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The Cognitive Antecedents and Behavioural Consequences of Schadenfreude in an Evolutionary Framework

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The Cognitive Antecedents and Behavioural Consequences of Schadenfreude in an Evolutionary Framework THE COGNITIVE ANTECEDENTS AND BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES OF SCHADENFREUDE IN AN EVOLUTIONARY FRAMEWORK by Pamela Jean Black B.A. (Hons.), Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2010 M.A., The University of British Columbia, 2012 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in The College of Graduate Studies (Psychology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Okanagan) December 2018 © Pamela Jean Black, 2018 The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis/dissertation entitled: THE COGNITIVE ANTECEDENTS AND BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES OF SCHADENFREUDE IN AN EVOLUTIONARY FRAMEWORK ______________________________________________________________________________ submitted by Pamela Jean Black in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy . Dr. Paul G. Davies, Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences ______________________________________________________________________________ Supervisor Dr. Jan Cioe, Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences ______________________________________________________________________________ Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Lesley Lutes, Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences ______________________________________________________________________________ Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Rachelle Hole, School of Social Work, Faculty of Health and Social Development ______________________________________________________________________________ University Examiner Dr. Jennifer Overbeck, Melbourne Business School, University of Melbourne ______________________________________________________________________________ External Examiner Additional Committee Members include: Dr. Leanne ten Brinke, Department of Psychology, University of Denver ______________________________________________________________________________ Supervisory Committee Member ii Abstract Schadenfreude is the subjective emotional experience of malicious pleasure that follows from observing another person suffer a misfortune (Heider, 1958). This positive affective reaction is universal, experienced across the lifespan and across cultures. To date, research in this area has focused primarily on the cognitive appraisals that precede this emotion, highlighting the important role of upward social comparison prior to the ensuing experience of schadenfreude. Less focus has been placed on the remaining components of the schadenfreude response, such as the behavioural consequences, leaving much to be learned about this affective state. Using evolutionary theory as an organizing framework, the present three-study dissertation further explored the influence of social comparison on schadenfreude and tested several novel questions related to the impact of the nature of the misfortune, the experience of observing repeated misfortunes, and the ultimate effect of malicious pleasure on subsequent behaviour. Across the three studies, upward, rather than downward, social comparison reliably predicted feelings of pleasure for a target following a misfortune. There also was preliminary evidence that schadenfreude, in the context of an upward social comparison, dissipates following the observation of a single misfortune. Interestingly, relative to previous research, which has typically manipulated minor misfortunes, the present dissertation depicted major misfortunes, and participants responded with less schadenfreude. Finally, although social comparison and misfortune type did not directly influence helping behaviour, evidence was found for a relationship between the experience of schadenfreude for a target and a resulting lack of willingness to personally help that individual. Overall, the findings add to our understanding of the cognitive, behavioural, and subjective experience of schadenfreude and novel aspects of this research provide insights and important recommendations for future research on this common emotional state. iii Lay Summary Emotions are comprised of several components, including cognitions, physiological changes, communication efforts, and behaviours in addition to the subjective experience. This dissertation explored facets of the emotion of schadenfreude, which is the feeling of malicious pleasure derived from observing another individual suffer a misfortune, using an evolutionary framework. Related to cognitions, the results revealed that participants who perceived the target to be superior, rather than inferior, to themselves reported more schadenfreude after the target suffered a misfortune. There was less support found for the relevance of misfortune type on the schadenfreude response. Considering the behavioural consequences of schadenfreude, there was some evidence that, after experiencing schadenfreude for a target, participants were less willing to personally help the target. This research provides additional support for schadenfreude being driven by perceived competition and resulting in behavioural efforts to maintain competitors’ reduced superiority. It also contributes important insights for future research. iv Preface The University of British Columbia’s Behavioural Research Ethics Board granted ethics approval for this research on February 29th, 2016, March 16th, 2016, and August 21st, 2017. The ethics approval certificate numbers for these studies are H15-02220 (Pilot and Study 1), H16- 00243 (Study 2), and H17-01521 (Study 3). As of the date of this submission, the data included in this dissertation have not been published. v Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary .............................................................................................................................. iv Preface ........................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ vi List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ x Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... xii Dedication .................................................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Definition of Emotion ............................................................................................ 2 1.1.1 The Emotion of Schadenfreude ................................................................ 2 1.1.2 Cognitions .................................................................................................. 4 1.1.3 Neurophysiology ........................................................................................ 9 1.1.4 Communication ........................................................................................ 10 1.1.5 Behaviour ................................................................................................. 11 1.1.6 Summary of Schadenfreude as an Emotional Experience ....................... 14 1.2 Organizing the Study of Schadenfreude Using Evolutionary Theory ................. 14 1.2.1 Gender Differences in Social Comparison for Mate Competition ........... 15 1.2.2 Schadenfreude, Gender, and Misfortune Type ........................................ 16 1.3 Overview of the Present Dissertation .................................................................. 19 Chapter 2 Pilot Study .......................................................................................................... 21 vi 2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 21 2.2 Participants ........................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Materials and Procedure ...................................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Misfortune Vignettes ............................................................................... 21 2.4 Results ................................................................................................................. 22 2.5 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 24 Chapter 3 Study 1 ................................................................................................................ 26 3.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 26 3.2 Participants ........................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Materials and Procedure ...................................................................................... 27 3.3.1 Social Comparison Primes ....................................................................... 27 3.3.2 Misfortune Vignettes ............................................................................... 27 3.3.3 Schadenfreude and Empathy Evaluation Form ........................................ 28
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