Displaced persons specifically targeted as a g) Voluntary counselling and testing.* vulnerable population under National AIDS h) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission. Control Programme Policy. i) Prophylaxis of opportunistic infections. j) Post-exposure prophylaxis. 4) Protection a) No mandatory HIV testing of displaced per- 8) Care, Support and Treatment sons under any circumstances. a) Sexually transmitted infections.* b) No denial of access to asylum procedure, b) Opportunistic infections, including tuberculo- refoulement or denial of right to return on sis. basis of HIV status. c) Tuberculosis c) When required by resettlement countries, d) Food and Nutrition.* HIV testing conducted in accordance with e) Home-based care. established standards (i.e. accompanied f) People living with HIV/AIDS. by pre- and post test counselling and ap- g) Orphans and child-headed households. propriate referral for follow up support and h) Anti-retroviral therapy services). 9) Surveillance, Monitoring and Evaluation d) No laws or regulations prohibiting refugee a) Behavioural surveillance surveys. access to public sector HIV/AIDS pro- b) AIDS clinical case and mortality reporting. grammes in countries of asylum. c) Blood donors. e) Specific programmes in place to combat d) Syphilis among antenatal clinic attendees. stigma and discrimination against people e) Sexually transmitted infections living with HIV/AIDS. (by syndrome). f) Programmes in place to prevent and respond f) Condom distribution. to sexual violence.* g) Opportunistic infections, including incidence 5) Urban vs. Camp/Site refugees: of pulmonary tuberculosis. a) Describe below activities separately for h) HIV sentinel surveillance among pregnant urban compared to camp/site refugees. women and high risk groups such as those attending sexually transmitted infection clin- 6) Coordination and Supervision ics. a) Regular meetings among implementing i) Voluntary counselling and testing. partners in field and in capital. j) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission. b) HIV/AIDS programmes specifically included k) Sexual violence. in planning, implementation, monitoring and l) Post-exposure prophylaxis. evaluation stages of programme cycle. 10) Data c) Regular attendance at meetings of UN a) For each camp/site, at a minimum fill in the Theme Group on HIV/AIDS and associated data requested below (one column is filled in Technical Working Groups at capital level. as an example):

* Activity has both prevention as well as care and treatment components 406 Country Name of Camp/Site Total population 7,331 Mortality Rates (MR) Crude MR (deaths/10,000/day)1 0.28 <5 yrs MR (deaths/10,000/day)2 0.94 Universal precautions sufficient3 needles / syringes Yes sufficient3 gloves Yes blood transfusion screened for HIV Yes STI data No of condoms distributed4 0.3 sufficient3 condoms Yes sufficient3 STI drugs Yes STI syndromic approach Yes

incidence male urethral discharge (new cases/1000 males/month) 73.00 incidence genital ulcer disease (new cases/1000 persons/month) 1.00 % syphilis pregnant women 1st visit ANC SNP VCT Access to VCT No PMTCT Access to PMTCT No # persons pre test counseling NA % PMTCT uptake # 15 NA % PMTCT uptake # 26 NA % HIV prevalence of PMTCT clients NA PEP Do rape survivors have access to PEP Yes HIV and AIDS HIV and Sentinel surveillance among pregnant women SNP 19 Latest HIV or RH BSS/KAPB May 2004

1 baseline in sub-Saharan Africa for non-emergency is 0.5 deaths/10,000/day 2 baseline for sub-Saharan Africa is 1.0 deaths/10,000/day 3 sufficient supply defined as no stock out of >1 week at anytime during the past year 4 goal for emergency phase is 0.5 condoms/person/month and for non-emergency phase is 1.0 condoms/person/month 5 # women who counseled on MTCT an offered voluntary test /# women who had 1st ANC visit =% 6 # women who counseled on MTCT, offered voluntary test during 1st ANC visit and accepted test /# women who had 1st ANC visit, were counseled on MTCT and offered voluntary test =% SNP=service not provided; NR = not reported; RI = reported incorrectly; NA = not applicable

407 Annex 3 Key Emergency Indicators

N. Ref. Indicator Description Standard Disaggregation Ref. Area SIR Food, Nutrition Numbers of condoms ≥ 1 per person per ¨ Sex and Health and 34 distributed per person per month HIV/AIDS month ¨ Age HIV/AIDS Rationale To measure the effectiveness of condom distribution systems Methods of measurement Numerator: Number of condoms distributed per month Denominator: Total population at the end reporting period Data Sources Health and community service partners records Frequency of measurement Monthly Notes - Equivalent to the conventional formula for calculating condom requirements: of the 20% of the population who are sexually active males, 20% use 12 condoms per month, plus 20% wastage and loss. This quantity is provided in the Emergency Reproductive Health Sub-kit No. 1: (condoms)/10,000/ 3 months (UNFPA, The Reproductive Health Kits for Crisis Situations, second edition, 2003). - List of potential outlets should include health facilities, community centers, youth centers, bars, market places, food distribution sites and outreach workers. References - IASC guidelines HIV/AIDS interventions in emergency settings; and Refugees, HIV and AIDS: UNHCR’s Strategic Plan 2005 – 2007. - UNFPA, (2003) The Reproductive Health Kits for Crisis Situations, second edition.

408 N. Ref. Indicator Description Standard Disaggregation Ref. Area SIR Is antiretroviral therapy Social ¨ Sex available in / for hosting integration 17 community / refugees? (indicate in appropriate cell) ¨ Age HIV/AIDS

Rationale Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a life saving and essential intervention. refugees should have equivalent access to HIV interventions as those of surrounding host populations. Methods of measurement Survey Data Sources Implementing or operational partners and Government National AIDS Control Programmes Frequency of measurement Annually Notes - As with all public health interventions, retugees should receive similar services as those available to surrounding host communities while ensuring that minimum essential services are provided. - Low cost refers to a co-payment as opposed to non-subsidised ART. References - IASC (…) Guidelines HIV/AIDS interventions in emergency settings and Refugees. IASC. Geneva. - UNHCR, (2005): UNHCR’s Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS for 2005 – 2007. - UNHCR, (2005) Draft Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Concept Paper for Refugees. - United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Draft 24 August 2005. HIV and AIDS HIV and 19

409 N. Ref. Indicator Description Standard Disaggregation Ref. Area SIR Food, Nutrition Have stocks of condoms ran ¨ Sex and Health and 35 NO out for more than a week? HIV/AIDS ¨ Age HIV/AIDS Rationale This indicator measures distribution of condoms at designated points at any one point in time. It reflects the success of attempts to broaden the distribution of condoms so that they are more widely available to people likely to need them and at locations and times when people are likely to need them. Methods of measurement Yes or No answer Data Sources Health and community service partners records Frequency of measurement Monthly Notes - List of potential outlets should include health facilities, community centers, youth centers, bars, market places, food distribution sites and outreach workers. - Outlet types may be analysed by the populations they seek to serve. This provides an idea of the adequacy of efforts to meet the needs of people with potentially high-risk behaviour, such as young people or those in mobile occupations. - A limitation of the measure is that it provides a “snapshot” of availability at a single point in time. Where distribution is relatively regular, this poses no major problems. However when there are serious disruptions to condom supply at the central level, the repercussions may be felt simultaneously at a large majority of venues. If a survey is carried out at this time, it will appear as though the peripheral distribution system is inadequate whereas in fact the fault lies at the central level. In countries where quarterly retail surveys are undertaken, it may be possible to report an annual average to better reflect consistency of supply. References - IASC guidelines HIV/AIDS interventions in emergency settings; and Refugees, HIV and AIDS: UNHCR’s Strategic Plan 2005 – 2007. - UNFPA, (2003) The Reproductive Health Kits for Crisis Situations, second edition.

410 HIV and AIDS HIV and 19

411 20 Education

412 CONTENTS Paragraph Page Overview

Introduction 1 415

Early Response 7 416

Basic Education 13 417

Secondary and Non Formal Education 20 418

Resources Allocations 22 418

Education Coordination 25 419

Education in returnee and IDP contexts 30 419

Actions 419

Key references 421 Education 20

413 Situation support should be considered as a prior- – Education is a basic human right that ity just as other life saving sectors such as can provide an important support to life- health, shelter or food. saving and life-supporting activities in – Safety and Quality: education activities situations of emergency. should be safe enough to provide effec- – For UNHCR, safeguarding the right to tive protection to refugee children and education is an essential strategy to ensure adolescents, boys and girls. Prevention the protection of children and adolescents and response mechanisms to violence in and to fulfill its commitments towards the school should be established. This will in Education for All framework. turn have an impact on the quality of the learning environment. – Although UNHCR does not have the lead role in providing education in the – Age and gender sensitiveness: education new UN humanitarian reform, it should activities should be age and gender sensi- systematically promote the immediate tive and address the specific needs of chil- provision of safe learning activities for dren and adolescents, boys and girls. They children and adolescents in-line with its should not be limited to children but tar- protection mandate. get adolescents as well, especially as it is when children reach adolescence that they Objectives are generally the most exposed to protec- – Protect children and adolescents from tion risks. In that respect, non-formal edu- exploitation through the immediate pro- cation such as vocational training and life vision of safe and child-friendly spaces skills education should also be included in and the dissemination of life-saving mes- the programming. sages. – Participation: education activities should – Help children addressing their psycho- be designed, planned and monitored with social needs by restoring a sense of nor- the full participation of the community, mality and routine through the immediate including children and adolescents them- provision of semi-structured recreational selves as well as the education authorities. and learning activities. Action should also be systematically coordinated with other UN agencies with an – Foster durable solutions, by promoting education coordination. peace, self-reliance, social and economic development Action – Assess and plan, together with the com- □ Provide immediate, age and gender munity, education gaps, needs, capacities sensitive, recreational and learning and responses in order to establish within activities in safe and child-friendly 6 months after the emergency a formal spaces . school system for basic education (prima- □ Establish education committees/co- ry and lower secondary) as well as plan ordination at the local and national for learning opportunities for adolescents. levels □ Conduct a community-based assess- Principles of response ment of education needs, resources – Access: Children and adolescents should and capacities. have an immediate access to child-friend- □ Develop an education plan that mo- ly spaces, where recreational and learning bilizes the community’s capacities activities as well as psycho-social support to establish basic formal education can be provided. The provision of such and targets non -ormal education for adolescents at risk. 414 Introduction i. To disseminate survival and life skills 1. The right to education for people of messages. Simple messages can be concern has been endorsed by the 1951 spread through educational activities, Convention on the Refugee Status, and on important issues such as health, the 1989 Convention of the Rights of the including reproductive health and Child. In an emergency context, measures HIV/AIDS; sanitation, nutrition, to promote universal primary education, SGBV prevention and gender aware- safe school environment and other non- ness; children rights, landmine safety, formal educational activities will help peace education and environmental protect children and adolescents from education. forced labour, physical and sexual abuses, ii. To foster durable solutions by pro- military recruitment and other forms of moting self-reliance, social and violence. economic development. Education provides the “human and social 2. Establishing an education system is im- capital” needed for reintegration in portant for the well-being of the whole ref- the country of origin or local integra- ugee community, as well as for the social tion in the host country. Appropriate and psychological well-being of children education builds the foundations for and young people. Setting up recreational social cohesion, peace and justice. activities, school systems and other non formal activities, together with the com- 5. Detailed information on planning edu- munity, will give a structure and sense of cation programmes and on standards and normality to a displaced and traumatized indicators for refugee schools is set out in population. Refugees are displaced not the UNHCR’s Education Field Guidelines only from their homes and families but and the Inter-agency Network for Educa- also from their community. Educational tion in Emergencies (INEE) Minimum activities can be the community’s initial Standards for Education in Emergencies focal point, and can create a sense of rou- (MSEE). These guidelines are essential tine if the new community is partly struc- reading for those establishing an educa- tured around familiar institutions such as tion programme in an emergency context. schools. 6. Basic quality education (primary and lower secondary) as well as non formal Education in emergencies is not only a education for older children who cannot basic human right but also an essential be reinserted in formal schooling must be tool of protection.

provided as soon as possible as it can save Education 3. The displaced community which often and protect lives. It should be considered includes teachers and skilled persons usu- as a priority as much as other sectors. 20 ally initiates informal schools, even in an emergency situation, as they recognize the The emergency education programme importance of a school system. Refugee should provide immediate and free access to semi-structured, recreational institutions should support their initiatives and learning activities in safe environ- and continued management, thus enhanc- ments. It should also plan for the es- ing self-esteem and self-reliance. tablishment, within six months after the 4. Other important functions of the educa- emergency - of a basic education system for all refugee children and of learning tion system in an emergency are: opportunities for adolescents.

415 Early response cy context, as defined by the Memoran- 7. In the beginning, the aim is to support dum of Understanding. the community in establishing a simple 10. While structured recreational activities programme of semi-structured recreation- are being set up, a comprehensive educa- al and simple educational activities for tion programme should be planned accord- children and young people. It is essential ing to the results of an initial assessment of for these activities to be delivered in safe needs, gaps, capacities and resources. The and child-friendly spaces where children assessment should be conducted by edu- and adolescents are not exposed to protec- cation committees representing education tion risks and can feel safe. authorities, local and international NGOs, In that respect, it is recommended to cre- refugee children, parents and teachers as- ate separated spaces and activities for sociations, and other UN agencies identi- small children and adolescents and to en- fied to support the development of basic sure codes of conduct are established for education programmes. all education staff. For further guidance 11. The initial assessment of education on safety in learning environments, refer gaps is based on a participatory approach to UNHCR Safe Education Guidelines. and promotes age, gender and diversity 8- Establishing simple educational activi- meanstreaming. The educational needs of ties is possible even with limited educa- children should be broken down by age, tional supplies – simply gathering children gender and diverse background and the and adolescents together for a set period groups at risks, as well as groups with spe- each day and keeping them occupied is a cific needs, should be immediately identi- valuable first step. This can be achieved fied. through mobilization of teachers, adoles- Semi-structured recreational and learn- cents or youth leaders identified from the ing activities should always be delivered refugee population. The activities should in safe environements where children are support the life-saving measures under- not at risks of abuse and exploitation. way in other sectors by including simple 12. Educational responses should be based messages on health, sanitation, risks of on the results of the above assessment and abuse and other relevant topics appropri- developed together with the refugees, ate for the children’s level. Activities and including adolescents and children. Re- messages should be designed and planned sponses should build on existing initia- together with children, adolescents and tives and capacities, mobilize all groups parents. Annex 3 (p 64) provides exam- within the community, and be prioritized ples of recreational and activity materials according to protection objectives and that could be used to support such a pro- risks identified. Resources available and gramme. capacities will include skilled persons, 9. Where possible, it is preferable to pro- with or without teaching experience, fam- cure educational and recreational supplies ily members including adolescents and in the country or immediate region con- elders. Textbooks from the country of cerned. Supplies obtained through local origin should be used as the basis for pre- NGOs may be cheaper, logistics easier paring curricula and teaching materials, and they will benefit the local economy. unless the curriculum of the country of If this is not feasible, both UNICEF and asylum is used. Local capacities can also UNESCO have educational emergency include local NGOs, community struc- kits that can be accessed. UNHCR’s part- tures and government agencies involved nership with these two other organizations in the education sector. The community, should be fully operational in an emergen- 416 through the creation of education com- School locations should be within walk- mittees, should be fully mobilized and ing distance for children. Latrines for involved in the identification of gaps and girls and boys should be separate. The responses. community should be mobilized to help build and maintain safe school buildings, and be organized in comittees representing the interests of teachers, par- Basic education (primary and lower ents and students. secondary) If camps are very large, smaller, decen- 13. Within 6 months after the first major tralized schools are generally preferable displacement, the initial non-formal edu- to large schools to avoid children being cational and recreational activities should at risks on their way to school. The like- be developed into a single, unified pri- lihood that additional classrooms may be mary school system, based preferably on needed at a later stage should likewise be the curriculum of the country of origin. borne in mind at the time of site selection Where the school system in the country and demarcation. of asylum is similar to that of the country or area of origin and refugee numbers Curriculum and learning materials are limited, resources may be provided to 15. The curriculum should preferably be local schools to enable them to accom- based on that of the country or area of ori- modate refugee students, provided this is gin, to facilitate reintegration upon repatri- cost-effective. Decisions should be taken ation providing that both the refugees and with the participation of both the refugees the authorities agree on this principle. The and the authorities representing the Minis- curriculum should be enriched with life try of Education. skills and values on HIV/AIDS, children and women rights and land mine sensiti- The provision of education to the refu- zation, reproductive health and/or SGBV gee community may be perceived by the host community as a privilege that their prevention modules. School hours should children do not enjoy. If the government be defined in consultation with teachers, is in agreement and there is a common parents and children and adapted to family language of instruction, it is usually ap- and work constraints, especially where the propriate to open the schools to the local girls have to fetch water and firewood for population or reinforce existing schools. their family or do home chores. Some assistance may therefore be pro-

vided to national schools located very 16. Educational materials described in Education close to refugee sites. Annex 4 can be used to establish a basic education programme. The materials 20 School structures and locations in this list would meet the initial needs 14. In order to open schools as early as of 1,000 refugees, and include sufficient possible, temporary shelters may be con- writing materials for two classrooms of structed in safe locations using plastic students in the earliest stages of primary sheeting or semi-durable materials. The school, plus one classroom for students location of schools, latrines and recrea- who have completed 2 or 3 years or more tional spaces should be defined with the of primary schooling. If each classroom is participation of all refugees, including used initially for separate morning and af- children and adolescents, with due con- ternoon shifts, then a total of 240 students sideration for security issues. can be catered for. Typically there would be two or more writing materials kits (of

417 the type specified in Annex 4) per school, with specific needs (disabled, ex-child according to the number of classrooms on soldiers, etc). The activities should be de- each site. fined on a participatory basis and built on the existing capacities and resources in Recruitment of teachers and classroom the education sector, both within the refu- assistants gee camp and the hosting area. Vocational 17. It should be made clear to the initial training offered should be relevant to the volunteer teachers that selection tests will job market to ensure that the adolescents be held as soon as is practicable. The re- and young people can secure employment cruitment of female teachers and female and where appropriate the necessary tools classroom assistants should be encouraged should be provided. to enhance protection of girls from sexual 21- However, all efforts should be made harrassment by male pupils and teachers. to reinsert the adolescent girls and boys Once selected, all teachers should sign a into formal schooling. Access to second- code of conduct that explicitly prohibits ary education should be facilitated and them from abusing children. The code of supported with the participation of inter- conduct should be defined by teachers, national NGOs, the refugees and the rel- parents and students themselves in close evant authorities of both the hosting area collaboration with the relevant authori- and the country of origin. ties, and they should be publicized in each classroom through child-friendly mes- Allocation of resources sages. 22-. Budget allocations should prioritize 18- Teachers should receive adequate sup- activities that will reinforce the safety port and compensation as well as train- and the quality of learning environments ings on children and women’s rights, psy- as compared to school infrastructures cho-social support and codes of conduct. as such. It is preferable to have schools Training needs and opportunities should in semi-durable materials so as to have be defined at an early stage together with enough resources left for the reproduction teachers, community structures and gov- of school didactic materials, school mate- ernment agencies. rials, teacher’s trainings, and school-based 19- Community-based prevention and re- sensitization on children and women’s sponse mechanism to violence in schools, rights, forced recruitement, or SGBV. including SGBV, peer to peer violence 23- Initial budgets should provide for the and corporal punishment, should be es- printing or photocopying of codes of con- tablished together with teachers, students duct as well as classroom materials for pu- and parents in order to ensure learning en- pils and teachers, based on core elements vironments are safe. For further guidance, of the country of origin curriculum, where refer to UNHCR applicable, as well as for the initial purchase of school and recreational supplies. Secondary and Non-formal education Budgetary provision may also be necessary for the translation and reproduction 20. Non-formal educational activities, of materials supporting health, SGBV pre- such as literacy and numeracy classes, life vention, environment, peace education, skills education or vocational training, children rights and other messages. should be structured for groups who cannot be integrated into formal education. 24- Resources should also be mobilized to This includes secondary students where offer non-formal educational opportunites higher secondary is not available, out of to adolescents, young adults or groups school adolescents, young adults or groups with specific needs. When funds are lim- 418 ited UNICEF should be fully involved in aise with local and national education au- the provision of materials, school kits, and thorities, UN agencies and partners in or- teacher training and a joint plan of action der to coordinate education programmes with key stakeholders should be defined early in the response, as well as to conduct as soon as possible and presented to do- joint assessments and share information. nors. 29. UNHCR and other agencies should Education coordination actively collaborate with the Education Ministry of the country of origin and that 25. Education committees are in charge of asylum. Initially, efforts should be made of assessing education gaps and identify- to obtain school textbooks and teachers’ ing responses or are empowered to do so. guides. Thereafter education committees Education authorities should take the lead should be convened and meetings on edu- in establishing education committees with cation participated in, in order to discuss equal representation of men, women, girls curriculum, teachers’training, recognition and boys and coordinating the education of diplomas, accreditation of the grades emergency response. However, when the obtained including access to local schools authorities are not operational, an inter- and vocational training centers. agency cooordination committeee will provide guidance and coordinate educa- Education in returnee and tion activities while efforts are made to IDP context build the capacities of the authorities. 30. In returnee and internally displaced 26. The Inter-Agency Network for Edu- persons (IDP) situations, a community- cation in Emergencies (INEE), consist- based approach should be systematically ing of UN Agencies and NGOs, provides adopted. Assistance should not target in- updated technical knowledge and ensures dividuals (ie. registered returnees or IDPs cooperation at a global level to improve alone) but benefit the community as a the quality of education in emergencies. whole in order to avoid conflicts and stigmatization. Education programmes should 27. Although UNHCR may not take the target schools or vocational training cent- lead role in providing education in an ers located in areas of return or displace- emergency, it should always retain a mon- ment, and include targetted actions to itoring and advocacy role. This is impor- improve the quality of the education envi- tant to ensure that all refugee children ronment. Punctual and financial support to and adolescent girls and boys have access returnees or IDPs alone should be limited Education to safe learning environments in emergen-

to the neediest families. 20 cies, as education is part of UNHCR’s protection mandate. Action In the education sector, UNHCR has □ Arrange separate recreational and agreements in place for emergency staff learning activities in safe environ- deployments. These secondments can be deployed within the first emergency ments for children and adolescents in response team or within the first weeks order to restore a sense of normality of the initial response. as soon as possible. • Consult UNHCR Headquarters and 28. The staff deployed will be responsible the local UNICEF office regarding for promoting and supporting the estab- availability of educational and recrea- lishment of education committees and or- tional materials and provide adequate ganized early-stage recreational activities materials to support community on a participatory basis. He or she will li- initiatives (see Annexes 3 and 4). 419 • Make sure children and adolescents □ The education plan should focus on are consulted when defining the ac- the safety of learning environe- tivities and arrange the timing around ments and the quality of educa- other household and family duties to tion, gender parity and should also ensure maximum participation. include: • accurate statistics on children who □ Establish education committees to were and were not in schools before include refugee teachers, parents and flight, disaggregated by age, gender children girls and boys, local educa- and grades; tion authorities, relevant UN agen- • identification of safe school sites cies, and the implementing partner together with refugee children and at appropriate levels (district and/or adolescents and the UNHCR multinational). functional team; • definition of school hours adapted to □ Send a request to UNHCR head- household and work constraints; quarters for the deployment of an • a defined curriculum enriched with Education Officer when necessary. specific modules on health, SGBV, children rights, violence prevention, □ The education committee must con- landmines and/or HIV/Aids; duct a comprehensive assessment • the number of didactic materials and of education gaps, resources and text books needed; capacities based on the results of the • teachers recruitment procedures, participatory evaluation. Make sure codes of conduct and supervision that the specific needs of children mechanism; at risk, including teenage moth- • an identification of needs, resources ers, former child soldiers, disabled and partners for the provision of children and other groups at risk are teachers training on codes of con- taken into account and that they par- duct, children and women’s rights ticipate in the definition of activities. and pyscho-social support, including for female teachers who should be □ Based on the findings of the assess- trained in priority; ment, the education committee devel- • the establishment of community- ops an Education action plan that based mechanisms to prevent and meets the requirements of the differ- respond to violence in school settings ent identified age groups and back- including SGBV reporting mecha- grounds of the boys and girls. Ensure nisms the education plan involves mobiliz- • identifying relevant, non-formal, ing the community’s capacities to educational activities to address the establish both formal and non-formal needs of adolescents at risks and/or education activities and to secure safe with specific needs. access to quality education for girls and boys.

420 □ Identify an implementing partner who Key references: will work together with the education – UNHCR Education Field Guidelines , committee to establish a monitor- Geneva, 2003 ing and reporting mechanism on the safety and quality of learning – Minimum Standards for Education in environements. Indicators should Emergencies, Chronic Crises and Early be identified to monitor the impact Reconstruction, Inter-Agency Network on of the educational response on boys Education in Emergencies, Paris, 2004. and girls, adolescents and groups at – Emergency Field Handbook, UNICEF, risk and/or with specific needs. A list New York, 2005. of indicators is provided in the INEE – Action for the Rights of Children – Mod- Minimum Standards for Education in ule on Education. Emergencies p 25 (see reference below) as well as in UNHCR Standards – UNHCR Safe Education Guidelines, and Indicators. 2007 – UNHCR Education Strategy 2007-2009 □ Education programmes should be monitored and evaluated regularly through a participatory approach to identify potential gaps and protection risks. Adjustments should immediately be sought to address the root cause(s) of the identified protection risks rather than the symptoms. Education 20

421 21 Supplies management and transport

422 CONTENTS Paragraph Page Overview

Introduction 1-3 424 Organization of the supply chain 4-9 425-427 Assessment 4 425 Planning 6 425 Local and other resources 7 426 Setting up the supply chain 8 427

Supplies 10-32 427-430 Introduction 10 427 Local and international procurement 15 428 Emergency stockpiles 24 429 Specifications and catalogues 27 429 Considerations in product choice 29 429

Transport 33-51 430-432 International transport 33 430 National transport 36 430 Transport capacities 44 431 Transporting people by road 48 432

Reception of goods 52-62 432-435 Consignment 52 432

Clearance procedures 54 434 Inspection and damage 60 434 Insurance 62 435

Storage 63-74 435-436 Basic requirements 63 435 Considerations in warehouse selection

69 436 Supplies management and transport Warehouse construction 74 436 21 Stock management 75-82 437

Key references 438

Figures Figure 1: Main components of a logistics system 426

Annexes Annex 1: Standard specifications for certain common relief items 439 Annex 2: Planning vehicle needs 441 Annex 3: Stock management systems 444 Annex 4: Stock management forms 447 423 Situation Action Refugee emergencies are often in loca- • Make a comprehensive plan for all tions far from the main sources of supply supply chain functions. Integrate sup- and communications. Exceptional efforts ply chain arrangements in the overall (without which an operation may fail) planning from the start, coordinate may be needed to ensure the provision of with all sectors, and take into account supplies and services. However without any special requirements. these, the whole operation will fail. • Identify weak elements in the supply chain and inform operational manag- Objective ers of actions rendered critical due The timely delivery of the materials need- to lead time (the delay between the ed for the refugee operation. request for material and its arrival). • Seek out knowledge on local condi- Principles of response tions and assess implementing pos- • There should be a single, unified sibilities with local suppliers, or other “supply chain” with standardized pro- agencies. cedures and coordinated with exter- Introduction nal agencies such as WFP. The term “supply chain” includes the sourcing, 1. The vital role of the supply chain must procurement, transport, import, man- not be overlooked in the initial planning, agement, storage and distribution of and the input of a logistics specialist is goods and services required to meet required on any assessment mission. The operational needs. more remote the location of the displaced, • Duplication of supply chain support the more difficult will be the logisti- within the UNHCR operation must be cal problems, yet these are the situations avoided. where logistic support or the lack of it be- • A single coordinating body of all the comes the key to success or failure. relevant UN agencies may be required to implement certain aspects The ability to deliver the right supplies to of the supply chain such as transpor- the right place at the right time and in the tation and storage (e.g. a “UN Joint right quantities is a prerequisite for an Logistics Cell”);. effective emergency operation. • Request urgently needed supplies 2. The supply chain must provide for in- from the UNHCR Central Emergency ternational purchase, transport, swift un- Stockpile if they are not available lo- loading and duty-free clearance on arrival, cally for immediate delivery. local purchase, transit storage, onward • Ensure there is good communica- transportation, and final distribution, with tion between offices involved in the proper stock control at every stage. Fig- supply chain and timely information ure 1 shows the likely major components exchange regarding logistical capaci- of the system in diagrammatic form. ties and constraints. 3. Logistical support can be disrupted • Transport and storage arrangements by unpredictable events and many factors must have spare capacity: things outside UNHCR’s control including cus- often do not go according to plan, toms delays, breakdowns, looting, and the needs, and the demand for supplies, vagaries of nature. Furthermore, the num- may increase. bers requiring assistance often increase • Seek technical assistance when neces- during the emergency phase of an opera- sary. tion.

424 quickly adapt to rapid changes in cir- The supply chain must provide for spare capacity because available capacity may cumstances. Plan for the worst case become quickly overwhelmed. scenario, and build in the required flexibility and adaptability. Organization of the supply chain iii. Security: The security of personnel • A single coordinated operation is and relief goods must be a priority in essential and duplication of supply the logistics plan. Security risks vary chain services must be avoided. from theft and looting to war. • This requires a clear understanding of iv. Coordination: Coordinate plan- overall needs and the responsibilities ning and implementation with other for meeting them. agencies, in particular WFP who • Three key qualities of a good supply often have good local transport and chain are: rapidity, flexibility and logistical capacity. WFP is normally security. responsible for food supplies up to the agreed Extended Delivery Point Assessment – see chapter on food and nutrition. 4. A clear understanding of the overall v. Avoid duplication of logistical servic- needs by all concerned is essential. Needs es by different organizations and ensure assessment and planning should be car- a single, coordinated operation. ried out together with government, WFP and NGO partners. vi. A single coordinating body of all the relevant agencies may be required to 5. An easily understood and comprehen- implement certain aspects of the sup- sive list of requirements is essential as the ply chain such as transportation and starting point for meeting the basic mate- storage (a “UN Joint Logistics Cell”) rial needs. Without it, great confusion can – guidance on setting this up is given result. With such a starting point, the bal- in UN Joint Logistics Cell: Stand- ance of needs, requirements and distribu- ard Operating Procedures. Ensure tion can be continuously monitored, and effective coordination by: advising the effect of these relief goods or services team members and staff from other will be immediately apparent. organizations of minimal lead times, respecting deadlines and delivering Planning the expected supplies at the time and 6. Three key qualities of a good supply place agreed and keeping to agreed chain are: rapidity, flexibility and security. loading and transport schedules. These three qualities depend on good co- vii. Comprehensive planning: Have an Supplies management and transport ordination and communications as well as overview of the whole operation good planning. When planning for and when planning for and managing 21 developing the supply chain, ensure: services, materials, staff and time. i. Rapidity: Response time is criti- viii. Spare capacity: The logistics plan cally important in emergencies, and must provide spare capacity, taking advance planning is essential to into account factors which would optimize resources, and not waste cause delays (such as vehicle break- time correcting avoidable mistakes downs). or inefficiencies. Planning must take ix. Cost-effectiveness: Ensure proper into account lead times. maintenance of warehouses, effi- ii. Flexibility: Logistics are dictated cient stock control, and well negoti- by the circumstances of the opera- ated contracts (e.g. for transport, tion and terrain, and must be able to warehouses, customs clearance, and 425 maintenance). Ensure purchases are There must be good communications fa- made from competitive sources in cilities at dispatch and arrival points as accordance with UNHCR regula- well as mobile communications sets on tions – although initial purchases may surface transport. be made with speed as a foremost concern, plan follow-on supplies in xi. Clear responsibility: good time to be able to purchase from Whatever the arrangements in the field, competitive sources. the line of responsibility and reporting to x. Good communication: A regular UNHCR by the operational partners must exchange of information between the be clear. offices involved in the supply chain The major decisions about supply chain is essential. Headquarters should issues should be taken by the same person give the Field as much notice as with the appropriate responsibility and au- possible of procurement and ship- thority. ment of goods or services, estimated times of arrival (ETA), changes in Local and other resources delivery schedules, and of contribu- 7. The supply chain should use local re- tions in-kind. The field should advise sources and knowledge as far as possible. Headquarters of any changes to im- Where there is a good existing warehous- portation laws, acknowledge receipt ing and distribution system, outside assist- and distribution of consignments, ance may not be necessary. Where outside and advise Headquarters of contribu- assistance is required, sources include: tions in-kind. It is equally important for the field to make all necessary i. Supply Management Service (SMS) preparations to receive relief supplies at Headquarters (which handles and deliver to the beneficiaries at the procurement of goods and services, earliest possible time. logistics, fleet management, and asset management;

426 ii. government disaster agencies or filing system, and use standard forms emergency corps, and Government to report on the status of relief goods. Service Packages from donor govern- Advise and train personnel on proce- ments (see chapter on implementing dures. arrangements); and Supplies iii. an NGO or commercial firm with appropriate experience. • Assess what is readily available on the local market: if locally available Setting up the supply chain items are appropriate, make at least 8. The circumstances of each emergency initial purchases locally; will determine what type of supply chain • The basis for UNHCR procurement is support is required – whether it is directly competitive tendering; implemented by UNHCR, through an op- • Standard specifications have been erational partner or as a commercial con- developed for common items; tract. • Certain emergency relief items are 9. Steps to establish the supply chain in- stockpiled centrally by UNHCR and clude the following: can be accessed quickly in an emergency. i. Make arrangements for the duty- free import/export of relief goods, Introduction and duty-free and tax free purchase 10. The basis for all UNHCR procure- of relief goods with the appropriate ment is competitive tendering. This proc- governmental authorities. To avoid ess is made easier and more efficient by delays, this must be done before the standard specifications. goods are due to arrive. 11. Headquarters’ Supply Management ii. Investigate the possibility of using lo- Service gives advice and provides support cal suppliers, establish vendor roster. on all procurement and logistics matters iii. Select warehouses appropriate for and is responsible for international pro- their purpose (for storing food or curement. Guidance on local purchase can non-food items; for trans-shipment, also be sought from other UN organiza- storage or distribution). Ensure that tions. Tendering procedures are described access roads and doors allow easy in Annex 2 to chapter 8 on implementing loading and offloading. arrangements. iv. Select appropriate transport for goods and/or passengers: determine the type 12. When drawing up tender documents and purchase orders it is essential that all and the number of light and heavy Supplies management and transport specifications, quantity, required delivery, vehicles, vessels, aircraft and trains needed. Calculate fuel and mainte- packaging and payment terms be clearly 21 nance requirements (tyres, lubricants, stated. Care must be taken to ensure that parts and mechanics). contract terms protect the rights and immunities of UNHCR. Requests for tenders v. Use temporary assistance during peak should in any event include UNHCR’s demand for staff. standard terms and conditions. Advance vi. Provide the necessary staff support payments and cash transfers to suppliers equipment such as office equipment must be authorized by Headquarters. and supplies, light and water, vehicles, freight handling items, power, 13. If procurement is to be undertaken communications, and accommoda- by implementing partners on behalf of tion. UNHCR, the principles of competitive vii. Put in place a documentation and bidding must be followed (detailed in- 427 formation is also available in Supply 18. As a rule, no more than 15% would be Management Handbook, Chapter 8 of an acceptable premium for prices of local- UNHCR Manual). UNHCR staff should ly procured goods over the total delivered monitor local and international procure- cost of internationally procured goods. ment made by implementing partners for the UNHCR-funded programmes. Local procurement 14. Care should be taken to avoid pur- 19. When the capacity of the local market chasing different qualities of the same is limited, care must be taken to avoid price items. increases caused by organizations bidding against each other for the same supplies. Local and international procurement Provided there is clear agreement on the needs, coordination of purchases and even 15. If emergency relief items are avail- combined orders among the organizations able locally, compare prices where pos- concerned should be possible. sible with the international market. Use catalogues or send local prices to the Sup- International procurement ply Management Service in Headquarters who will advise on the most appropriate 20. UNHCR has entered into a number course of action. Assess what is readily of Frame Agreements for a range of prod- available on the local market: if locally ucts. The purpose of these agreements is available items are appropriate, make at to ensure the availability of goods of an least initial purchases locally. At the same agreed quality at competitive prices, and time however, consider the cost-effective- reduce total lead time. These items in- ness of continuing such local purchases clude blankets, plastic sheeting, essential beyond the initial phase of the emergency, drugs, kitchen sets, semi-collapsible jerry compared with making those purchases cans, and buckets. Support and office internationally. items supplied under frame agreements include light vehicles, vehicle tires and 16. Local procurement can offer a number tubes, generators, ballistic armour, com- of advantages over international purchas- puter and telecommunications equipment, es. These could include: and some office equipment and supplies. i. lower prices; Lightweight emergency tents were added ii. speed and flexibility of delivery; to the Frame Agreements as well as to the Central Emergency Stockpile. iii. local acceptance; and iv. benefits and incentives to the local 21. The UNHCR Catalogue of Most Fre- economy (particularly in areas af- quently Purchased Items gives summary fected by a large refugee influx). specifications, reference number, price 17. However, the disadvantages of local (US$), country of origin, and, where rel- purchase could include: evant, production capacity, production lead times and estimated shipping times. i. higher prices; It also includes a list of current Frame ii. inappropriate quality; Agreements. iii. sudden price increases (due to sudden 22. When requesting Headquarters to heavy demand) on the local market, make a purchase, be sure to use both the adversely affecting the local consum- reference number for a product, and the er population and causing resentment; name and date of publication of the cata- and logue. If specifications are not available iv. higher maintenance costs. for the product wanted, inform the Supply Management Service of the purpose of the

428 product and the context in which it will This is a two volume electronic cata- be used. logue published by the Inter-Agency Procurement Services Office (IAP- 23. Bear in mind lead times for interna- SO) of the United Nations (www. tional purchase can be lengthy. iapso.org). A large number of stand- Emergency stockpiles ard specifications adopted by UN are available in this catalogue, and there are additional IAPSO catalogues on 24. Certain common relief items are other items (see key references). stockpiled centrally by UNHCR, or by suppliers on behalf of UNHCR, and can iii. UNICEF Supply Catalogue. be accessed quickly in an emergency. UNICEF also produces a large illustrated catalogue (www.unicef. The UNHCR stockpile includes the op- org/supply/index_26071.html). erations support items listed in the Cata- logue of Emergency Response Resources. Considerations in product choice These items can be ordered through Head- Environment quarters. 29. UNHCR has a policy, also applicable 25. Other UNHCR operations in the rein emergency situations, to ensure aware- gion may hold stocks that could be made ness and supply of environmentally friend- available – these offices should be ap- lier products. Impact on the environment proached directly about the most urgent is considered an integral part of product requirements. quality. Where two or more suppliers are offering items which are substantially the 26. UNICEF, WHO, WFP, the IFRCS and same in terms of specifications, price, qual- NGOs also maintain emergency stockpiles ity, and delivery time, the policy is to give with supplies which may be available to preference to the product whose manu- UNHCR. facture, use and disposal is less harmful to the environment. For further details see Specifications and catalogues Environmentally Friendlier Procurement 27. There are a number of catalogues of Guidelines, UNHCR, 1997. products with detailed specifications. Us- ing standard specifications (and Frame Shelter Agreements) is not intended to limit 30. For shelter, local materials and meth- choice, but simplifies supply, and ensures ods of construction should be used where better integration of equipment, spare possible, combined with tarpaulins or parts and services. Generic specifications polythene sheeting if necessary. Except Supplies management and transport also make the procurement and tender- for nomadic tribes, tents are not a satisfac- ing process fairer (e.g. comparing prices). tory type of long-term shelter. They are, 21 Annex 1 gives detailed specifications of however, a valuable last resort in emer- certain common relief items. gencies. Remember that tents may dete- 28. Catalogues of specifications include: riorate rapidly if stored for any length of time, particularly if humidity is high. For i. UNHCR Catalogue of Most Fre- the above reason, UNHCR has developed quently Purchased Items. This is a lightweight emergency tent which can published annually by UNHCR’s be stored for a longer period than the cot- Supply Management Service, and ton-canvas tents. The specifications of the available on Intranet. It gives brief lightweight tent is available with SMS and specifications, price, and lead times. on the intranet. ii. IAPSO Emergency Relief Items.

429 In-kind donations International transport 31. In-kind donations should always be 33. Arrangements must be made in ad- evaluated against actual needs and cultur- vance with the relevant authorities for pri- al appropriateness. All offers for in-kind ority clearance and duties exemptions. donations should be discussed with Donor Relations Services and the Supply Man- Air agement Service in Headquarters before 34. In the emergency phase, supplies from being accepted (see Supply Management abroad may arrive by air. Provide Sup- Handbook, chapter 8 of UNHCR Manu- ply Management Service at Headquarters al). Particular attention should be given to with an update on the handling capacity packaging (which must meet transport re- of the airport (state of equipment, work- quirements) and expiry dates of products ing hours, etc.) and the list of documents offered. required for import and export of relief supplies. Clothing 32. Used clothing is often offered in Sea emergencies but is generally an unsatis- 35. As soon as details of the arrival of re- factory way of meeting a need for cloth- lief supplies by sea are known, arrange- ing and should be discouraged. It often ments should be made for clearance and arrives in poor shape, dirty or badly sorted priority allocation of an alongside berth and will frequently be inappropriate for and/or handling of cargo. In principle, the customs of the refugees. Consider the relief supplies should be loaded only on alternative of purchasing particularly lo- vessels with the capacity for self-dis- cally made clothes, and ensure that what charge. Whenever discharging alongside, is provided is culturally acceptable. they should do so directly onto trucks if possible. Arrangements for onward movement of the supplies and any interim stor- Transport age necessary must also be made well in advance of the estimated time of arrival  Vehicle fleets should be standardized of the ship. (same makes and models).  Ensure there are sufficiently trained National transport drivers, fuel, lubricants, spare parts, Transport networks tyres, maintenance personnel and 36. In many countries, existing transport facilities. services do not have a large spare capacity  It may be necessary to improve ac- or may not serve the area where the refu- cess roads, bridges, airport, or other gees are located. infrastructure. 37. Where a suitable rail network exists,  A substantial margin of spare trans- this can be an effective way of moving port capacity (10-20%) must be supplies. However, many railway systems provided. are either congested or short of rolling  With health and community services, stock (the locomotives and carriages used assess particular requirements for by railways) and long delays may be en- transporting refugees in a repatria- countered. In most cases, onward move- tion operation, and/or distribution for ment by road to the final destination will vulnerable groups. be necessary. 38. Assess rail, road and inland waterway capacity, journey times, reputable trans- 430 port contractors, freight rates, capacities 42. In some situations, urgent action and facilities at trans-shipment points (for may be necessary in order to improve ac- example transferring goods from ferry or cess roads. Technical advice will be of rail to road), and availability of fuel sup- paramount importance in deciding how plies and maintenance facilities. Explore improvements should be made (seek ad- if other humanitarian agencies have spare vice through Technical Support Section transport capacities. at Headquarters). These improvements could be undertaken by the ministry of Evaluate various transport corridors transport (or appropriate authority), per- (including reception capacity) for cost haps supported by refugee labour. In and speed of delivery – even airlifts may some situations, careful briefing will be not always significantly reduce delivery time. required about alternative routes in case usual roads are impassable. Road transport 43. Vehicles, bicycles, or animal or hand 39. Light vehicles will be needed for staff carts could be used for final distribution. and for specific purposes such as ambu- Observe how local movement of supplies lances, and heavy vehicles for transport- normally takes place. ing cargo, and for transporting refugees in repatriation operations. Transport capacities 40. There must be appropriate servicing 44. If a commodity is to be transported by facilities, including fuel, spare parts, and truck, the number of trucks needed should administrative support. Special arrange- be calculated from the following informa- ments, e.g. establishing workshops, may tion: be necessary. i. The quantity of goods to be transported in weight and volume. Managing a transport fleet requires ii. The type of commodity to be trans- strong administrative skills, good communications and close coordination with ported, such as fragile goods (special the procurement and other functions to handling) and temperature sensitive

ensure efficient timing for collection and (special cooling system). delivery. iii. Type of truck available and its capacity in payload and volume. Assessing and planning vehicle needs and servicing facilities is described in Annex iv. How long a round trip takes (includ- 2. ing loading and offloading). v. Time allowed for routine maintenance 41. Drivers must be given training in capacity or time allowed for other Supplies management and transport UNHCR procedures. A sufficient number

known factors (driver breaks). 21 of drivers must be hired to ensure that vi. A margin for unpredictable events recommended working hours are not ex- (such as breakdowns, accidents, bad ceeded. weather, road and bridge repairs). Accident rates increase markedly with The size of this margin will depend tired drivers. on many factors including the likelihood of new arrivals and the need A system must be established to monitor to build up buffer stocks near the and control vehicle use, (see Annex 4 for refugees. In difficult conditions, the an example of a vehicle log sheet). For theoretical capacity might need to be light vehicles, drivers should be assigned increased by 25% or more. to a specific vehicle for which they should be responsible. 431 45. To give an example for food: contagious disease, disinfect the vehicles after the journey. i. The number of refugees served is 30,000 who need 500 g/person/day, 50. Determine the number of light and which is total 15,000 kg /day, or 15 heavy vehicles needed. These could in- MT /day. clude minibuses for 8-12 passengers to ii. Truck capacity is 20 MT per truck. transport staff and vulnerable individu- iii. The rainy season journey time from als, ambulances or mobile clinics (ask the port of entry to a regional ware- health staff about specifications), vehicles house serving the 30,000 refugees is for transporting possessions, and mobile 3 days out and 2 days back. workshops. iv. One day per round trip is added for 51. If a convoy is necessary, plan for es- routine maintenance. cort vehicles at the front and back of the v. The road surface can take a truck and convoy. If the operation involves many trailer with a combined payload of 20 journeys over a short distance, consider MT. having roving patrols with telecommu- 46. Therefore it will take 6 days for one nications, in case there are problems or truck to transport one 20 MT load, and breakdowns. For further details, see Sup- 30,000 refugees will require 90 MT of ply Management Handbook, section on food every six days. Therefore the theo- moving people. retically required capacity is for 4.5 such trucks. In such circumstances, it is clear that six trucks would be the prudent mini- Reception of goods mum.  Have a single consignee and address 47. Appendix 1 (Toolbox) sets out the ca- and inform Headquarters of any pacities of different means of transport. changes.  Use the internationally accepted Transporting people by road marking and packaging standards. 48. Logistical support will be necessary  Inspect goods on arrival and register when transporting people for e.g. repa- insurance claims: supplies can get triation operations or relocating refugees lost or arrive damaged. to another site . Ensure there is close co-  Advance arrangements with appro- ordination with health and community priate government authorities and services. Take particular care to look af- freight forwarders will be necessary ter vulnerable individuals, and minimize for rapid handling of supplies from any risk of family separation. Passengers abroad. must be registered on a passenger mani-  Develop and promulgate a clear fest, wristbands should be used whenever policy for customs clearance proce- possible, and water and food provided if it dures for NGOs. is a long journey. Ensure trucks have safe access (for example ladders). Consignment 49. When transporting medically vulner- 52. Ensure offices sending supplies know able individuals such as pregnant women, who the consignee is. The consignee it is preferable to use buses or ambu- would normally be the Representative, lances. If trucks must be used, weigh the with an indication in brackets of any spe- trucks down with sand bags to minimize cial instructions, for example “For (name the roughness of the transport. If there is of project/NGO)”. a risk that some passengers might have a

432 warehousing and in the ultimate Have the same consignee and address for all items required from abroad for the distribution at the receiving end. The UNHCR emergency operation. colour code recommended loses its value if, for example, medical sup- However, where UNHCR was not previ- plies are packed in the same container ously present it may be better to consign as food; c/o a UN organization already well known iv. Size and weight: Packing units in the country, for example United Na- should be of a size and weight that tions Development Programme (UNDP), one person can handle (ideally, 25 provided no delays will result. Similarly, kg; up to a maximum of 50 kg) since there should be a single consignee and ad- mechanical loading and unloading dress at the camp level. equipment may not be available at the 53. Whether purchases are made local- receiving end. ly or abroad, proper packing, labelling, Advance notice should be sent to the con- marking are essential. All organizations signee. The following information (pref- and donors need to use a uniform system erably in one document) is essential, for for marking or labelling relief consign- safe transport and ease of handling at the ments – use the following guidelines: receiving end: i. Colour code: The colours used i. name of sender (or “shipper”) – nor- for the relief supplies are: red for mally the Supply Management Serv- foodstuffs, blue for clothing and ice in Headquarters; household equipment, and green for ii. name of consignee; medical supplies and equipment; iii. method of transport, the name of the vessel or the number of the flight or ii. Labelling: If necessary the consign- truck, estimated time of arrival, port ment should bear one of the interna- or airport of departure, and name of tional hazard warning signs (fragile, transporter (e.g. aircraft of shipping no hooks, keep dry, etc.). Consign- company);

ments of medicines should state on iv. a detailed list of contents, including the outside of the package the content weight, dimensions, and number and and the medicines’ expiration date type of packing units; and whatever temperature controls v. a pro-forma invoice or gift certificate are necessary. English or French showing the value of the consign- should be used on all labels and ment;

stencilled markings, though another vi. if the consignment is insured then the Supplies management and transport language may be added. It is essen- type of insurance, name of company, 21 tial that the final destination (or port etc.; of entry) appears at the bottom of the vii. the clearing agent, including the name label in very large letters; of the person to be contacted in the iii. Markings: All internationally or receiving country; and. regionally procured goods will nor- viii. instructions or special requirements mally be marked with the UNHCR for handling and storing the supplies project code, purchase order numbers, commodity, packing specifica- An acknowledgement should be sent to tions, port of entry and the consignee. the sender as quickly as possible after Relief supplies should always be consignments are received, and indicate packed by commodity type. Mixed whether the goods were received in good consignments create problems in order and/or there was any loss or damage. 433 Clearance procedures Implementing partners’ clearance 54. The supplies coming in for the opera- 57. UNHCR can undertake the customs tion may far exceed the scope of the rou- clearance for implementing partners’ re- tine arrangements between the authorities lief supplies, provided these meet the pur- and the local UN community. Problems poses of the emergency operation. This and delays may be avoided by discuss- will allow some control over the arrival of ing in advance the procedures to be fol- clearly unsuitable goods, and help in the lowed by UNHCR with senior officials in coordination of material assistance. the foreign ministry, ministry of finance, 58. Guidelines should make it clear to customs authorities, and airport and port all potential consignors that UNHCR will authorities. The aim is immediate release undertake to clear only supplies for which of incoming supplies. notification is received prior to dispatch Arrangements for clearance procedures and which are considered appropriate. and duties exemptions must be made in The guidelines should be made available advance. to implementing partners active in the operation and to new implementing partners 55. Arrangements will need to be made on arrival. with: i. The Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA) Guidelines on customs clearance for im- and airport authorities for priority plementing partners should be drawn up as early as possible in the operation. clearances for relief flights (whether international or national) and waiver A copy of these guidelines should be of fees. These arrangements include: shared with Headquarters and reference to over-flight clearance; free landing this general procedure made in any NGO rights, air traffic control and park- briefings at Headquarters, as well as in the ing; priority handling of aircraft and first few general sitreps. charges at cost for handling services. ii. The ministry of finance and customs Handling costs and other fees authorities for exemption from duties 59. The expenses incurred in customs and taxes of goods and services (such clearance, handling, storage, and on- as the tax element of landing fees ward movement of supplies belonging to and fuel tax). Ensure the Ministry of UNHCR should be budgeted for. UNHCR Finance (as well as the CAA) have might receive supplies procured by an been advised in advance of planned implementing partner on their behalf, in airlifts for the operation. which case all expenses involved should 56. UNHCR’s cooperation and/or imple- normally be borne by the implementing menting agreement with the government partner, and UNHCR will be the “con- should allow for the duty-free import of signee of convenience” (not the “owner” all items, provided that they are required or “donee”). However, in certain cir- for the operation (see chapter on imple- cumstances and provided the supplies are menting arrangements, and the UNHCR items directly foreseen in the UNHCR Checklist for the Emergency Administra- operation (for example blankets, tents), tor). Special duties exemption and cus- UNHCR may also meet onward transpor- toms clearance procedures may have to be tation costs. developed for the emergency. Inspection and damage 60. All consignments must undergo a visual and quantitative inspection on arrival

434 (by staff) and some deliveries will be re- Basic requirements quired (under government regulations) to 63. Goods must be protected from dam- undergo a qualitative inspection by a gov- age due to bad handling or improper stack- ernment designated inspection company. ing; the adverse climatic effects of the sun, 61. If during the inspection, visible dam- rain, cold or humidity; attacks by pests; age is noted, the damage must be clearly and bacteriological decomposition of both indicated on the shipping documents and food and non-food items over time. a claim lodged against the last transporter 64. Storage facilities may be required within three days of receipt of the goods. for: The claim should indicate the dollar value at which UNHCR holds the transporter i. initial storage near the port of entry; fully responsible for the loss or damage. ii. transit storage at certain key trans- A copy of the claim should be sent to the shipment locations; Supply Management Service in Head- iii. local storage no farther than one day’s quarters who will follow up. The value transport from the refugees; and of the loss or damage must include any iv. storage at camps. associated transport costs. If damage is See Figure 1 for information about loca- not visible and the packaging is undam- tion of storage facilities. aged, transporters will only accept a claim 65. Warehouses must be accessible in all if it is lodged within seven days of receipt seasons and weather – plan well in ad- of the goods. Take photos of the damaged vance of the winter or rainy seasons. Ex- goods before signing for receipt of the isting government warehousing should be shipment. used if it meets operational requirements. Do not accept supplies that do not meet 66. Security of supplies must be ensured. contract specifications. Warehouses must be secure against theft, Headquarters should always be informed and should be lit if possible. Storage for immediately of any damage or shortfalls local purchases should be the responsibility of the supplier whenever possible. or if the products do not meet specifications. Particular attention must be paid to those items requiring special storage. Insurance 67. A single large building is better than 62. Some damage, whether during trans- several small ones, as long as there are port or storage, is inevitable and consid- sufficient loading doors and access ramps. erable sums may be involved in the loss.

The doors must be large enough to allow Supplies management and transport Internationally procured supplies are infor quick loading and offloading and small sured against loss or damage in transit. In- enough to keep control of the entry and al- 21 surance claims must be reported to SMS leyways. for processing. 68. Organize the distribution and stor- Storage age system so that supplies are handled a minimum number of times. This will not  There must be appropriate storage only incur less costs, but also less damage capacity, correctly sited. and loss. Remember the rule “first in first  The requirement for buffer stocks out” for stock management and avoid of- must be properly calculated and floading in the rain. forecasted – do not hoard “just to be prepared”.

435 Considerations in warehouse selection ly estimated as follows. First calculate the 69. Warehouses should be well-con- volume of the goods. As an indication:

structed, dry, well-ventilated, and provide 1 Metric Tonne of Occupies protection from rodents, insects and birds. approximately The floor should be flat and firm and the Grain 2 m3 building should be easy to access, with Medicaments 3 m3 suitable arrangements for loading and un- Blankets 4-5 m3 loading (e.g. a ramp or platform). (approx. 700 heavy blankets per bale) 70. When selecting a warehouse check the following: Blankets (loose) 9 m3 Tents 4-5 m3 □ state of the roof and ventilation; (approx. 25 family tents) □ state of the walls and whether they are water tight; If the goods can be stored to a height of 2 metres, the minimum surface area oc- □ state of the floor, its insulation and cupied by the goods will be half their vol- general water drainage; ume. Increase this surface area by at least □ number of traffic lanes and doors; 20% to allow for access and ventilation. □ availability of handling equipment and labour; 73. For example, the approximate size of □ utilities (water, electricity, toilets, fire a store to hold 2 months’ supply of the ce- protection); real staple for 30,000 refugees receiving an individual cereal ration of 350 g/day □ office space and lodging for drivers would be: and guards; □ special configuration as necessary for 350 g x 30,000 x 60 days = 630 MT 3 example for fuel, construction mate- 1 MT of grain occupies 2 m rial, water reserves; and 3 □ fences, guards, and secure doors and Therefore 630 MT occupies 1,260 m 3 windows. 1,260 m stored to a height of 2 m gives a 2 71. Warehouse capacity required will de- surface area of 630 m , add 20% for access 2 pend on the nature, variety and quantity of = 756 m of floor space. A building some goods supplied, the numbers of refugees 50 m long by 15 m wide would therefore they serve, and what outside support they be indicated. need. Buffer stocks of essential items, particularly food and fuel, should be built Warehouse construction up close to the refugees. 74. If suitable storage facilities do not exist, they may have to be built. Local tech- Sufficient stocks should be on hand to niques, materials and practices are likely cover likely interruptions in the delivery to be the most appropriate in the longer- schedule. As a rule of thumb, this should cover one to three months distribution. term. However, for rapid construction, it may be necessary to use prefabricated Conversely, care should be taken not to (tent) warehouses as a temporary meas- hold unnecessarily large stocks of items ure. These should be carefully sited, that are not immediately required by the protected from surface water by digging refugees, e.g. seasonal items such as heat- ditches if necessary, and with raised plat- ers or blankets. forms inside (for example using pallets, 72. The volume of a warehouse necessary or groundsheets on sand). The contents to store a given commodity may be rough- must not touch the tent walls. Prefabri-

436 cated warehouses are held as part of the have been delivered, those remaining in UNHCR central emergency stockpile. storage, and those which are lost or dam- They are 24 m long x 10 m wide with a aged. 3 capacity of between 750 to 1,100 m . 78. In the emergency phase certain basic Stock management controls should be established at once, in addition to the controls over actual distri-  Effective stock management and bution. These are described in Annex 3. security are imperative and must cover the whole supply chain through 79. The UNHCR Commodity Tracking to the final distribution to families or System (CTS) is a computerized tool for individuals. stock management, which uses informa-  Report on stock levels, movements, tion from purchase orders and shipping losses, damage and distribution using and warehouse documentation (described the UNHCR Commodity Tracking in Annex 3), to track goods from their ar- System (CTS). rival at the port of entry of the country of 75. The stock management system should operation, to the final distribution point. ensure that initial low quantities of goods An additional module (“pipeline manage- can be put to best use and quickly into dis- ment module”), which can be attached to tribution. the CTS, tracks goods from the point of source (globally) to the port of entry. A sound stock management and distri- 80. The stock control and distribution bution system is essential in order to system (including CTS) provides infor- identify potentially critical shortages in time and assure final delivery to the ben- mation to fulfil reporting obligations eficiaries. – ensure the system takes account of reporting needs as specified by Community Levels of relief may not meet total require- Services, Field and Programme Officers. ments of the beneficiaries – the agencies See UNHCR Commodity Distribution, A involved must identify what goods should Practical Guide for Field Staff for further be immediately distributed and to whom. guidance, in particular on setting up a re-

76. The stock management and distribu- porting system for distribution. tion system should identify what has been 81. Supply Management Service in col- ordered, where the goods are, when they laboration with MSRP is in process of will be delivered, and where they have developing a Fleet Management System been distributed. This information must (FMS) which is a computerized tool for be available to those responsible for the fleet management, which keeps track of Supplies management and transport operation. the maintenance and repair of vehicles, 77. Control mechanisms include verifying generators, etc., of fuel consumption, ve- 21 the bulk consignments on arrival, physical hicle insurance, and the registration of ve- stock checks in the warehouses, individ- hicles, their re-deployment and disposal. ual ration cards or distribution checks at 82. Assistance with setting up the CTS or the sites and carefully calibrated measures FMS (when it is ready) can be obtained (scales) for final distribution. The nature from Supply Management Service, Ge- of these mechanisms will depend on the neva. Both CTS and FMS will be part of circumstances, but they must be in place the MSRP when it is implemented in the from the start and they must provide real field. and not just theoretical control. The supplies actually distributed to the refugees must be reconcilable with those known to

437 Key references Food Storage Manual, WFP, Rome, 1983. Commodity Distribution – a practical Heavy Vehicles, Trucks, IAPSO, 1996- guide for field staff, UNHCR, Geneva 1997. 1997. IAPSO catalogues (updated periodically) Emergency Relief Items, Compendium of with specifications, including: Most Fre- Generic Specifications. quently Purchased Items, UNHCR, Ge- Vol 1: Telecommunications, Shelter & neva, June 1998 (updated annually). Housing, Water Supply, Food, Sanitation Stock Management, (Guide No. 6), ITC, and Hygiene, Materials Handling, Power Geneva, 1985. Supply. Supply Management Handbook, UNHCR Vol. 2: Medical Supplies, IAPSO, Copen- Geneva, 2003 (this is the same as Chapter hagen, 1995. 8 of the UNHCR Manual). Environmentally Friendlier Procurement UNHCR Manual, Chapter 4, UNHCR, Guidelines, UNHCR, Geneva, 1997. Geneva, 1996. Field Motor Vehicles, IAPSO, 1997- UN Joint Logistics Cell: Standard Operat- 1999. ing Procedures, MCDU, Geneva, 1997. Office Equipment, IAPSO, 1998. 1 IOM116/94 FOM120/94, UNHCR 14.12.94.

438 Annex 1: Standard specifications for Finish: 10 stitches/decimetre or ribbon certain common relief items bordered 4 sides These specifications can be useful in Packing: Compressed watertight wrap- drawing up tender requests where local ping in pressed bales of 30 pcs. Each bale purchase is possible, to assist in negotia- of 30 pcs would be about 0.35 m3 volume tions with suppliers, and to give a clear in- and weigh 50 kg. dication of what could otherwise be supplied at short notice through Headquarters 3. Heavy duty plastic bucket, 10 litre (some items are available in the emergen- Type: Heavy duty plastic bucket, multi cy stockpile – see Appendix 1, Catalogue purpose, with lid of Emergency Response Resources). Material: High density polyethylene 1. High Thermal Fleece Blankets (HDPE), food grade material, conical – Item no 2028 seamless design Composition: Polyester – 100 % - TOG Handle: Steel-wire bale handle, fitted with (Thermal Resistance of Garment): min: 1.5 plastic roller grip, rust proof Bursting Strength: 350 kpa, min: 25 kg Thickness: Minimum 1.0 mm both ways – Thickness: min 3.5 mm un- 2 2 Dimensions: Approx. top diameter: 30 cm; der load of 20g/cm – Weight: 250g/m 3 – Colour: Assorted colours (Dark Blue, approx. height: 30 cm; volume 0.01 m Grey, Brown, Dark Red) Weight: 450 g Dimension: 150 cm x 200 cm – Edges: Folded and Stitched 4. Jerry cans, 10 litre Semi-collapsible jerry cans Marking: UNHCR Logo printed. Size of (Semi-collapsible jerry cans are the pre- logo 40cmX40cm to be placed in the cen- ferred option because of the much lower tre of blanket. shipping volume, but they are sometimes Packing: a) in bales of 30 blankets se- difficult to obtain locally). cured with polyester band; b) the size of Type: Semi-collapsible plastic jerry cans bag shall be as the size of the folded blan- for drinking water ket, namely: 45 x 35 x 65 cm in order to improve stability and stackability of the Material: Manufactured of food grade bales; c) the bales should be compressed. HDPE (i.e. containing no toxic elements) – Gross weight per bale: Approx. 23 kg Construction: Semi-collapsible; built-in

– Number of blankets per 20’ Container carrying handle, wide enough for adult Supplies management and transport – 5,250 (without pallets); hand; screw cap linked to container by 21 polymide string; jerry can opening 35 mm 2. Woven dry raised blankets (Type B) (inner diameter); 0.6 mm thick walls. (for cool climates) Composition: Woven, minimum 50% Impact resistance: Must withstand drop wool. Balance of new synthetic fibre from minimum 2.5 m containing maximum volume Size: 150 x 200 cm, thickness 5 mm Operating temperature: -20 to 50°C Weight: 1.5 kg Weight: 200 g/pce T.O.G.: 2.0 - 2.4 (thermal resistance of Packaging: 150 pcs/wooden crate. Each garment) 3 crate weighs 49 kg, volume 0.38 m

439 Non-collapsible jerry cans Kitchen Sets – Type C As above, except non-collapsible, weight Consists of the following items: a, c, (or 400 g/pce; 1 mm thick walls; jerry can d) e and f. opening 40 mm (inner diameter) Packing: 4 sets per carton: 54 x 54 x 19.5 2 cm = 0.05 m 5. Kitchen sets Kitchen sets – Type A 6. Reinforced plastic tarpaulins in a) 1 aluminium cooking pot, 7 litre, sheets minimum thickness 1.75 mm, with Sheets are 4 m x 5 m each. lid minimum thickness 1 mm, two cast aluminium handles, sandpaper Material: Made of woven high density finish. polyethylene fibre; warp x weft (12/14 x 12/14 per inch); laminated on both sides b) 1 aluminium cooking pot, 5 litre, as with low density polyethylene with rein- above, minimum thickness 1.6 mm. forced rims by heat sealing on all sides c) 5 aluminium bowls, minimum thick- and nylon ropes in hem; 1000 dernier min. ness 1 mm, 1 litre capacity, rolled Stabilized against ultraviolet rays and ex- edge border, sandpaper finish. cess heat for long outdoor exposure (1.5% d) 5 deep aluminium plates, minimum loss of strength in yarn and in lamination); thickness 1 mm, 1 litre capacity, provided with strong aluminium eyelets sandpaper finish. or equivalent on four sides of the sheet at e) 5 aluminium cups, minimum thick- 100 cm centre to centre. ness 1 mm, 0.3 litre capacity, with Dimensions: Thickness: 200–230 mi- handle, rolled edge border, sandpaper 2 finish. crons; weight 190 g/m ; density 0.9–.95 kg/cubic decimetre. f) 5 stainless steel table spoons, polished finish. Tensile strength: Min. 600 N both direc- g) 5 stainless steel table forks, polished tions of warp and weft (BS 2576, 50 mm finish. grab test or equivalent). h) 5 stainless steel table knives, polished Tear resistance: 100 N Min. both direc- finish. tions (BS 4303 wing tear or equivalent). i) 1 kitchen knife with stainless steel Heat/cold resistance: Flammability: flash blade, cutting edge 14/15 cm long, point above 200°C. 2.5 cm wide with moulded plastic handle. Colour: Blue one side white on reverse; j) 1 galvanized steel bucket, 15 litre, UNHCR logo. 0.5 mm thick, tapered with raised Weight: 4.8 kg per piece, packed in bales bottom, curled brim and metal arch of five, weight per bale 22.5 kg; volume 3 handle. per bale 0.045 m . Packing: Individual carton: 30 x 30 x 33 2 cm = 0.02 m 7. Soap bars: Weight: Approx. 5.5 kg Composition: Min. 70% fatty acid: max. 20% moisture, max. NAOH 0.2% max. Kitchen sets – Type B NACL 1.25%; no mercury content. Lo- Consists of the following items: a, b, c, (or cal standards of lower content of fatty acid d) e, f and optionally i). might be acceptable. Packing: 4 sets per carton: 56 x 56 x 19.5 Weight: Soap bars should be approx. 125 2 cm = 0.06 m g/piece. 440 8. Double Fly double fold centre Annex 2: Planning vehicle needs pole tent 1. Assessing needs Family sized tent. Assessing vehicle needs involves not only External dimensions: 4.4 m x 4.4 m (outer calculating the vehicles which are needed, 2 fly), surface area 19.36 m , centre height but also assessing what vehicles it will 3 m. be possible to operate and maintain in Internal dimensions: 4m x 4m, floor area the area of operation. Make sure that the 16 m2, centre height 2.75 m, side wall existing infrastructure (roads, workshops height 1.8 m (25 cm distance between and fuel) is fully evaluated before obtain- outer and inner fly). ing vehicles.

Material: Cotton canvas; 100% cotton What will the vehicles be used for and yarn (10/2 x 10/2 twisted in warp 42/44, how many are needed? weft 24/26 threads per inch, plain weave); 15–16 oz/m2. Canvas to be free of weav- Heavy vehicles ing defects and finishing faults adversely i. Will the vehicles be used for trans- affecting strength, waterproofness and du- porting people or relief supplies? rability. Water proofing/resistance to wa- ii. What will be the frequency of use ter penetration by paraffin wax emulsion (one-off transport, or scheduled de- and aluminium acetate to withstand 20–30 liveries for distribution)? cm hydrostatic head. Stabilization against iii. What is the total quantity (of goods or decomposition of the fabric (rot-proofing) people) to be transported? with copper napthanate. iv. Are any special configurations neces- Poles/ropes/pegs: 4 aluminium or bamboo sary: if a truck is to carry dangerous poles for roof corners (2 m x 22 mm diam- goods e.g. fuel, ensure that dangerous eter); heavy duty sectional steel tube (or goods regulations are followed. aluminium or bamboo) centre pole, plastic Light vehicles clad or galvanized (3 m x 50 mm diameter). Complete with ropes made of 9mm i. How many vehicles are needed for 3 strand polypropylene; 24 T-Type bars 40 staff? In an emergency, it is advis- mm x 40 mm, 50 cm long; 12 iron pegs (25 able to have a ratio between light cm x 9 mm diameter), one iron hammer of vehicles and international staff of 1:1. 1 kg; one repair kit with one straight and In more stable situations, slightly one curved needle with 20 m of suitable fewer vehicles per staff member may be acceptable. thread for tent repair, illustrated assembly Supplies management and transport instructions with list of contents. ii. What special vehicles might be needed (e.g. ambulances for transporting 21 Groundsheet: Reinforced PVC ground- vulnerable refugees)? The main cat- 2 sheet 250g/m . egories of light vehicles which might Packing: All rolled into a canvas bag. be useful are: sedan and minibus (4x2 Weight 100–130 kg, dimensions: 2 m x 50 only), and station wagon, van, pick- cm diametre (0.4 m3). up, and ambulance (both 4x2 or 4x4).

441 What configurations of vehicles are iii. What are the regulations in the coun- needed? try regarding the weight and length of i. What is the condition of the routes truck-trailer combinations? that will be used? Tarmac roads, iv. What type of trailer is needed? Can good unpaved roads (with stone or the trucks be operated with trailers or macadam surface), sand or dirt trails, would tractor trailers be better? Can or no roads (in which case consider the trailer be transported on the truck animals for transport). on empty runs? Ensure there are ii. How long are the journeys expected air-brakes, a towing hook, extra fuel to be? tanks and spare wheels. Particular attention must be paid to the tow-bar Light vehicles strength and number of axles. i. What configuration light vehicles should be used according to road What makes and models of vehicles conditions: 4x2 or 4x4? would be appropriate? i. What makes of vehicles are main- Heavy vehicles tained (to supplier specifications) i. What configuration for heavy vehi- by local service dealers? The heavy cles should be used according to the vehicle fleet must be standardized to road conditions: 4x2, 4x4, 6x2 or suitable makes and models already 6x4? operating in the country. If a mixture ii. Should trailers be used? Trailers can of models of truck is unavoidable, it be more economical, i.e. with a rela- may still be possible to standardize to tively small investment one is able to a single make. transport twice the amount of cargo. ii. What is the availability of vehicles: The following configurations for the spare capacity of local transport heavy vehicles (trucks/trailers) could companies, and possibility of pur- be appropriate: chasing new or second hand vehi- i. Truck with trailer (6x2 or 6x4) with cles? a combined capacity of 20-40 MT for transport up to 3,000 km, 2-7 Infrastructure (fuel, workshops) day trip, normally for use on tarmac i. Is there a service network available roads. with the know how to maintain the ii. Truck (6x4, 4x4, 4x2) for intermediary fleet, or will it be necessary to set up distribution with a capacity of 10-15 dedicated workshops and fuel sta- MT (normally 1 day trip) on unpaved tions? roads with stone or macadam surface. ii. Are there sufficient spare parts and iii. 5-10 MT capacity trucks on tracks tyres in the local market, or must they and trails (generally for trips of half a be imported? day or less up to distribution points). iii. Is fuel (diesel and gasoline) and are lubricants readily available in the Trailers area of operation? (note the number Prior to purchasing trailers, the following of fuel stations, capacity and likely additional questions should be consid- availability of fuel at each). ered: 2. Sourcing vehicles i. Are the roads and bridges suitable to Vehicles (whether light or heavy) can be: drive on with trailers? rented locally, provided by the govern- ii. Are the drivers capable of driving ment, loaned from another UN Office with trailers? in the region, re-deployed from another 442 UNHCR operation, or purchased. Heavy (re-deployment, purchase etc.) in the duty vehicles can also be provided under international market and regionally. a standby arrangement (see Catalogue of If it becomes necessary to purchase Emergency Response Resources, Appen- vehicles, early notification and action dix 1). If trucks are to be purchased in- will be a priority. ternationally, send a request to the Supply v. Other options. Consideration could Management Service in Headquarters by also be given to the possibility of completing the appropriate form (Opera- “grafting” the heavy vehicle fleet tions Analysis Form for Trucks – request onto a large national or regional this from Headquarters if necessary). transport organization. That organization’s infrastructure, including In order to analyze the procurement op- workshops, offices, etc. would then tions, take into account the following: be immediately available as would its i. Expected length of operation. If the accumulated experience of operating expected length of the operation is in the country. short, (3 - 6 months), or the situation The vehicles exclusively involved in is very unstable, it may be better to the operation should be individually rent, loan or re-deploy rather than numbered and distinctively marked purchase vehicles, because of high – for example, white with blue mark- initial costs. ings. ii. Comparative costs. Compare the cost of renting vehicles with the cost of 3. Fuel and maintenance facilities purchasing them (including delivery There must be adequate servicing facili- costs). Consider purchasing second- ties, including sufficient supplies of fuel hand vehicles if they are in good and spare parts. Maintenance and repair enough condition. must be carried out regularly and as per iii. Servicing and other benefits. Take manufacturers’ standards, either through into account that renting vehicles will local service dealers or through a UNHCR include servicing and other benefits workshop. Regular maintenance will pre- (such as drivers, insurance) which vent minor problems turning into major would need to be separately arranged ones. Proper driving and care by the driv- if the vehicles are re-deployed, pur- ers can be an important factor in keeping chased, or loaned. vehicles on the road and prolonging their iv. Time. Light vehicles can be quickly life. Adequate training, incentives and su- deployed from the UNHCR emer- pervision will be the key to this. gency stockpile (see Appendix 3). Supplies management and transport Fuel and lubricants

Purchasing new vehicles can be 21 very time consuming, because of • Assured supplies of fuel and lu- long delivery times (up to 8 months bricants must be available where if they are manufactured to order, they are needed (make sure oil and which is usually necessary for the lubricants are in accordance with configuration of heavy duty vehicles manufacturer’s specifications – and for UNHCR operations). If there is new). This may require separate, an urgent need for heavy vehicles, secure storage arrangements and an inform Supply Management serv- additional fleet of fuel tanker vehi- ice at Headquarters of the vehicle cles. It may be necessary to establish requirements and infrastructure, fuel stations to ensure fuel supplies. who will look into possible options

443 Spare parts and workshops terized UNHCR Commodity Tracking Consumable items (filters, shock absorb- System (CTS) relies on the information ers, brake linings etc.) and spare parts contained in this paper system. must be available, especially tyres: tyre life may be no more than 10,000 km in 1. Stock control rough desert or mountain conditions. Ar- i. Pipeline report: Each order or con- rangements for maintenance and repair signment (including contributions include: in-kind), should be tracked using a pipeline report. This records all i. Making use of or strengthening exist- stages of stock movement from the ing facilities: initial request for goods through, as Existing commercial, government or applicable, requests for tenders, plac- UN facilities (e.g. WFP or DPKO) ing of order, notification of shipment, may be able to service additional planned delivery time and place, UNHCR vehicles or could be actual time of arrival, and distribution strengthened in order to do so. details. ii Establishing dedicated workshops: ii. A simple board where progress can Workshops may have to be estab- be monitored visually is likely to be lished by UNHCR solely for the very useful and can be set up at once. operation – for example a central, fully equipped workshop, including 2. Source documents personnel, tools, soldering capac- Source documents identify the quantity of ity, spare parts store, and transport the commodity, specifications, packaging, administration office. In addition, value and origin. depending on the size and area of i. Purchase order. This defines the the operation, consider also having order: specifications, number of smaller workshops and transport ad- units ordered, price/unit, total price, ministration offices closer to isolated packaging, date of purchase, sup- destinations. plier, destination etc. It should make iii. Mobile workshops and heavy recov- reference to the legally enforceable ery vehicles may also be necessary: standard conditions of contract. Always ensure there is recovery ii. Contribution Advice Form (CAF)/ capacity for trucks, such as mobile Donation Advice Form (DAF). When workshops, recovery trucks, winches, contributions in-kind are pledged, etc. Fund-raising and Donor Relations Annex 3 – Stock management systems Services in Headquarters issues a This annex gives an indication of the ba- CAF or DAF. This gives similar sic components of a stock management information to a purchase order and system. The minimum level of controls the information should be used to necessary will vary with each operation. track the goods until final distribution Simple controls and accounting estab- in order to account to the donor as lished from the start will be much more stipulated in the CAF/DAF. effective than a sophisticated system later. No system will be effective unless it is understood by those required to operate it. 3. Authorization documents Training will be required for all staff in- i. Release request. This is a formal volved. All these documents are UNHCR request for goods which authorizes forms apart from waybills. The compu- warehouse staff to release goods from stock. 444 ii. Transporting/warehouse request. iv. Receipt note: Where goods have This gives formal approval for NGOs been received without a delivery note to use UNHCR transport or ware- or waybill/bill of lading, a receipt house facilities for their goods. note is signed by the receiver of the goods and sent to the sender for certi- 4. Certification documents fication. There are a number of documents which are used to certify that goods have been 5. Warehouse documents received, delivered, and/or sent in good Whatever the size of the warehouse or order. store and wherever it may be located, the minimum recommended book-keeping i. Waybill/air waybill/bill of lading. controls are those outlined below. They This is the shipping document and must be complemented by routine inspec- contract with the transporter showing tion to ensure goods are properly stored the destination and accompanies the and protected, and by a periodic audit. goods from the port of loading to the contracted destination in duplicate. i. Daily incoming shipment log sheet. This document is the basis for customs This is used to record basic details of clearance and enables staff to check all inward consignments – description goods actually received against those of goods, quantity, supplier, name of loaded. Duplicate copies are also used person receiving and date of receipt, by procurement staff to verify goods with cross reference to waybills dispatched against those ordered (i.e. (above). against the purchase order form). ii. Daily outgoing shipment log sheet. Where the movement is between This is used to record basic details of UNHCR warehouses, use the delivery all outward consignments – descrip- note (attached as Annex 4). tion of goods, quantity, destination, ii. Release note. This is used when and date of dispatch, (with cross ref- goods are collected at the warehouse erence to waybill, delivery or receipt and the goods leave UNHCR’s stock note).

control system – the person (driver or iii. Stock card (sometimes called a bin consignor, for example an NGO) who card). One stock card for each dif- collects the goods certifies that goods ferent commodity in the warehouse have been received in good order. is used to record every in and out iii. Delivery note (see Annex 4). The movement of that particular com- delivery note is sent with the goods modity, with cross reference to the when they are transported (under appropriate entries in the incoming/ Supplies management and transport

UNHCR’s control) to another loca- outgoing log sheets. It gives a run- 21 tion (for example another UNHCR ning balance. Where possible those warehouse). The receiver of goods actually receiving and issuing the signs the delivery note to certify that goods should not also be responsible the goods have been received in good for maintaining the stock card. order, and a signed copy is returned iv. Daily stock report (see Annex 4). to the sender. It is used when the This gives basic details of goods in goods have been sent by rail, road or stock and the quantity, value, weight barge (an “Aircargo Manifest” is used of these commodities for each ware- where the goods have been transport- house location. ed by air). v. Loss/damage report: to report loss or damage to stock (whether incurred during transport or storage). 445 Movement of goods anyway needed to ensure that goods reach The easiest control to ensure that goods their destination (in the worst case, this reach their destination may be to make (fi- control only indicates that they did not). nal) payment (for the goods, of the driver But provided the signatories for both au- or transporter, as applicable) conditional thorization and receipt are carefully cho- on return of the certified duplicate of sen, and signatures controlled (combining the delivery note or waybill. More com- them with a UNHCR seal is recommend- prehensive controls and measures (e.g. ed), this should be an effective initial safe- monitors) may be required later, and are guard.

446 Annex 4 – Stock management forms

Supplies management and transport 21

447 448

Supplies management and transport 21

449 22 Voluntary Repatriation

450 CONTENTS Paragraph Page Overview

Introduction 1-3 452

UNHCR’s role in voluntary repatriation operations 4-9 453

Conditions for a voluntary repatriation 10-33 453-456 Voluntary nature of return 11 453 Treatment on return 21 455 Amnesties, assurances and guarantees 24 455 Monitoring 26 455 Continued asylum for those who remain refugees 29 455 Other protection concerns 32 456

Being prepared for spontaneous repatriation 34 456

Preparing for repatriation 35-54 456-459 Agreement between the parties 37 457 Coordination 41 457 Staff 44 457 Estimation of numbers 45 458 Likely routes of return 48 458 Mass information campaign 50 458 Departure 51 458

On route 55-60 459-461 Organized repatriations 55 459 Mass spontaneous repatriations 57 459 Travel formalities 58 461

On arrival in country of origin 61-69 461 Repatriation Voluntary Registration on arrival 62 461 22 Monitoring and UNHCR presence 63 461 Reception by resident population 64 461 Material assistance 65 462 Access to land and property 66 462 Landmines 67 462

Key references 463

Annexes Annex 1: Sample voluntary repatriation form 464 Annex 2: Types of transport 465 451 Voluntary repatriation, resettlement and Action local integration are the commonly ac- Collect and analyse information in the cepted three ‘durable solutions’ to refugee country of origin concerning the condi- crises. Nowadays regarded as the princi- tions for return, share this information ple solution for the majority of situations, with the refugees. voluntary repatriation where and when feasible brings alive everyone’s human Define the nature of UNHCR’s involve- right to return home. ment in the repatriation, communicate this to all staff, and to governments and other Situation agencies as appropriate. As political, security and other changes Deploy sufficient staff to collect informa- in a number of refugee-producing coun- tion on the intentions of the returnees and tries may unfold at an unexpectedly fast to assess whether the repatriation is vol- pace, it is not always possible to carefully untary or not. design and plan return and reintegration Provide assistance to returnees in every operations. Voluntary repatriation opera- stage of the return operation, including tions may have to be organized at short monitoring of their treatment upon arrival notice, and therefore require at times “an in the area of final destination extraordinary response and exceptional measures”. Introduction When conditions in the country of asylum 1. Voluntary repatriation is usually char- are perceived as being more dangerous acterized either as: and life-threatening, and all other solu- i. “spontaneous”, i.e. where refugees tions have been exhausted, repatriation return by their own means; or may amount to emergency evacuation. Under such circumstances, life-saving re- ii. “organized”, i.e. where refugees return makes up for the lesser of evils. turn in an organized manner assisted by UNHCR. Principles of response 2. Spontaneous return tends to take place The decision whether or not to return home amidst or in the wake of conflict situa- belongs to the refugees. They should nei- tions. As and when growing numbers of ther be forced to return, nor prevented people spontaneously opt to go back from doing so. Repatriation should be UNHCR usually adjusts its planning as- based on a free and informed decision and sumptions and repositions its presence to take place in safety and dignity. The vol- provide timely and effective protection untary nature of the repatriation must be and assistance along routes of return and verified and safeguarded by UNHCR. in the country of origin. UNHCR needs to established first and foremost whether Voluntary return should only be under- it will assist at all in conflict situations, taken where there has been a fundamen- which will depend entirely on the particu- tal change in the circumstances causing lar circumstances of the situation. displacement. Its success largely depends upon the achievement of a reintegra- 3. Early presence in the prospective ar- tion process relentlessly supported by all eas of return should be sought to establish stakeholders. monitoring systems to gather information on the conditions prevailing in the country of origin and which will be provided to the refugees (e.g. concerning landmines, routes of return and overall conditions).

452 UNHCR’s role in voluntary 7. When UNHCR does not consider that, repatriation objectively, it is safe for most refugees to return, but even so refugees indicate a 4. UNHCR’s role in voluntary repatria- strong desire to return voluntarily and/or tion includes the following: have begun to do so on their own initia- i. Verify the voluntary character of refu- tive, UNHCR must be careful NOT to pro- gee repatriation. mote the repatriation, but may take some ii. Promote the creation of conditions steps to facilitate it. UNHCR must make that are conducive to voluntary return clear to the authorities and the refugees in safety and dignity. that support for such repatriation is based iii. Promote the voluntary repatriation of on respect for the refugees’ free decision refugees once conditions are condu- to repatriate and cannot be interpreted as cive to return. an indication of adequate security. iv. Facilitate the voluntary return of refu- 8. Facilitating repatriation can, depend- gees when it is taking place spontane- ing on the circumstances, include provid- ously. ing information to the refugees, advising v. Organize, in cooperation with NGOs on the limits of UNHCR protection and and other agencies, the transportation material assistance during and after their and reception of returnees, provided return, negotiating amnesties, establish- that such arrangements are necessary ing a presence in the country of origin and to protect their interests and well-be- monitoring their treatment. The issue of ing. material assistance requires careful han- vi. Monitor the conditions of returnees dling, so that assistance is not interpreted in their country of origin and if guar- as a pull factor nor as promotion of repa- antees given by the country of origin triation by UNHCR. are adhered to. Intervene on behalf 9. Where there is a mass spontaneous re- of the returnees if necessary. patriation in conditions where UNHCR 5. UNHCR should maintain objective does not consider that, objectively, it is and up-to-date information about the situ- safe for most refugees to return, and in ation in the country of origin. Personnel emergency conditions, Headquarter’s ad- on the ground should stay in close touch vice should be sought to define UNHCR’s with refugees’ thinking on the possibil- role in such circumstances. ity of voluntary repatriation, and keep the refugees and concerned governments in- Conditions for a voluntary formed accordingly. repatriation

6. A distinction is to be made between 10. In an organized voluntary repatria- Repatriation Voluntary “promotion” and “facilitation” of volun- tion, there must be: tary repatriation. Repatriation should only 22 be promoted when it appears, objectively, i. safeguards as to the voluntary nature that the refugees can return in safety and of the return; with dignity and the return has good pros- ii. safeguards as to treatment upon re- pects of being durable. UNHCR can pro- turn; and mote voluntary repatriation without being iii. continued asylum for those who do in charge of organizing all aspects of the not repatriate and remain refugees. return movement. Frequently, members Voluntary nature of the return of a group will make their own arrangements for return, with or without assist- 11. Ensuring the voluntary nature of the ance from UNHCR. return includes ensuring 453 i. the decision to repatriate is made 17. Many of their questions may be best freely; answered by: ii. the refugees are making an informed i. arranging for refugee representatives decision based on an accurate country (including women) to make a visit to profile; and the home area to see the situation at iii. the decision is made expressly and first hand, if this is possible (go and individually (women on equal footing see visits); with men). ii. assisting with the exchange of letters; 12. Voluntariness must be viewed in rela- iii. enabling communication by radio tion both to conditions in the country of with relatives in the country of origin; origin (calling for an informed decision) iv. displays of information about home and the situation in the country of asylum conditions; and (permitting a free choice). Voluntariness means there should be no duress, compul- v. formal or informal discussions with sion or undue pressure on the refugee to recent visitors to the area of return, or repatriate. The decision is based on ac- through visits to the refugee camps curate, objective information. of returnees or country of origin local authorities. 13. A field office should analyse both fac- 18. Whatever the method, care must be tors, relying for the first, to a large extent, taken to ensure that the refugees are given on direct interviews with all segments of as fair (and objective) a picture as possible the refugee community, including women. of conditions in their home area. Consider refugee attitudes both towards changed circumstances in their home 19. The refugees must freely express their country and towards the situation in the intent to repatriate. They may be unused country of asylum. to taking individual or family decisions of this nature, but programmes must be 14. Voluntariness also means that the structured so that their rights in this regard refugees should not be prevented from are safeguarded. returning. In certain situations, economic and political interests in the country of 20. In instances of organized return, the asylum may lead to interest groups trying use of a voluntary repatriation form (VRF) to prevent repatriation. is recommended (see Annex 1). Where there is any risk of coercion, either from 15. Whatever the nature of the repatriation, outside or by factions among the refugees, the refugees should be kept fully in formed the form should be signed in private in of the situation in the country of origin in front of a UNHCR officer or other neutral order to guarantee the voluntary nature of witness. He or she may need to interview the return. Though refugees are often al- the refugees to ensure that their decision is ready well informed, it may be necessary to truly voluntary. Where circumstances al- provide additional information on the situ- low, more informal confirmation of volun- ation in their home country. tariness than these may be used and sim- 16. Information should be available about ple lists of names may suffice. In cases of their planned reception and prospects for massive spontaneous return, completion reintegration into their community. They of a voluntary repatriation form will not will want to know if they have the right to be realistic and UNHCR must position of- repossess their houses and land, what the ficers along the routes of return to moni- type and amount of material support they tor, interview and intervene where neces- will initially receive, what they can take sary to determine if instances of coercion with them, etc. are taking place.

454 Treatment on return different types of prior ‘crimes’. 21. The durability of voluntary repatria- Such distinctions can create major tion depends, to a large extent, on the pro- problems, for example in a situation tection given to returnees during their re- where a clear differentiation between integration into their home country. political and criminal offenses may not be possible. Unless the amnesty 22. The state of origin bears responsibil- is a blanket one, repatriates may not ity for the protection of returnees, its na- know if they are covered until they tionals. However, UNHCR involvement return, which may be too late. If with returnees is justified by virtue of its a complete blanket amnesty is not protection role on behalf of refugees and possible, then a time limitation on the the Office’s statutory responsibility to amnesty (offenses committed be- seek voluntary repatriation as a durable fore or after or between given dates) solution for refugees. should be the aim. 23. UNHCR cannot guarantee safe treat- Monitoring ment of the returnees, although they will often request such assurances. UNHCR’s 26. UNHCR must have direct and unhin- involvement with returnees is set out in dered access to returnees to monitor their more detail in the UNHCR handbook, the safety and reintegration conditions. This Voluntary Repatriation Handbook, which should include access to prisons or deten- includes information on amnesties and tion centres (liaison with ICRC and UN monitoring. High Commissioner for Human Rights will be important in this regard as well Amnesties, assurances, guarantees as information-sharing with other NGOs 24. In any voluntary repatriation, ap- working with returnees). propriate legal safeguards are essential. 27. If returnees are at risk due to inad- UNHCR recommends that, in addition to equate state protection, UNHCR should conditions set out in a repatriation agree- intervene on their behalf as appropriate, ment, governments independently prom- for example by remedial action, or formal ulgate amnesties or legal guarantees for protest at local, national or even regional returnees. Such declarations should in- level, and ensure there is good reporting. clude the right to return, freedom of resi- In case national or regional authorities dence, and the provision of an amnesty. systematically refuse to enact remedial As a minimum, they should stipulate that action, UNHCR may be forced to review returnees not be subjected to any punitive its role in the repatriation process. or discriminatory action on account of 28. UNHCR’s returnee monitoring role their having fled their country. alone will never provide a mechanism Repatriation Voluntary 25. If the government consults UNHCR

for ensuring the safety of returnees and 22 when drawing up an amnesty, it is particu- respect for international human rights larly important to propose that the amnes- standards in the country of return. It can ty should be both: be a helpful influence to enhance respect i. A group amnesty: The amnesty for amnesties, guarantees, the rule of law should be extended on a group basis, and human rights but should never be seen rather than requiring individual deter- as a substitute for state responsibility. mination. Continued asylum for those who remain ii. A blanket amnesty: The amnesty refugees should whenever possible be a blan- 29. Any voluntary repatriation operation ket one, not distinguishing between and/or agreement must insist that inter- 455 national protection for those who choose 33. Unaccompanied and separated chil- to stay longer in the country of asylum is dren require specific arrangements for re- ensured. Some refugees may continue to turn (please refer to Action for the right of harbour a well-founded fear of persecu- the Children -ARC). In addition, special tion and therefore would not wish to re- travel arrangements might be required for patriate. Others may delay their decision, pregnant women, chronically sick per- or decide against repatriation, prefering to sons, etc. wait and see until more persons have returned succesfully. Being prepared for spontaneous repatriation 30. This may mean the continuation of any existing operation, but for a reduced 34. Proactive steps to ensure prepared- number of beneficiaries. Any voluntary ness for spontaneous repatriation include: repatriation operation will have to be i. Being well informed about the refu- planned and conducted in the context of a gee caseload, in particular its origin, broader comprehensive strategy for dura- history, composition, reasons for ble solutions. If refugees remaining in the flight, and its view of developments country of asylum are unlikely to be will- in the country of origin. ing to return home, based on their particular profile and their specific needs, local ii. Liaising closely with the UNHCR integration and resettlement may need to office in the country of origin to de- be considered as durable solutions termine whether internally displaced people are returning home or other 31. If there is a serious problem of coer- developments which could lead to a cion, or intimidation, it may be necessary return movement. Such return move- to move those who decide not to repatri- ments are often sparked by refugee ate to another location immediately after fears that they could lose their land, they have reached this decision. This, too, property or jobs if they do not return. should be foreseen and covered in any iii. Being in close touch with the prevail- voluntary repatriation agreement. ing concerns of the refugees.

Other protection concerns Preparing for repatriation 35. The steps below should be considered Groups with specific needs in any kind of repatriation, including in 32. Throughout all phases of the opera- emergency circumstances. The manage- tion particular attention has to be paid to ment principles described in chapters 1 groups with specific needs such as unac- to 9 should be referred to (e.g. planning, companied and separated children, unac- needs assessment and implementation) companied older persons, the disabled and reference should also be made to and chronically ill as well as the specific chapter 21 on supplies and transport. needs of unaccompanied women and single heads of households. In large-scale 36. If indicators for a spontaneous repa- spontaneous repatriation movements, triation are present, contingency planning family members may become separated should take place, including identifying during the operation and it will be neces- protection and material assistance needs sary to establish tracing services to reunite in the country of origin and en route, and families. During registration the identity establishing a capacity for monitoring in of groups with specific needs and follow- areas of return including a direct UNHCR up mechanisms in the country of asylum or operational partner presence. or country of origin, should have been recorded. 456 Agreement between the parties Coordination 37. Whenever possible, a formal vol- 41. UNHCR is likely to be responsible untary repatriation agreement should be for the practical coordination of an opera- concluded between the governments of tion which by definition will involve more the countries of asylum and origin and than one country. UNHCR in the form of a Tripartite Agree- 42. Cross border communication and co- ment. A tripartite commission should in ordination between UNHCR offices on any event be established as soon as possi- both sides of the border can make or break ble when organized voluntary repatriation an operation. The underlying principle of is foreseen. However, it is important that cross border coordination should be that UNHCR does not enter into tripartite re- voluntary repatriation operations have to patriation arrangements without due con- be determined by the conditions, absorp- sultation with the refugees, and that their tion capacity and preparedness in the reoccupations are always kept foremost. country of origin. 38. UNHCR’s role in developing repa- 43. One UNHCR officer should be des- triation agreements is to: ignated with overall responsibility for the i. Work with the two governments to repatriation operation in countries of asy- ensure that any such agreement re- lum and origin, and for the actual move- spects the basic protection considera- ment, for example the Representative tions already outlined. in the country of origin. The need for a ii. Help provide material assistance, coordinator is even greater when substan- where necessary, to enable the agree- tial repatriation will take place from more ment to be implemented. than one country iii. Monitor the return programme, with of asylum. The designation of a focal particular attention to protection, and point officer at Headquarters is equally to ensure free and unhindered access important. will be given to returnees. UNHCR should also be present in the country Staff of origin to monitor returnee reinte- 44. Because of UNHCR’s protection re- gration. sponsibilities, such operations are often 39. The actual content and scope of the staff-intensive in the field. UNHCR staff formal agreement will depend on the cir- may be needed to: cumstances. An example can be found in Annex 5 in the Voluntary Repatriation: In- • witness the refugees’ voluntary decla- ternational Protection Handbook. ration of a wish to repatriate;

• maintain a presence, sometimes a Repatriation Voluntary 40. The question of whether those wish- continuous one, in the settlements, ing to repatriate are in fact nationals of along routes of return, at border 22 their claimed country of origin may arise. crossing points and in the transit and Responsibility for determining this rests arrival centres; with the government of the country of • accompany the returnees during the origin. However, if particular issues arise journey; over nationality claims or problems relat- • monitor treatment of the returnees on ed to statelessness that cannot be resolved return; and at field level, contact HQ for advice on how to proceed. • mount those parts of the logistical operation not contracted out to operational partners and monitor those that are. 457 Estimation of numbers Likely routes of return 45. An important element for planning is 48. Identify principal routes of return the number of refugees likely to repatriate, from the refugee camp to the destination which will rarely be known accurately for in the country of origin based on the likely a variety of reasons. Nevertheless, a best methods of return (roads, trains, airports, estimate will be required, and assump- etc.). Identify border crossing points (pri- tions will need to be made. Plans must be mary, secondary, tertiary and minor foot flexible, taking into account the fact that a paths). Consider which routes are safer, common pattern is a slow start as refugees and where there may be danger of mines. wait to see how the initial movements go 49. A range of maps with varying degrees and how the first repatriates are received. of detail should be compiled with the sup- 46. Information should be obtained on: port of the Field Information and Coordi- nation Support Section in HQ as regards i. The numbers of refugees intending FICSS. Data should be imported into to repatriate. Estimates should be ob- maps, charts and graphs. Use standard tained by random sampling of inten- names and spelling for all locations since tions, discussions with refugee elders, in many cases these may have changed. leaders, women, teachers and others in touch with the community and Mass information campaign who are aware of likely intentions. Assumptions can also be drawn from 50. In addition to ensuring the refugees observing current spontaneous return have access to accurate information on and identifying obstacles being faced conditions in the country of origin, they by the returnees. A survey related to should also have direct access to infor- spontaneous return must be prepared mation about the voluntary repatriation with refugees as questions often arise operation itself. Posters, leaflets, verbal concerning issues of forced return or presentations, radio and TV programmes, false expectations. etc. in the refugees’ language(s) should be used to explain as thoroughly as pos- ii. The number of refugees for whom re- sible the envisaged voluntary repatriation patriation is unlikely to be an option operation. A simple leaflet, setting out at this stage. the formalities to expect on arrival and iii. Current location and numbers of refu- arrangements made, can do much to help gees in the country of asylum. the repatriates and facilitate the reception iv. Province and district of origin (intended process. It is important that at each stage destination) in the country of origin. of this information campaign care is tak- Determination of priority provinces and en to ensure it is as objective as possible districts of return will be based on the and that no false expectations are raised. number of potential returnees. Do not hesitate to tell a refugee that the v. Lists of those with special needs. answer to some questions about specific 47. Information for a repatriation opera- conditions in the country of origin are tion, including iii – v above, should be not known. It should also be made clear processed using proGres (UNHCR stand- to the refugees that on return he or she is ard registration software). ProGres is a outside the scope of UNHCR’s protection holistic registration and case management responsibilities and once more subject to tool which can be used during an emer- national laws. gency phase to record personal bio-data, to capture individual photos, and to create Departure beneficiary lists (see chapter 11 on regis- 51. Registration: Annex 1 contains a sam- tration and population estimation). ple registration form – the Voluntary Repa- 458 triation Form (VRF), including a declara- of transportation used by the returnees. tion of intent to repatriate. Where ProGres Other issues for consideration include for the computerization of the registration availability of fuel and facilities for vehi- data has been used, pre-completed VRF cle repair. forms can be produced. These computer printed forms contain the required data on 56. A considerable UNHCR presence will those individuals and families wishing to be required to monitor and verify the vol- repatriate and the print-outs can be signed untary nature of return, to assess needs and by those concerned. to coordinate with offices in the country of origin and asylum. They should provide 52. Deregistration: Upon departure to up to date information on numbers, needs their country of origin, repatriates have and likely routes to be used. to be de-registered from any camp or assistance related records to ensure a proper Mass spontaneous repatriations scaling down and adjustment of assistance 57. Where UNHCR is providing assist- in the country of asylum. ance in mass spontaneous repatriation, 53. Assembly prior to departure: Unless the same issues need to be considered as repatriation can take place directly from above. However, providing the assistance the settlements, special arrangements will to a large unorganized mobile population be required for transit centres prior to the will present challenges, and there will be actual move, including transport, accom- additional protection concerns. The fol- modation, food and basic health care as lowing steps should be taken: well as the orderly completion of the necessary administrative formalities. In some General arrangements circumstances, registration may conven- • Establish or strengthen positions on iently take place at the transit centres. the routes (way stations) for the pro- 54. If repatriation takes place by means vision of protection and assistance of organized transport, computerized pas- for the mobile population. Factors senger manifests, allocating passengers to determining location of way stations convoys, could be prepared using the Pro- include, availability of water and Gres repatriation module. This will also mode of transportation of the refu- allow the system to deregister refugees gees. If the refugees are traveling who are repatriating and exclude them mainly on foot, the distance between from assistance in the camps. the way stations en route should be closer to one another than if the refu- On route gees are traveling mainly in vehicles.

• Establish a visible UNHCR presence Repatriation Voluntary Organized repatriations at way-stations using flags, UNHCR 55. Identify sources of emergency assist- stickers and other visibility mate- 22 ance already available along the routes of rial. Ensure that UNHCR staff can be return (medical facilities and potable wa- clearly identified, particularly those ter sources). Where sufficient assistance is in mobile teams. not already available there will be a need • Designate which UNHCR office will to establish temporary “way stations” for have responsibility for which sections rest and overnight accommodation, food of the route. distribution (prepared food or cooking • Make arrangements to support facilities), first aid stations, water points, UNHCR staff living temporarily at etc. The form and degree of assistance re- way stations by providing tents or quired will, in part, depend on the means

459 other accommodation, drinking wa- • Fill water tanks by pumping from ter, cooked meals, etc. local sources or tankering, ensuring • Establish mobile assistance along the adequate treatment of the water. routes, between way stations. • Preposition sufficient quantities of • Install voice and data telecommuni- water treatment chemicals at way sta- cation at UNHCR temporary offices tions and/or water collection points. along the route. • Establish mobile water maintenance • Equip all UNHCR vehicles with com- teams. munication equipment. • Arrange for water tankering and • Arrange for a common radio chan- refilling of water tanks at night if nel through which all organizations necessary. involved can communicate. • Fit water tankers with distribution • Put one experienced radio operator taps for mobile water distribution. and/or technician in charge of coordi- • Provide refugees with small jerrycans nating the telecommunications along (2-5 liters) which can be carried eas- the whole route. ily. • Have debriefing meetings in the • Demarcate defecation areas (or trench evening and allocate tasks for the fol- or other latrines) at way stations, lowing day; designate people to encourage and • Introduce a single common number- control their use. ing system for all vehicles. • Identify teams for clean-up of defeca- • Communicate the daily movement tion (or latrine) areas, during their use plan through staff meetings, bulletin and to restore the area following the boards and daily sitreps. end of the population movement. • Provide information to the refugees • Preposition lime for clean-up of def- on the location of way stations, etc. ecation areas. through the placement of signs along • Reinforce existing hospitals and the route in languages that the refu- health centres which are on the routes gees understand, through announce- with staff and supplies. Establish ments on local radio stations and health facilities at way stations and announcements using megaphones. mobile health teams in between the • Make preparations for reception in way stations. Ensure that there are the country of origin – at the border adequate supplies of Oral Rehydra- transit centres, and in likely districts tion Salts with health centres and of return, e.g. prepare the local popu- mobile health teams. lation, as well as local government, • Try to prevent refugees concentrating and negotiate reception and treatment in one area to avoid transmission of at the border. epidemics. • Establish or strengthen a presence • Preposition high energy biscuits or in the country of origin to facilitate other convenient food (preferably integration and monitor treatment of types requiring little or no cooking) returnees. and distribute them at way stations. • Position staff with responsibility for Protection and material assistance unaccompanied minors at all way sta- • Set up temporary water tanks with tions. tapstands at way stations (e.g. using • Establish mobile teams to identify bladder tanks). and collect unaccompanied minors.

460 • Ensure that staff responsible for the return movement is completed, but ap- care of unaccompanied minors are plies and should be monitored until such highly visible. time as the situation in the country of ori- • Clearly define which types of people gin can be considered stable, national pro- are to be considered “vulnerable” for tection is again available and the returnees the purposes of the population move- are reintegrated into their community. ment and ensure that all the organizations involved are using the same Registration on arrival in Country of criteria for identification and care. Origin • Arrange separate transport to collect 62. In certain situations, in particular in vulnerable persons, and their fami- an emergency EVACUATION, it may be lies. the case that no repatriation registration was undertaken in the country of asylum. Travel formalities In this case a system should be set up to 58. Immigration formalities: Every effort register the returnee population to facili- must be made to avoid the need for indi- tate UNHCR access to all returnees in the vidual or family clearance to repatriate by different areas of return. In some circum- the country of origin before movement. stances, a returnee card may be appropri- Not only would this create major practi- ate. cal problems and delays, it would also be contrary to the spirit of any properly com- Monitoring and UNHCR presence prehensive general amnesty. If individual 63. A UNHCR presence is vital for re- travel documentation is required at all, the turnee monitoring. The presence of other registration form should suffice. appropriate organizations, and liaison 59. Customs formalities: Customs for- with them, is also important. The pur- malities are generally waived or simplified pose of monitoring is to assess whether in repatriation operations but this should national protection has been effectively be checked well in advance. Special ar- restored and extended to all returnees. rangements may be needed where the The basic principle is non-discrimination refugees wish to repatriate with personal – that returnees are treated the same as the possessions such as vehicles or livestock. resident population and are not targeted or discriminated against in any way. Moni- 60. Health formalities: Health require- toring should cover general conditions ments (vaccination certificates, etc.) (human rights violations, and security, should not exceed those required for nor- food security, access to basic facilities and mal travelers. Extra vaccinations, e.g. property, freedom of movement, honour- cholera, typhoid, are sometimes requested ing of any guarantees), as well as random Voluntary Repatriation Voluntary on the grounds that the refugees would individual monitoring. pose special health hazards. Where vac- 22 cinations are required, WHO’s advice Reception by resident population should be sought and if necessary they can 64. Where the return is spontaneous there be conveniently recorded on the registra- may be less time to make preparations in tion form if the refugees are not already the country of origin. Steps should be in possession of individual vaccination taken as soon as possible to prepare the cards. resident local population for the arrival of the returnees to promote acceptance and On arrival in country of origin integration if necessary. 61. The principle of return in safety and dignity does not cease to apply once the 461 Material assistance surveys and demarcation, but involvement 65. Material assistance and protection are in actual mine clearance is exceptional interlinked and should usually be reinforc- and requires approval from Headquarters. ing. The provision of material assistance The focus is therefore on less costly meas- to returnees enhances the possibilities to ures that lead to immediate risk reduc- monitor this population and is important tion for the refugees like mine awareness in making return a lasting solution. Where campaigns. The danger of mines should assistance is given without discrimination be considered from the earliest stages of on a community basis it can also help planning a repatriation. with acceptance of the returnees and in- 69. The following activities should be tegration. The question of the nature and considered: degree of assistance programmes in the country of origin, as well as the length of Identification of return routes and po- time UNHCR should remain involved in tentially dangerous areas of return and the country of origin, are covered in more landmine survey: UNHCR should obtain detail in the references listed below. reliable information on areas seriously affected by the presence of landmines and Access to land and property discourage refugees from traveling to or 66. Property is a key resource for return- through such areas. While a landmine ing refugees – either in terms of access to survey is a national responsibility, UN- accommodation and return to one’s home, HCR may also be able to contribute infor- or as a means of livelihood. Resolving mation obtained through its presence in this can be very complex, particularly in the country of origin as well as through relation to women’s rights, but must be interviews with refugees in the country of addressed if the repatriation is to be suc- asylum. DPKO have a database on mines cessful and durable. UNHCR can play a which includes country specific informa- role through negotiating with the authori- tion on estimated numbers and types, and ties to protect the legitimate rights of re- progress in clearance. turnees. Repatriation method: The presence of Landmines (Please refer to chapter 26 on mines may have an impact on the pro- staff safety for safety advice on mines and posed repatriation method – for example ExCom Conclusion 74 (XLV) 1994 .) it may be necessary to encourage refugees to repatriate by means of UNHCR organ- 67. The presence of landmines on main ized transport rather than returning spon- routes of return and in returnee settlement taneously. areas poses tremendous danger for repatriating refugees and is therefore a major Mine awareness campaign: If landmines protection concern to UNHCR. The need are a factor, then a mine awareness cam- for return “in safety and dignity” means paign should be part of the mass informa- that UNHCR cannot promote or facilitate tion campaign prior to departure in the the voluntary repatriation of refugees in country of asylum, and continue in the patently dangerous situations with the risk country of origin. Ensure that the cam- of injury or death. paign reaches all sectors of the population – both men and women should be 68. Within the UN system, issues relat- involved with the planning and training ing to mine clearance are primarily the activities of the awareness campaign. The responsibility of the Department of Peace campaign must be sensitive to levels of Keeping Operations (DPKO). Where nec- literacy, roles in society, and culture. It essary UNHCR may help fund minefield should cover: existence, appearance and

462 danger of landmines, how to avoid injury, Handbook for Repatriation and Reintegra- safe rescue procedures, and recognizing tion Activities, UNHCR, May 2004. warning signs. Framework for Durable Solutions for Demarcation (marking mined areas) and Refugees and Persons of Concern, UNH- mine clearance: UNHCR should ensure CR May 2003 - Repatriation, Reintegra- that returnee areas and routes of return are tion, Rehabilitation & Reintegration 4 Rs included as priorities in national demining Framework. and demarcation plans. Returnees and lo- Protection Learning Programs, module on cal population must be taught about the Durable Solutions and Voluntary Repa- demarcation signs used. triation (revised in 2006). Key references UNHCR Supply Manual, Section 6: Mov- Registration – A Practical Guide for Field ing People. Staff, UNHCR Geneva, Geneva 2006. Voluntary Repatriation: International Pro- tection, UNHCR, 1996. (updated edition expected beginning of 2007). Voluntary Repatriation Voluntary 22

463 Annex 1: Sample voluntary repatriation form An example of the type of form that might be used for a large-scale repatriation is given below. Where ProGres is used, it produces a pre-completed form with information taken during registration, which will then only need the signature. This form can be modified to suit the requirements of the operation.

Notes for those drawing up the form 1. Agree the information required with the authorities. All of the items in the example below may not be necessary. 2. Agree who needs to complete a separate form. The example is designed to be completed by each person over 18 years old and unaccompanied children, but it may be sufficient to have the head of the family group complete one form for all accompanying dependents. 3. Agree on the number of copies and language(s): normally original plus three copies with the following distribution: original – authorities; UNHCR in country of asylum; copy 1 – applicant; copies 2 and 3 – for travel and arrival formalities. 4. If at all possible, print the forms in sets on ‘pre-carboned’ paper. 5. Draw up simple completion instructions.

UNHCR Voluntary Repatriation Form

Linked Cases:

Family/Group No:

Family Name First Name Sex Y O B Place of Birth Relationship PRA

Intended Departure Date: Reception Center:

Intended Destination: Admin Post Location I, the undersigned principle applicant, declare that I (and my dependents) after due consideration wish to be repatriated to ______

Applicant: Date: Witness:

464 Annex 2: Types of transport

General considerations Below are some advantages and disadvantages of the common means of transport. Whichever form of transport is used, the plan should also take into consideration: 1. Food, accommodation and minimum emergency health care during the journey. Where distances are short, it is recommended that only material assistance needed for the duration of the journey, plus, if essential, for the first few days after arrival, be distributed prior to departure. This will help reduce any incentive to “repatriate” several times. 2. Capacity to move all reasonable private possessions of the refugees, if at all possible at the same time as their owners. Remember that what refugees carry with them on return will be used to ensure more successful reinstallation and move more quickly towards self-sufficiency (i.e. roofing material, livestock, etc.). 3. Appropriate security and the maintenance of public order during all stages of the journey. 4. Arrangements for the safe transfer of the required documentation, passenger lists, registration forms, etc., and for keeping statistical records of the progress of the operation. 5. Escort or monitoring of the actual repatriation by or on behalf of UNHCR. At least for the first movements, a UNHCR staff member should accompany the returnees. En- sure voluntariness even during the movement stage. Voluntary Repatriation Voluntary 22

465 23 Administration, Staffing and Finance

466 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1- 3 468

Emergency staffing 4-36 468-473 Introduction 4 468 Recruitment 6 469 Reporting lines 17 470 Management 19 470 Human resource management 26 471 Staff visibility 30 472 Staff accommodation 32 472

Budget and finance 37-51 473-475 Authority to incur expenditure 37 473 Transfer of funds 41 473 Bank accounts 46 474 Exchange rates 49 475 Accounting procedures 50 475

Non-expendable property and office supplies 52-62 475-477 Non-expendable property 52 475 Asset management system 54 476 Office supplies 60 476

Office premises 63-68 477

Official transport 69-76 477-478 Vehicles 69 477 Light aircraft 74 478

Office organization 77-81 478-479

Filing and documentation 77 478 Administration, Staffing and Finance Communications 81 479 23

Key references

Annexes Annex 1: Preface and extract from “The Checklist for the Emergency Administrator” Annex 2: Suggested field filing system

467 Introduction tions premises, the right to operate foreign currency accounts, exemption from direct 1. The purpose of this chapter is to pro- taxes and customs duties on articles for vide general guidance on UNHCR’s basic official use, and facilities and immunities administrative procedures and actions in for communications. Specific considera- an emergency. Nothing in this chapter tions in respect of the emergency opera- should be read as altering any existing tion, e.g. regarding the handling of relief rules, regulations and instructions, in par- supplies, would be set out in the exchange ticular the UNHCR Manual. The latest of communications concerning the gov- edition of The Checklist for the Emergen- ernment’s request for material assistance cy Administrator (hereinafter referred to and in the project agreement (see Chapter as the Checklist) is an essential reference 8 on Implementing Arrangements). for administration in emergencies. The Checklist comes in 3 parts: Emergency staffing i. The actual Checklist (a few pages). (See the Checklist section on Personnel, This is reproduced as Annex 1. Staff Conditions & Security. See also the ii. Annexes to the Checklist (on the CD Staff Rules and the Staff Administration Rom ) which are primarily samples and Management Manual, also the In-Site of the most frequently used admin- database available on CDRom.) istrative forms and extracts from the UNHCR Manual. Introduction iii. A CD Rom containing many of the 4. As soon as possible the Head of Office forms. should communicate to Headquarters the projected staff requirements at both gen- Throughout this chapter references are eral service and professional levels with given to the relevant item in the Check- the necessary detail to enable Headquar- list. ters to review these in accordance with es- 2. The chapter considers particularly the tablished personnel procedures and to ap- opening of a new office in an emergency, prove the staffing table for the emergency. but may also be helpful when expanding Emergency staffing resources should be an existing office or establishing Sub or used for the initial emergency period only. Field Offices. In the initial period, prior to the creation 3. The status of an established UNHCR of posts, national staff could be recruited office is governed by an agreement be- and paid for under Temporary Assistance. tween the host government and UNHCR, 5. There should be no delay in com- called a Cooperation Agreement, also re- mitting necessary personnel. However, ferred to as a “Branch Office Agreement” solely adding personnel will not meet the or an “Accord de Siège”. (See Check- organizational needs of an emergency: the list Section on Premises). Until such an operations plan and definition of respon- agreement is concluded, UNHCR will be sibilities must determine personnel needs, covered by the United Nations Develop- not vice versa. Experience shows that for ment Programme’s (UNDP) agreement a given operation, smaller teams with clear with the host government. In addition, allocation of responsibilities are usually the Convention on the Privileges and Im- more successful than larger teams whose munities of the United Nations, 1946,1 is members have less clearly defined roles. applicable to UNHCR and covers such matters as the inviolability of United Na- Additional staff, who are unclear as to their role, will add to the management burden in an emergency 1 Contained in UNHCR, Refworld CD-ROM. 468 Staffing must be flexible. Numbers are Type of function likely to vary over time. Overall management and leadership Recruitment Core UNHCR functions in an Emergency Team: 6. It is important that the different advan- Field, Protection, Programme tages of national (also referred to as local) Administrative and finance functions for an Emer- gency Team, to set up new offices and train staff and international staff are understood, and that these different strengths are properly Community services functions incorporated into a staffing plan. National Supply and transport functions staff members understand the local situa- Technical functions tion and are sensitive to issues that often – technical coordinators (e.g. for health, water, nutrition); and escape the notice of the international staff – other technical support (e.g. health assess- member. They often enjoy a wide range ment, epidemic preparedness and response, of contacts that enable them to “get things health monitoring systems, engineering (physical planning, water, sanitation, roads) done”. Very significantly, national staff Support functions (e.g. base camp management, may speak the refugees’ language. telecommunications and staff safety) 7. Correspondingly, international staff 10. The need for at least the following members bring to the operation impartial- international staff (comprising an emer- ity and an embodiment of the international gency team with an appropriate gender character of UNHCR, which is essential. balance) should therefore be considered They will also have experience from else- in a large scale emergency. where to contribute to the management of the emergency. • Emergency Team Leader (with one of the senior officers also possibly act- 8. Headquarters is responsible for interna- ing as Deputy to Team Leader) tional staff identification, recruitment and • International Secretary or Assistant deployment. The need for international for the Team Leader staff will depend on the scale of the emer- • Senior Protection Officer gency and implementing arrangements. • Protection Officer(s) UNHCR has developed a number of • Senior Programme Officer standby arrangements whereby suitable • Programme Officer(s)

international staff can be deployed rap- • Sector Coordinators, e.g. community idly to an emergency operation. services, water, health, nutrition 9. The following table shows staff func- • Field Officers deployed at the refugee tions which may be needed in a large sites emergency. • Senior Administrative Officer • Finance Officer/Human Resources Officer Administration, Staffing and Finance

• Field Safety Adviser 23 • Public Information Officer • Logistics Officer • Telecoms Officer

469 11. The emergency team could be com- 16. Informal volunteers, both nationals posed of staff deployed from emergency and members of the diplomatic and ex- standby arrangements only, or a mix of the patriate communities may come forward latter plus UNHCR staff already posted to to help. The value of these outside vol- the area. Emergency standby and staffing unteers will vary considerably with the arrangements include an internal roster of situation. It will be important to assess UNHCR staff and emergency standby ar- the skills of the volunteers, the time they rangements with other organizations. De- can devote and the availability of manage- tails of these arrangements can be found ment personnel needed to coordinate and in the Catalogue of Emergency Response support them. Resources, Section A. Lack of proper supervisory support may 12. For all staff, prior experience of an lead to the volunteer taxing already over- emergency operation is of course, a great extended staff as much as, or more than, advantage. the value added.

The overriding staffing priority is to fill Reporting lines key managerial posts with experienced UNHCR staff of the right calibre. 17. In situations where an emergency team is deployed to an area of the coun- 13. In a country where a major emer- try where there is no UNHCR office, the gency is added to a previous small-scale emergency Team Leader will normally re- programme it may be necessary to replace port to the UNHCR Representative in that the existing Head of Office with a more country or the Regional Representative or experienced Head of Office at least for the Special Envoy as appropriate in the indi- duration of the emergency. vidual circumstances. 14. Administrative staff is another prior- 18. When an emergency team is deployed ity. An experienced administrative as- into an area where a UNHCR office al- sistant will be an essential member of the ready exists and has responsibility for team if a new office is being opened. In the operation, then the emergency team large emergencies experienced Finance should integrate into the staffing structure and Human Resources Officers are likely of the existing office. The decision as to to be necessary. Without persons with who should head the operation, the exist- these skills, other staff will have to devote ing Head of Office or the Emergency Team a disproportionate amount of time to UN- Leader, will depend on the circumstances HCR internal administration. National and the relative experience and seniority administrative staff must be identified and of the individuals. The decision as to who trained, but this in itself requires experi- will head the operation must be clearly enced supervision. communicated to all staff at the outset to 15. Each refugee emergency will require avoid any ambiguity in responsibilities a certain number of specialist skills even and reporting lines. at the assessment and initial phases of the Management emergency. Where these are not available in-country, the assistance of Headquar- 19. Sound human resources manage- ters for recruitment of specialists through ment, supervision and leadership are very standby arrangements should be sought important to the success of an emergency without delay. See Section A, Catalogue operation, but can easily be overlooked. of Emergency Response Resources for The initial motivation of those involved is more details of these standby arrange- a major asset, but for persons at levels that ments. do not allow an overview of the operation, 470 this can be replaced by disappointment devoting time in helping individual refu- and frustration if supervisors are too busy gees or families in distress. To seek to do to plan, organize, direct, control and con- so is very understandable. However, it tinue to motivate their staff. can lead to a personal emotional involvement at the expense of the staff member’s wider responsibilities towards the refu- 20. Responsibilities, roles and tasks must be clearly defined and understood. gees as a whole, and to resentment among other refugees. Direct responsibility for Job descriptions are the most common individual care is usually best assured management tool for defining individual by the refugee community. For all staff, responsibilities, even if the imperatives compassion must be tempered by a proof an emergency mean their frequent re- fessional approach. Guidance by supervi- vision. They are important for UNHCR sors is often needed on this point. staff, and even more so for seconded 25. Particular attention must be paid to staff (such as United Nations Volunteers proper supervision and encouragement (UNVs), consultants and staff deployed of newly recruited national staff. Often through the emergency standby arrange- the Head of Office and other international ments), and informal volunteers. Respon- staff are extremely busy, out at meetings sibility should be delegated to the lowest or in the field, and the other staff, who possible level, and with it must go the nec- may know little about UNHCR and less essary authority. Responsibility without about the operation, lack guidance and a authority is useless. sense of involvement. Some of the gen- 21. Staff meetings should be convened eral information in the emergency office regularly from the start. Team welfare kit may be useful for briefing newly re- will have an important bearing on the suc- cruited national staff. In all cases, the new cess of the emergency operation. staff should receive a briefing from their direct supervisor covering, at a minimum, Everyone must be made to feel part of general information on the operation and the UNHCR team. This includes consult- the role of the new staff member. ants, seconded staff, and volunteers. Human resource management

22. Very long hours will often be neces- 26. UNDP may be able to help in deter- sary, but supervisors must ensure that staff mining conditions of service and even in have time off, away from the refugee site, identifying national field staff. and do not get so tired that their efficiency and the professionalism of their approach 27. Careful attention must be paid to the suffers. administration of out-posted field staff. A convenient way of administering Field Of-

23. All field staff have a particular- re ficers, at least initially, is to ensure that the Administration, Staffing and Finance sponsibility to safeguard their own health, Travel Authorization (PT8) issued author- 23 but also have a role to play in ensuring izing the mission to the country of opera- that their colleagues remain in good mention also covers internal travel and daily tal and physical health (see chapter 25 on subsistence allowance (DSA). If the latter coping with stress). Early corrective ac- is not covered, an addendum to the origi- tion can avert the need to hospitalize or nal PT8 is issued. Normally in emergency evacuate key staff. situations, and to avoid staff carrying too 24. In an emergency, there may be many much cash, a DSA advance is given on a occasions when staff can clearly see that monthly basis. This advance is charged they could alleviate suffering directly by to the suspense account code as indicated

471 on the UNHCR account codes listing (VF 31. Consideration should also be given 369 in FMIS and 240020 in MSRP) and to adopting a UNHCR identity card with recorded on the reverse side of the origi- a visible photograph that can be worn as nal PT8. Upon completion of the mission, a pocket badge. Arrangements should the office settling the travel claim, must be made as soon as possible for UNHCR ensure that the travel advances are deduct- staff to receive diplomatic identity cards ed from the entitlements. issued by the government. Pending that, an official attestation in the local- lan 28. Particular care must also be taken to guage could probably be quickly obtained ensure the proper administration of out- for each out-posted Field Officer from posted national staff, for example, Field UNHCR’s government counterpart and Officers’ drivers. It should be noted here might be very useful. that while Heads of Office can authorize out-posted staff to drive official vehicles Staff accommodation on official travel, as in an emergency this is likely to be necessary, every effort 32. At the start of an emergency, inter- should be made to provide Field Officers national staff will be on mission status with drivers from the start. They can be and will generally be accommodated in of great help to Field Officers in a variety hotels. Should the daily subsistence al- of ways. lowance (DSA) not cover the basic cost of adequate hotel accommodation, Head- 29. All out-posted national staff must quarters should be informed at once and have contracts, understand their terms of all hotel receipts retained. Conversely, employment and benefits, including the DSA is reduced if official accommodation cost and benefits of the UN health insur- and/or meals are provided. If it is clear ance scheme, receive their salary regular- that special arrangements will be required ly, work reasonable hours and take leave for personal accommodation for staff who due. are assigned to that duty station, Head- quarters should be informed, with details All staff should have job descriptions of local UN practice. and understand them. 33. In extreme hardship areas, where Obvious as these requirements are, they there is no suitable staff or office accom- can be difficult to meet in an emergency. modation, a standard staff and office ac- There may be important extra demands commodation package is available. This on UNHCR drivers, both beyond simple consists of prefabricated units which are driving and also as a result of their work- stockpiled and which can be airlifted to ing for itinerant Field Officers and thus the operation. Further information is pro- spending considerable time away from vided in the Catalogue of Emergency Re- home. These factors must be taken into sponse Resources (Section C). account. 34. Standard travel kits and field kits are Staff visibility also available from the emergency stock- 30. A means for visual identification of pile, and details of their contents are pro- UNHCR staff may be necessary, particu- vided in the Catalogue of Emergency Re- larly outside the capital. Visibility materi- sponse Resources (Section C). The kits als, available from Headquarters, include have been developed to provide staff with flags, stickers (including magnetic stick- some basic personal items likely to be of ers), vests, armbands, T-shirts and caps use in the first days at such places, pend- (see the Catalogue of Emergency Re- ing more appropriate local arrangements. sponse Resources Section B). The kits will normally only be issued to 472 staff proceeding to isolated locations from 39. Authority to enter into obligations or via Geneva, and when it is clear that for administrative support expenditure is there may not be time to obtain what is given by an Administrative Budget and actually needed on arrival in the country Obligation Document (ABOD). This is of operation. If UNHCR is already rep- issued by Headquarters and is addressed resented in that country, the Field Office to Heads of Offices. It covers all non-staff should have a good idea of conditions to costs including temporary assistance and be expected and thus of what specific per- overtime. sonal equipment may be needed, and this 40. Authority for additional administra- is probably best purchased locally. tive support expenditure in an emergency 35. Responsibility for the provision of the is given to an existing Field Office by necessary personal items rests with staff amending the existing ABOD. When an members. Even when issued with kits, emergency occurs in a country where UN- staff should check carefully what other HCR is not already represented, an initial items may be required; it is unlikely that ABOD will be issued immediately. This a standard kit will meet all needs. Staff can then be amended when more details of receiving kits will be required to account administrative requirements are known. for them at the end of their mission, and For offices that are using the Financial will be expected to at least return the non- Management Information System (FMIS), consumable items. the Administrative Budget Control Sheet (ABCS) provides information on expendi- 36. In difficult conditions it may be nec- tures against funds allocated. For offices essary to hire a base camp manager who that use the Management Systems Renew- will be responsible for organizing living al Project (MSRP), the ABOD Expendi- arrangements for UNHCR staff. A de- ture Report (HCR113) provides the same scription of the tasks of a base camp man- information. ager is provided in the Checklist for the Emergency Administrator. Transfer of funds Budget and finance 41. It is essential to have funds immediately available. Funds will normally be (See Annex 1: Checklist for the Emer- made available by bank transfer. Howev- gency Administrator: Section on Finance, er, such transfers, especially to out-posted Equipment & Supplies) Field Office bank accounts, sometimes suffer undue delays because of complicat- Authority to incur expenditure ed banking channels. It is very important 37. Currently UNHCR classifies expend- to select a local bank with a direct interna- iture into two types: tional correspondent relationship, if pos-

sible with Citibank N.A. New York, Deut- Administration, Staffing and Finance i project expenditure; and schebank GMBH, Standard Chartered ii administrative support expenditure. Bank, or the UBS Bank in Switzerland. 23 This classification of expenditure may Further information can be provided by change in the future. the Treasury Section at Headquarters. 38. Authority to enter into obligations for 42. At the start of an emergency it may be project expenditure is given by a letter of possible to hand carry a banker’s cheque instruction (LOI). Further details can be from Geneva to be credited directly to the found in chapter 8 on implementing ar- Field Office bank account. If this is done, rangements. proper precautions must of course be taken to ensure the security of the cheque.

473 43. In very extreme cases, when no of US$100 should be made by cheque. banking services are available, cash may Whenever local circumstances require be acquired locally (e.g. through local regular cash payments in excess of this companies and traders) upon specific au- limit, Headquarters’ approval must be ob- thorization from Treasury. Funds would tained. be transferred to an account indicated by the trader after receipt of the cash by Bank accounts UNHCR. Cash may also be provided to 46. All local UNHCR bank accounts are Field Offices through professional courier opened by Treasury upon recommenda- services. Information about cash trans- tion from the Field Office. The choice of fers, past, present and future, must be a bank will be determined by its reputa- treated with absolute discretion. tion, ease of access, services offered and 44. Subsequently funds will be transferred charges. Other UN agencies, diplomatic by Treasury upon cash replenishment re- missions and NGOs should be consulted. quests in the standard format shown in the The following information is required: box below. Care should be exercised that i. full name of the bank; funds are called forward as close as possi- ii. address, phone, telex and fax num- ble to the date of their utilization to avoid bers; unnecessary high bank balances over pro- iii. type and currency of account; longed periods. iv. full details of the Bank’s interna- To: UNHCR Treasury (HQTY00) tional correspondent bank, (including From: Requesting Officer/Field Office Location SWIFT code, ABA, IBAN, etc.); Subject: Cash Replenishment Request v. maximum amount of any one cheque; Please effect an immediate transfer of funds vi. suggested panel of bank signatories; based on the following information: and Balances on hand (all bank accounts and petty cash) at (dd/mm/yy): (provide details of amounts vii. Aamount of initial transfer. and currencies) Total disbursement needs for the next x (maxi- 47. Treasury will designate the author- mum 4) weeks: (provide details of administrative and programme needs, amounts and currencies) ized bank signatories. Two joint signatories are normally required to operate Replenishment amount requested: (indicate amount and currency) UNHCR bank accounts. In exceptional Complete bank name and address, including UN- circumstances, signature by one Officer HCR bank account number, and the Field Office’s may be authorized. accounting system receiving bank code. Particular care must be taken to ensure 45. Disbursements for both administra- cheque book security. tive and project expenses are made in the Cheques must bear UNHCR in words, be Field either from a local UNHCR bank consecutively numbered, verified on re- account or, pending the opening of such ceipt, and kept in a safe by a staff mem- an account, through UNDP. In the latter ber designated by the Head of Office. case, UNHCR Headquarters will arrange Cheques should always bear the name of with UNDP Headquarters for the local the payee and should be crossed unless UNDP office to receive the necessary au- there is an overriding reason why this is thority to incur expenditure on behalf of not practicable. Under no circumstances UNHCR. Settlement is made between should a bank signatory pre-sign either a UNHCR Headquarters and UNDP New blank cheque or one which is only partial- York for these transactions. As a rule, ly completed. disbursements exceeding the equivalent 474 48. Field Offices will normally maintain immediately entered into the electronic ac- one non-resident local currency bank accounting system. In locations where nei- count; circumstances may however also ther FMIS nor MSRP have been installed, require the opening of a non-resident US a manual payment voucher (F.10) should dollar account and perhaps even a resident be completed and immediately entered on local currency account. Where problems a bank journal (HCR/ADM/800) for each of exchange control regulations are en- transaction. It is essential that the vouch- countered, the Treasury at Headquarters er quotes the authority for payment (LOI, should be informed immediately. Field ABOD, PT8 (Travel Authorization)). A Offices should ensure that the most favour- “Mini Payment Voucher” book (F.11), able conditions are obtained for the trans- designed especially for emergencies, may fer and conversion of UNHCR funds. be used by out-posted Field Officers. An official UNHCR receipt voucher should Exchange rates be issued and entered on the bank journal 49. If there is a significant discrepancy, for any receipts other than replenishments i.e. more than 3%, between the actual from Headquarters. Similarly, payments market rate and the prevailing UN rate of from petty cash have to be accounted for exchange, a request for a revision of the in the petty cash journal (HCR/ADM/800). latter should be made. This request should It is imperative that all vouchers and jour- be coordinated with UNDP and other UN nal entries list the correct account code, organizations locally and addressed to as indicated in the UNHCR account codes UNDP New York. The communication listing and on the PT8, or the project sym- should contain a summary of the fluctua- bol marked on the LOI against which the tions over the previous 60 days. If nec- transaction is to be debited/credited. essary, UNHCR Headquarters should be requested to intervene with UNDP New York. 51. Whatever the pressures of the emergency, accounts must be kept up-to-date and the monthly closure done on time. Accounting procedures 50. UNHCR accounting procedures are in Experience has shown that failure to do the process of being changed with the in- so will not only delay the replenishment

troduction of the Finance & Supply Chain of the bank account but will also result in modules of the Management Systems Re- far more work than would originally have newal Project (MSRP) which is replacing been required. the Financial Management Information System (FMIS). MSRP is now being used in more than 100 offices worldwide. It is Non-expendable property and office expected that, apart from locations where supplies Internet connections cannot support the Administration, Staffing and Finance (See Annex 1: Checklist for the Emer- system, almost all UNHCR Offices in 23 the Field will be using the MSRP by the gency Administrator: Section on Finance, end of 2007. Whatever system is in use, Equipment & Supplies) a Field Office that operates its own bank account(s) must report to Headquarters Non-expendable property monthly on all transactions for each ac- 52. Authority to purchase office furni- count. The procedure is the same for both ture and equipment is given in the ABOD. administrative and project expenditure. Field Offices may purchase locally or Most importantly, a properly supported regionally if the cost of the item is less payment voucher must be completed and than 15% above that available through 475 the Supply Management Service at Head- computer and telecommunications equip- quarters.2 ment, relevant data about the item will be sent to the Field on diskette so that the of- 53. The purchase of computer equipment, fice can import the details into the asset vehicles, telecommunications equipment management system. and security equipment should be coordinated with Headquarters in order to ensure 57. Where an asset is re-deployed to an- conformity with the organization’s speci- other location, data about it should be sent fications. Local purchase should be con- on diskette to the receiving office for im- sidered and if the cost is within the 15% portation into the asset management sys- limit referred to above, the Field Office tem. should forward three pro forma invoices, 58. It is important that all assets are bar- together with the item’s specifications, to coded and recorded in the asset manage- the Supply Management Service at Head- ment system from the beginning of the quarters for approval. operation. Failure to do so will result in “lost” assets and in far more work than Asset management system would originally have been required. 54. The asset management system is an electronic system to track and manage all 59. Offices maintaining their own asset non-consumable assets owned by UNHCR management database should regularly (with a lifespan of over a year), regard- send their databases to the country office less of funding source or user (including for consolidation. for example all vehicles, telecommunica- The consolidated database should tions and computer equipment, furniture be sent to Headquarters every three and office equipment, buildings such as months. clinics, office, hospitals, and water purification and construction equipment). The Office supplies system should be installed into at least one 60. An emergency office kit (see Cata- computer at the country office level. A de- logue of Emergency Response Resources, cision should be made at the beginning if Section C) can be used to supply a new the extent of the operation requires that the office with stationery and small office system be installed in other offices within equipment. The stockpiled kits weigh ap- the country. The office must also have the proximately 120 kg and are packed in two system user manuals, bar-code labels and cardboard boxes. Each kit is designed for data entry forms (obtained from the Asset an office with five international staff and Management Unit at Headquarters). 10 national staff.3 55. Whenever an asset is purchased, 61. Office supplies, as well as printed sta- whether locally, regionally, through Head- tionery and forms, can be purchased local- quarters, or by implementing partners ly, regionally, or if this is too expensive, with UNHCR funding, it must be bar-cod- ordered from Headquarters. Office sup- ed and recorded in the asset management plies and printed forms listed in the UN system. catalogue may be ordered on a stationery 56. Where items are acquired from stock- request form (GEN-236/1) directly from piles maintained at Headquarters, such as Headquarters. The emergency kits are not intended for re-supply, even in emergen- 2 Costs of items available through Headquar- cies. ters are quoted in UNHCR’s Catalogue of Most Frequently Purchased Items, UNHCR, Geneva, 3 Further information is also contained in the (updated regularly) and in IAPSO’s catalogue of Catalogue of Emergency Response Resources Office Equipment, IAPSO (updated regularly). (Section C). 476 62. Orders for items not listed in the □ utilities (electricity, water, heating, UN catalogue4 and which are not locally air-conditioning, wires for telephone, available should be requested from Head- toilets, simple kitchen facilities, stor- quarters, giving all necessary details and age room, etc.); specifications. □ physical layout and orientation of the building: ensure that the building Office premises and grounds are suitable for radio and satcom antennas and that there (See Annex 1 Checklist: Section on is no interference from neighbouring Premises) installations e.g. pylons; 63. The order of priority for obtaining of- □ provision for a large enough meeting ; fices is: □ space for UNHCR to discharge its i. rent-free from the government; coordination responsibilities through ii. in common UN premises; coordination meetings; iii. government-provided offices against □ room for expansion: in emergencies reimbursement by UNHCR; and the numbers of staff can fluctuate iv. commercial rent. considerably; and □ the condition of the office. 64. Interim arrangements may be necessary, but the early establishment of the 67. The use of residential accommoda- UNHCR presence in a convenient location (e.g. a villa) as an office may be an tion will be of obvious importance to the option. success of the operation. 68. Once office premises have been se- 65. Office space per person should not lected, the government, diplomatic com- exceed about 14m2, but an approximate munity, other UN agencies and NGOs addition of 30% is needed to allow for a should be informed accordingly, and the reception area, interviewing room, meet- relevant information provided to neigh- ing room, and services area (filing, copier, bouring UNHCR offices and to Headquar- etc.) as appropriate to the scale of the op- ters. eration. Official transport 66. Considerations in selecting office premises include: (See Annex 1 Checklist: Section on Com- □ location (distances from local authori- munications & Transport. In addition, ties/ministries, implementing part- chapter 21 on supplies and transport deals ners, bank, post office, airport, etc.); with all transport issues, focusing on □ transport for operational needs).

security (for authorized access to in- Administration, Staffing and Finance dividual refugees and UNHCR staff, to prevent unauthorized access, and Vehicles 23 for the physical security of offices, 69. It is essential for UNHCR staff to be files, etc.) and compliance with the mobile. Action to ensure enough of the Minimum Operating Security Stand- right type of official vehicles will be a ards (MOSS); high priority. Consult the Supply Manage- □ parking facilities; ment Service at Headquarters regarding the purchase of vehicles (see chapter 21 on supplies and transport for more information about the purchase or acquisition 4 Office Supplies, Forms and Materials, UN, of vehicles). Once the vehicle is sold or Geneva, 1990. 477 passes from UNHCR’s control (e.g. at the assessment and the initial response, or end of a lease agreement), ensure that any longer-term when the existing communi- official UN or UNHCR logos and stickers cations infrastructure does not adequately are removed. Magnetic stickers (avail- cover the location of the refugees and the able from Headquarters) can be quickly journey by road is long and uncertain. In attached and removed from vehicles and some circumstances, security is also a re-used. consideration. 70. Requests to Headquarters for vehicle 75. Immediate action to provide the nec- purchase should give full details (make, essary flights is essential. Initially, or type of body, number of doors, long or where the need is short-term, this is likely short wheelbase, left or right hand drive, to be by commercial charter unless the petrol/diesel, special options: sand tires, UN system already has a light aircraft extra fuel tanks, air-conditioning, heater, and spare capacity. If locally based char- mine protection, anti-theft device, etc.). ter companies exist, seek impartial local The duty-free on-the-road price and deliv- advice on their reliability, obtain as many ery time must be given if local purchase is offers as possible and send these to Head- requested. quarters with a recommendation. Include details of passenger insurance coverage. 71. In many countries duty-free fuel may This information should be complement- be available for official UN vehicles. De- ed by an indication of the required weekly tails of procedures should be obtained flight plan (e.g. per week: 3 return flights from the government and other UN or- capital/location X; 1 return flight capital/ ganizations. Follow them from the start; location Y; 1 round trip flight capital/X/ retroactive reimbursement is often impos- Y/capital), and the estimated cost for the sible. necessary flights (total or per month). 72. Vehicle daily log sheets should be 76. Where local charter is not possible introduced from the day the official vehi- or a long-term need is foreseen, inform cle becomes operational and these should Headquarters with as much detail of the be designed in such a way as to show the requirement as possible and ways it might daily mileage of each vehicle and the pur- be met (for example, of charter companies pose of each trip. The daily log should from neighbouring countries known to op- also include the names of the driver and of erate in the country of operation). Some the passenger(s). Mileage should be regu- government disaster corps and a number larly checked against the purchase of fuel of NGOs operate light aircraft. Some for that vehicle. are specialized in this field like Aviation 73. It is important that vehicles are in- Sans Frontieres (ASF), and the Mission- sured and registered upon arrival. In re- ary Aviation Fellowship (MAF). If there spect of each official vehicle assigned to a is already such an operation in the country Field Office, adequate insurance covering their advice should be sought. third party risks should be arranged locally with a reputable insurance company. Office organization

Light aircraft (See Annex 1 Checklist: section on Filing 74. There may be situations when a light & Documentation and Communications aircraft is the only way to ensure satisfac- & Transport). tory communications between the various UNHCR locations. The need may be Filing and documentation temporary, for example to expedite needs 77. A simple office communication system should be put in place immediately. 478 This can be implemented by, for example, □ Obtain immediate access to a tel- pigeon holes (ideally one for each staff- ephone and fax and tell Headquarters member and one for each collaborating (and neighbouring UNHCR offices as organization), white-boards and notice- appropriate) the numbers and where boards. This will help to ease commu- they are located. nication problems in the confusing early □ Set up controls and registers for days of an emergency. incoming and outgoing communica- 78. A suitable filing system and registry tions from the start. controls should be set up immediately on □ Establish a pouch system between the the opening of a new office. Annex 2 gives offices within the country of opera- some guidance as to what might be re- tion and Headquarters. quired and how filing could be organized. □ Consider communications needs in selecting office premises. 79. A rubber stamp to show date of re- □ ceipt, file, action officer and remarks will Obtain a PO box number and tell be very useful. The practice of putting a Headquarters (and local authorities, chronological number on every outgoing etc.) the number. communication is strongly recommended □ Once the UNHCR telecommunica- and will be particularly helpful in the con- tions network is installed, inform fused early days. Everything should have government, UNHCR Headquarters, copies on the chronological file in addi- neighbouring UNHCR offices, dip- tion to a subject file. lomatic corps and others, and ensure correct listing in national telephone 80. As a precautionary measure, offices directories, in the local UN and should have a shredder to destroy any diplomatic lists, and in the UNHCR unwanted documents or correspondence. directory. In some countries waste paper is sold and used in markets for packaging, so care Key references should be taken that discarded UNHCR Catalogue of Emergency Response Re- documents are not used in this manner. sources, October 2004. Checklist for the Emergency Administra- Communications tor, UNHCR Geneva, 1998 (and subse-

81. Communications needs are discussed quent updates). in the communications chapter. A simple check-list for a new office is given below; Most Frequently Purchased Items, the order will not necessarily be the prior- UNHCR, Geneva, (updated annually). ity. NGO Directory, UNHCR Geneva, 1996 □ Identify the need for a telecommuni- (and subsequent updates). cations network as soon as possible Office Equipment, IAPSO, Copenhagen, Administration, Staffing and Finance (radio, e-mail, satellite, etc.). 1998 (and subsequent updates). 23 □ Obtain necessary permission from the authorities to operate the equipment The UNHCR Manual, chapter 6 on Finan- with the assistance of the RTO (Retail cial Management, (chapters on financial Tagging Organization) or HQ Tel- regulations and rules, especially those ecoms if necessary. financial rules for voluntary funds that are administered by the High Commis- sioner).

479 Annex 1: Checklist for the Emergency Administrator (Note: This checklist is regularly updated, the latest version is dated November 2006)

PREFACE This checklist is intended as a practical tool for UNHCR staff when responding to emergencies and assigned to duty stations where there is no established UNHCR presence, or where the existing office needs to be strengthened as a result of new events.

There are 3 components: • The Checklist itself which lists most activities requiring consideration when establishing a Branch, Sub or Field Office. Not all items will be relevant. The Administra- tive Officer together with the Head of Office will need to determine what action is to be taken. The list is not presented in an order of priority and it is therefore important to set your own priorities depending on the local circumstances. The list does not cover administrative procedures and actions required for the ongoing needs of the office, but concentrates on those related specifically to the establishment of an office. Each item is preceded by a box which you may tick off as action is taken. • Annexes, which are primarily extracts from existing documentation. These have been included for ease of reference and are not substitutes for existing manuals and instructions of which the most important is the UNHCR Manual to which frequent reference should be made. Not all relevant UNHCR forms are included, as these are available in the Emergency Office Kit, or directly on request from Headquarters. • A computer disc (CD) which contains the documents mentioned in the table of contents and formats for all forms or documents which are indicated by an (*) in the Checklist. These forms or documents can be copied and amended to suit local needs. (It is recommended that the original format is not amended directly.)

The importance of setting up effective administrative procedures from the outset cannot be over-stressed. They will have important consequences for effective administration throughout the operation.

480 ESTABLISHING AN OFFICE CHECK-LIST FOR THE EMERGENCY ADMINISTRATOR

ACTION ANNEXES

PREMISES

¨ 1. Establish a UNHCR Cooperation Agreement if not already a. Model Agreement(*) in place or consider its amendment if one already exists b. Example Agreement but circumstances have changed. c. UN Convention on Privileges & Immunities ¨ 2. Identify need for Sub/Field Office Operations a. UNHCR Manual Chapter 2. Section 7.1-7.5.12-Field Office ¨ 3. Establishing an Office, Procedure. a. UNHCR Manual, Chapter 6 Identify Office Premises, negotiate lease and seek Section 9.1- 4 approval from Geneva. b. Standard lease (*) c. Note on Selecting Premises Closing an office, Procedure. ¨ 4. Consider the use of UNHCR stickers and UN flags, a. UNHCR Logo/Flag, revision posters and visibility material. Request more from HQ & guidelines, IOM/59/05- (PI section) if necessary. FOM/58/05, October 2005 b. List of stockpiled visibility material ¨ 5. Consider “Base Camp” requirements and need for Base a. Base camp manager profile Camp Manager, in situations where this is applicable. COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT ¨ 6. Determine immediate needs for and set up communica- a. Communications Info Kit tions: Telephone, E-Mail, fax, telex and/or radio and including Communications pouch. Complete communications questionnaire and Questionnaire send to HQs Attn. Telecommunications Unit. b. Telecommunications inventory forms (*) c. Pouch Service Instructions ¨ 7. Establish telecommunications procedures. Train staff a. IOM/97-FOM102/97-December and advise of procedures. 1997-Procedures for Request- ing EDP and Telecom Equip- ment. - IOM/15-FOM/14/2004- March 2004, 2005 Budgeting Guidelines for IT& Telecom, Computer, Equipment. - Sitor/Pactor/Manual

b. Voice procedures c. Codan user instructions (*) d. Handover letter for handsets(*) e. Handset user instructions (*) f. Radio room discipline (*) g. Communications procedures ¨ 8. Establish log for recording long distance phone calls a. FOM/008/91, Telephone com- giving particular attention to private phone calls. munications and the keeping of

a log/private use/official Administration, Staffing and Finance b. FOM 01/93(*), Private use of

official telecom facilities 23 c. Telephone log form (*) ¨ 9. Prepare forms for telex/fax messages. a. Model format (*) ¨ 10. Establish communications log and chron files. a. Radio message chron forms(*) Advise staff on addressing all communications proce- b. IOM/009-FOM/009/2005—Bud- dures. geting guidelines for IT & Telecommunications(*) ¨ 11. Establish a regular system (shuttle) for transport of mail a. Shuttle Passenger Manifest (*) and personnel between sub office and branch office (if necessary). ¨ 12. Determine Admin Vehicle needs: Landcruisers, Pick- a. Excerpts SFAS Handbook ups, saloons and/or minibus. b. Excerpts IAPSU Catalogue 481 ¨ 13. Establish procedures for light vehicle use: a. Excerpt from UNHCR Manual -Authority for UNHCR staff to drive official vehicles b. Driver Log format (*) c. Vehicle Tracking format (*) -Driver trip logs d. Excerpt from ICRC Handbook -Vehicle tracking system e. Authority to drive official ve- -Maintenance logs hicles (*) f. Inventory record form -Construct key box & ensure key security g. Vehicle inspection check list -Identify best means for vehicle servicing h. Rules for drivers -Make arrangements for the purchase of duty-free petrol i. Vehicles in UNHCR operations j. Fuel receipt voucher (*) -Undertake driver education sessions k. Mileage rates PERSONNEL, STAFF CONDITIONS AND SECURITY ¨ 14. Establish staffing table with organigram and job descrip- * PAS.Area of Responsibilities. tions. Send to HQs Attn. RCDPS, PCBS and Desk. a. Typical field office structures Guidelines for the preparation of UNHCR job description, sample organigrams revised job description forms, record of post competency b. FOM/21/97, Revised Post requirements. Requirement/Creation c. IOM/30-FOM 28/2002 –Terms of Reference for the ORB with Associated Resource Allocation Procedures d. IOM/25-FOM/25/2003- Desig- nation of UNHCR Country Of- fice; Accreditation, Functional Titles and Reporting Lines; Negotiation and Signature of Agreements with Governments e. IOM/08-FOM/08/2004-Revised Job Description Form ¨ 15. Identify sources for local staff recruitment. Prepare sim- a. Simplified job application plified Job Application Form for local staff. (P11 to be used form (*) only for candidates who are being seriously considered). b. P11 Personal History Form.

482 ¨ 16. Recruit essential and urgently required local staff. Set up a. SAMM Chapter 4, Appointment local recruitment committee. Following selection, issue and Promotion. Recruitment short term contract and arrange appropriate medical b. Forms, IOM/04-FOM/04/2002. check. January 2002.APPC - Basic Recruitment Formalities During Emergency b. Interview Notes& Report Phase. Forms(*) IOM/20-FOM/21/2000-Compe- Competencies (RPCR) tency-Based Interviewing Revised Regulations on Appointments, Promotions and c. Recruitment tests for local Postings Committee (APPC) Staff(*) Revision to the APB Rules of Procedures d. IOM 75/2003-FOM75/2003, dated November 2003-Rules & Procedures, Guidelines of GENDER ISSUES APPB. IOM02-FOM03/2000, Equal treatment of men and women; equality of men PCRF and women; gender balance; gender equality; sexual e. IOM35-FOM37/, April 1999- harrassment; women, permanent working group on; Towards Gender Equity in UNHCR. women, policy guidelines for the improvement of the f. SAMM – Chapter 9, Separation status of women in UNHCR/Secretariat; women, special from Service measures to improve the status of women in the Secre- g. IOM38-FOM36-2002-Disciplin- tariat. ary Proceedings and Measures Separation h. IOM71-FOM67-2002-The Fast Abandonment of post, abolition of post, death in service, Track Model for the Deploy- expiration of appointment, resignation, retirement/early ment of Staff retirement, summary dismissal, unsatisfactory service, i. IOM37-FOM40-1996.Spouse voluntary separation (agreed). Employment and Related matters. Pension Fund j. IOM26-FOM26-2004-Tempo- New Family Status Entitlement rary Assistance lines in the context of the 2005 Annual Programme Review k. SAMI No.2004/5 New Proce- dures relating to the Release of Pension Fund Benefits upon separation from Service l. IOM24-FOM24-2004-Family Status for purpose of United Nations. Entitlements and ST/SGB/2004/13 dated 24 September 2004 ¨ 17. *Identify UN Examining Physician if necessary when a. SAMM Chapter 4 , Section 4.2 no UNDP Office and inform DHRM (SASS) for medical (APPC Regulations)

services approval. b. Staff Rule 104.16, IOM/85- * MIP Enrolment and accounting procedures FOM/83/2001, IOM/32-FOM/32 May 2003 Medical Evacua- Medical Examination and Clearance. tion in extreme emergencies, * PAS1/2002/00851 of June 2002, see related topic in November 2001 PAS1/2002/00820 dated 16 May 2002 c. SAMM Chapter 6,Section 6.7 ,Medical Insurance d. IOM/50-FOM/51/99, Medical Clearance for mission and field staff e. IOM/FOM/43/95, Administration Administration, Staffing and Finance of the Medical Insurance Plan (MIP) by UNHCR Field Offices, 23 June 1995 f. IOM/14-FOM/14/1999, January 1999, Increase in MIP reimbursement

483 ¨ 18. * Set up personnel files for all staff . a. SAMM Chapter 12, Section * New induction and orientation process of all staff. 12.4 b. IOM/20-FOM/19/2002, May * Disciplinary proceedings and measures for SMs. 2002, New Induction and Ori- * The role of the Inspector’s General Office on inspection, entation Process for all Staff preliminary investigation and inquiries. c. SAMM Chapter 10, Section * Constitution of the Rebuttal Board 10.2 and d. IOM/37-FOM/35, May 2002- Inspector General’s Office. e. IOM/56-FOM/52,Sept 2002- Rebuttal Board ¨ 19. Establish types of leave recording system – a. SAMM Chapter 5, Section Annual leave, 5.1.11 Annual Leave, Family leave option Commutation of Annual Leave Home leave b Leave and Attendance Records Maternity/paternity leave c. SAMM Chapter 5.1, Time, Attendance and Leave Sabbatical leave programme Recording, FOM/09/98, Sick leave January 1998. Special leave d. IOM/08-FOM/10/98, February 1998, Introduction of a Family Special leave with full pay (SLWFP) Leave Option. Special leave without pay (SLWOP) e. Staff Rule-105.2, Special leave, SLWOP ¨ 20. Establish working hours, overtime and DSA for local a. Staff Rule 101.4-101. Hours staff on mission in country in accordance with UNDP of Work and Official Holidays. practice. SAMM Chapter 3, ST/ ST/AI/2000/3 (staff rule 303.2) of 1 January 2004 SGB/2004/3, 1 January 2004 Overtime compensation for staff members in the Field Overtime Compensatory Service category at established missions. Time Off, IOM/76-FOM/65/89, June 1989. b. IOM 61/-FOM/53/88, April 1988, salary advances, Local Staff, IOM/120-FOM 112/88, November 1988, Salary advances, Int. Staff SAMM Chapter 3, ST/ SGB/2004/3, January 2004 Overtime Compensatory Time Off, c. Copy of Over Time Record Form.(*) d. ST/AI/2000/3, OT Compensa- tion for staff members in the Field Service category established missions IOM/76-FOM/65/88, June 1989, CTO. ¨ 21. Establish local mission tracking system. a. Mission recording format (*) b. Travel Claim Settlement. Calculation Form(*) ¨ 22. Send information on “Appendix B” for your duty station a. Format of appendix B - SAMM to Geneva re: special conditions for local staff of UNHCR Chapter 1, procedure 1.5 Offices away from Headquarters ¨ 23. Check that DSA appropriate for duty station and if consid- a. SAMM Chapter 7, Section ered to be inappropriate complete DSA Work-sheet if no 7.1.6 UNDP Office and transmit to DHRM (SASS). b. DSA Worksheet & guidelines, System and rates established by ICSC for DSA and UN Exchange rates, DSA, ST/ exchange rate. AI/2003/9 dd January 7 2004. (Section 3 revision) c. IOM/09-FOM09/2004- System of DSA d. Travel Claim Settlement/Calcu- lation format (*)

484 ¨ 24. If new duty station complete Classification a. SAMM chapter 7, Section 7.11 of Duty Station questionnaire & send to HQs, Classification of Duty Station Special Entitlements at Designated Duty Stations. Questionnaire b. Guide to the Mobility and Hard- ship Scheme & ICSC Question- naire c. IOM/012-FOM/012/2004- Special Operation Approach (SOLAR) dd 23/01/2004 d. IOM Special Operation Chad/ Sudan/Darfur ¨ 25. Review the validity of the post adjustment and if consid- a. SAMM Chapter 3.5, SAMM ered inappropriate advise DHRM. Staff Rule 103.7 and ST/ IC/2001/24 19 March 2001 Post adjustment classification for New York ¨ 26. Determine appropriateness of salary level of local staff a. SAMM, Chapter 3, Section 3.2 and if inappropriate advise DHRM, Salary and Allowance b. Excerpt from CCAQ GS Survey of International Staff. Manual – Salary Setting Prin- Salary increments and related allowances. ciples c. SAMM Chapter 3: Salaries Hazard allowance for local staff - procedures, and Related Allowances, topic eligibility, calculations etc. 3.7 - 3.8 Currency and modalities of payment of salaries and d. SAMI0022 - Hazardous pay; allowances. see procedure under Chap.3, Section 3.23 e. IOM/36/2001-/FOM/34/2001, 30 April 2001, Currency and Modalities of Payment of Salaries and Allowances, & ST/AI/2001/1 dd 08/02/2001 ¨ 27. Staff costs appendix D (1%) a. IOM/66-FOM68/2000, Septem- Fixed term appointments of short duration and ber 2000, FTA ,Consultants – 1% Contribution to Appendix consultants D and SAMMI No.2005/6 - 1% Contribution to Appendix D b. IOM/FOM/004, 19 January 2006 c. IOM/44-FOM/44/2005, 18 July (2006) Revised Salary Scale for International and Field 2005, HOME Service Category. d. IOM/24-FOM/25 ,April 2000 Housing Maintenance Element (HOME) - Mobility and Hardship Allow- Mobility and Hardship Allowance - reduction of mobility ance element. ¨ 28. Negotiate discounts in local hotels and advise HQs. a. Questionnaire on room and Ensure guaranteed room availability for mission staff. meal costs Administration, Staffing and Finance 23

485 ¨ 29. Consider security procedures and an appropriate a. Excerpts from UN Field Secu- evacuation plan. rity Handbook Standard Operating Procedures for Air Operations. b. IOM 47/92 on Field Security reporting Strengthening UNHCR emergency preparedness and c. FOM/81/97, October 1997, response capacity and addressing security in refugee Identification Cards for Local and returnee populated areas. and Contract Staff d. IOM/74-FOM/76 , October Malicious Acts Insurance - the new restrictions on the 2000, Standard Operation Insurance Policy for 2006. Procedures for Air Operation e. IOM/43-FOM/44 of June 2000, Strengthening, EPRS Security measures: use of guards, travel precautions, f. IOM/60-FOM/60/2006- 10 clearance. August 2006- Malicious Acts Insurance. g. UNHCR Manual Chapter 6. Section 3.10.1-11, Travel Pre- cautions h. IOM/106-FOM 103/2001, December 2001, Resource Allocation for Staff Safety MOSS i. IOM/105-FOM 102/2001, Meet- ing Staffing Needs for Staff Safety j. IOM/17-FOM/17/2003- Manda- tory Security Course k. IOM/23-FOM23/2004- Review of UNHCR’s Security Policy & Implementation for Staff ¨ 30. Collect personal data on international staff and request a. Personal Data form staff to complete inventory forms if warranted by security b. Personal Effects Inventory form situation. c. IOM /81-FOM83/2000-Guide- Shipment of personal effects. lines on UNHCR Records & Personal Property Relocation of staff. d. IOM/06-FOM07/2000, January 2000-Add. 9 Shipment of Per- sonal Effects and Household Goods e. IOM /84-FOM/82/2001,Add.01, Relocation Grant-Implementa- tion Measures. SAMI 2004/2 & SAMI 2005/7 ¨ 31. Identify best means and procedures for MEDEVAC (medi- a. Elements of a Medevac. cal evacuation) mode of transport, recognized place, DSA Plan for a UNHCR Office applicable, place of staff members choice, etc. and IOM/85-FOM/83/2001, MEDEVAC Table of contents November 2001, Guidelines for Medevac Plan , b. IOM/29/2002-FOM/27/2002, April 2002, “Payment of Subsistence allowance during medical evacuation” c. Staff Rule 107.1-107.2 (a)(vii), Medevac Travel of Staff Member &Family ¨ 32. Special Operations Area: SOLAR Rates, a. IOM/60-FOM/57/2001, June Establish frequency and procedures for staff welfare 2001, Ad Hoc DSA missions through R and R policy; (Rest and Recupera- b. IOM/10-FOM/10/2006, 31 tion). January 2006, R & R Policy c. IOM/35-FOM/38/1998, No- Extra Regional Travel vember 1998, Extra-Regional Hazard Pay Travel against HQS’s ABOD d. SAMI 2004/6, 26 May 2004

486 ¨ 33. Review the living and working conditions, report to a. Structure of living and working Headquarters and request field kits, personal travel kits conditions report (*) and staff accommodation as appropriate. b. Example of Emergency Opera- Administration of rental deduction by Field Offices tion Living conditions paper c. Catalogue of Emergency Re- sponse Resources (field kits, Residential security measures and reimbursements travel kits, staff accommoda- procedures for International staff members tion) - 2002 d. IOM/68-FOM/70/95, Octo- ber 1995, Accommodation Provided by UNHCR & IOM/61- FOM/68/1997, August 1997, Delegation of the Administra- tion of Rental Deductions. SAMI 2005/8 17 August 2005. IOM/02-FOM/02/2003-dd 02/01/2003- Discontinuation of the Fund for International Field Staff Housing & Basic Ameni- ties e. IOM/103-FOM/100/2001, December 2001, Residential Security Measures f. UNHCR Manual, Chapter 6- Section 3.8, Staff Residences ¨ 34. Design and begin training and coaching programs in of- a. Excerpts from UNHCR Training fice procedures for local administrative staff. *Guidelines Module on the implementation of staff development activities for b. Notes on Coaching Skills Field Offices, and budget allocation. c. Using Interpreters (*) d. Language Training (*) & Guide- lines on Language Training For Field Offices. e. IOM/07-FOM/07/2002- January 2002, Guidelines on the Imple- mentation of Staff Development Activities for Field Offices and Budget Allocation f. IOM/54-FOM/61/1997- Es- tablishment of the Career Management System and the Performance Appraisal Report g. IOM/31-FOM/32/2000- Revital- ising the Career Management

System-Revised Performance Appraisal Report h. IOM/61-FOM/62/2000-Estab- lishment of the Rebuttal Board i. IOM/3-FOM/3/2004- External Studies in UNHCR j. IOM/1-FOM/1/2004-Guidelines on the Implementation of Staff Development Activities for Field Offices and Budget Allocations Administration, Staffing and Finance 23

487 FINANCE, EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

¨ 35. Survey local banks. Propose bank signatories and im- a. UNHCR Manual Chapter 6. prest level and request HQ to open bank account. Opening a Bank Account. - Propose ceiling and request approval for petty cash b. IOM/64-FOM/65/2000, Sep- account. tember 2000, Designation of Bank Signatories. - UNHCR Delegation of Financial Signing Authority - Questionnaire to Setting Bank including policy documents and relevant Annexes. Account Required by HQS. - Opening and closing of bank account c. Standard Format for Cash - Cash safe keeping measures Replenishment Request(*) d. IOM/67-FOM/69/2000,October 9, 2000, UNHCR Delegation of Financial Signing Authority & IOM/67/Add.1- FOM/ 69/2000 Add.1 of 19 December 2000, UNHCR Financial Signing Authority e. UNHCR Manual Chapter 6, Section 4.1-10, Opening and Closing of Bank ¨ 36. FINANCE: ADMIN./PROJECT a. Allotment account codes for UNHCR Account Codes for 2006 2003, MSRP account codes Budget structure and codes (programme delivery and programme/administrative sup- - Establish accounts procedures. port) - Record keeping of monthly account files. b. Budget Structures and Codes/ - Internal control, audit, Project. Chapter 4. Annex 8.2 c. Format for Manual Payment Voucher/Mini.PV d. FOM/ 68/1999, August 1999, Recordkeeping of Monthly Ac- count Files e. Audit Chapter 6 - Section 5.2- 5.13 Self-Evaluation Checklists ¨ 37. Request emergency allotment advice if not already re- a. Copy of Emergency Allotment ceived & finalize administrative budget request to HQs on Advice ABPS. b. Excerpt of Operating Instruc- Budget preparation and control. tions of ABPS d. IOM/116-FOM/120/94, Decem- Internal control, audit. ber 1994, Field Office Admin Parameters and further procedures for submission and Budget Procedures review of COP and HQ Plans. Preparation and process f. Chapter 6, Sec.4.6 , 4.10-Bud- for the programme review of COP and Headquarters get Preparation and Control plans. g. IOM/53-FOM/53/2005, 14 - ORB procedures. October 2005, Detailed Project Submissions for 2006 h. IOM/09-FOM/10/2002, January 16, 2002- Project Planning in UNHCR i. IOM/16-FOM/15/2002, Febru- ary 2002, COP at HQS j. IOM/27/2002- March 2002, Programme Review at HQS & IOM/44/2002, July 2002-Annu- al Programme Budget Review k. IOM/30-FOM/28/2002, May 2002- Terms of reference for the ORB and Associated Re- source Allocation Procedures l. IOM/16-FOM/16-2004- Accept- ing of Additional Contribution for Unbudgeted Activities

488 ¨ 38. Purchase and inventories non-expendable property, a. UNHCR Manual Chapter 4, As- particularly furniture, vehicles and equipment and decide set Management/Non-Expend- which to be charged to admin allotment and to project able Property. expenditure (if any). b. GS.45 Forms c. IOM/32-FOM/32/1999, March 1999, Asset Management Boards d. IOM/34-FOM/35/2000, May 2000, Implementation of the Asset Reporting and Tracking Inventory Programme-Asset Trak e. IOM/52/2001-FOM/49/2001, July 2001, - Transfer of the Asset Management Unit to the Supply and Transport Section and the Release of new As- setTrak version 5.37 f. IOM/7-FOM/7 /2004 Cost of inspection and insurance of goods procured by the Supply Management Service ¨ 39. Check stocks of stationery and supplies, sort forms into a. Chapter 6 Section 6.8- Sup- manila folders & order stationery and forms required from plies and Materials. Forms Geneva. ¨ 40. Investigate the possibility of the local printing of statio- a. Survey Local Market, Self-As- nery. If possible and the cost is reasonable, request per- sessment. Price Comparison mission to do so from HQs. Proceed only once address, (Ref. Procurement Procedures) telephone number, etc. known and not likely to change. ¨ 41. IT, (Telecommunications Facilities ,EDP), equipment and a. Refer Section 6,7 and 8 needs and recommend improvements/request additional b. IOM/15-FOM/15/2004- Bud- equipment. If necessary request services of ICSS consul- geting Guidelines for IT and tant to assess optimum admin (and programme) needs. Telecommunications Support, Computers and Telecommuni- cations Equipment FILING AND DOCUMENTATION ¨ 42. Advise BO or HQs which newspapers and periodicals (This is part of field office bud- to be sent on a regular basis. geting (ABPS) but worthwhile arranging separately ¨ 43. Set up Master file list, chron files and document a. Filing principles registration system. b. Standard file list (*)

c. Chron Register Format (*) d. IOM/72-FOM/72/1999, August 1999, Introducing Records Schedules & IOM/72-FOM/72/2001, August 2001, Records Schedule IOM/59-FOM/56/2001, June 2001, Records Schedules IOM/65-FOM/66/2000,- Re- cords Schedule 8 Administration, Staffing and Finance ¨ 44. Set up distribution system with central location of trays. a. Example Action Sheet (*)

Consider local construction of pigeon holes. Establish b. Example Circulation Slip(*) 23 document circulation system.

489 Annex 2: Suggested field filing system

1. A file list should be established immediately on the opening of a new office. It should be done in such a way that it can expand and contract to take account of new situations. One must achieve the correct balance between being too specific and too general. 2. Three types of files should always bear a standard format reference or symbol whether maintained at Headquarters or in the Field: personnel (PER/IND) files, individual case (IC) files and project files. The latter symbol is always allocated by Headquarters. A personnel file bears the file reference PER/IND FAMILY NAME, given names, e.g. PER/IND SMITH, Ms Jane Marie. An individual case file bears IC FAMILY NAME, given names RUR (country of residence)/RUR (country of origin) e.g. IC SMITH, Ms Jane Marie RUR/RUR. A project file bears year/source of fund/country of operation/assistance type/project number, e.g. 98/EF/RUR/EM/140. 3. An indication of subject files which might be required is given below. The number designates a subject not a file. Accordingly, files may comprise two or more file numbers. Do not make subsequent perusal difficult by filing items out of sequence. 4. Security should be considered when filing documents, in paper and/or electronic form. Files which should be destroyed in the event of evacuation of the office should be marked in advance. These should include individual case files and personnel files.

Suggested file list

1. General & external affairs 133 Public information activities & media 100 UNHCR structure/mandate & gen. info. relations 101 Executive Committee 134 Press releases & press clippings 102 IOM/FOMs 135 Conferences and special events

110 Relations with (host) Government 140 Training/seminars/workshops 111 Relations with local Consulates 112 Inter-Agency meetings 150 Fund raising/contributions 113 NGOs (general & alphabetical by agency) 2.Protection 114 UN Agencies (general & alphabetical by agency) 200 Protection general – UNHCR 115 Inter-Governmental Organizations (gen- 201 Human rights/country of origin info. eral & alphabetical by agency) (RUR – alphabetical)

120 Reports from the field 210 Protection (host country) 121 Situation Reports (SITREPS) 211 Detention 122 Camp profiles 212 Determination 213 Tracing 130 Missions to the office (UNHCR & alpha- 214 Family reunion betical) 215 Physical security of refugees 131 Missions by office staff (alphabetical) 216 Registration 132 Visitors to the office (non-UNHCR & chronological) 490 3.Operations & assistance 4. Administration & finance 300 Field operations general 400 Administrative policy 301 Field operations (by site/camp) 401 Administrative instructions

310 Programme general (UNHCR) including 410 Office premises FOBS 411 Office and personnel security 311 Assistance programme general (host 412 Asset management country) 413 Expendable property & supplies 312 Emergency management 414 Utilities 313 Technical support 415 Records management/filing 314 Procurement 416 Communications 417 Transport/vehicles 320 Food/nutrition 321 Health 420 Staff rules & regulations 322 Water & sanitation 421 Office staffing 323 Site planning & shelter 422 Applications for employment/recruitment 324 Non-food items & domestic supplies 423 Salaries/benefits/allowances/living con- 325 Logistics (procurement, transport, stor- ditions age) 424 Taxation/exemptions/privileges & im- 326 Community services, counseling, communities munity development 425 Leave & holidays 327 Education 426 Travel/mission & leave rosters 328 Productive activities & income generation 430 Accounting & finance procedures 329 Camp management 431 Rates of exchange 432 DSA rates 330 Repatriation 433 Administrative budget & obligation docu- 331 Local settlement ment 332 Resettlement

Administration, Staffing and Finance 23

491 24 Communications

492 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1 494

Communications management 2-8 494

Telecommunications 9-11 495 Telecommunications staffing 9 495 Telecommunications infrastructure 10 495 Types of telecommunications 11 495

UNHCR telecommunications network 12-49 496-501 Field preparations 12 496 Office accommodation 17 496 Radio equipment 20 497 High frequency (HF) radio networks 21 497 Very high frequency (VHF) radio networks 30 498 Radio call-signs 37 499 Field-Headquarters telecommunications 41 500 Data security in UNHCR operations 42 500 Privacy and security for email 44 501 Photocopying and printing 45 501 Security and passwords 46 501 Emergency response kits 47 501 Global Service Desk - operating hours 48 501

Annexes Annex 1: Common communications equipment and terminology 502 Annex 2: Message identification 503 Annex 3: Phonetic alphabet 504 Annex 4: Radio communications and procedures for UNHCR 505 Communications 24

493 Introduction 4. Under the pressures of an emergency there is sometimes a tendency to exchange 1. In emergency operations, proper tel- incomplete information. If the informa- ecommunications will greatly increase tion is insufficient for the purpose of the the overall control, coordination, and ef- message, and if the matter cannot wait, fectiveness. The establishment of infor- then acknowledgement of gaps may save mation systems and telecommunications time and trouble. For example, “further links between field offices, emergency information being obtained but mean- managers, implementing partners, logis- while please react on points…” tics/transport staff, and technical experts will significantly enhance the capacity of 5. The most appropriate means of trans- the international relief system response. mission for the message should be con- Effective communications require appro- sidered in view of cost, urgency and bulk. priate equipment, infrastructure, and good For example, avoid using the telephone management. or fax when the message could be passed by electronic mail (email). Similarly, Communications management large amounts of data, unless very urgent, should be sent via pouch or mail rather 2. With improved means of communica- than by email. tions, even from very remote locations, 6. Using or developing standard forms the proper management of communica- can assist communications management, tions has assumed great importance. The as they can act as a checklist for informa- structure and flow of communications tion usually transmitted in that form of should reflect that of the management of communication (sitreps are an obvious the operation, with communications being example – see the annex to chapter 8 on channelled in a properly structured man- implementing arrangements.) ner. 7. An effective referencing system must At each level reports and information re- be used – this is a major factor in ensuring ceived should be analysed and consoli- good communications. Correct number- dated before being passed to the next ing and/or referencing will greatly help level. identify earlier communications. It will Raw information should not be routinely also provide a means to systematically transmitted simultaneously through sev- track actions required and help maintain eral levels of the management structure orderly and disciplined communication. by copying reports widely, in addition to See chapter 20 on administration for more directing them to the person responsible information on a filing system. Annex 2 for action. Distribution of information describes the official UNHCR message should be restricted to those who need identification system which is used by the it for the exercise of their functions and Telecommunications Unit. communications traffic in general should be restricted to that which is necessary. Use separate messages for clearly separate subjects. 3. Originators of communications should always ask themselves what the purpose 8. The immediate requirement for com- of the message is, who will be receiving it, munications may be satisfied by telephone, and whether the information contained is email and fax. However, regular pouch, sufficient and appropriate for the purpose. courier or mail services should be established as soon as possible. A checklist for communication needs, which should be considered when setting up an office, is 494 contained in chapter 20 on administration. ii. Fax. Facsimile (fax) operates over In addition, the Checklist for the Emer- standard telephone lines, or satel- gency Administrator contains guidance, lite (VSAT, INMARSAT) connec- forms and information for setting up dif- tions. Fax facilities are available to ferent types of communications. and from most countries, however it is more expensive and less easily Telecommunications relayed than email. Telecommunications staffing iii. Email. Email also operates over standard telephone lines or satellite 9. Effective telecommunications requires connections. In the initial phase of staff and equipment dedicated to that task. an operation, email can be obtained When planning telecommunications re- through portable satellite data ter- quirements, Emergency Preparedness and minals, or using local phone lines if Response Section (EPRS), the Regional available, and later the SITA network Telecommunications Officer and the Tel- or VSAT satellite system can be used ecommunications Unit at Headquarters if there is a suitable connection point. should be involved as early as possible. These can help to identify experienced iv. Radio. Radio is mostly used for UNHCR telecommunications staff that voice communication. Installation could be deployed to the operation. Emer- by qualified technicians is required. gency staff can include telecoms techni- In an emergency it is almost always cians, operators and officers from UNH- necessary to set up radio networks CR’s standby arrangements. If necessary to ensure communications between these resources can be used to supplement UNHCR offices and between UNHCR UNHCR Telecom staff. and other agencies. The radio network will also provide an emergency Telecommunications infrastructure back-up for communications with Headquarters in the event of landline 10. The existing telecommunications in- communications being cut. Mobile frastructure of the country may not sup- radios (handheld or installed in ve- port UNHCR’s requirements, because the hicles) enable staff in the immediate infrastructure may be either inadequate or region to maintain contact with one damaged. Certain security situations can another and with the office. also result in the telecommunications facilities being closed down or drastically v. Transportable satellite services reduced (in which case cellular telephone terminals. From Thuraya to Iridium, networks would also be unavailable). Inmarsat mini M or Bgan, a wide variety of transportable satellite services Types of telecommunications terminals can be deployed in emergencies depending on the coverage 11. The following are the principal means area and the service required to fulfill of telecommunication currently available the operation needs. Communications for use by UNHCR:

vi. VSAT (or Very Small Aperture 24 i. Telephone. Telephones can be con- Terminal – a slight misnomer as the nected through standard landlines or smallest dish size is 1.8-2.4 me- cellular networks for communica- tres in diameter). VSAT provide a tions within the country, and through wide range of services in a private international or satellite connections dedicated network. Telephone, fax, (VSAT, INMARSAT, Thuraya, Irid- electronic data services the Internet ium, etc. ) for communications with and email communication services other countries. can all be provided using this type 495 of equipment. Installing VSAT is a installations. The competent authority will substantial technical and financial need to know specific information about undertaking and an analysis of the operating frequencies and characteristics site and network required to support of the equipment. This information can the operation must be carried out by again be obtained through the Regional qualified technicians. Telecommunications Officer or the Tel- ecommunications Unit at Headquarters. UNHCR telecommunications network 16. As telecommunications are often Field preparations regarded with suspicion, especially with 12. The need for a UNHCR telecommuni- systems outside the control of the state cations network should be discussed at the such as satellite phones and VSAT, con- highest appropriate level in the concerned tact your Regional Telecoms Officer to ministry dealing with UNHCR matters seek for advice on licensing before negoti- (for example, the Ministry of Home Af- ating any specific agreement with the host fairs). The advice of the technically com- country which could have technical or petent authorities should be sought (for financial implications to UNHCR or our example the Ministry of Communications implementing partners in the operation. or post and telecommunications service). Note that Section IX of the Convention Office accommodation on the Privileges and Immunities of the 17. The physical requirements for tel- United Nations provides that “the UN ecommunications equipment should be should enjoy for its official communica- kept in mind when choosing office -ac tions, treatment not less favourable than commodation (see chapter 23 on admin- that accorded to diplomatic missions in istration). For example, a radio antenna the country”. will require space either on the roof of 13. Contact EPRS, the Telecommunica- the building or in an open area at ground tions Unit at Headquarters or the Regional level, and a room for the operating equip- Telecommunications Officer as soon as the ment very close to the antenna. For op- need for a telecommunications network is timum results, the cable connecting the known. Give the proposed number and radio equipment with its antenna should location of offices, and distances between be as short as possible, and not more than them, so they can advise on the type of 50 metres. equipment needed. Permission to oper- 18. Satellite equipment installations and ate a radio station and frequency clear- VSAT in particular, require a clear and ance must be obtained – in most countries uninterrupted view towards the horizon in there is a standard government application the direction of the equator (i.e. towards form. the southern horizon in the northern hemi- 14. In most cases HF and VHF frequency sphere, and towards the northern horizon licences or permissions to operate have al- in the southern hemisphere). The angle of ready been granted to the United Nations elevation of the satellite terminal antenna Development Programme (UNDP) and/or above the horizon will depend on the lati- other UN organizations. The Telecom- tude of the office; the highest angle to aim munications Unit or the Regional Tel- to a geo stationary satellite would be on ecommunications Officer will assist you the equator. in completing the government application 19. In the case of a VSAT installed on a form. building (on a flat roof for example), the 15. It is also necessary to obtain permis- building must be strong enough to bear sion to operate satellite communications the weight. If it is installed at ground 496 floor level, there should be enough space upward and at an angle from the antenna, around it for a safety margin (4 m radius) until is reaches the ionosphere and is re- to avoid the possibility of anyone coming fracted back down to earth, to the receiv- too close to the transmitting antenna. ing antenna. • Ground wave is used to communicate Radio equipment over shorter distances usually less 20. There are two types of radio equip- than 50 km. Because ground wave ment generally used by UNHCR in field follows the contours of the earth, it operations for voice and data transmis- is affected by the type of terrain it sion: high frequency (HF) and very high passes over. Ground wave is rapidly frequency (VHF) radio. Generally, HF reduced in level when it passes over communications are used for longer dis- heavily forested areas or mountainous tances than VHF. The distance over which terrain. VHF is effective can be greatly extended • Sky wave is used to communicate re- by the installation of repeaters. VHF and liably over medium to long distances HF radio would therefore be installed in up to 3,000 km. Whilst the nature of the offices and in vehicles as appropriate; sky wave propagation means it is not depending on the distance from base the affected by the type of terrain as in vehicle is expected to travel. ground waves it is affected by factors involving the ionosphere. High frequency (HF) radio networks 24. During the course of the day, the 21. It is essential in remote areas to place sky wave is significantly affected by the a high priority on reliable long-distance height of the ionosphere above the ground. communications. As well as helping to When the sun is higher the ionosphere avert personal disaster, effective commu- will be higher and the best frequency to nications can save you time where break- use for long distance communication will downs might occur. be higher. At night, the sun being lower 22. HF communications are free of on the horizon, the best frequency to use charge. The units can be used for medi- for the same distance will be lower. um and long range voice communication 25. The following illustrations show the and are easy to operate when using radios characteristics of ground wave and sky with selective calling such as the units wave propagation during day and night used by UNHCR. These equipments are time. In each illustration the height of the fairly expensive to purchase and require ionosphere above the ground is shown. In a proper antenna system, a technician to both illustrations Station A communicates install them and some training to operate with Stations B, C and D. Propagation properly but a contact with another station from Station A to B is by ground wave. within in UNHCR network is virtually as- The diagrams illustrate that the ground sured. wave is not affected by the time of day Communications and the height of the ionosphere above the

HF frequencies and propagation 24 ground. Propagation from Station A to C 23. When HF radio waves are generated and D, is by sky wave and the diagrams by the transceiver there are two compo- illustrate the sky wave is significantly af- nents: fected by the time of day and the height of The ground wave, which travels directly the ionosphere above the ground. from the transmitting antenna to the re- 26. Under each diagram there are recom- ceiving antenna following the contours of mended working frequencies listed which the earth and the sky wave, which travels will also vary according to the time of year 497 and other factors and are intended only as HF systems configuration and a guide. installation: 27. The way your system is configured, Day: the choice of antenna system, the power supply used and the quality of the installation are extremely important and will affect the success of your HF communications. 28. In order to allow interconnection with implementing partners and sister agencies, the UNHCR HF radio network is in most operations, integrated in a UN common system HF network. A standardized selective call system defines 2 digits of The sun is higher, the best frequency to use is higher the SelCall for the alphabetical sequence A to B - Possible optimum working frequency is for the letter of the agency followed by a 3 MHz sequential number for the bases within the A to C - Possible optimum working frequency is same radio network. between 7 - 9 MHz A to D - Possible optimum working frequency is The SelCall (selective calling) system is a between 13-16 MHz digital means of calling and station identification. This feature is installed as standard on all UNHCR HF radios. SelCall en- Night: ables direct and positive contact on calling frequencies with any station maintaining a SelCall watch. 29. Regional Telecoms Officers and their technicians performing UNHCR HF systems installations have already established a frequency plan and a channel selection guide for the area of operation. Please contact them for advice.

Very high frequency (VHF) radio net- The sun is lower, best frequency to use is lower works A to B - Possible optimum working frequency is 30. VHF covers the spectrum ranging 3 MHz A to C - Possible optimum working frequency is from between 30 to 300 MHz. Equipments between 5 - 7 MHz in this band of frequency are used to en- A to D - Possible optimum working frequency is sure local/regional communications in our between 9 -12 MHz operations. An efficient coordination tool with our implementing partners and sister agencies, VHF is also an essential compo- Certain weather conditions and man-made nent of UNHCR staff security electrical interference may cause a continuous or intermittent increase in the level VHF communications operation of background noise and may affect the 31. There are two possibilities for VHF success of your communications via HF. networks. The simplest, called “simplex network” uses a single frequency and has a limited range based on direct wave 498 transmission. The more complex called 36. Once again, Regional Telecoms Of- alternate semi duplex system involves the ficers and their technicians performing use of a repeater. In difficult areas like cit- UNHCR VHF systems installations have ies, mountainous areas or deep forest, but probably already established a frequency also for handheld to handheld, in order to plan for the area of operation. Do not hes- increase the coverage the use of a repeater itate to contact them for advice. is essential. Radio call-signs 32. Repeaters are automatic transmit- ters/receivers that provide a greater trans- 37. Each radio installation will have its mission and reception range. In effect, own unique call-sign. The office instal- the two parties talking are not receiving lation is known as the “Base” station, the direct signals, but signals linked through vehicle installations are “Mobiles”. It is the repeater. Generally these units will be useful to have a formal naming conven- installed as high as possible, for example tion for the call-signs, in order to provide on a high building, on a mast or tower, or a logical reference. For example, one let- mountain to give the best coverage. ter can be used to signify the country of operation, one letter to signify the loca- 33. A unified VHF system such as our tion, followed by one letter for the agency usual operations radio networks will con- concerned. Remaining letters and figures tain both simplex and repeater channels. may be added to provide additional clar- A user is then able to determine which ity, if the number of users on the network channel was most applicable to use based is particularly high. (The country letter is on the distance they were from the other normally omitted, unless cross-border op- party. erations are taking place).

VHF frequencies and propagation 38. For example, a UNHCR office -in stallation in Ruritania, Townville would 34. VHF waves travel in what is known as be (R) T R Base, shortened to T R Base. direct wave. Direct waves propagate the A vehicle installation for the same office distance that one can see (line of sight), would be (R) T R Mobile 1 (T R Mobile typically with a range of up to 20 Km, de- 2, etc.). pending on the topography of the area. 39. The phonetic alphabet (see Annex 3) 35. The range of a VHF network is heav- is used so that the call signs can be more ily dependent on the height of the an- readily understood over the radio, thus the tennas. Variations in elevation and geo- above example becomes Romeo Tango graphical features will affect the range. Romeo Base (shortened to Tango Romeo In planning a VHF network to have good Base), or Romeo Tango Romeo Mobile coverage close attention must be paid to One. Call-signs for individuals using hand the geographical features of the area re- held radios will normally follow the struc- quired to be covered. Communications

Maximum indicative distances using VHF: 24

Hand held 5W, Hand held 5W, Mobile 40W, Base 40W, 20 cm antenna Car antenna Car antenna Base antenna Hand held 5W, 20 cm antenna 3 Km 5 Km 10 Km 20 Km

Hand held 5W, Car antenna 15 Km 15 Km 30 Km

Mobile 40W, Car antenna 40 Km 60 Km

Base 40W, Base antenna 100 Km 499 ture, for example (for UNHCR Townville, absent. It is better, therefore, to address Ruritania): messages that require immediate attention to a generic email address, these are T R 1 Representative addresses with the form HQxxnn, where (“Tango Romeo One”) xx are letters indicating the organizational T R 1 1 Deputy Representative unit and nn are digits denoting a subunit, T R 1 2 other staff member in e.g. HQAF04 is the generic email address Representative’s office of Desk 4 of the Africa Bureau. Urgent messages may be copied to the Telecom- T R 2 Senior Administrative Officer munications Service Desk at Headquar- T R 2 1 Administrative Assistant ters, who will alert the relevant Desk Of- T R 2 2 other administrative staff ficer, or Duty Officer, as appropriate. member Data security in UNHCR operations T R 3 Senior Logistics Officer T R 3 1 Logistics Assistant 42. Virus and hacker attacks, identity theft, destruction of data, leak of information or simply lost data on your worksta- Standard 1st digit call number system: tion… Data security is essential within an office. Simple practices will help you to Fixed: protect the refugees, your colleagues and 1 = Management and miscellaneous the organization: senior staff • As much as possible close your lock- 2 = Finance and administration ers, cabinets, drawers and door when 5 = Security leaving the office. 8 = ICT / Technical Services • Ensure that computers are switched Recommended: off when unused. 3 = Logistics • Make regular backups and store them 4 = Programme in a separate and safe location. If 6 = Agency defined the area is unsafe think about which 7 = Drivers / Transport documents or files will be needed in 9 = Visitors case of evacuation. • Ensure your workstation has an up- 40. Dedicated numbering prefixes should dated anti-virus software. only be used for departments or user 43. The Internet creates many threats to groups large enough to justify a dedicated our personal privacy. Your cyberspace prefix. For further information regarding online activity may lead to significant pri- call-signs, refer to the Regional Telecoms vacy risks. Officer in charge of the operation area. • Expect little to no privacy unless explicit protection measures are em- Field–Headquarters telecommunications ployed. 41. Email allows the field to communi- • Assume that your online communica- cate directly with individuals at Head- tions are not private. quarters and at field offices where a Local • Be aware that applications may retain Area Network (LAN) Email Post Office is passwords for subsequent reuse. installed. However, email messages sent (This is important to remember for directly to individual staff email addresses libraries, Internet cafes, etc.). may not be read and acted upon immediately if the staff member is unexpectedly 500 Privacy and security for email to gain unauthorized access to informa- 44. Drafting a document on a sensitive tion systems. With a user name and pass- refugee case? Need to share it with col- word in hand, intruders can masquerade leagues away from the office? Unless ac- as you. Carefully follow UNHCR offi- tion is taken, documents transmitted over cial guidelines in protecting your security the Internet are in “clear text,” meaning passwords. readily readable. Emergency response kits • Messages sent using and within the 47. UNHCR EPRS unit maintains a UNHCR email system, including stockpile of IT and telecommunications correspondence with Field Offices equipment for rapid deployment to emer- whose addresses appear in the Ad- gencies. The equipment will provide dress Book, may be assumed to be emergency response staff with immediate secure. communication links from even the most • Under no circumstances use free web remote locations. based mail services for UNHCR official correspondence. If you can get For detailed information on these kits access to a web based service you can please refer to the Emergency Catalogue. get access to the official and secured UNHCR GroupWise internal email Global Service Desk – operating hours service. 48. Should you need technical assistance • Do not include in a message transmit- for IT or telecommunications related quested via the Internet any information tions, the Global Service Desk at Head- you would not put on a postcard. quarters is staffed between the following local Geneva times: Photocopying and printing Operating hours: Monday - Friday, 45. Email and document security within 0800 - 1800 Geneva local time, except UNHCR offices is often jeopardized by UN official holidays in Switzerland printing and photocopies. (subject to modification) • Restrict the number of copies to the Global Service Desk email address: strict minimum [email protected] • Collect immediately your documents at the printer Global Service Desk telephone number: • Use a document shredder to destroy +41 22 739-8888 restricted documents 49. Swiss time is one hour ahead of GMT Security and passwords in winter and two hours ahead in summer. Arrangements can be made to extend these 46. Deciphering passwords is one of the working hours, as necessary, in emergen- most commonly used methods for hackers cies. Communications 24

501 Annex 1: Common communications equipment and terminology

Common Full name Description and use name or acronym

SATCOM Satellite Communications Generic term for any satellite communications system. INMARSAT International Maritime Satellite Inmarsat is a Global satellite service provider offer- Organization ing a wide range of services from mobile beacons to high speed data services. Mini-M Refers specifically to INMARSAT Small laptop sized satellite telephone terminal Mini M service voice terminal. mostly used for voice communication. These units are widely used in UNHCR.

BGan / RBgan Refers to specific INMARSAT Small laptop sized satellite Telephone terminal BGan /RBGan services data mostly used for data /high speed data communica- modem terminals. tion. These units are widely used in UNHCR.

Thuraya Satellite system Combined Satellite/GSM phone with regional coverage using one geo stationary satellite service provider. VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal Satellite system which allows multiple lines of telephone, fax and data to be transmitted via a selected geo stationary satellite.

GroupWise Novell GroupWise Mail Standard UNHCR email application.

SITA Société Internationale des Télé- An organization providing a global data communi- communications Aéronautiques cations network, mainly airlines but also non-airline customers like UNHCR. HF High Frequency Range of frequency (HF: 3 to 30 MHz) used for long distance radio communication.

VHF Very High Frequency Range of frequencies (VHF: 30 to 300 MHz) used for short distance radio communications. VHF is used in most of UNHCR operations.

UHF Ultra High Frequency Range of frequencies (UHF: 300 to 900 MHz) used (Higher than VHF) for short distance radio communications.

Repeater Repeater Equipment used to extend the range of VHF short distance radio communications devices to a range of 20 to 80 km, depending on the topography.

Handset Radio Handset Terminal Handheld VHF or UHF radio transceiver.

502 Annex 2: Message identification The following instructions are for telecommunications operators who need to keep a formal log of all messages received and transmitted (including email, fax and PACTOR). The principles are that in each case “HCR” must appear in the prefix and whatever the type and means of communication, each message must bear one number unique to that transmission for each addressee.

Components of the message identity are: • Message from Headquarters to the Field: HCR/aaaaa/9999 • Message from the Field to Headquarters: aaaaa/HCR/9999 where aaaaa is the official UNHCR location (Duty Station) code of the Field Office concerned and 9999 is a four figure sequential number starting at 0001 on the 1st of January each year. • Between field offices: aaaaa/bbbbb/HCR/9999 where aaaaa is the five letter location code for the sending field office and bbbbb is the five letter location code for the addressee, and 9999 = four figure sequential number, starting at 0001 on the 1st of January each year. • To non-UNHCR addressees: aaaaa/MSC/HCR/9999 There are two categories of four figure sequential numbers which may be used: Category A is used for communications between Headquarters and field offices and between field offices with a considerable message exchange. The number used would be the next in the series for communications that year between the originator and addressee. Category B is for UNHCR addressees who do not fall into Category A and for non-UNHCR addressees. If there are many such messages, two series may be used: UNHCR and non-UNHCR. All series or sequences restart at 0001 on the 1st of January.

Examples Category A messages: HCR/ANGLU/0123 means the 123rd message from Headquarters to Luanda, Angola this year. ANGLU/HCR/0210 means the 210th message from Luanda, Angola to Headquarters this year. ANGLU/RSAPR/HCR/0097 means the 97th message from Luanda to Pretoria, South Africa this year (where Luanda and Pretoria use sequential numbering).

Category B messages: ANGLU/SENDA/HCR/0024 means a message from Luanda to Dakar, Senegal, and which is the 24th Category B message this year from ANGLU(where Luanda and Dakar do not use sequential numbering). If there is more than one addressee, a separate message identity must be used for each. If the message is being sent to some addressees for information only, this should be indicated in brackets after the respective message identity. For example messages from Luanda to Headquarters for action, copied to Dakar for information, would bear the following:

ANGLU/HCR/0124 Communications ANGLU/SENDA/HCR/0024 (SENDA for info) 24 In order that the system can work effectively any missing sequential number in Category A must be reported to the other category A addressee as soon as possible, and the last number of the year (or of a series) must be reported to each category A addressee. If a category A number is duplicated by mistake, correct this by allocating the next available number and reporting this number to the addressee by a service (SVC) message. Note that the SVC message itself should also be numbered. Indicate the date or subject to avoid any danger of confusion.

503 Annex 3: Phonetic alphabet

Letter Phonetic Equivalent Numeral Spoken as

A Alpha 1 0 Zero B Bravo 2 1 Wun C Charlie 3 2 Too D Delta 4 3 Thur-ree E Echo 5 4 Fo-wer F Foxtrot 6 5 Fife G Golf 7 6 Six H Hotel 8 7 Seven I India 9 8 Ate J Juliet 10 9 Niner K Kilo 11 L Lima 12 M Mike 13 In general, numbers are transmitted digit by digit ex- N November 14 cept that exact multiples of hundreds and thousands O Oscar 15 are sent as such. P Papa 16 Q Quebec 17 Example: R Romeo 18 S Sierra 19 T Tango 20 U Uniform 21 12 Twelve V Victor 22 44 Fo-wer Fow-er W Whiskey 23 90 Niner zero X X-Ray 24 136 Wun thuh-ree six Y Yankee 25 500 Fife hundred Z Zulu 26 16000 Wun six thousand

504 Annex 4: Radio communications proce- message to be understood (and writ- dures for UNHCR ten down if necessary) while maintaining a natural rhythm. Getting prepared and transmitting • Use standard pronunciation. Em- • Check the radio is prepared for opera- phasize vowels sufficiently. Avoid tion : extremes of pitch; do not let your • VHF Handhelds – Always ensure voice drop at the end of a sentence. that the battery is charged and have Speak in a moderately strong voice a spare available. Check that the but do not shout, as this will distort antenna is attached correctly. the signal. • HF Mobiles/Base – Check power • Hold the microphone at about 5 cm supplies regularly. Check cable con- from your lips while speaking. Shield nections i.e. antenna, power supply, the microphone from background microphone. noises. • Decide beforehand what you are • Be aware that everything that you going to say, ensuring that it will say can be heard by anyone using a be clear and concise. Make notes if radio receiver on the same frequency. necessary. Depending on the situation in the • Check that no one else is speaking on country of operations, it may be wise the network before you start. In the to use simple codes (e.g. Alpha-Nu- case of HF mobile or base stations meric codes for locations, call signs do not attempt to use Recall if the for names, etc.) network is busy. • Ensure that each user on the network • Avoid excessive calling. In particular is registered on a master list held by with HF or VHF selective calling the Radio Room, and that any unau- system. Over HF, It can take up to thorized call signs heard on the net 30 seconds for the remote station to are noted and the users (if known) are generate its automatic reply. Calling properly registered or informed that again too soon you will not hear an they do not have permission to use incoming reply from the called sta- the network. tion. • Never transmit military or any other • The called station may be able to hear restricted information on UN radio you but be unable to reply, or you network as it could have a direct may not hear their reply. Make one impact on your own safety. last call stating “NOTHING HEARD, OUT”. The other station can then call Always remember ALL field communication systems used by UNHCR can be in- you back when they are in a more tercepted and cannot be considered as suitable location to do so. secured. • If your message is long, divide it into sensible phrases, pause to allow your Communications 24

505 Procedure words

Pro Word Meaning Acknowledge Confirm that you have received my message and will comply (WILCO). Affirmative Yes/Correct Negative No/Incorrect All after Everything that you (I) transmitted after…. All before Everything that you (I) transmitted before…. Break All stations will immediately cease transmission leaving a blank in their mes- Break! sage for the incoming station to join the network on hearing that ProWord. The station Breaking has urgent message. Correct You are correct. Correction The correct version is… Your last transmission was incorrect; the correct version is…. Disregard transmis- This transmission is an error, disregard it. sion Do not answer Station(s) called are not to answer this call, acknowledge this message, or to transmit in connection with this transmission. Figures Numbers follow (in message). Message I have an informal message for you. Message follows I have a formal message which should be recorded (e.g.) written down. Over I have finished my turn. A response is expected. Go ahead, transmit. OR I have finished my transmission. (Over and Out are never used together). Out No reply is expected have nothing more for you, do not reply, I shall now call another station on the net. Read back Read back the following message to me exactly as received.

I read back The following is my reply to your request to read back. Relay to… Transmit the following message to all addressees or to the address immediately following. Relay through Send this message by way of call sign….

Roger I have received your last transmission satisfactorily. Roger so far? Have you received this part of my message satisfactorily? Say again Repeat all of your last transmission. Say again all (word) Repeat portion of message indicated. after (before) I say again I am repeating my transmission or portion indicated. Send Go ahead with your transmission. Send your message Go ahead, I am ready to copy. Silence – Cease all transmission immediately. Silence – Will be maintained until lifted. Silence! Only used by Network Control Operator. Silence lifted Silence is lifted. Net is free for traffic. Only used by Network Control Operator.

506 Speak slower Adjust the speed of your transmission. Faster I spell I shall spell the next word phonetically. Through me I am in contact with the station you are calling, I can act as a relay station.

Message passed to… Your message has been passed to… Unknown station The identity of the station calling or with whom I am attempting to establish communication is unknown. Verify Verify entire message (or portion indicated) with the originator and send correct version. To be used only at discretion of or by the addressee to whom the questioned message was addressed. I verify That which follows has been verified at your request and is repeated. To be used only as a reply to verify. Wait I must pause for a few seconds. (wait – wait) Wait out I must pause longer than some seconds, and will call you again when ready. WILCO I have received and understood your message and will comply (only used by the addressee). Word after… The word of the message to which I refer is that which follows…

Word before The word of the message to which I refer is that which precede… Words twice Communication is difficult. Transmit(ting) each phrase twice. This proword can be used as an order, request or information.

Reporting When you are moving around, you should always report your location back to the base station either via HF or VHF. The base station should keep a log of all calls, in order to know where users are, at all times and it is of vital importance that the base is aware of your whereabouts in case of an emergency. If you have to switch off your radio, or you intend to go somewhere where it is not possible to use the radio, you should first make a call and inform the base station that communication will not be possible for a certain period of time and provide an alternative means to reach you. Inform the base station as soon as you are in a position to communicate again. When in a convoy, follow convoy procedures, keep contact on regular base with convoy leader, keep track of your location even if you are not leading and ensure the base is regularly informed of your position. Communications 24

507 Example of radio conversation

The calling station is indicated by the use of this is or from: Bravo Romeo Base this is Bravo Romeo Three Four– message – over. This is Bravo Romeo Base – send – over. Bravo Romeo Base this is Bravo Romeo Three Four– Convoy 5a has just passed Sierra 3 and will reach Sierra 14:30 hours – over. Bravo Romeo Three Four this is Bravo Romeo Base Message copied over. Bravo Romeo Three Four Roger out.

What to do in an emergency In an emergency it may be wise to take your time…

A good and clear reporting is essential. The more accurate your message will be the less confusion it will generate and the more efficient the assistance will be. Decide beforehand what you are going to say and take notes if necessary: What happened? Where are you? What do you need?

Don’t panic and speak slowly. Call for help as follows: EMERGENCY EMERGENCY EMERGENCY BRAVO-ROMEO-BASE THIS IS BRAVO-ROMEO-THREE-NINER, BRAVO-ROMEO-THREE-NINER EMERGENCY! DO YOU READ ME OVER? (Wait for response and then proceed or repeat). BRAVO-ROMEO-THREE-NINER this is BRAVO-ROMEO-BASE SEND OVER BRAVO-ROMEO-BASE THIS IS BRAVO-ROMEO-THREE-NINER Message: Vehicle accident Location 46° 12 North 6° 10’ East – On road N1 – 6 Km after Point Bravo – 2 Vehicles involved – 7 passengers total – All 3 UNHCR Staff are not injured- 2 Passen- gers non HCR heavily injured and requiring medical assistance – First aid in progress by HCR Team – Will revert with more accurate info. HOW COPIED? OVER BRAVO-ROMEO-THREE-NINER this is BRAVO-ROMEO-BASE Good copy we are contacting First aid responder team will reach your location within 35 Minutes.

An emergency call must only be placed for a life threatening emergency For a lower degree of urgency, use the world “SECURITY” instead of “EMERGENCY” Any station hearing an “EMERGENCY” or “SECURITY” call should immediately stop transmitting and listen-out. If you need to interrupt another radio conversation • wait for a pause (immediately after you hear "OVER"); • call "BREAK BREAK BREAK. THIS IS BRAVO-ROMEO-THREE-NINER, BRAVO-ROMEO- THREE-NINER. I HAVE AN EMERGENCY. PLEASE STAND BY”; • pause transmission and listen to ensure the other communication has ceased; • proceed with emergency call. 508 Radio checks Radio checks should be carried out periodically during periods of low traffic. Signal quality is reported as strength/readability as follows:

Signal Strength

LOUD Your signal is strong

GOOD Your signal is good

WEAK I can hear you but with difficulty

VERY WEAK I can hear you but with great difficulty

NOTHING HEARD I cannot hear you at all

Readability

CLEAR Excellent quality

READABLE Good quality, no difficulty in reading you

DISTORTED I have problems reading you

WITH INTERFERENCE I have problems reading you due to interference

NOT READABLE I can hear that you are transmitting but cannot understand

Example Tango Romeo Three One – this is Tango Romeo Two Five – Radio Check – over. Tango Romeo Two Five this is Tango Romeo Three One – loud and clear – over. In areas with potential security risk, a network radio check including position report and can be preformed at any time. Fixed schedule is not advisable as radio network users must be monitoring permanently the network.

Example Tango Romeo Three One – this is Tango Romeo Base – radio check – over. Tango Romeo Base this is Tango Romeo Three One – loud and clear – at Compound nothing to report– over. Tango Romeo Three One – copied; Tango Romeo Three Seven – this is Tango Romeo Base – radio check – over.

Tango Romeo Base this is Tango Romeo Three Seven – good and clear – ETA Office 5 Communications minutes – over. 24

509 25 Coping with stress

510 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1- 3 512

Challenges and stressors in an emergency situation 4 512

Identifying stress symptoms 5-14 512-514 Cumulative stress 5 512 Traumatic stress 11 514

Techniques for dealing with stress 15-23 514-516 Introduction 15 514 Individual stress management 16 514 Tips for managers on stress management 18 515 Organizational support 21 516

Dealing with traumatic stress 24-29 516-517 Introduction 24 516 Actions to consider 26-29 516-517

Managing transition 30 517

Key references 518 Coping with stress 25

511 Introduction ii Organizational environment. Or- 1. Stress is a feature of life and it can be ganizational culture including rigid both positive and negative. In its positive hierarchy, bureaucracy, allocation of aspect, it enables us to cope with change resources and management style. An and challenging situations by stimulating unsupportive and uncaring manage- a number of biochemical reactions in the ment style is quoted as the most body that mobilize physical and mental en- frequent source of stress in an emer- ergy. In such situations, stress allows us to gency context. respond effectively to increased demands. iii Social and interpersonal factors. Once the challenge is over and this ener- Forced intimacy and lack of social gy is no longer needed, our body adjusts and recreational choices apart from its level of functioning to its usual level. one’s colleagues. Interpersonal stress 2. This becomes a problem when one is may arise from co-worker conflicts, continuously exposed to challenges and abrasive or unskilled supervision, changes and therefore to a continuous dysfunctional colleagues, dissatisfied chain of biochemical reactions. Without receivers of one’s service, fam- an opportunity to properly rest and recu- ily problems, and problematical or perate, these biochemical reactions start unhealthy relationships with others. having a wear and tear impact resulting iv Personality factors. Frustrated in a number of negative stress reactions. personal values (i.e. idealism) can Although there are some individual differ- be a strong source of stress. People ences in how people react to stress, every- in such situations tend to identify body is likely to be affected by the nega- themselves with the success or failure tive impact of stress if not provided with of the work, particularly in isolated an opportunity to recuperate. Such situa- work sites. tions of protracted challenges are frequent- v Biological factors. Degree of fitness, ly found in humanitarian emergencies. acute or chronic physical illness, 3. Apart from having an impact on the in- allergy, injury, trauma, or simple dividuals, stress is also likely to affect to fatigue and exhaustion. entire teams, starting with their interper- vi Psychological factors. Threats of sonal relationships, team morale, produc- physical harm, earlier and more re- tivity and their security. Negative stress cent traumatic experiences, attacks on of an individual should be regarded as the self-esteem, lack of self confidence, problem of the entire team. feelings of insecurity. Challenges and stressors in an emergency situation Identifying stress symptoms 4. Below are causative factors which contribute, if not give way to, stress in an Understanding one’s own reactions emergency situation: to stressful situations, knowing how to handle these and early attention to i Environment. Difficult climate, symptoms can speed recovery and pre- remote and isolated location, inad- vent long-term problems. equate living conditions, militarized settings, high level of crime, cultural Cumulative stress or racist attitudes towards outsiders, 5. Cumulative stress builds up slowly as a foreigners or women. result of the magnitude and multiplicity of demands, lengthy working hours and day- to-day frustrations and difficult living and 512 working conditions in emergencies. This v. lack of self-confidence; character of an emergency operation is not vi. feeling alienated from others; likely to change but it is possible to contain vii. desire to be alone; the adverse stress reactions by implement- viii. negativism/cynicism; ing the stress management plan for the team. ix. suspiciousness/paranoia; 6. Cumulative stress reactions develop slowly and the individuals affected by x. depression/chronic sadness; it do not necessarily observe changes xi. feeling pressured/overwhelmed; in their pattern of interacting with the xii. diminished sense of pleasure; and world around them. We all normally xiii. loss of sense of humour. observe stress reactions in others much Cognitive (intellectual) reactions: faster than in ourselves. Team leaders need to be particularly observant of in- i. tired of thinking and obsessive thinking; dividual reactions during an emergency. ii. difficulty concentrating; 7. Cumulative stress reactions can be seen iii. increased distractibility/inattention; in every facet of our lives and normally iv. problems with making decisions/set- they are grouped into physical, emotional, ting priorities; cognitive, behavioural and spiritual cat- v. feeling indispensable/obsessions; egories. There could be changes in ordi- vi. diminished tolerance for ambiguity; nary behaviour patterns, such as changes in vii. rigid, inflexible thinking; eating habits, decreased personal hygiene, viii. forgetfulness; and withdrawal from others and prolonged si- lences. The following non-exhaustive list ix. problems with reasoning and verbal gives an indication of some of the most expression. observed symptoms: Behavioural reactions: i. reluctance to start or finish projects; Physical reactions: ii. social withdrawal; i. gastro-intestinal: dry mouth, impres- iii. absenteeism; sion of having ones heart in ones mouth, nausea, vomiting, sensation of iv. unwillingness to take leave; bloating, heartburn, abdominal pain; v. substance abuse, self medication; ii. appetite changes, diarrhoea, constipa- vi. high alcohol consumption; tion; vii. disregard for security, risky behav- iii. cardiovascular: elevated blood pres- iour; and sure, rapid heart beat, hot flushes, viii. changes in ones libido; cold hands and feet, sweating; Spiritual/philosophical reactions: iv. respiratory problems: breathlessness, i. doubt of value system/religious be- panting, sensation of not being able liefs; to breathe; ii. questioning the major life areas (pro- v. musculoskeletal: cramps, back pain, fession, employment, lifestyle); trembling, nervous ticks, grimacing; Coping with stress iii. feeling threatened and victimized; and iv. disillusionment; and 25 vi. neurological: headache. v. self-preoccupation. Emotional reactions: 8. The presence of a number of these reac- i. anxiety; tions over longer period of time probably ii. irritability; indicates that a person’s coping ability is iii. anger; diminishing and work performance is be- iv. blame; ing affected. 513 9. The signs and the degree of stress pre- 14. Untreated traumatic reactions may de- sented by a person in any given situation velop into a condition termed Post Trau- will vary, depending on the level of stress matic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The diag- experienced, previous emotional experi- nosis of PTSD is made by a psychiatrist ences and the personality of the individ- or psychologist based on the presence of ual. various elements. The risk of PTSD can be considerably reduced by the appropri- 10. If the cyclic causes and resultant ate pre-deployment preparation, on-site symptoms of cumulative stress are not care including a supportive work environ- promptly addressed, exhaustion sets in, ment, and appropriate psychological in- leading eventually to “burnout”. Should tervention following an incident. this happen one needs a longer rest and counselling. Techniques for dealing with stress

Traumatic stress Introduction 11. Traumatic stress is brought on by un- 15. Stress management is a joint respon- expected, violent events that threaten or sibility of the individuals concerned, team claim life. These events may be on a large leaders/managers and the organization. or small scale, but they are emotionally While the organization supports the stress powerful and they overwhelm the individ- management strategies by setting the ap- ual’s usual coping abilities. Examples are propriate policies and providing resources, deaths of colleagues in the line of work, managers contribute to it by setting team deaths among those being assisted, espe- norms that include stress management and cially children, personal encounter with by supporting their staff members to ad- violence such as being kidnapped or held here to them. hostage and witnessing violent events personally or even through media. Stress management strategies are effective the most when incorporated in 12. Staff might experience acute reactions the usual work routine and implemented immediately after a critical incident or a regularly. delayed stress reaction days and months after the event. In rarer cases reactions Individual stress management may come after a few years. 16. Being well prepared, both physically 13. The reactions after a critical incident and psychologically, is an important way can be similar to cumulative stress reac- to reduce the chances of harmful stress. tions but in addition an affected indi- This preparation includes: vidual is likely to experience physical □ understanding stress and one’s own hyper-alertness, intrusive memories and coping strategies; thoughts, strong reactions to reminders □ understanding your strengths and of trauma, an urge to avoid the remind- limitations; ers of trauma. Absence of these reactions □ educating oneself in advance on the (numbing) after a traumatic incident does environmental factors including not allow for an assumption that the indi- climate, culture, living conditions and vidual concerned is coping well due to the also on job requirements; possibility of delayed reactions. Although □ all these reactions are normal in such situ- ensuring one’s family’s welfare durations they are likely to be highly disturbing the deployment; and ing to the affected individual and, at times, □ maintaining physical and psychologi- uncomfortable for colleagues around. cal fitness.

514 17. To prevent stress overload during an preciation of efforts and constructive and emergency, individuals are encourage to timely feedback. follow a basic guide for stress manage- 19. Setting an example: Supervisors in ment which includes: particular have an important role to play □ get enough sleep; as they can provide an example in the □ eat regularly; way they handle their own personal stress, □ make frequent mini-breaks during the e.g. by eating properly, resting and taking day; appropriate time off duty. Staff are less □ make time for regular physical exer- likely to abide to any stress management cise (minimum 20 minutes per day); routine if it is not supported by their team leader. □ avoid managing stress with alcohol, nicotine and self-medication; 20. The following ideas may serve as re- □ give expression to the stress: paint, minder to the manager about possible out- write, punch a bag, and talk about the comes. While a number of tasks below emotions you feel; can be delegated, your support to all of □ monitor your negative thoughts (as them is a key to success. they can undermine your energy to i. Dedicate resources to ensure the ap- solve problems); propriate working and living condi- □ use the buddy system – ask a col- tions. league to remind you when you ex- ii. Create a supportive climate in the hibit stress reactions so that you can office – model positive attitude, give do something about them on time. frequent encouraging feedback to the □ make sense of your experience: what staff. are you learning about the operation, iii. Take a note of predominantly ex- about yourself? hausting tasks and introduce a rota- □ recognize your limit and ask for per- tion of staff on those tasks. mission to rest when it’s reached. iv. Monitor the health and well-being □ use appropriately your rest and recu- of all team members – assign a Peer peration leave. Support Person (or a team of PSP for bigger operations), pay attention Tips for managers on stress to staff needs, provide feedback and management ideas regarding containing the stress. Team leaders and managers have a re- Ensure that staff take time to eat and sponsibility to set norms within their rest. teams which facilitate the optimum level v. Together with the team, create a stress of the team’s productivity and well-being. Each manager should be reminded management routine for the office that the period of long hours and high that encourages staff to take short productivity will be short-lived unless breaks with healthy snacks and water, followed by appropriate level of support exercise, rotate long days (duty sys- and care. tem). Coping with stress

18. A supportive managerial style in- vi. Provide briefings to the incoming 25 cludes elements of care leadership and staff on socio-cultural and political motivational leadership. It includes struc- environment. tured but transparent communication with vii. Provide sports and recreational op- the team members, availability when ap- portunities: together with the team propriate, respect for individual needs, set up a mini-gym, recreation room clearly set team norms and values, ap- (table tennis, badminton, TV/DVD space, newspapers and journals). 515 viii. Ensure regular use of rest and recu- nated actions by the Field Safety Section, peration (R&R).ix. Ensure that the Medical Service, Staff Welfare Section, out-going staff have an opportunity Personnel Administration Section, Desk for a debriefing and feedback ex- and country operation management. The change. immediate goals are to secure the staff, to take care of medical needs, and provide Organizational support basic comfort. Research has consistently 21. UNHCR has recognized that stress as shown that the level of support provided to an important part of its operational envi- survivors and the level of team cohesive- ronments around the world and that it has ness amongst the team positively impacts responsibilities in mitigating its impact on on coping with traumatic stress. Coping staff in the interest of both the staff’s well- capacities are likely to be undermined in being and the operational efficacy. The situations where the survivors feel unsup- Staff Welfare Section (SWS) of the Divi- ported. sion of Human Resources Management (DHRM) is the dedicated resource based 25. As described above, any event that at the HQ and with regional capacities in involves a threat or damage to one’s life Accra and Nairobi, in charge of provid- is a potential source of traumatic stress. ing individual and group counseling, Although not everybody will react in team support and training. The SWS also the same way to a traumatic event, it is contributes to the organizational policies important that all staff involved receive that have an impact on staff welfare. The professional support from within or out- Medical Service, also a part of the DHRM, side the organization. Given the nature monitors health of UNHCR worldwide of traumatic stress reactions and their and determines the psychological and potential for a delayed symptom develop- physical fitness to work. ment, it is important that all staff involved in such an event receive timely support. 22. The Peer Support Personnel Network The Staff Welfare Section will organize is a project coordinated by the SWS. such support and provide advice on future Members of the network are colleagues handling and therefore it is important that around the world trained in basic coun- such events are communicated to the Sec- seling skills and in dealing with specific tion without delay. areas of staff welfare problems including traumatic stress. Peer Support Person- Actions to consider nel can be a good source of support in an 26. The following actions can be taken by emergency operation. the managers: 23. Most of the emergency operations □ Ensure that colleagues exposed to the have a system of rest and recuperation traumatic situation are accommodat- (R&R) which is a mechanism indicated ed, provided with a change of clothes by the HR policy on mental health travel and a meal in privacy and comfort. for release of stress. While this is a provi- As a team leader, welcome the group sion bestowed by the organization, it is up in person. to managers to ensure its implementation □ Ensure medical assistance is provided and that the staff use it. and coordinated with the UNHCR Dealing with traumatic stress Medical Service. □ Provide the survivors with an op- Introduction portunity to contact their families or 24. Intervention following a critical inci- important others. dent consists of a number of well coordi- 516 □ Ensure that the victims are not Managing transition overwhelmed by supporters and that support efforts are coordinated. 30. Once life-saving needs are no longer □ Maintain a high degree of respect acute, managers need to assist their teams towards survivors of traumatic events to shift gears. Supervisors can arrange and respect their privacy especially supportive activities and make changes when sharing personal information. themselves which will model ways of coping with the stress of the let-down period □ With the assistance of the Staff Wel- after an intense initial emergency experi- fare Officer, arrange for psychologi- ence. The following ideas can help: cal support as soon as possible. 27. Generally, the more difficult a criti- i. Arrange for a team opportunity to cal incident is, the psychological impact discuss personal experiences dur- is likely to be higher. This will also de- ing the emergency impact and initial pend on the previous traumas experienced response period. Help by a trained by the person and other personal factors. facilitator is advisable. Encouraging staff to talk about their ex- ii. Hold “lessons learned” sessions, periences might be beneficial but be sure encouraging the participation of all to respect their feelings and their need to staff, to provide constructive op- be quiet if necessary. A calm and reassur- portunities for staff at every level to ing presence might be more appropriate. discuss, evaluate and analyse proce- You may want to provide a copy of the dures and the work. self-help guide for survivors of traumat- iii. Give recognition and appreciation for ic events “Traumatic Stress Reactions” work performed. (copies available from the Staff Welfare iv. Attend to the possible need for cer- Section [SWS] or from UNHCR Intranet: emonies or rituals to honour losses if operational support – staff welfare section relevant. – publications and website). v. Encourage team members to recon- 28. If colleagues are keen to talk, be a nect with family and friends. Trauma good listener. If a member of the Peer is isolating, but accounts of what hap- Support Personnel is in the country they pened and some information about may be available to assist, but the need for normal stress reactions will help both professional assistance will be assessed staff and their families during the and provided by the Staff Welfare Section emergency crisis period and after it is or UNHCR Medical Service. Psychologi- over. cal interventions are delivered on the basis vi. Assist in re-establishing regular work of the WHO guidelines for dealing with and personal routines as soon as pos- post-traumatic stress reactions and are sible. provided in a confidential manner. vii. Make time for regular recreational 29. Should the staff be required to give or team “time out” activities and encourage the participation of every-

statements for investigation, inquiry or Coping with stress similar reports, consult the Staff Welfare body. Section or the Medical Service on the tim- 25 ing of such interviews. If there are multiple interviews, ensure that they are coordinated.

517 More information can be obtained from: Key references Staff Welfare Section, DHRM, International Handbook of Traumatic HQ Geneva. Stress Symptoms, edited by John P. Wil- son & Beverley Raphael, 1993. Telephone: 00 41 22 739 8195 Managing Stress of Humanitarian Emer- Confidential Fax: 00 41 22 7397370 gencies, UNHCR, Geneva, revision 2005. UNHCR Intranet: operational support Mission Readiness and Stress Manage- – staff welfare section ment, UN, New York, 1998. Traumatic Stress Reactions, UNHCR, Ge- neva 2001.

518 Coping with stress 25

519 26 Staff safety

520 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 522

The UN security system 1-9 522-523

Essential plans 10-23 523-526 The security plan 11 523 Medical evacuation plan 18 525 Movement control plan 21 526 Routine radio checks 23 526

Security 24-43 526-529 Personal security 25 526 Residential security 26 527 Base security 27 527 Field security 28 527 Cash security 29 528 Crowd control and security 32 528 Mine awareness 33 528 Protection equipment 42 529

Security management 44 530

Risk management 45 530

Key references 530 Staff safety Staff 26

521 Introduction 2. The primary responsibility for the se- • The primary responsibility for the curity and protection of staff members safety of staff members, their de- rests with the host government. pendants and property and that of This responsibility arises from every gov- the organization, rests with the host ernment’s inherent role of maintaining government. law and order within its jurisdiction. • Every effort should be made to facilitate the tasks of the government 3. UNHCR and other UN organizations in the discharge of its responsibilities may lend assistance, when possible and to by making appropriate supporting ar- the extent feasible, to protect other people rangements and through regular liai- such as staff of NGOs working in coop- son and exchange of information with eration with them. UNHCR has no legal the host country security officials. obligation towards others working with • All of the recommendations below refugees. should be considered in addition to, 4. In each country, a senior UN official and complementary with, actions called the Designated Official (DO) is the taken by the host country security of- person in charge of the security manage- ficials. ment arrangements of the UN system. The • Every office should have a security DO is accountable to the Secretary-Gen- plan and a medical evacuation plan. eral through UN DSS for the safety of UN • The cardinal rule for landmines is that personnel. when in doubt, stay away. Inform the 5. The principle responsibilities of the host country military. Any suspicious DO include: object should be treated as a landmine or booby trap. □ liaising with host government officials on security matters; □ arranging a security plan for the area The UN security system and including provision for relocation of National staff and evacuation of 1. UN system-wide arrangements are de- International staff; scribed in detail in the UN Field Security □ informing the Secretary-General Handbook (see references) and outlined (through UN DSS) of all develop- here. ments which may have a bearing on the safety of staff members; UN organizations have agreed to system-wide arrangements for the safety of □ carrying out relocation or evacuation UN staff and property in the field. where a breakdown in communication makes it impossible to receive The UN Department of Safety and Securi- the Secretary-General’s prior approv- ty (UN DSS), based in New York, acts on al; behalf of the Secretary-General to ensure □ forming a Security Management a coherent response by the UN to any se- Team (SMT); and curity situation. UN DSS produces week- □ ly publications on security conditions on a informing the senior official of each country by country basis. In addition, the UN organization of all security meas- Field Safety Section at Headquarters can ures. provide country specific information and advice

522 6. The DO will form an SMT, the func- cific and have five phases. The DO may tion of which will be to advise him or her implement measures under Phases 1 and on security matters. The SMT is normal- 2 at his or her own discretion, and notify ly chaired by the DO and consists of the the Secretary-General accordingly. Phases Heads of UN agencies in country (who 3 to 5 will normally be declared by the DO must attend in person unless officially out only with the prior authorization of the of the country). In addition certain other Secretary-General. However, if there is a staff members, (such as field security of- breakdown in communications, DOs may ficers; a medical officer; an internationally use their best judgement with regard to the recruited staff member familiar with local declaration of phases 3 to 5, and report to conditions and languages; a staff member the Secretary-General as soon as commu- with a legal background and any agency nications allow. staff who by training, background or experience will contribute to the team) may 12. The UN security phases are: be invoted by the DO to attend in an ex officio capacity as advisers or observers. Phase I: Precautionary In this phase, clearance from the DO is re- 7. In large countries with regions sepa- quired prior to travel. rated from country headquarters in terms of distance and exposure to emergencies, Phase II: Restricted movement a UN staff member may be designated as This phase imposes a high level of alert on the Area Security Coordinator (ASC). The the movements of UN staff members and ASC acts on the DO’s behalf and will nor- their families. During this phase all staff mally have responsibilities for staff safety members and their families will remain at similar to those of the DO, but within that home unless otherwise instructed. region of the country. UNHCR may be requested by the DO to undertake this role. Phase III: Relocation 8. The ASC (or DO where there is no This phase is declared by the Secretary- ASC for the region) will appoint security General, on the advice of the DO. It in- wardens who will have responsibility for cludes concentration of all international security within particular predetermined staff members and their families, reloca- zones. A separate warden system for nation of non- essential staff and families tionally recruited and internationally re- elsewhere in, or out, of the country. De- cruited staff may be required. The warden ployment of new staff must be authorized system should include all humanitarian by the Secretary-General. agencies. 9. The primary tool for security prepar- Phase IV: Emergency operations edness is the security plan, which is the This phase is declared by the Secretary- key feature of the UN security system. General, on the advice of the DO. It allows for relocation outside the country of Essential plans all international staff not directly involved with the emergency, humanitarian relief 10. In addition to the basic security plan, operations (i.e. of a life-saving nature), or safety Staff UNHCR offices must have a medical evac- security matters. 26 uation plan, and may have a movement control plan and routine radio checks. Phase V: Evacuation The security plan This phase is declared by the Secretary- General, on the advice of the DO. The 11. The security plan will be country spe- evacuation of all international staff should 523 be carried out according to plans prepared G. Selection of coordination centre and beforehand. concentration points. The plan should indicate a number of coordination centres 13. The person responsible for security at and concentration points, and should indi- each location (DO, ASC) should draw up a cate the stocks and facilities which should security plan within the framework of the be available at these points. It may not be country security plan. This will need to be possible for all staff members to reach the regularly updated. Each situation will be same concentration point and alternatives different and will require different levels should be foreseen. and structuring of the plan. Guidelines for drawing up the plan are in the Field Secu- H. Safe haven and means for relocation rity Handbook, and copied in the Check- and evacuation. The plan should include list for the Emergency Administrator. information on all possible means of travel – by air, road, rail and ship as ap- 14. The following are typical headings in plicable. Normally only internationally a security plan: recruited staff can be evacuated outside A. Summary of the security situation at the country. Under the UN security sys- the duty station. tem, the provisions for evacuation outside B. Officials responsible for security: the country may be applied to locally-re- those in the local area, in Geneva and in cruited staff members in only the most New York, with their call signs, phone and exceptional cases in which their security fax numbers. is endangered, or their property is lost or damaged as a direct consequence of their C. List of internationally recruited staff employment by UN organizations. Un- members and dependants. This will need der the UN security system, a decision to to be updated constantly, and should in- evacuate locally recruited staff can only be clude basic details such as full name, na- made by the Secretary-General (based on tionality, date of birth, passport and lais- recommendations by DO and UN DSS). sez-passer numbers with date and place of However, during phases 3, 4 or 5, the DO issue. A means of tracking visiting mis- may exceptionally either: a) permit lo- sions should be established. The UN Field cally recruited staff to absent themselves Security Handbook contains annexes to from the duty station on special leave with record this information in a standard for- pay, or b) may relocate them to a safe area mat; copies of these are also found in the within the country and authorize payment UNHCR Checklist for the Emergency Ad- of DSA for up to 30 days. Up to 3 months ministrator. salary advance may be paid and a grant D. List and details of locally recruited to cover transportation costs for the staff staff and their dependants. This will need member and eligible family members. Ar- to be updated constantly. rangements to pay locally recruited staff these various amounts should be included E. Division of area into zones. Zones in the plan. should be marked on a map with the numbers and residences of staff members I. Essential supplies: The plan should clearly marked. The map should indicate include estimates of the requirements for the warden responsible for each zone. essential items of food, water, fuel etc. which will be needed by the community F. Communications. This should include for a reasonable period of time. Individ- details of phone numbers, call-signs and ual items to be kept ready should also be radio frequencies of all staff, including listed. These include: passports, laissez- those of offices in neighbouring coun- passers, vaccination certificates, travellers tries. cheques and cash. 524 J. Plan for handing over the running of the cilities inside and (if appropriate) outside office to the National Officer in charge. the country, what types of service they provide and to what standard, means of Planning for evacuation transport to these facilities in case of evacuation, and types of evacuation scenarios 15. The security plan should note who (the Checklist for the Emergency Admin- will take what actions at the UNHCR of- istrator includes a format for a Medevac fice in the event of evacuation. Plan, as well as flow charts 1 for decision- These actions include how to deal with making for evacuation). confidential documents and individual 19. All heads of UNHCR country of- case files (including those on computer fices (i.e. representatives, chiefs of mis- files), financial data, cash, radios, comput- sion or, in their absence, the officer in ers and vehicles. charge) may authorize, without reference 16. Any paper files which need to be de- to Headquarters, medical evacuation of stroyed in the event of sudden evacuation staff in the circumstances set out in detail of the office should have been marked in in IOM/104/94FOM/107/94, New Medi- a manner agreed-upon and understood by cal Evacuation Scheme, and IOM/FOM all staff. Such files would include: in- 26/95, Medical Evacuation in Extreme dividual case files, local staff personnel Emergencies – SOS Assistance. These files, etc. If time permits, the shredding IOM/FOMs are included in the Checklist and/or burning of these files should be a for the Emergency Administrator. Briefly, top priority. Emptying sensitive files onto medical evacuation can be authorized: the floor and mixing their contents with i. For all international staff and consult- others will afford some protection if there ants and eligible family members, in is no time to burn them. Staff should be order to secure essential medical care sensitive to the security situation and bear which cannot be secured locally as a in mind when creating paper or electronic result of inadequate medical facilities documentation that it might have to be left (and which must be treated before the behind. next leave outside the duty station). 17. It should be agreed in advance which ii For local staff and eligible family electronic files (including electronic mail members, in situations of great emer- files) should be deleted first. In order gency when a life-threatening situa- to truly destroy confidential electronic tion is present, or in cases of service- records from a computer disk (regardless incurred illness or accident. of whether it is a hard disk or a floppy disk), it is necessary to use special soft- In addition, evacuation can be arranged in ware designed for this purpose. Merely extreme emergencies through SOS Assist- deleting the file(s) does not remove the in- ance (a private company which provides formation from the disk, it only marks the 24 hour world-wide emergency evacu- space which the file occupies on the disc ation). However, this is very expensive as being available for re-use. and not covered by UN insurance. It can be used in life-threatening situations, and safety Staff

Medical evacuation plan where an evacuation by normal means 26 18. Every office should have a medical cannot be organized in view of the grav- evacuation plan to cover evacuation from ity of the illness or injury. A password is that office. The plan should include- in needed before SOS Assistance takes ac- formation about the nearest medical fa- tion for UNHCR – heads of offices should ensure they obtain this password from the

525 Division of Human Resource Manage- fare of staff members needs to be known. ment. The password should be known by Radio calls from the base station can be the Head of Office and the Deputy Head made on a fixed schedule or randomly. of Office. Security 20. The medical evacuation plan should be written with close reference to the rel- 24. Keys to effective security are: evant IOM/FOMs, and the advice of the i. First and foremost, personal aware- UNHCR Programme Health Coordinator ness on the individual level. should be sought, as well as that of any ii. Appropriate behaviour to diminish medical NGOs. When an evacuation may the risk of security incidents. be necessary, a UN Examining Physician iii. Appropriate response by the individu- should assist in decisions as to the degree al to security incidents. of urgency and facilities required. iv. Compliance with Minimum Operat- ing Security Standards (MOSS). Movement control plan v. Consideration of security aspects (and 21. A movement control plan should be full involvement of security special- prepared when there is a need to track the ists) from the earliest stages of plan- movement of vehicles, and should pro- ning for any UNHCR operation. vide a means to determine the current location of the vehicles and passengers and whether they are overdue from a trip. The Personal security plan usually consists of a fixed schedule of radio calls to the vehicle from the base 25. For personal security, bear in mind station (e.g. every 30 or 60 minutes) in the following: order to report the current location of the □ Be aware of and alert to your sur- vehicle to the base station. This informa- roundings. tion should be updated on a white-board □ Observe the behaviour of other peo- (or electronic tracking system) following ple living in the area. Local people each radio call. The driver of every vehi- will probably know more about gen- cle should confirm safe arrival at the end eral security threats than you do. of the trip. □ Don’t travel alone. 22. Other contingency plans. In addition □ Don’t carry large amounts of money. to the plans listed above, UNHCR Heads □ Don’t travel after dark if it can be of Office may need to draw up -contin avoided. Most security incidents oc- gency plans for other possible or antici- cur after dark. pated emergency situations applicable to □ When leaving base, make sure some- the duty station and UNHCR’s role. For one knows where you are going and example: when you are expected back. i. civil disturbances in refugee camps; □ Lock vehicle doors and keep the win- ii. attempted office occupations or “sit- dows rolled up when travelling. ins”; □ Park vehicles to allow for fast exit. iii. earthquakes, hurricanes, floods or □ Don’t take photographs around other natural emergencies; and military personnel or military instal- iv. hostage taking lations. □ Have cash, documents, and an emer- Routine radio checks gency bag packed and ready to go at 23. Routine radio checks should be insti- all times. tuted when the current location and wel- 526 □ Always be polite: be aware that your fence, providing a barrier of illumina- behaviour to local officials, police or tion in which intruders can be detect- military can rebound negatively on ed. other staff. □ Installing fences and controlling access: Double fences with razor Residential Security wires form an effective barrier. There 26. Several steps can be taken to improve should be more than one entrance/ residential security: exit. Sensitive locations (for example, □ Make sure there are good solid doors. the accommodation area, commu- Never have glass doors on the exte- nications room, generators and fuel rior. store) may need to be surrounded by □ Install a peep hole, a safety chain and a barrier of sandbags. Procedures a security bar. to control access to the compound □ Keep the entrance door locked at all need to be established. The fenced times, even when at home. compound should be self-contained and equipment (e.g. spare tires, □ Install bars and grills, at least on the jacks, fire extinguishers, first aid kits, ground floor. generators, water pumps), should be □ All windows should have locks. checked and maintained on a routine □ • Draw curtains at night. basis. □ • Install outside lighting. □ • Have emergency power sources, Field security candles and torches. 28. Several steps should be taken by rel- □ • Keep a watchdog or other animals evant staff and heads of office to improve like goats, geese or peacocks. field security: □ • Install a telephone or walkie-talkie. □ Develop a movement control plan □ Compliance with the Minimum (see above). Operating Residential Security □ When planning to travel, check the Standards (MORSS) approved for the latest security situation with the DO, duty station in accordance with local others who have been there, host conditions. MORSS provides for country officials other UN agencies, reimbursement of some residential NGOs, traders. security measures (on a country by □ Get all required authorizations, from country basis). the DO and host country authorities. Base security □ Ensure that all staff know what to do in case of accident or breakdown 27. Base security should be improved – simple procedures should be estab- by: lished. □ Hiring guards: The host country au- □ Ensure that vehicles are properly thorities sometimes provide guards. equipped with extra food and water, Guards hired by UNHCR are not per- sleeping bags, mosquito nets, tents,

mitted to carry lethal weapons while water filters, fuel, tow rope, jumper safety Staff on duty. Guards should be trained cables, spare tire, tire jack, flash- and briefed, and should wear a uni- light, batteries, first aid kit, travel 26 form or some identifying garment. documents, radio, vehicle insurance □ Ensuring there are lights: Lights papers, shovel and maps. should be powerful and should light □ Ensure that vehicles are in good me- up an area outside the perimeter chanical condition and are checked

527 regularly. Certain items, such as Crowd control and security brakes, tire wear, fluid levels, lights, 32. If crowds cannot be avoided: installed radios, should always be checked prior to every field trip. □ Ensure that clear information is pro- □ Ensure that all staff know what to do vided to the crowd, so that they know at checkpoints – establish procedures what is going on and what to expect. for staff to follow. It is against UN □ Work with representatives of the peo- policy to allow anyone carrying arms ple to organize the crowd into small in UN vehicles. groups and get them to sit down. □ Do not engage in unruly group dis- Cash security cussions. 29. Ideally staff members should not car- □ When discussing grievances, meet ry large sums of money in cash. If there is with a small number of representa- a functioning banking system in the area, tives of the crowd, never with the then this should be used to the maximum mass meeting. extent possible. □ Provide sanitary facilities, water, 30. If it is necessary to transport cash then shade and shelter. arrangements should be made with the □ For crowd control, use monitors from host country authorities for protection of among the people themselves. the funds. Cash in large amounts should □ If confronted by a crowd when in a be kept on hand for the shortest possible vehicle, do not get out. Check that the time, and should either be deposited in a doors are locked and drive away care- bank or be disbursed quickly to pay sala- fully. ries or meet other legitimate expenditure. □ Maintain poise and dignity if con- Advance payments could be considered to fronted by a hostile crowd, do not reduce amounts of cash being stored (pro- show anger. vided financial rules are adhered to). Mine awareness 31. Measures which can contribute to security while transporting cash include 33. In countries with high risk of mines, making use of: all offices should ensure there is appropriate training and reference materials (see i. professional couriers; references) – the information contained ii. armoured vehicles; here is not sufficient, but provides only iii. armed guards; broad guidance. iv. deception: there should be no regular- 34. It is extremely difficult to spot a mined ity in the arrangements; the timing, area, so the first priority is to ensure you route, and other details should change have up to date information about possible every time; and mined areas from local residents and de- v. discretion: the number of people mining organizations. Travel with a map knowing about the movement of marked with this information and update cash, the identity of persons carry- it by checking with local residents. ing cash, their routes and timetables, should be kept to the barest minimum 35. Be aware of the following: necessary. □ Signs: learn which signs indicate known mined areas (whether local signs, UN or other signs). □ No-go areas: avoid areas which are

528 avoided by the local population. 39. When travelling on foot: □ Visible mines or indicators: some □ Never walk through overgrown areas: mines are visible. There may also be stick to well used paths. evidence of mine packaging. □ Disruption in the local environment: 40. If there is a mine incident: for example disturbed soil if recently □ Do not immediately run to the casual- laid, and depressions in the ground in ty. Stop and assess the situation first. an old mine field. There may be other antipersonnel □ Trip wires. mines in the vicinity, and administer- □ Mine damage (e.g. dead animals) ing first aid to one victim could result which could indicate the presence of in another victim. other mines. □ Only one person should go to the 36. When driving, the following precau- casualty, walking in his exact foot- tions should be taken: prints, to apply first aid. □ Do not attempt to move the casualty □ Wherever possible stay on hard sur- unless absolutely necessary, call for faced roads. mine-clearing and medical assistance. □ Always follow in the fresh tracks of another vehicle, at least 50 m behind 41. Within the UN system, mine clear- the vehicle in front. ance and related issues are primarily the □ Flak jackets can be used as a seat responsibility of the Department of Peace- cushion and as a foot protection. keeping Operations (DPKO). Chapter 22 □ Wear seat-belts, and keep windows on voluntary repatriation contains some rolled down and doors unlocked. information about programme aspects of mines. 37. If you encounter a mine: Protection equipment □ Keep away, do not touch it; 42. Typical equipment that has been used □ Do not try to detonate it by throwing by UNHCR includes: stones at it; □ Stop the vehicle immediately; i. bullet proof vests for protection □ Stay in the vehicle, even if it is dam- against most bullets; aged and call for assistance. ii. flak jackets for protection against shrapnel; 38. If you have to leave the vehicle: iii. helmets for protection against shrap- □ Notify your location by radio. nel; □ Do not move the steering wheel. iv. ballistic blankets fitted in vehicles, for □ Put on any protective gear available. protection against hand grenades and anti-personnel mines; □ Climb over the seats and leave the vehicle by the rear, walk back along v. armoured cars; the vehicle tracks. vi. shatter resistant windows;

vii. military combat rations for concentra- safety Staff Never walk around the vehicle: tion points; and □ Leave at least a 20 m gap between viii. metal detectors for body searches. 26 people. □ Close the road to other traffic. 43. These items can be ordered through the Supply and Transport Section in coordination with the relevant Bureau and Field Safety Section. 529 Security management Risk management 44. Heads of Offices, whether at field or branch level should take action to ensure 45. It is recognized that risk cannot be to- the security and safety of staff members. tally eliminated from UNHCR operations. In addition to the responsibilities implicit It is therefore important for line mangers in the above sections, appropriate security in the field to understand how to manage management measures also include: risk. This goes beyond the technical and bureaucratic measures described above □ Ensuring both you and your staff and involves a holistic and integrated ap- have access to relevant, accurate and proach to incorporating security consid- up-to-date information. erations into the planning and conduct of □ Providing systematic briefings with operations from the outset. Specialist se- all staff on the security situation and curity advisers can help and support line on the security plan itself. Bear in managers, but it is ultimately UNHCR mind that some staff, particularly Heads of Office who are responsible and national staff, may provide valuable accountable for the safety of their staff. input into these briefings because of Special training packages on “Security their local knowledge. Risk Management” have been developed □ Encouraging staff awareness: a key to to assist managers with this task. effective security is personal awareness and good individual response to Key references security situations. IOM/26/95-FOM26/95, Medical Evacua- □ Providing training to all staff on haz- tion in Extreme Emergencies – SOS As- ards specific to the duty station. sistance, UNHCR, Geneva, 1995. □ Ensuring the availability of materi- IOM/104/94-FOM/107/94, New Medical als on staff stress management and Evacuation Scheme, UNHCR, Geneva, security in the duty station (see key 1994. references). □ Reporting security related incidents to Land Mine Safety Handbook, CARE, At- Headquarters (Field Safety Section). lanta, 1997. □ Ensuring there is good communica- Security Awareness Handbook, UNHCR, tion with other organizations and Geneva, 1995. NGOs about the security situation. Security Guidelines for Women, United □ Ensuring the office has a medical Nations, New York, 1995. evacuation plan. In addition, the country representative should ensure United Nations Field Security Handbook, he or she (and their deputy) has the United Nations, New York, 1995. SOS assistance password in the case of extreme medical emergency.

530 Staff safety Staff 26

531 27 Working with military

532 CONTENTS Paragraph Page

Introduction 1-5 534 United Nations civil-military policy and guidelines 6-8 534-535

Interacting with the military: understanding, communication and negotiation 9-31 535-540 Introduction 9 535 An understanding 12 535 Communication 23 538 Negotiation 29 539 Requesting military assistance 30 540

Humanitarian–military interface mechanisms 32-36 540-541 Military coordination mechanisms 32 540 Specialised humanitarian staff positions 34 540 Specialised military staff positions 35 541 Use of military escorts 36 541

Key references 542 Working with military Working 27

533 Introduction to international humanitarian law. 1. Increasingly, UNHCR finds itself in This has an impact on the relation- operational areas where military forces ship with humanitarian actors. It also are present and active. This fact can have makes it difficult to generalize about a critical impact on the well-being of hu- the relationship with the military. manitarian workers and on populations of  Context is important. The mandate, concern to the High Commissioner. mission, legitimacy, and local acceptance of a military presence, for 2. Legitimately recognized armed forces example, can have an impact on the operating within the boundaries of inter- humanitarian community’s relations national humanitarian law play a vital role with a military force. in ensuring a safe and secure environment  for all civilians, including UNHCR ben- In some instances the humanitarian eficiaries and staff. community may issue specific guidance relating to a particular area or 3. Distinguishing humanitarian activities military. Ensure you are aware of delivered by civilian organizations from any specific guidance. assistance delivered by military actors; and safeguarding a distinct humanitarian United Nations civil-military policy and identity founded upon the principles of guidelines humanity, neutrality and impartiality is a 6. The custodian of United Nations hu- key issue for UNHCR. manitarian policy on interaction between humanitarian and military actors is the 4. The operational-level relationship and Under-Secretary General for Humanitar- interaction between humanitarian organi- ian Affairs, who is also the Emergency zations and military forces usually man- Relief Coordinator (ERC). Three docu- aged in the form of civil-military coordi- ments, issued by the Inter-Agency Stand- nation (CMCoord) is of much debate both ing Committee (IASC) and the ERC, are within and outside the humanitarian com- of particular note as they provide broad munity. In some cases, particularly where generic guidance covering many of the military operations incorporate humani- situations the humanitarian community tarian relief activities as part of their op- faces and are as follows: erations, military and humanitarians have conflicting objectives and operating pro- i. Guidelines on the Use of Military and cedures while evidently sharing the same Civil Defence Assets in Disaster Re- “space”. More detailed information can lief 1994 (covering natural, techno- be found in “UNHCR and the Military - A logical and environmental emergen- Field Guide”. cies). ii. Guidelines on the Use of Military The Division of Operational Services and Civil Defence Assets to Support (DOS), at UNHCR Headquarters, is United Nations Humanitarian Activi- UNHCR’s focal point for civil-military is- ties in Complex Emergencies 2003. sues, and remains at your disposal for any advice or support that you may re- iii. Civil-Military Relationship in Com- quire. plex Emergencies - IASC Reference Paper 2004. 5. Within UNHCR’s overall practical approach staff should be cognizant that: In some situations the relationship with the military will be especially sensitive,  Not all militaries are the same. They particularly where the military is under- vary significantly in such areas as taking combat operations. This can re- structure, capabilities, attitude to sult in a policy of limited contact. humanitarian actors, and adherence 534 7. In complex humanitarian emergencies, 11. In most situations, a UNHCR officer the Humanitarian Coordinator or the Resi- may be required to establish a level of dent Coordinator at the country or region- communication with military elements so al level, after consultation with the UN as to ensure that different roles and respon- Country Team (UNCT) and the ERC, will sibilities are fully understood, effectively determine the circumstances and the ex- coordinated and appropriately under- tent to which UN humanitarian agencies taken. The levels of interaction between will interact and coordinate their activities UNHCR staff and military staff will vary, with military forces. In certain operations, and to a large degree be dictated by the specific guidance may also be provided by nature and complexity of the operational the United Nations to its staff. environment, the structure of the military command, and UNHCR policy within the 8. If there is any doubt as to the policy in country. force staff should refer to the Country Rep- resentative. Guidance can also be sought from the Division of Operational Services Ensuring an effective interaction with the in addition to accessing UN coordination military that serves the protection goals policy promulgated at the country and of UNHCR will require a clear understanding of the military context within a global level through the Civil-Military specific situation. Coordination Section (CMCS) of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitar- An understanding ian Affairs (OCHA). 12. Like the humanitarian community the military is far from being homogenous. Militaries encountered by UNHCR staff Interacting with the military: will differ in various ways: understanding, communication and negotiation i. International legitimacy ii. Function, task, and level of training Introduction iii. Use of technology, doctrine, proce- 9. Humanitarian agencies do not operate dures in isolation. The presence of a military iv. Understanding of humanitarian issues force and other armed elements is fairly v. Observance of international humani- common in a situation defined as being tarian and human rights law a complex humanitarian emergency, and vi. Delegation of authority most especially in areas of armed con- An appreciation of this diversity is par- flict. ticularly important. To the uninitiated, 10. Militaries can also be deployed in interaction with the military can present a support of the response to a natural, tech- bewildering array of acronyms, structures, nological or environmental disaster. Mili- and ranks. tary presence may include: The different mandates, characteristics i. The local or national military and nature of these diverse military ac- ii. Multi-national forces tors may necessitate that UNHCR relate iii. UN peacekeeping troops to different groups with varying degrees iv. International military observers of sensitivity or even with fundamen- with military Working tally different approaches. Of particular v. Foreign occupying forces importance in situations in which there 27 vi. Regional troops or other officially is, or has been armed conflict, is under- organized troops standing as to who are, or were, the parties to the conflict.

535 UN integrated missions iii. the extent and seriousness of the 13. Another key factor in forming emergency. UNHCR’s relationship with the military, In some situations, particularly those in particular UN peacekeeping troops is where the military lacks international le- whether there is a UN integrated mission. gitimacy and/or where it is not accepted or While the degree of integration in a UN poorly perceived by the local population, peacekeeping mission may vary, the aim interaction by humanitarian staff may be of integration is to have all UN actors in negligible or carefully controlled. a country working together towards the 17. Contemporary military doctrine in shared goal of restoring peace and security many militaries, even for so-called “peace and creating the conditions for sustainable operations” or “peace support opera- development and good governance. It is tions” emphasizes a need to rapidly vary UNHCR policy to actively support the “stance” or “force posture”. In one sec- concept and development of integrated tor forces might be engaged in intense missions. combat operations, whilst in another the 14. In some situations, the political same military might be seeking to win the leadership may assign the military the “hearts and minds” of a population. In task of providing assistance to a popula- addition, these forces might be asked to tion or, as in the case of United Nations quickly switch from one stance to another peacekeeping missions, to directly sup- in one sector. It will be difficult for the port the work of humanitarian agencies. humanitarian community to keep up with In other instances the mission statement this fluid situation. of national and coalition forces is usually 18. It is important when working along- classified information. This makes it dif- side military forces that you are aware of ficult to gauge the degree of involvement their mission objectives, roles, respon- by the military in support of humanitarian sibilities, and the authority under which objectives. Therefore, clear and effective they operate. This will determine the ex- communication is necessary at the earli- tent to which you may seek to coordinate est stages so that misunderstandings are your efforts with the military. Similarly, avoided and that the best possible delivery you should be aware of the military orof humanitarian assistance is ensured. ganizational structure. Understanding this 15. For UNHCR the primary objective of structure is important as it will help you such communication is to facilitate imple- appreciate how decisions are made and mentation of its mandate – to safeguard how the military responds to changing the rights of refugees (i.e. their legal, so- situations. cial/material and physical protection), internally displaced persons (IDPs) and re- Military organization turnees, and to ensure full and unhindered 19. You should also understand military access to them, together with the delivery operating procedures. These differ among of essential humanitarian assistance. military forces and depend on: 16. The level of interaction between hu- i. The size of the force manitarian actors and military forces may ii. Its background depend upon a number of factors includ- iii. Its access to operational assets ing: iv. The experience of its troops and their i. the nature of their intervention; level of training ii. the degree of force which the military v. National/cultural characteristics is authorized to us; and vi. The command/leadership structure

536 Military forces are hierarchical in their ganizational issues are very specific to organization and have generally well de- military institutions. In addition, military fined command and control structures (al- units, offices and teams may develop op- though command in many multinational erational codes and modalities applicable forces can be somewhat ambiguous – re- to a given situation. lying on significant political and technical 22. UNHCR staff should try to under- military negotiation). stand and respect how the military hierar- 20. Military organizational characteristics chy and their reporting lines (the so-called can include: “command and control” structure) work:  Management by objectives. The  Determine how the various levels in objectives of a military campaign are the military structure relate to the generally defined by political direc- structure in UNHCR’s presence. tion and resulting commander’s intent  Make sure that the person you deal and “mission statement”. These with has the authority to decide on objectives are included in a mission issues that you are discussing or plan with a desired end-state. Com- negotiating. pletion of a military mission may not  Make use of liaison structures offered require a resolution of all aspects of a by the military. Designated CIMIC political, social or military problem. officers are often your first and most  Systematic planning processes and relevant ‘port of call’. Keep them problem solving. Most militaries informed once you have developed have a developed systematic plan- direct contacts with commanders and ning processes that include recon- specialists. naissance, thorough consideration  Military officers may object to civil- of a situation (through use of tools ians who “insist on dealing exclu- such as the “Appreciation” or Staff sively with the commander, colonel, Estimate” that attempt to think logi- brigadier, two-star, etc.” Unimpeded cally through an issue to consider all access to senior officers is a diminish- relevant factors and arrive at the best ing phenomenon in some militaries. possible course and a plan). This can Expect to work through CIMIC/CA be somewhat different to planning in officers and established liaison struc- the humanitarian community. tures.  Delegation. The level of delegation  Develop and maintain the trust of of authority can vary widely between your military counterparts. If dif- national militaries. Some have adopt- ficulties arise, try to resolve these ed doctrines that allow significant within the framework of the estab- freedom of movement to lower com- lished relationship. manders, who are basically given the  If necessary, seek review of military outcome and any known constraints. decisions through the appropriate Others have highly centralized meth- military “chain of command”. ods of control.  Remember that a soldier works to 21. The size of the military organization fulfil the commander’s mission. This directly correlates to the degree of special- is the soldier’s formal motivation with military Working isation in tasks and attention to procedure.

when interacting with others, includ- 27 While the above features are not specific ing dealings with UNHCR staff and to the military alone, some of these or- counterparts.

537  Finally, bring misconduct to the atten- 25. It may not always be possible for you tion of your supervisor. Disciplinary to gain free access to information which issues are taken very seriously in you consider relevant. Unless a military most military forces. This is particu- document is specifically listed as UN- larly true in highly visible interna- CLASSIFIED and authorized for public tional operations. release, its distribution is selective and may only be provided on a ‘need-to-know’ Communication basis. In such cases, request sanitized ver- 23. Appropriate communication channels sions of the classified document. should be established between yourself and your military counterparts. Make the When deployed, contact the UNHCR Mili- effort to meet the most senior military of- tary Liaison Officer where appropriate. ficer responsible for your mission area. 26. Sometimes it may be helpful to ask You should make the military familiar the military to “tell me what you can’t tell with UNHCR’s mandate, global objec- me” to better define the limits of informa- tives and current operations, and any con- tion sharing. From the humanitarian side, cerns in dealing with the military. you need to be tactful and discreet when You should also try to determine: deciding what information you should □ Who are your military counterparts share, and what should remain confiden- with complementary responsibilities? tial to those who receive it. Strict guid- 1 □ Who within the military do you need ance would be provided by the most sen-

to meet and brief? ior UNHCR officer, but as a general rule it is prohibited to share: □ At what level of the military organization are decisions made? i. information gained during protection □ What coordination mechanisms have interviews, especially specific infor- been established by the humanitar- mation from individual protection ian agencies and NGO’s, military, cases; and national authorities and others? ii. information that has direct military □ Are there any applicable guidelines utility, for example information on or Standard Operating Procedures the movements of other military ele- (SOPs) for UN humanitarian coordi- ments. (Note: this does not remove nation and the military? If so, find a requirement to share information out how they are applied locally. related to staff security and safety □ What formal and informal meetings within the UN security system as in need to be conducted between some instances this information will UNHCR and the military? need to be shared with the appropriate security forces). Information sharing 24. Information sharing may be critical to It may be appropriate to share: the safety and security of refugees, return- i. UNHCR’s work in the field and the ees, UN staff and the overall relief effort. objectives you are seeking to achieve; It enables you to properly assess the risks ii. information posted in the public do- associated with carrying out particular ac- main: press statements and briefings, tivities, and of course may help avoid any reliefweb.org, unjlc.org, unhcr.org, misunderstandings between the military etc.; and humanitarian actors. Military forces are careful in their management of information, particularly if its release compro- 1 See UNHCR Confidentiality Guidelines - mises operational security. IOM/71/FOM/68/01 of 24 August 2001. 538 iii. local security conditions, popula- i. Expertise in refugee law and related tion movements and the prevailing issues humanitarian situation; ii. Local knowledge iv. information on humanitarian as- iii. Long-term involvement in the region sistance, transport and distribution iv. Network of counterparts in govern- activities, conditions of airfields; and ment and local authorities v. general estimates about the scope of v. Capacity and flexibility in responses the emergency. Negotiation Briefings 29. When negotiating with the military, 27. Briefing military forces will provide a the following points should be consid- good opportunity to establish contact. Ex- ered: plain UNHCR’s role and responsibilities, and articulate your needs and expecta- □ Ask yourself what needs to be tions. Briefings will also allow you to be- achieved and under what conditions come familiar with key military decision- (both negotiable and non-negoti- makers as well as technical counterparts. able)? Briefing sessions will help to build mutual □ Ask yourself where, when, why, by understanding and create confidence. whom? □ Agree on action points and communi- 28. Prepare your briefing well. Be clear, cate any subsequent changes. well structured and concise. Use schemat- □ ic maps and UNHCR handouts to support Write down agreed issues, share your presentation. A briefing to military and compare notes. This approach forces should cover: will save time, resources and reduce misunderstanding. In an uncertain □ role, mandate and relationship to situation, these may be important for other UN agencies and humanitarian your security. actors; □ When negotiating with military □ mission objectives with respect to the personnel make them aware of your specific operation; UNHCR’s protec- value to their mission; this may even tion goals should always be empha- be derived from the initiative you sized; propose. □ humanitarian principles and opera- □ Inform all aspects of the relief optional norms; eration that UNHCR, implementing □ humanitarian coordination structures; partners or beneficiaries will imple- □ operating parameters, what we can ment, and where military forces could and cannot do, and why; assist. □ caseload, magnitude of operations, □ Ensure understanding on functional volume of relief items; areas of responsibility. Different □ UNHCR organization-chart in the agencies and military forces have region, sub-office boundaries, etc.; different definitions of operations, □ counterparts and implementing part- logistics, medical and engineering ners; needs. □ skills and aptitude that UNHCR □ Exceptionally - if necessary and with military Working

brings to a mission area. For exam- appropriate - negotiate Standard 27 ple: Operating Procedures with military forces that define responsibilities and activities.

539 □ For these arrangements to be fully military force, a government structure and effective, you must seek endorsement civilian authorities. The military plans at the highest levels within the mili- for this transition, establishes criteria and tary command structure and UNHCR. monitors developments towards such a hand-over. Try to seek opportunities to Requesting military assistance contribute to the development of military 30. The UN humanitarian community has transition plans, and ensure their planning agreed to guidelines for use of military as- assumptions remain valid. sets in providing assistance. (There are separate guidelines for natural disasters Humanitarian–military interface and the complex emergencies). The fol- mechanisms lowing factors should be considered when requesting military assistance: Military coordination mechanisms 32. Military coordination mechanisms □ Are they the option of last resort; can vary according to varying doctrines in indispensable and appropriate? use. There are two very broad approaches □ Is the requested military or civil de- by the military in their interface structures fence element capable of the task? with civilian actors: □ For how long will they be required in • Specialised structures and staff, order to complete the task? leaving the “warfighters” (and most □ How will a transition back to civilian commanders) to concentrate on the responsibility be achieved? primary peace and security function. □ Can they be deployed without weap- • Mainstreamed interface where ons or additional security forces? all levels of the military command □ Are the military force offering assets structure will be required to be able or support party to the conflict? to deal with civilian actors, including □ How will this association likely im- the humanitarian community. pact the security of UNHCR person- 33. Despite this broad doctrinal difference, nel and other humanitarian workers? in most emergencies where the military is □ How will this association likely im- deployed in any significant strength they pact the perceptions of humanitarian will establish a contact point to assist their neutrality and impartiality? interface with the surrounding civilian en- □ What are the likely consequences for vironment. This can have various titles, the beneficiaries, other humanitarian but most commonly it is called a Civil actors, and humanitarian operations Military Operations Centre (CMOC). in the medium to long term? CMOCs are often located outside military □ What control and coordination ar- compounds to facilitate access and the ex- rangements will be required? change of information between military personnel, civilian organizations, local Remember, if your office requests and/ authorities and the local population. or makes use of any military assets you should duly inform the Humanitarian Coordinator through the UN CMCoord structure. Specialised humanitarian staff positions 31. A military operation is focussed on 34. Various UN organisations deploy staff achieving the stated objective, the “end- to fulfil functions that are specifically re- state”, completing the mission, and “go- lated to the interface with the military. The ing home”. Part of their mission will be main types of positions are as follows: to hand-over certain functions to another

540 • UN CMCoord Officers. The United i. CIMIC and CA officers are military Nations Office for the Coordination and sometimes national civilian staff of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) attached to military forces. They can deploy UN CMCoord Officers to can be trained in the workings of some humanitarian emergencies to international and non-governmental provide a UN Humanitarian or Resi- humanitarian and development agen- dent Coordinator specialized advice cies. The task of CIMIC officers is and liaison. to provide the appropriate - and often • UNHCR Military Liaison Officers. the direct - conduit to their respec- There may be occasions, particularly tive military commander and military those where there is a very large components, which aims to support military presence and a significant humanitarian action (e.g. engineering, humanitarian operation, when the logistics and medical). UNHCR may assign a staff member ii. CA officers may also interact with to focus specifically on civil-military government representatives and local interaction. The UNHCR term for administrators. Their role relates to these individuals is Military Liaison the broader socio-political environ- Officers (MLOs). ment, but their functions sometimes • World Food Programme (WFP), overlap with the task of CIMIC offic- UNICEF and other agencies may ers and Political Affairs Officers. deploy Military Liaison Officers.

Use of military escorts In addition to the UN, other humanitar- 36. As a general rule,2 UN humanitarian ian entities, e.g. the Red Cross family and convoys travel without military or police some NGOs appoint individuals to spe- escorts, but when working within a known cifically deal with the military. area of armed conflict exceptions may Specialised military staff positions need to be made. Before commencing any military escorted convoy, all involved 35. Various military organizations deploy personnel must be fully briefed of the con- officers whose primary task it is to inter- voy rules and must strictly adhere to com- face with non-military, including humani- mand and communications procedures. If tarian, actors. The main types of positions armed convoy escorts are requested, then are as follows: the relationship between UNHCR and the  UN Peacekeeping: military force must be based on the fol- i. Civil-Military Liaison Officers. UN lowing principles: military staffs at the HQ of a peace- • the primacy of the organization in keeping mission and at sector HQ humanitarian work; can have military officers who are • the primacy of humanitarian prin- titled Civil Military Liaison Officers ciples and criteria in deciding on a (CMLOs). convoy with a military escort; ii. National Contingents. At the level • the humanitarian identity of the con- of national contingents in UN peace- voy; and

keeping, national doctrine is often ap- with military Working • that armed personnel remain in sepa- plied to the titles of individual staff. rate vehicles and that humanitarian 27  Civil-Military Cooperation (CIM- vehicles are clearly marked as such. IC) Officers and Civil Affairs (CA) Officers: 2 (Details at http://ochaonline.un.org/webpage. asp?MenuID=5111&Page=774) 541 Key references Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets in Disaster Relief 1994 (covering natural, technological and environmental emergencies). Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets to Support United Nations Humanitarian Activities in Com- plex Emergencies 2003. Civil-Military Relationship in Complex Emergencies - IASC Reference Paper 2004. UNHCR and the Military - A Field Hand- book, UNHCR, 2006.

542 Working with military Working 27

543 Appendix 1 Toolbox

544 CONTENTS

Table 1 Key Emergency Indicators Table 2 Public Health Emergency: Major Killers Table 3 Common Health Problems Table 4 Screening of New Arrivals – Reception Activities Table 5 Approximate Staffing Levels for Refugee Health and Sanitation Services for a Population of 10-20,000

Table 6 Site Planning Figures for Emergencies Table 7 The Size of Things Table 8 Capacities and Characteristics of Various Aircraft Table 9 Capacities of Various Surface Transport Means Table 10 Conversion Factors Table 11 Typical Services and Infrastructure Requirements for Refugee Camps

545 Table 1 – Key Emergency Indicators

Crude Mortality rate Normal rate among a settled population 0.3 to 0.5/10,000/day (CMR) Emergency program under control Emergency program in serious trouble <1/10,000/day Emergency: out of control Major catastrophe >1/10,000/day

>2/10,000/day >5/10,000/day Mortality rate among Normal rate among a settled population 1.0/10,000/day children under 5 years Emergency program under control old (U5MR) Emergency program in serious trouble <2.0/10,000/day Emergency: out of control >2.0/10,000/day

>4.0/10,000/day Clean water Minimum survival allocation 7 liters/person/day Minimum maintenance allocation 15-20 liters/person/day Food Minimum food energy requirement for a 2,100 kcal/person/day population totally dependant on food aid Nutrition Emergency level: >15% of the population under five years old below 80% weight for height

or >10% of the population under five years old below 80% weight for height together with aggravating factors e.g. epidemic of measles, crude mortality rate > 1/10,000/day Measles Any reported cases. 10% or more unimmunized in the 6 months to 5 years age group Respiratory infections Any pattern of severe cases

Diarrhoea Any pattern of severe cases Appropriate shelter Protection from wind, rain, freezing temperatures, and direct sunlight are minimum requirements Minimum shelter area 3.5 sq. m/person Minimum total site area 30.0 sq. m/person Sanitation Lack of organized excreta and waste disposal. Less than 1 latrine cubicle per 100 persons

Table 2 – Public Health Emergency: Major Killers

Measles A significant increase of incidence of these Diarrhoeal Diseases conditions should prompt an immediate Acute respiratory infection (ARI) response (or the reporting of just one case Malaria of measles) Malnutrition

546 Table 3 – Common Health Problems

Disease Major contributing factors Preventive measures Diarrhoeal Overcrowding • adequate living space diseases Contamination of water and • public health education distribution of soap food • good personal and food hygiene Lack of hygiene • safe water supply and sanitation Measles Overcrowding • minimum living space standards as defined in Low vaccination coverage chapter on site planning • immunization of children with distribution of Vitamin A. Immunization from 6 months up to 15 years (rather than the more usual 5 years) is recommended because of the increased risks from living conditions Acute Poor housing • minimum living space standards and respiratory Lack of blankets and clothing • proper shelter, adequate clothing, sufficient blankets infections Smoke in living area Malaria New environment with a strain • destroying mosquito breeding places, larvae and to which the refugees are not adult mosquitoes by spraying. However the success immune of vector control is dependent on particular mosquito Stagnant water which habits and local experts must be consulted becomes a breeding area for • provision of mosquito nets mosquitoes • drug prophylaxis (e.g. pregnant women and young children according to national protocols) Meningococcal Overcrowding in areas where • minimum living space standards meningitis disease is endemic (often has • immunization only after expert advice when surveys local seasonal pattern) suggest necessity

Tuberculosis Overcrowding • minimum living space standards (but where it is Malnutrition endemic it will remain a problem) High HIV prevalence • immunization Typhoid Overcrowding • minimum living space standards Poor personal hygiene • safe water, proper sanitation good personal, food Contaminated water supply and public hygiene and public health education Inadequate sanitation • WHO does not recommend vaccination as it offers only low, short-term individual protection and little or no protection against the spread of the disease Worms Overcrowding • minimum living space standards especially Poor sanitation • proper sanitation hookworms • wearing shoes • good personal hygiene Scabies1 Overcrowding • minimum living space standards Poor personal hygiene • enough water and soap for washing Xerophthalmia Inadequate diet • adequate dietary intake of vitamin A Vitamin A Following acute prolonged • If not available, provide vitamin A fortified food deficiency infections, measles and • If this is not possible, vitamin A supplements diarrhoea immunization against measles. Systematic prophylaxis for children, every 4 - 6 months Anaemia Malaria, hookworm, poor • prevention/treatment of contributory disease absorption or insufficient intake • correction of diet including food fortification of iron and folate Tetanus Injuries to unimmunized • good first aid population • immunization of pregnant women and subsequent Poor obstetrical practice general immunization within EPI causes neo-natal tetanus • training of midwives and clean ligatures scissors, razors, etc. Hepatitis Lack of hygiene Contamination • safe water supply of food and water • effective sanitation • safe blood transfusions STD’s/HIV Loss of social organization • test syphilis during pregnancy Poor transfusion practices • test all blood before transfusion Lack of information • ensure adherence to universal precautions • health education • availability of condoms • treat partners

1 Scabies: skin disease caused by burrowing mites 547 Table 4 – Screening of New Arrivals - Reception Activities

a) HEALTH SCREENING Nutritional screening Children 1 to under 5 years: Measure the mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC). Any children with MUAC below 12.5 cm should be immediately referred to health or nutrition services for weighing and measuring and for nutritional assistance if required. Measles immunization Children aged 6 months to 12 (or even 15) years: Immunize entire group and issue «Road to Health» or other immunization record card. Note: It is often inpractical to vaccinate at the same time as screening. However screening could be used to evaluate the vaccination coverage. Vitamin A prophylaxis Given along with measles vaccine, but should not delay measles vaccination if vitimin A is not available. Basic curative care As required: On-site first-line care for dehydration, respiratory infections, presumed malaria, trauma, and other life threatening conditions. Referral to existing health care facilities. b) DEMOGRAPHIC SCREENING Population estimation Everyone: Estimate total population broken down by sex and age (0-4, 5-14, 15- 44, and 44 years and over) Estimate numbers of vulnerable persons such as children up to 5 years old, pregnant/lactating women, handicapped, female heads of households, single women, and unaccompanied minors.

Table 5 – Approximate Staffing Levels for Refugee Health and Sanitation Services for a Population of 10-20,000

Community Health Worker 10-20 Traditional Birth Attendant 6-10 Public Health Nurse 1 Clinic Nurses Midwives 3-4 Doctors/Medical Assistants 1-3 Pharmacy Attendant 1 Laboratory Technician 1 Dressers/Assistants 10 Sanitarians 2-4 Sanitation Assistants 20

548 Table 6 – Site Planning Figures for Emergencies

RESOURCE HOW MUCH YOU WILL NEED Land 30 - 45 m2 per person Sheltered space 3.5 m2 per person (tents, or other structures) Fire break space A clear area between shelters 50 m wide should be provided for every 300 m of built-up area. A minimum of 1-1.5 m should be provided between guy-ropes of neighboring tents on all sides Roads and walkways 20-25% of entire site Open space 15-20% of entire site and public facilities Environmental sanitation 1 latrine seat per 20 people or ideally 1 per family sited not farther than 50 m from user accommodations and not nearer than 6 m. 1 x 100 liter refuse bin per 50 people 1 wheelbarrow per 500 people 1 communal refuse pit (2 m x 5 m x 2 m) per 500 people Water 15 - 20 liters per person per day of clean water Tap stands 1 tap per 200 persons sited not farther than 100 m from user accommodations Warehouse space For food grains in bags, stacked 6 m high allow 1.2 m2 of floor space per tonne Food 2,100 kcal/person/day This will require approximately 36 metric tonnes/10,000 people/ week of food assuming the following daily ration: 350-400 g/person/day of staple cereal 20-40 g/person/day of an energy rich food (oil/fat) 50 g/person/day of a protein rich food (legumes)

549 Table 7 – The Size of Things

Commodity Approximate Standard package Typical maximum volume per ton stacking height (m3/1,000kg) Water 1 none n/a Food grains/beans 2 50 kg bag 20-40 bags Flour and blended foods 2 25 kg bag 20-30 bags DSM in bags 2.4 25 kg bag 20-30 bags DSM in tins inside cartons 4 20 kg/carton 8 individual cartons or 4 tins/carton 20 if palletized Edible oil in tins inside 2 25 kg/carton 8 individual cartons or cartons 6 tins per carton 20 if palletized Oil in drums 1.4 200 liter drum 2 drums upright with wood between the rims or 3 drums on their sides ORS 2.4 35 kg carton 3-4 m Mixed drugs 3.5 45 kg carton 3-4 m Clinic equipment and 4.5 35-50 kg carton 3-4 m teaching aids

Kitchen utensils 5 35-40 kg cartons 3-4 m Tents: Ridge canvas 5 80-100kg/unit 4.5 m * Light-weight tent 10 41kg/unit 3m *

Compressed blankets 4.5 70 units/bale 4.5 m * 85 kg/bale Loose blankets 9 unit 3-4 m * where equipment for stacking allows

550 Table 8 – Capacities and Characteristics of Various Aircraft

Aircraft make or Volume* Weight* Required* Notes type capacity capacity in kg runway in m in m3 Antanov AN-12 97 20,000 1,800 Antanov AN-124 900 120,000 3,000 Boeing B.707/320C 165 36,000 2,100 Boeing B.747 460 100,000 3,000 DC-3 21 3,000 1,200 DC-6 80 11,000 1,500 DC.8/63F 302 44,000 2, 300 ”stretch” version DC.10/30F 412 66,000 2,500 Fokker F.27 65 5,000 1,200 Hercules L.100-30 120 15,000 1,400 Ramp for trucks, can land on earth/grass airstrips Ilyushin IL-76 180 40 1,700 Pilatus Porter 3 950 120 Small door Skyvan 22 2,100 500 Ramp: can take Land Rover Transall 140 17,000 1,000 Ramp for trucks Twin Otter 12.4 1,800 220 Small door *Note that the minimum length of runway required and the maximum load capacity both depend on the altitude of the airport and the temperature. Capacity is reduced for long distances as more fuel must be carried. Carrying capacity will also vary with the actual configuration of the aircraft.

Table 9 – Capacities of Various Surface Transport Means

Carrier Type volume weight capacity in m3 capacity in kg Standard railway car 52 30,000 Standard sea/land container – 20ft/ 6.1 m 30 18,000 Standard sea/land container – 40ft/12.2 m 65 26,000 Large lorry and trailer Varies 20-30,000 Large articulated lorry Varies 30-40,000 Medium lorry Varies 5-8,000 Long wheel base Landrover or pickup Varies 1,000 Typical water tanker 8 8,000 Hand drawn cart Varies 300 Camel Varies 250 Donkey Varies 100 Bicycle Varies 100

551 Table 10 – Conversion Factors

To convert from To Multiply by

Length Yards (1 = 3ft = 36 inches) Metres 0.91 Metres (1 = 100 cm) Yards 1.09 Miles (1 = 1,760 yds) Kilometres 1.61 Kilometres (1 = 1,000 m) Miles 0.62 The international nautical mile = 6,076 feet = 1.825 km

Area Yards2 (1 = 9 ft2) Metres2 0.84 Metres2 (1 = 10,000 cm2) Yards2 1.20 Acres (1 = 4,840 yd2) Hectares 0.41 Hectares (1 = 100 ares = 10,000 m2) Acres 2.47 Miles2 (1 = 640 Acres) Kilometres2 2.59 Kilometres2 (1 = 100 ha) Miles2 0.39

Volume US gallons UK gallons 0.83 UK gallons US gallons 1.20 US (UK) pints Litres 0.47 (0.57) Litres US (UK) pints 2.11 (1.76) US (UK) gallons (1 = 8 pints) Litres 3.79 (4.55) Metres3 Yards3 1.31 Yards (1 = 27 ft3) Metres3 0.77

Weight Ounces (oz) Grams 28.35 Grams Ounces 0.035 Pounds (lb, 1 = 16 oz) Kilos 0.454 Kilos (kg, 1 = 1,000 g) Pounds 2.21 US short tons (1 = 2,000 lb) Metric tons 0.91 US long tons (= UK tons,1 = 20 hundredweight (CWT) = 2240 lb) Metric tons 1.02 Metric tons (MT, 1 = 1,000 kg) US short tons 1.10 US long tons UK tons 0.98

Temperature Centigrade Fahrenheit 1.8 and add 32 Fahrenheit Centigrade Subtract 32 and multiply by 0.56 Weight of water (at 16.7° C, 62° F)

1 litter = 1kg; 1 US gal = 8.33 lb; 1 UK gal = 101 lb; 1 ft3 = 62.31 lb

552 Table 11 –Typical Services and Infrastructure Requirements for Refugee Camps

1 latrine per 1 family (6 - 10 persons) 1 water tap per 1 community (80 - 100 persons) 1 health centre per 1 camp (of 20,000 persons) 1 hospital per up to 200,000 persons 1 school per 1 sector (5,000 persons) 4 commodity distribution sites per 1 camp module (20,000 persons) 1 market per 1 camp module (20,000 persons) 2 refuse drums per 1 community (80 - 100 persons)

553 Appendix 2 Memorandum of Understanding between UNHCR and WFP (2002)

554 Memorandum of Understanding Between the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Food Programme (WFP)

555 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Even before the conclusion of the 1985 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), UNHCR and WFP had established a very close partnership in the service of refugees. This was significantly strengthened with the new working arrangements introduced progressively from the start of 1992. A revised MOU, reflecting experience with these new arrangements, became effective at the start of 1994 and was further revised in 1997. This 2002 revision reflects the experience in implementing the provisions of the second revision. 1.2 The MOU sets out its objectives and scope, and establishes the division of responsibility and arrangements for, inter alia, needs assessment; resource mobilization; logistics; appeals; monitoring and evaluation; nutritional surveillance, reporting, and coordination. The last section describes the general conditions governing the MOU. 1.3 By virtue of its Statute (General Assembly resolution 428 (V) of 14 December 1950), the role of UNHCR is to provide international protection to refugees and to seek durable solutions to refugee problems. As regards UNHCR’s assistance activities, the basic provisions of the Statute were expanded by the General Assembly in its resolution 832 (IX) of 21 October 1954. Subsequent resolutions of the General Assembly, the Eco- nomic and Social Council and the Executive Committee of UNHCR have called on the Office, in the context of its basic mandate, to protect and assist other groups of persons regarded as falling within the competence of UNHCR. For the purpose of this MOU, the following categories of persons are of concern to UNHCR:

• Refugees UNHCR is mandated to provide international protection and humanitarian assistance to refugees as well as to promote durable solutions to their problems.

• Asylum seekers The term asylum seeker, in the context of this MOU, refers to persons who are part of large-scale influxes of mixed groups, the nature of which makes individual refugee status determination impractical. UNHCR is mandated to promote the right of all persons, whether individually or as part of mass movements, to seek and to avail themselves of asylum, until a solution is found and in accordance with basic humanitarian standards of treatment.

• Returnees UNHCR’s mandate concerning returning refugees, based on its legitimate concern for the consequences of return, includes substantive involvement to ensure that return takes place in conditions of safety and dignity and to provide assistance to returnees in their country of origin with an aim towards their full reintegration. UNHCR’s activities in favour of returnees are limited in time and aimed at ensuring the sustainability of returns, and vary according to each operation. UNHCR’s involvement may be determined by specific tripartite or bilateral agreements with respective countries that outline the framework of voluntary repatriation operations.

• Internally displaced persons (IDPs) UNHCR’s involvement with IDPs is selective, applying to persons displaced internally for reasons that would make them of concern to UNHCR had they crossed an international boundary. In line with relevant General Assembly resolutions, UNHCR’s involve- 556 ment in any IDP situation is based on a specific request from the Secretary-General or a competent principal organ of the United Nations, the consent of the State or other entities concerned, and the availability of adequate resources. 1.4. WFP is mandated to feed the hungry poor, regardless of their status. As the food aid arm of the United Nations, WFP uses food to save lives, alleviate hunger and enable poor, food-insecure people to make investments that will help them in the longer term. This entails assessing the needs of targeted populations, planning and implementing appropriate activities, organizing and managing logistics, monitoring impact and working with a range of partners. Refugees, asylum seekers, returnees and IDPs, especially women and children, are important categories of food-insecure people of particular concern to WFP, given the impact of displacement on food security. 1.5 Under the framework of this MOU, UNHCR and WFP will work together, in partnership, where their mandates overlap, to address the food security and related needs of refugees and others of concern to UNHCR.

2. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 1.1 The ultimate goal of the partnership between UNHCR and WFP is to ensure that food security and related needs of the refugees and returnees that UNHCR is mandated to protect and assist are adequately addressed. Food security is defined as access by all people at all times to enough food needed for an active and healthy life. On the basis of the above principle, and through the timely provision of the right quantity of the right food and of non-food items relevant to the safe and effective use of the food ration provided, UNHCR and WFP seek to contribute to: • the restoration and/or maintenance of a sound nutritional status through a food basket that meets the assessed requirements of the different population groups, is nutritionally balanced and is culturally acceptable, as jointly agreed upon and specified in Joint Plans of Action (see article 3.2); and • the promotion of the highest possible level of self-reliance among the beneficiaries, through the implementation of appropriate programmes to develop food production or income-generation, which will facilitate a progressive shift from general relief food distribution towards more targeted assistance and sustainable development-oriented activities. 2.2 UNHCR and WFP are committed to ensuring that food aid and non-food items affecting health and food security are targeted at the household level and reach the most vulnerable, with their delivery respecting the guiding principles of humanitarian action, especially accountability and transparency. WFP and UNHCR will take measures to ensure that, to the extent possible and taking into account the demographic profile of the beneficiary population, at least 80 per cent of food inputs are directly managed by the adult female in the household. They will also work together to implement strategies to involve the beneficiary community, and particularly women, in all aspects of the management of food aid. Women should be encouraged to participate in decision-making bodies and should represent at least 50 per cent of the members in refugee committees. 2.3 UNHCR and WFP have a legitimate interest in the creation of suitable conditions for durable solutions. The promotion of self-reliance, although not a durable solution on its own, is one of the essential elements for lasting solutions. The achievement of self- reliance implies a whole range of activities aimed at socio-economic empowerment of refugees and returnees, as part of a local community. Given the need for self-reliance to 557 be featured within a larger context of local development, WFP and UNHCR will make efforts to link self-reliance and reintegration activities to the longer-term recovery and development plans of governments and other actors. 2.4 The MOU is a management tool that contributes to the achievement of these objectives by recognizing the mandates of each organization and defining clearly the responsibilities and arrangements for cooperation between UNHCR and WFP. It does so in a way that maximizes the strengths of each organization and builds on their comparative advantages in arrangements for cooperation that provide both added value for the beneficiaries and the discharge of these mandates and responsibilities. 2.5 The MOU covers cooperation in the provision of food aid and related non-food items to refugees (including asylum seekers), returnees and, in specific situations (as defined in article 1.3) to IDPs. It applies when the number of people in need of food assistance in a given country is at least 5,000, unless otherwise determined and agreed upon by WFP and UNHCR on a case-by-case basis. Where the beneficiaries are located in developed countries,1 the provisions of the MOU will still apply, provided that the availability of the necessary donor resources is not at the expense of WFP’s relief operations in developing countries. This will be determined by WFP on a case-by-case basis. 2.6 UNHCR and WFP will separately meet the food needs of persons of their concern that lie outside the scope of the MOU as defined above, as well as the needs of any persons who, while falling within the MOU’s scope, have been excluded by a situation- specific agreement.

3. PLANNING AND NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Contingency planning 3.1 UNHCR and WFP will establish early-warning systems, undertake contingency planning and maintain contingency plans for countries where this is deemed appropriate. Each will seek to ensure joint participation of others concerned in the process, and share relevant contingency plans where these can not be developed jointly.

Plan of Action 3.2 At the field level, a Joint Plan of Action setting out the agreed-upon objectives and implementation arrangements for operations under this MOU shall be developed at the onset of each joint operation and updated regularly, at least annually.

Registration/verification 3.3 The host government is primarily responsible for determining the number of refugees. In the context of its protection mandate, UNHCR will fully support the government in processes relating to the determination of refugee status and the registration of and provision of identity cards to refugees. WFP and UNHCR will jointly assess the number of refugees/returnees eligible for food assistance, in consultation with the government concerned. An accurate identification of beneficiaries and a sound assessment of their needs are essential for the mobilization and efficient use of the resources made available to both organizations.

1 Countries other than those listed in the OECD/DAC Annual Report as aid recipient countries that fall below the threshold for World Bank loan eligibility. 558 3.4 In normal circumstances registration will take place within three months of the start of a major influx. The size and nature of the influx will determine the type of registration mechanism to be used. UNHCR will work together with the government to put in place local arrangements to register, to the extent possible, any new arrivals, departures, births, changes in marital status and deaths. This will ensure that changes in the family size of the beneficiaries of food items are followed by a corresponding change in family rations. Where a satisfactory registration has not been possible within three months, UNHCR and WFP will jointly determine the number of beneficiaries in need of food assistance and estimate the demographic breakdown of the population, in consultation with the host government. Beneficiary numbers and the refugee food security situation will be jointly updated regularly, at least annually, unless otherwise agreed upon by the country offices. The timing of the registration, verification or revalidation exercise will be agreed upon at the country level in the Joint Plan of Action. 3.5 UNHCR will fully involve WFP in the planning and execution of refugee enumeration, registration and verification exercises for actual or potential beneficiaries of food aid and related non-food items. Operational partners and representatives of donor governments should be closely associated with this and other aspects of enumeration and registration. Should there be any disagreement between the respective country offices on the number of beneficiaries to use in the absence of a satisfactory initial registration, the matter shall be referred to the respective regional bureaux for resolution. Pending such resolution, and in consultation with the host government, WFP will provide food to the number of beneficiaries it estimates to be in need of assistance.

Needs assessment 3.6 In consultation with the relevant government authorities, donor representatives, operational partners, beneficiaries, and experts as appropriate, UNHCR and WFP will jointly assess the overall food aid and related non-food requirements. Both agencies will agree on the modalities of food assistance, the composition of the food basket, ration size, duration of assistance, and related non-food inputs. Special consideration will be given to the needs and views of women, children and vulnerable groups. Needs in different settlements may be established individually, if so jointly agreed upon at country level. The proposed food and non-food assistance programmes will take into account all relevant factors, including the socio-economic and nutritional status of the beneficiaries, cultural practices, overall food availability, prospects for self-reliance, availability of cooking fuels and milling facilities, and environmental impact. Energy requirements for cooking and corresponding energy supply options and quantities should be carefully assessed in each situation. 3.7 In a major new emergency, the initial assessment to determine the number of beneficiaries and the most urgent food and non-food needs will normally be carried out within the framework of the emergency response being mobilized by both agencies. This would involve the participation of emergency response teams from UNHCR, WFP and prospective operational partners, as appropriate. 3.8 In ongoing operations, a jointly led review of food and other relief needs will normally take the form of a periodic joint assessment mission (JAM), undertaken by the country offices and involving outside staff, as appropriate. The composition of the mission will be mutually agreed upon. When a consultancy is required to assess the beneficiaries’ socio-economic or health situation — such as their household food economy,

559 self-reliance potential, health behaviours, underlying causes of malnutrition and gender aspects of distribution modalities — its cost will be shared by both organizations. The participation, as full mission members, of selected donor and operational partner representatives will be encouraged so as to promote donor support for the mission’s findings. Jointly established assessment mission guidelines will be developed. The JAM report will be finalized within a month of the completion of the mission, and circulated immediately thereafter. 3.9 Should either the UNHCR or the WFP country office consider that developments since the last needs assessment warrant a change in the agreed-upon ration or number of beneficiaries, the other organization shall be informed of this immediately. The implications of these developments will be reviewed jointly and a course of action agreed upon. Should the country offices not agree on a course of action, the issue shall be referred to the respective regional bureaux for appropriate and immediate resolution. 3.10 UNHCR and WFP will also consider the food security situation of communities surrounding refugee camps and of individuals and families hosting refugees, and will address these needs as appropriate.

Durable solutions 3.11 In accordance with their respective mandates, UNHCR and WFP will promote the use of assistance to encourage and build the self-reliance of beneficiaries. This will include programming food and non-food aid to support asset-building, training, income-generation and other self-reliance activities. With the increase in self-reliance, UNHCR and WFP will carefully plan for the reduction of assistance in consultation with the government, non-governmental organization (NGO) partners and beneficiaries. Possibilities for allocating agricultural land for use by refugees will be pursued with host governments, whenever possible. 3.12 WFP will be closely associated with the planning and implementation of repatriation operations, particularly with regard to timing, security and other components that would affect food aid planning and implementation. Decisions on the use of WFP food will be taken jointly. If a repatriation commission is established by the governments concerned, UNHCR will request WFP’s participation (as an observer or as otherwise agreed) in its meetings. 13.13 UNHCR, in consultation with WFP and other relevant partners, will develop reintegration strategies that help integrate refugees into their former or new communities, keeping in mind the broader food security situation of such communities as well as government policies and sensitivity. Normally, assistance provided to communities or areas is likely to be more appropriate than that provided to individuals. UNHCR and WFP will make efforts to link UNHCR’s short-term reintegration programmes to longer-term development plans/programmes of the region, including those of WFP and other development actors.

Nutrition 3.14 The indicative average energy and protein requirements for human beings established by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Or- ganization (WHO) (2,100 kcal per person per day, with 10–12 per cent coming from protein) will be maintained as the initial planning figure to apply at the onset of any

560 emergency situation. This figure will be adjusted as soon as possible to take into account the temperature in the area and the demographic composition, health, nutritional status and physical activity levels of the beneficiaries, as specified in the Joint WFP/UNHCR/ UNICEF/WHO Guidelines for Estimating Food and Nutritional Needs in Emergencies. Other factors, such as the ability of the population to provide its own food and those factors specified in article 3.6, will also be taken into consideration when estimating the food aid needs of the beneficiaries. Agreed-upon nutritional guidelines will be used to assess the food needs for both the general and any selective feeding programmes that may be necessary. 3.15 UNHCR, through its implementing partners (health agencies), is responsible for monitoring the nutritional status of refugees and for the implementation of any selective feeding programmes that may be necessary. UNHCR will organize regular nutritional surveys and maintain an effective surveillance system for monitoring the nutritional status of refugee populations. UNHCR will ensure the full involvement and the effective participation of WFP staff in both the planning and the execution of the nutritional surveys, and in the analysis or interpretation and dissemination of the results. The nutritional status of the refugees will also be reviewed as part of a joint assessment mission. The decision to implement selective feeding programmes will be taken jointly by UNHCR and WFP on the basis of agreed-upon guidelines (WFP/UNHCR Selective Feeding Guidelines). UNHCR will keep WFP informed regularly on the implementation of such programmes. WFP, on the basis of the evaluation of its technical staff at the country and regional levels, may recommend to UNHCR specific actions in the nutrition field.

HIV/AIDS prevention 3.16 The HIV/AIDS pandemic affects the socio-economic and security situation of the beneficiaries of this MOU. In its implementation, both agencies will seize every opportunity to address the impact of HIV/AIDS on the populations of mutual concern and to promote prevention and care activities.

4. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR RESOURCE MOBILIZATION AND MILLING 4.1 WFP is responsible for mobilizing the following commodities, whether for general or selective feeding programmes: cereals; edible oils and fats; pulses (or other sources of protein when appropriate and jointly agreed upon); blended foods; salt; sugar; and high-energy biscuits. Where beneficiaries are totally dependent on food aid, WFP will ensure the provision of blended foods or other fortified commodities in order to contribute to preventing or correcting micronutrient deficiencies. 4.2 UNHCR is responsible for mobilizing complementary food commodities when recommended by JAMs or on the basis of specific health/nutritional and/or social assessments, particularly when refugees have limited access to fresh food items. These complementary commodities include local fresh foods and therapeutic milk (to be used in selective feeding programmes). UNHCR may mobilize spices and tea, when recommended. 4.3 Within its assistance activities, UNHCR is responsible for ensuring adequate supplies of non-food items and services, in particular those relevant to the safe and effective use of food aid, such as cooking utensils, fuel, water and sanitation, medicines, soap and shelter. UNHCR and WFP should promote nutritionally and environmentally sound practices, and cooking techniques and technologies for saving fuel. 561 4.4 Furthermore, UNHCR and WFP will facilitate the mobilization of seeds, tools and fertilizers, in cooperation with relevant government bodies and competent United Na- tions and development cooperation agencies. 4.5 The joint assessment mission will determine the specific food commodities and quantities required. The assessment will also determine whether cereals are to be provided in whole grain or as flour. For practical, nutritional and environmental reasons, it is generally preferable to provide flour in the early stages of an emergency, but such provision may be difficult to sustain in protracted operations. If whole grain is provided, local milling capacity must be available. The ration should include compensation for milling costs (normally between 10 and 20 per cent of the cereals provided), if these costs are borne by the beneficiaries. WFP is responsible for mobilizing the necessary resources for milling and will provide milling facilities for the beneficiaries where feasible. Women will be particularly encouraged to play a key role in the management of the milling services, when appropriate. 4.6 WFP and UNHCR will maintain effective systems for monitoring their commodity pipelines and will keep each other closely and regularly informed, at both the country office and regional bureau levels, of any significant developments. UNHCR and WFP will consult immediately should it become clear that either organization may not be able to ensure the timely arrival (including milling) of food and non-food commodities under their responsibility, whether because of unavailability of resources, delayed deliveries, logistical problems, or other constraints. Systems should be put in place to ensure that such information is available at least three months in advance. As a consequence, appropriate remedial action will be taken jointly, such as the issuing of joint donor appeals, press statements, temporary modifications of the food basket composition to maintain the agreed-upon energy (kcal) level and any other action agreed upon at the field and regional levels.

5. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR FOOD DELIVERY AND DISTRIBUTION 1.1 WFP is responsible for the timely transport to agreed-upon extended delivery points (EDPs) of sufficient quantities of those food commodities it is responsible for mobilizing (specified in article 4.1). WFP is also responsible for storing these commodities at the EDPs, and for managing the latter. WFP will keep UNHCR informed of the in-country logistic arrangements made to implement the agreed-upon programme. 1.2 UNHCR is responsible for the timely transport and for the storage of sufficient quantities of those food and non-food commodities it is responsible for mobilizing (specified in article 4.2). Unless otherwise agreed, UNHCR is also responsible for the transportation of WFP food commodities from the EDPs to the final delivery points (FDPs) and for their final distribution to beneficiaries. Responsibility is assumed ex- warehouse (i.e. EDP) or free-on-truck/free-on-rail, taking into consideration practice in the country. UNHCR will keep WFP informed of the logistical arrangements made to implement the agreed-upon programme. 1.3 The location of an EDP is proposed by the country offices, in accordance with agreed-upon Guidelines for Locating EDPs and Operating EDP Storage Facilities, and confirmed by UNHCR and WFP regional bureaux. The location selected should minimize overall costs and maximize management efficiency of the operation as a whole. EDPs should be located where sufficient warehousing space can be made available to ensure regular final distribution and the most efficient possible onward transportation,

562 thus avoiding the need for further intermediate storage or trans-shipment between the EDP and the distribution location. Management and security considerations are particularly important. The distribution site should also be as close as possible to households, to minimize the burdens and risks to women managing food distribution and/or collecting the food. 1.4 Arrangements for the final distribution of food commodities to beneficiaries are agreed-upon jointly by the government, UNHCR and WFP, in consultation with beneficiaries, particularly women’s committees, and in conformity with the established commodity distribution guidelines. These arrangements will respect UNHCR and WFP’s policy of ensuring the maximum possible appropriate involvement of the beneficiary community, and of women in particular, in all aspects of distribution. The final distribution of food commodities will be normally the responsibility of an implementing partner of UNHCR (except in those countries selected for the pilot activities mentioned in article 5.8), whose designation shall be jointly agreed upon by UNHCR and WFP. The distribution modalities and the responsibilities of the implementing partner for reporting on the distribution and use of food commodities are the subject of a tripartite agreement among UNHCR, WFP and the implementing partner. Tripartite agreements will be signed in every joint operation. UNHCR is responsible for ensuring, in collaboration with WFP, that implementing arrangements also provide appropriate guidance to beneficiaries on their entitlements, distribution schedules and how to prepare food in a manner that minimizes cooking time and safeguards the food’s nutritional content. 1.5 Bearing in mind the broader context in which the food distribution process takes place, and its impact, in particular on the protection situation of the assisted population, the country office of either UNHCR or WFP may, at any moment, request modifications to the pattern of distribution, or stop distribution altogether, if deemed appropriate. Should the country office of either agency disagree with this request, the matter will be submitted to the corresponding regional bureaux of both organizations for final joint decision. Pending this final resolution, the process of food distribution will proceed as previously agreed. 5.6 In targeted feeding programmes such as school feeding and food for work, and in non-camp situations in the country of asylum or in situations where food assistance is targeted to both IDPs and refugees, UNHCR and WFP may agree to transfer the responsibility for distribution to WFP. 5.7 There is no automatic retroactive entitlement when full distribution of the agreed- upon ration has not been possible. The decision on any exceptional retroactive distribution will be made jointly by UNHCR and WFP and will be based on substantive evidence of any negative effects of the reduced ration on refugees’ well-being. 5.8 On a pilot basis and for an initial duration of 12 months (per country), WFP will assume, at its own cost, responsibility for the final distribution of the basic food ration in five refugee programmes. The pilot country programmes will be selected jointly by UNHCR and WFP based upon jointly agreed criteria and in consultation with the concerned WFP/UNHCR country teams. For the countries in which WFP will take responsibility for food distribution, WFP and UNHCR will agree on transitional provisions so as to ensure a smooth hand-over of related responsibilities. The pilot activities will be jointly evaluated. The findings of that evaluation and their implications will be the subject of further discussions between UNHCR and WFP.

563 5.9 UNHCR will maintain its responsibility for distribution of food in selective feeding programmes.

6. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR FUNDING AND APPROACHES TO DONORS 6.1 UNHCR and WFP will each mobilize the cash and other resources necessary for the discharge of their respective responsibilities. 6.2 UNHCR and WFP will ensure that the resource implications for each organization are set out in all approaches to donors and related documentation in a manner that makes these responsibilities and their complementarity clear. Details on country-specific landside transport, storage and handling (LTSH) and distribution costs will be provided. Approaches to donors will be coordinated, and UNHCR will share with WFP in advance the text covering food needs in any appeal to donors. Joint approaches will be made whenever appropriate, both at the start of a new operation and at any time should it appear that the response of donors will not ensure the timely delivery of the necessary relief items. 6.3 UNHCR and WFP will urge donors to pledge commodities and cash for all food requirements under this MOU through WFP. Sole exception will be for the few food items that UNHCR is responsible for mobilizing. WFP will manage all contributions channelled through it, and coordinate and monitor donor pledges and shipments, including bilateral and non-governmental donations, of all commodities, seeking to adjust delivery schedules as necessary. UNHCR will be kept informed accordingly. 6.4 WFP will seek to ensure that bilateral food resources for refugees (and asylum seekers), returnees and IDPs falling under this agreement, whether channelled through WFP or not, are accompanied by the full cash resources needed to cover LTSH and other related support costs. 6.5 UNHCR will support WFP’s specific approaches to donors to provide cash for local, regional or international purchase, so as to ensure that the needs of beneficiaries are met in the most timely and cost-effective manner possible. UNHCR will also support WFP’s general approaches to donors for cash contributions to bring the Immediate Re- sponse Account (IRA) up to, and maintain it at, the approved level, and for contributions to any similar fund, so that WFP can respond swiftly to new emergency food needs.

7. MONITORING, REPORTING AND EVALUATION 7.1 UNHCR and WFP are both responsible for operational reporting and ongoing monitoring. They will establish an effective monitoring and reporting system for each operation under this MOU, with special attention given to gender-specific quantitative and qualitative data on the socio-economic status of beneficiaries. The agreed-upon distribution of responsibilities for monitoring activities will be specified in the Joint Plan of Action developed in each operation under this MOU. The responsibilities of the government or any other implementing partner entrusted with the distribution of WFP food will be set out in the tripartite agreement (referred to in article 5.5) in a manner that allows effective programme management and meets WFP’s and UNHCR’s responsibilities to donors. This agreement will require the partner entrusted with distribution to report directly to both WFP and UNHCR on the distribution and use of WFP food. UNHCR and WFP field staff will undertake periodic joint monitoring activities at the food distribution sites (which includes food basket monitoring activities) and at the household level (which includes post-distribution monitoring of the end use of the dis-

564 tributed commodities). The capacity of refugees and local communities to contribute to monitoring and evaluation of projects should be taken into account. 7.2 UNHCR and WFP will seek to have multilateral donors accept the standard reports and documentation provided to their Executive Committee and Executive Board, respectively, as fulfilment of reporting requirements, instead of requiring donor-specific reporting. 7.3. The evaluation services of UNHCR and WFP will organize joint evaluations as appropriate, taking into account the scale and complexity of operations covered by the MOU. When an evaluation of a joint operation is organized by one organization, the other shall be informed and invited to participate.

8. COORDINATION 1.1 Close cooperation and regular exchange of information between UNHCR and WFP at the field level are essential. This should also enable the resolution of existing and potential problems without referring them to Headquarters or to the regional bureaux. Focal points or liaison officers will be appointed in both UNHCR and WFP field offices to deal with operational matters covered by the MOU. 8.2 The UNHCR and WFP country offices, in liaison with the relevant government authorities as appropriate, will establish and maintain food aid coordinating mechanisms that allow regular consultation and exchange of information with multilateral and bilateral donors, the diplomatic community, other relevant United Nations organizations and NGO partners. Moreover, for each operation, WFP will establish and chair a joint food security committee. The government and all interested partners will be invited to participate and exchange information on all issues pertaining to food aid, non-food related assistance, food security and nutrition relevant to that operation. 8.3 WFP and UNHCR will share with each other the project documents for assistance under the MOU before they are finalized. Letters of Understanding (LOUs) between WFP and the government will expressly provide for full access to and monitoring by both organizations of all aspects of the operation covered by the LOU. WFP will request UNHCR’s association (as an observer or as otherwise agreed) with discussions pertinent to the LOU when it concerns people falling under UNHCR’s mandate. 8.4 WFP and UNHCR will collaborate on public information activities to promote awareness of the food security and related non-food needs of beneficiaries, understanding of each organization’s role, and support for the work of each organization in addressing these needs. In all joint operations, WFP and UNHCR will regularly acknowledge the role of the other to both the media and the general public in order to ensure the common goal of donor and host government support. At the field level, there should be adequate visibility for each organization. 8.5 At the Headquarters level, coordination on operation-specific matters is the responsibility of the respective operations managers or bureau directors. Joint field missions will be undertaken when warranted by specific situations. Coordination for commodity and resource mobilization issues is the responsibility of the respective resource mobilization services. Responsibility for coordinating overall policies and functional issues lies with the respective directors of UNHCR’s Division of Operational Support and WFP’s Operations Department, who will encourage direct contact among the technical, logistic and programme coordination staff concerned.

565 8.6 When either UNHCR or WFP is elaborating or developing emergency response capacities, systems and guidelines or taking any other action that could potentially benefit (or duplicate) the work of the other, the responsible unit in the other organization is to be informed. Furthermore, every effort should be made to maximize the benefits to both. 8.7. UNHCR and WFP will collaborate, as appropriate, on transport and logistics issues, at both the field and Headquarters level, to ensure coordination and best use of their assets and resources. Where possible, this will include regular information exchange, joint logistics planning, and use of common services and tools. 8.8. UNHCR and WFP will exchange information, collaborate and coordinate activities in regards to the safety and security of staff and beneficiaries. UNHCR and WFP will work together to enhance the United Nations Security Management System and, while doing so, promote an integrated approach to staff safety and security for the Unit- ed Nations and NGO implementing partners. 8.9. UNHCR and WFP will collaborate, as appropriate, on telecommunications and information technology issues, at both the field and Headquarters level, to ensure coordination and best use of their assets and resources. Collaboration in the area of geographic information, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Position- ing System (GPS) and satellite imagery, will be strengthened to increase inter-agency collaboration and sharing of relevant data in standardized formats. 8.10. UNHCR and WFP will collaborate as appropriate in formulating and implementing joint policies and strategies aimed at promoting gender mainstreaming in all activities. The two agencies will make every attempt to implement joint operations in full respect of their common commitment to enhance the status and role of women. Task forces or gender theme groups at the field level would follow up on the strategies elaborated at Headquarters and would formulate joint action plans. 8.11 Each organization will develop and maintain its own training materials for discharging its responsibilities. Joint workshops will be organized, with priority given to the field. These workshops will focus on enhancing the skills and knowledge required for joint support to operations falling under this MOU. In addition, each organization will invite the other to participate in courses of a more general nature, such as emergency management training, nutrition and vulnerability assessment. 8.12 Joint Headquarters-level meetings with governments and other parties concerned in specific country or regional operations will be organized as required. If either UNHCR or WFP organizes a meeting with external bodies on operations covered by the MOU, the other organization will be invited. 8.13 Both agencies are committed to ensuring adherence by their staff and those of the partner organizations to their respective codes of conduct and/ or other internationally agreed-upon principles of accountability pertinent to humanitarian workers.

566 9. GENERAL PROVISIONS 9.1 This revised MOU shall come into effect on the date of its signing and supersedes the revised MOU dated March 1997. 9.2 It governs cooperation in all operations covered by its terms except those operations, or parts thereof, that may be specifically excluded by mutual agreement. 9.3 Should there be disagreement between the respective country offices on a course of action, the matter will be submitted to the corresponding regional bureaux of both organizations for resolution. If it is not possible to reach an agreement at the regional level, the matter will be referred to the Assistant Executive Director for Operations of WFP and to the Assistant High Commissioner of UNHCR for final resolution. 9.4 Whenever the timely supply of the agreed-upon food and related relief items and services to the jointly identified beneficiaries is delayed or totally disrupted, UNHCR and WFP will jointly investigate all possible remedial actions to be taken and the modalities for resourcing. 9.6 The MOU may be modified at any time by mutual written agreement.

(Signed) (Signed) James T. Morris Ruud Lubbers Executive Director High Commissioner WFP UNHCR

Date: 9 July 2002

567 Appendix 3 Glossary

568 See also chapter 2 on protection, Annex 1 for a table of international instruments with their short and full titles. Chapter 16 on food and nutrition includes a glossary of technical terms used in that chapter.

Asylum seeker An individual whose refugee status has not yet been determined. Bureau Organizational division at UNHCR Headquarters dealing with a particular region. Children All persons under the age of 18 (as defined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child). Convention refugees Persons determined to be refugees by the authorities of States that have acceded to the Convention and/or Protocol. As such, they are entitled to claim the rights and benefits which those States have undertaken to accord to refugees. EXCOM The Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s Programme which currently consists of representatives from 53 states elected on the widest possible geographic basis from those states with a demonstrated interest in and devotion to finding solutions for refugee problems. Financial Rules The “Financial Rules for Voluntary funds administered by the High Commissioner for Refugees” (document A/AC/96/503/Rev.7 of 7 October 1999). Headquarters UNHCR headquarters in Geneva. Implementing Agreement between UNHCR and a partner which defines the conditions agreement governing the implementation of a project. Implementing Operational partner that signs an implementing agreement and receives funding partners from UNHCR. Internally displaced See definition in chapter 2 on protection. persons IOM/FOM An Inter-Office Memorandum/Field Office Memorandum originating from Headquarters and containing management and other instructions. Mandate refugees Persons considered by UNHCR to be refugees according to the Statute and other relevant General Assembly resolutions. This determination is not dependent upon the state of asylum being party to the 1951 Convention or 1967 Protocol. Mandate refugees can benefit from the High Commissioner’s action. They do not, however, benefit from the rights accorded to Convention refugees, unless they are also recognized as refugees by a State party to the Convention. Non-governmental A private voluntary agency created to perform beneficial activities according organization to its statutes or constitution. Operational This term is applied to the organization directly implementing an assistance project, e.g. UNHCR becomes operational when it provides assistance directly to refugees. Operational partner Governmental, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations and UN agencies that work in partnership with UNHCR to protect and assist refugees, leading to the achievement of durable solutions. Refugee For convenience, the word refugee is used in this handbook to describe any person of concern to UNHCR. Chapter 2 on protection provides definitions of the different categories of persons of concern, including refugees, internally displaced persons and stateless people. Representative The High Commissioner’s representative in the country where the emergency occurs (regardless of the representative’s official title). The Field The area, outside Headquarters, where UNHCR provides protection and assistance to refugees and which contains UNHCR’s Regional Offices, Branch Offices, Sub-Offices and Field Offices. The Statute The Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (General Assembly Resolution 428 (v) of 14 Dec. 1950). “Statutory” should be understood accordingly.

569 Appendix 4 Index

570 A C Accounting Procedures 475, 483 Camps 32, 48, 205, 208, 258, 273, 545, 553 Administration 95, 108, 468-491 Capacity building 356 Administration records 159 Census 159, 396 Agencies CERF 145-146 – humanitarian 21, 32-33, 36, 39, 41, 141, Charter of the United Nations 6, 52 431, 523, 535-536, 538 Checklist 16, 48, 52, 77, 84, 119, 286, 334 – UN and Specialized 363 – for Initial Assessment 337, 340-341, 285, – partner 242, 388 288, 291-293, 296, 416, 559 Agreements 119, 127, 428 – for the Emergency Administrator 242 Air 430 – for community services 159 Aircraft 545, 551 Children 181, 188-189, 193, 195, 202 Allotment 488 – health 64 American Convention on Human Rights 50 – unaccompanied 9, 22, 28, 30-31, 35, 38, Anaemia 326, 347, 547 45, 82-84, 87, 106, 135, 182, 184-185, Appeal 148 189, 191-196, 234-235, 305, 379-380, Arrangements 135, 194, 234, 257, 266, 277, 385, 456, 460-461, 464, 584 303, 320, 360, 430, 434, 444, 465, 468, Chlorination 246, 255 472, 501, 524, 563 Cholera 350, 365 – implementing 116 Clothing 430 Assessments 8,27, 43, 48, 64, 69, 79-81, 84, Clusters 42-43, 68, 105-105, 270 109, 166, 183, 199,202, 241, 278, 289,291, Combatants 15, 25-26, 36 331, 341, 395-396, 403, 406, 425, 489 Commodity Tracking System 437, 444 – initial 291, 340 Communications 467, 477-479, 481, 491, – of needs 157, 177, 416 493-494, 496, 502 524 – of water 210, 238, 241 Community organization 101, 106 – participatory 7-9, 12, 58, 61-62, 64, 78-84, Community services 8, 159, 491 94-95, 98, 109, 134, 182-185, 188, 192, Contingency planning 62-63, 67-68, 70, 94, 198-200, 202, 291, 339, 380, 383, 394-395 205, 209, 290, 404, 558 Asset Management System 476 Contractual arrangements 129 Assistance 39, 49, 122, 135, 166, 186, 196, Contributions 115, 120, 147-148 263, 288, 419, 437, 468, 483, 491, 525, Contributions in kind 115, 119-120, 148, 530 426, 444 – material 462 Conventions – humanitarian 4-5, 20-21, 28-29, 32-33, 36, – 1949 Geneva Conventions 34 39-40, 45, 104,186, 206, 536, 539, 556 – 1951 Convention 6, 17-19, 22, 24-25, 27, Asylum 17, 21, 26, 32, 34, 36, 47, 54, 394, 34, 40, 48, 50, 177-178, 415, 569 556, 569 – 1954 Convention Relating to the Status – country of 11, 22, 24-26, 32, 37, 39, 44, 46 of Stateless Persons 50 55, 121, 156, 193-194, 197, 210, 263, 364 – 1961 Convention on the Reduction – right to 81-82 of Statelessness 50 – seekers 50, 290, 557-558, 564 – 1969 Convention 18 Audit 125, 127-128, 488 – 1969 OAU Convention 19 – 1989 Convention Relating to the Rights B of the Child 18, 51, 415 Bank Account 488 – Child Convention 18, 29, 51, 195 Beneficiary 559 – Convention Against Torture 18, 25, 51 Bilharzia 212, 253, 276 Cooking fuel 285, 295 Blankets 11, 220, 294-295, 347, 353, 381, Cooking utensils 228, 561 428, 434, 436, 439 Coordination 4-5, 64, 80, 96, 101-103, 105, Bore-Hole Latrine 271 108-110, 135, 147, 161, 189, 232, 285, Breast-feeding 287, 306-308, 314-316, 294, 337, 391, 395, 403, 406, 413, 425, 318-319, 400 451, 457-458, 535, 541, 565 Buckets 228, 246, 250, 428 Coordinator 43, 105, 145-146, 337, 339, 342, Building 28, 337 345, 361-364, 395, 523, 526, 541, 534-535, 540 571 Corruption 115, 122 – Situation Report (SITREP) 134 Counting, the population (see registration) – Staffing 337, 361, 469, 486, 545, 548 Covenant 18, 25, 51, 338 – Stockpiles 423, 429 Customs clearance 150, 425, 432, 434, 445 Environmental – Damage 216 D Ethnic Minorities 338 Data base 50, 80, 209, 384, 395, 403, 462, Evacuation 483, 523, 525, 530 468, 476 Evaluation 313, 406, 488 Dead 277 Exchange rates 475, 484, 467 Death 23, 51, 64, 134, 167, 211, 277, 306, Exclusion clauses 26, 48 326-330, 333, 342-343, 345-346, 348-354, EXCOM 19, 139-140 569 359, 407, 462, 483, 514, 559 Excreta disposal 261-262, 264-269, 278-280 Deployment 63, 221, 363, 483, 523 Executive committe of UNHCR (EXCOM) Diets 322 19, 47, 50 Diplomatic Corps 42, 139-140, 150, 479 Expenditure 115, 118-119, 121, 126-127, 145, Disease 262, 264, 266, 269, 272, 274-278, 148, 220, 249, 467, 473-475, 489, 528 243-245, 253, 257, 294-295, 297, 300-303, Experts 64, 189, 242, 252, 291, 340, 347, 311, 315, 322, 337-340, 343-346, 348-350, 363, 380, 494, 547, 559 353, 356-365 External relations 58, 120, 135, 139 – Common 337, 340, 346-347 – Communicable 294-295, 301, 311, 341, F 348, 350, 359 Family Planning 340, 354 Displaced Persons 289-291, 320, 365, 378, Family reunion 191, 490 380-381, 384, 386 FAO 316, 324, 560 Distribution 99, 229-231, 234, 237, 247, 256, Feeding programmes 83, 106-107, 198, 220, 437-438, 494 285-287, 290, 294, 296, 298, 303-315, DO (designated officer) 522-525, 527 317-321, 326, 561, 563-564 Donors 147-148 – Therapeutic 220, 285-286, 290, 294, 298, Drugs 358, 365 303, 305-308, 311-313, 316-319, 321, Durable Solutions 49, 463 328, 330, 348, 352, 561 – Selective 290, 296, 298, 303-305, 308, E 310-314, 320-321, 326, 561, 564 Early warning 62, 67-68 – Supplementary Feeding Programmes 348, Education 39, 74, 88, 98, 117, 265, 354, 391, 400 400, 405, 413-417, 419-421, 491 Field kit 472, 487 Emergency 11, 16, 45-46, 57, 62-64, 69, 70, Filing system 427, 467, 479, 490, 494 78-79, 83, 104-105, 207, 212, 221 Filtration 237, 253, 259 – Administrator 119, 468, 495, 525 Fire, prevention and fighting 53, 205, 215, – Assistance 5, 7, 11, 27, 78-79, 82, 124, 219, 220 141, 193, 459 Flies 269, 274-275 – Definition 3-4, 377-378 Focal point officer 457 – Fund 5, 41, 110, 139, 145-146, 148, 357, Food 3, 5, 11, 41, 64, 73, 83, 97, 98, 198, 389, 398, 444, 483, 487, 490 272, 285, 465, 491, 541, 546, 549, 550, – Management 58-63 555, 557, 560-561 – Needs 43, 191, 289, 290, 299, 320, 325, Food distribution 166, 207, 223, 231-232, 333, 425, 486, 561, 559 280, 287, 289, 293-294, 303, 356, 398, – Preparedness 63, 69-70, 495 408, 210, 459, 557, 563-564 – Response 9, 37, 49, 63-64, 69, 70, 145, Framework 28, 48-49, 64, 109, 396, 406, 463 163, 259, 278, 285-286, 299, 304, 320, Funds 473-474 337, 341, 365, 377-380, 403, 413, 425, 429, 439, 443, 470, 472, 476, 479, 487, G 495, 564 Gap identification charts 74, 99 Garbage disposal 107, 272, 274

572 Guidelines 29, 37, 48-49, 68, 72, 96, 110, Insect control 270 139, 141, 144, 158, 166, 202, 259, 290, Inspection 125, 423, 434 291, 311, 313, 319-320, 344, 350-351, 355, Insurance 423, 435, 483, 486 358, 365, 378-380, 388, 402-403, 406, 409, International Covenant on Civil and Political 415-416, 421, 429, 434, 438, 481-483, Rights 1966 18 486-487, 489, 524, 530, 534, 538, 542, International Organization for Migration 6, 561-562 37 Tips for Interviews 139, 142-143 H Handicapped 548 J Health 337-375 Job descriptions 471-472, 482 – Emergency 398, 545-546 – Care 337-339 K – Education 107, 243, 262, 264, 276-277, Kits, emergency health 357 339, 351, 356-357, 363, 347, 398, 547 Kwashiorkor 321, 326, 330 – Screening 158, 220, 340, 548 – Services 83, 106, 122, 166, 262, 305, 308, L 345, 348, 353-355, 358-364, 338-341, 385-386, 396, 404 Laboratory services 358 – Staff 9, 337, 340, 353, 360, 364, 397-398, Land, purchase, rights 211 404, 432 Landmines 451, 462 – Status 85-86, 244, 339, 342, 345 Latrines 266, 269, 417 HIV/AIDS 30-31, 191, 196, 199, 234, 302, Law and order 4, 33, 36, 53-54, 108, 522 316, 318, 342, 348, 352, 357, 360, 363, Layout 54, 106, 108, 155, 172, 188, 206-207, 379, 391-410, 415, 417, 420, 561 213, 216-219, 240, 243, 257, 262-263, 256, Hospitals 122, 192, 280, 312, 343, 352, 266, 477 358-360, 397, 460, 476, Layout of sites 213 Human rights 26, 490 Legal Instruments 7, 125, 388 – Universal Declaration of 6, 21, 51 Letter of Intent 97, 119, 129 Local population 6, 10, 18, 23, 32, 53, 55, I 69, 73, 85, 115, 122, 157, 197, 211, 216, 217, 221, 230, 241-242, 249, 278, 293, IASC (Inter-Agency Standing Committee) 295, 360-363, 417, 460-461, 463, 529, 48, 291, 365, 392, 394, 534 536, 540 Identity card 36, 472, 558 Logistical support 143, 162, 290, 424, 432 Immunization 342, 349-350, 347, 547 Logistics 20, 73, 98, 104, 116, 129, 242, 249, Implementing and operational partner 41, 95, 294, 416, 423, 424-427, 438, 469, 491, 494, 185 500, 539, 541, 556-557 Implementing arrangements 5, 28, 58, 81, 86, 95-97, 102, 116-118, 134-135, 141, M 234, 427, 434, 468-469, 473, 494, 563 Infant Feeding 288, 294, 269, 314, 318, 320 Mail 197, 481, 502 Information 36, 80, 107, 110, 134, 139, 141- Maintenance 127, 243, 443, 482, 485 143, 156, 158, 161-162, 183, 202, 205, Malaria 275, 351, 365, 347, 546-547 209, 235, 342-343, 349, 354, 362-363, 391, Malnutrition 297, 299, 305, 320, 347, 546, 392, 401-402, 454, 458, 469, 473-475, 547 538, 566 Management 470-471 Information – Communications 493-494 – Source 342 – Security 521, 530 – Sharing 102, 110, 111, 139, 142, 193, 403, – Stock Management 438 538 – Emergency 58-64 – With the Field Office 118 – At field level 121, 457 – With local authorities 29 UNHCR’s Mandate 48 Infrastructure 73, 98, 442, 545, 553 Marasmus 321, 326, 333 – Camp 244 Mass Information 451, 458, 462

573 Measles 301, 308, 327, 338, 340-341, Operations planning 58, 62, 95 347-351, 353, 363, 546-548 Organization of Refugee Health Care 358-361 Media Oxidation ponds 272 – International 42, 143 – Locally-based 139, 142 P Medical (see Health) PEM (protein energy malnutrition) 326 Meetings 67, 70, 110 Personnel Meningitis 340, 344, 347-348, 350, 358 – Administration 516 Mental Health 202, 320, 355-356, 387, 365 – Needs 468 Military 110, 534-538, 540-542 Pit latrines 269-270 Milk 314, 316-317, 319, 325 Plague 275 Minerals 321 Plan 70, 134, 206, 215, 403, 420, 556 Minors (see children) Plastic sheeting 221 Model Structure 73, 98 Policy 48-49, 71, 202, 291, 314, 320, 355, Monitoring 62, 95-96, 120, 127-128, 194, 406, 486 234, 238, 243, 245, 263, 303, 308, 313, Political and Religious Activity 123 334, 342-343, 396, 406, 455, 461 Pour-flush latrine 272, 721 Morbidity 343, 346, 368 Principles of Response 6-8 Mortality 297, 320, 342, 345-346, 366, 407, Procedures 47, 118, 146, 197, 384, 394, 425, 546 438, 527, 538-539 Mosquitoes 275 Procedures, implementing 118 Mother and child care 107 Procurement 119-120, 129, 131, 242, 429, Mother and child health 305, 314 439, 491 MOU (Memoranda of Understanding) 5, 102 Profiles, agency 74 MSRP 118, 437, 472-473, 475, 488 Programme formulation 58 Project control 120 N Property, non–expendable 475-477, 489 Needs assessment 425, 559 Protection 28-29, 47-49, 52, 469, 490, 529, NGOs 5, 7, 20, 25-27, 37, 41, 43-44, 47, 61, 546 78, 97, 103-105, 108, 116-117, 119, 135, Protein 299, 322, 325-326 163, 140, 144, 149, 190, 193, 210, 232, Public Relations 41 263, 291, 294-295, 338, 362-364, 379, 388, Pumps 251-252 416, 418-419, 429, 432, 445, 453, 455, Purchasing 443 474, 477-478, 490, 522, 526-527, 530 Purification, water 247, 252, 255 Non refoulement 22 Non-food 233, 491 Q Note verbale 149-150, 152 Questionnaire 481, 485, 488 Numbers of refugees 4, 107, 238, 252, 436, 458 Nutrition 99, 104, 289, 290, 296, 299, 302, R 306, 311-313, 320, 324-325, 331, 333, 406, 408, 410, 546, 560 Radio 143, 481, 495, 497, 499, 502, 505, 509, 526 O Rain water 249 Ration 169, 312 OAU refugee convention 18-19, 50, 211 Ration cards 169 Objectives 11, 73, 95, 98, 156, 182, 206, Rats 275 288, 310, 338, 380, 392, 414 Reception centers 464 Oedema 297-298, 321, 326, 333 Recruitment 35, 38, 418, 469, 483 Office Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies – Installation 499 (IFRCS) 5 – Organization 478 Referral Services 342, 360 – Premises 135, 477, 479, 481, 491 Refoulement 22, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 64, 394, – Supplies 475-477 406 Operational partners 5-6, 10, 37, 58, 95, 106, Registration 73-74, 82, 87, 98, 99, 110, 136, 108, 116, 120, 185, 201, 291, 395, 409, 156-158, 162-163, 165-167, 170, 172 426, 457, 559

574 Relations with the Media 4, 49, 141, 155, Site Selection 33, 106, 206-207, 209-210, 157, 452-453, 458, 462-464, 491 213, 217-218, 223, 238, 262-263, 356, 417 Repatriation 49, 452-453, 455, 457-458, Solar pump 252 462-463, 464 491 Space 64, 270 Reports 121, 490 Specific needs 45, 169 Resettlement 44-47, 49, 158, 491 Standard specifications 221-222, 423, 427, Resources 59, 61, 63, 70, 85, 95, 145, 163, 438 170, 202, 416, 418, 429, 439, 443, 469, Staff (see personnel) 470, 472, 476, 479, 487, 516 Standards 47, 48, 79, 205, 221, 223, 259, Resources 316, 320, 348, 415, 421, 477, 478, 526-527 – Human 170, 469, 470, 516 Stateless Persons 18, 50 – Water 238, 241-242, 269 Status Determination 24-26, 31, 46, 48, 158, Response, principles of 6-8 162, 556 Reunion, family 191, 490 Statute of UNHCR 6, 116 Rights Stock control 424-425, 437, 444-445 – Human 6, 21, 25, 26, 41, 50, 51, 455 Storage 237, 252, 253, 256, 272, 280, 423, – Land 211, 213 434, 438, 562 Roads 212, 219, 549 – Capacity 83, 238, 239, 435 Rodents 262, 272-275, 278, 436 – Food 303 – Garbage 272, 273, 279 S – Water 210, 241, 256, 265 Safe Haven 15, 37, 38, 524 Stress 142, 356, 512, 514, 516, 518 Safety of staff 522, 530 Supplementary feeding programme 310 Sanitation 11, 41, 45, 64, 73, 79, 81-84, 98, Supplies 242, 316, 336, 350, 356, 358, 360, 99, 104, 106-107, 109, 187, 192, 199, 201, 416, 423, 426, 438, 472, 474, 477, 488, 205, 207-210, 215, 218, 223-224, 238-244, Supply chain 293, 317, 321, 424, 426, 427, 246, 248, 250, 259, 261-267, 273-274, 437, 475 276-282, 287, 294, 295, 319, 338-342, Surveillance 259, 402, 406 347, 350, 352, 359, 363, 364, 392-393, Survival needs 81-82 398, 403,415, 416, 438, 469, 491, 545-549, 561 T Scabies 275, 347, 547 Tarpaulins 429, 440 Scenario identification 67, 71 Team 43, 105, 469, 471, 472, 508, 513, 515, Schistosomiasis 212, 245, 253, 276 522, 535 Schools 28-29, 35, 122, 187, 192, 208, 219, Technical Support Section 130-131, 209, 224, 244, 263, 264, 280, 383, 387, 400, 242, 259, 303, 340, 357, 360, 431 401, 415, 417-420 Telephone 481, 495, 502, 519 Secretary General of UN 4 Telex 474, 481 Security 18-19, 33, 74, 89, 98, 104, 157, 164, Tents 220-223, 228, 231, 360, 428-429, 434, 188, 205, 211, 383, 387, 417, 425, 437, 436-437, 459, 527, 549-550 452-453, 461, 465, 468, 473-478, 482, Tetanus 347, 349, 354, 355, 399, 547 486-487, 490-495, 498, 500-501, 508-509, Therapeutic Feeding 220, 298, 305-307, 310, 512-513, 521-527, 530 312-313, 319, 330, 348, 352 Self-reliance of refugees 216 Tracing Settlement (see sites) – family 195, 197 SGBV 9, 20, 27-28, 30-32, 36-37, 39, 42, 45, – unaccompanied children 82 49, 54, 79, 97-98, 121, 134, 188, 190-192, Training 62, 64, 187, 202, 234-235, 295, 200, 202, 239, 241, 354-355, 365, 378-388, 342, 357, 418, 444, 487, 490 392-393, 398, 404, 415, 417-418, 420, Transport 83, 424, 430, 431, 477, 478, 489, Sheeting, plastic 11, 220-222, 224, 228, 231, 491, 500, 529, 545, 551 352, 381, 417, 428 Treatment 18, 47, 50, 51, 252, 259, 274, 306, Shelter 64, 73, 97-99, 198, 217, 22, 222, 295, 308, 328, 344, 351, 402, 404, 406, 455 356, 404, 429, 438 – Water 251-255, 274, 282, 460 Sites 208, 210, 212-213, 352 Trench latrines 265, 269 Site planning 213, 218, 491

575 Typhoid 347, 547 Violence 37, 49, 54, 202, 365, 378-379, 380, Tyres 427, 430, 443, 444 388 – Sexual 49, 379 U – Victims of 40 UN Agencies 7, 20, 27, 41-43, 61, 70, 78, Visibility of the Operation 145 97, 103, 105, 108, 116, 117, 134, 135, 145, Vitamins 322, 325 163, 183, 190, 209, 294, 362,-364, 379, Voluntary agencies 110 414, 416, 419, 420, 424, 474, 477, 490, Voluntary repatriation 44, 158, 452 523, 527, 539, 569 Volunteers 471 Unaccompanied children 82, 83, 195, 218, Vulnerable 234, 305, 464 – Groups 247, 230, 234, 276, 291, 317, 356, UNDP 5, 40, 70, 104, 149, 358, 433, 468, 404, 430, 559 471, 474, 475, 483, 484, 496 UNICEF 5, 41, 48, 70, 81, 104, 117, 193, W 259, 276, 278, 289, 290, 299, 300, 302, Warehouses 435-436 306, 312, 319, 320, 325, 333, 346, 349- Waste disposal 262, 265, 272, 275, 397, 546 351, 357, 358, 363, 416, 419, 421 Water 238-259, 441, 549, 550 United Nations 5, 6, 19, 24, 35, 41, 47, 50, Weaning foods 315-316 52, 123-125, 128, 129, 140, 149, 150, 152, Wells 250 187, 289, 353, 355, 357, 384, 385, 398, WFP (World Food Program) 5 402, 409, 429, 433, 468, 471, 483, 496, WHO (World Health Organization) 5, 314, 530, 534-536, 541, 542, 555, 557, 562, 316, 339, 393, 560 565, 566, 568 Women 7, 18-19, 23, 28-29, 32, 35, 49, 51, 52, 182, 187-188, 191-192, 557, 562 V – Pregnant 266, 301, 305-306, 310, 329, Vaccination 341, 349-351, 355-356, 364, 347, 352, 354, 359, 386, 400, 406-407, 432 347, 399, 461, 524, 547-548 World Bank 558 Vector control 106, 262, 264, 274-275, 278, Worms 347, 547 282, 347, 352 WSB 321, 324 Vegetables 325 Vegetation 212 X Vehicles 431, 438, 442, 477, 482, 508 Xerophthalmia 321, 347, 547 Ventilated improved 271

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582 Handbook for

UNHCR Handbook for Emergencies Emergencies

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Case postale 2500 CH-1211 Genève 2 Dépôt Third Edition