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A Research on Eugenics and Its Desired and Undesired Concerns

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A Research on Eugenics and Its Desired and Undesired Concerns SSRG International Journal of Economics and Management Studies (SSRG-IJEMS) – Volume 6 Issue 8– Aug 2019 A Research on Eugenics and its Desired and Undesired Concerns Mahmoud Abbasi, Nasser Pouyan Abstract: Sir Francis Galton (1812-1911) defined Sweden, continued to carry out forced sterilizations. eugenics as the study of agencies under social control (Eugenics-Wikipedia, 1 of 22.) that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally. Keywords: Eugenics, Francis Galton, Nazism, ethi- Galton founded the sciences of eugenics and pub- cal comments, positive selection, and negative selec- lished Hereditary Genius (1869) and Natural Inhe- tion. ritance (1889), and endowed a chair in eugenics at London University (Sebastian, P.130). He advocated Eugenics defined by Sir Francis Galton (1812-1911) encouraging those considered most highly bestowed English scientist as the study of agencies under social to produce more children and discouraging the less control that may improve or impair the racial quali- fit from having children (Encyclopedia International, ties of future generations either physically or mental- Vol.7, P.439). ly (Sebastian, P. 130). In fact, it is the science of the While eugenic principles have been practiced as far production of healthy intelligent children with aim of back in world history as ancient Greece, the modern improving the human genetic stock (Hornby, P. 410). history of eugenics began in the early 20th century Early Eugenic ideas were discussed in Ancient when a popular eugenics movement emerged in the Greece and Rome. Today it continues to be a topic of United Kingdom and spread to many countries in- political debate (History of eugenics – Wikipedia, P. cluding the United States of American, Canada, 1 of 3). Although the term eugenics still carries its Germany, and most other European countries. In this original Galtonian meaning of ―healthy birth‖, in period, the eugenic ideas were espoused across the some parts of the world, it is usually employed as a political spectrum, and consequently, many countries pejorative without careful attention to its aim and adopted eugenic policies with the intend to improve intention (Wertz, P.10).. the quality of their populations’ genetic stock. Such Eugenics has also been concerned with the elimina- programs included both “positive” measures, such as tion of hereditary diseases such as hemophilia encouraging individuals deemed particularly “fit” to (usually inherited that causes the sufferer to bleed reproduce, and “negative” measures such as mar- severely from even a slight injury, because the blood riage prohibitions and forced sterilization of people fails to clot normally) and Huntington‘s disease (adult “unfit” for reproduction. People deemed unfit to re- hereditary chorea) (Sebastian, P.170). However, there produce often included people with mental or physi- are many problems with labeling certain factors as cal disabilities, people who scored in the low ranges ―genetic defects.‖ In several cases there is no scien- of different “IQ” tests, criminals and deviants and tific collective opinions on really what a ―genetic members disfavored minority groups. (Eugen- defect‖ is. It is often argued that this is more a matter ics-Wikipedia, 1 of 22). of social or individual choice, and what appears to be From 1900, eugenics organizations were created in a ―genetic defect‖ in one context or environment may Britain, Scandinavia (a peninsula and a larger north not be so in another. This can be for genes with a European area as well), Germany, and the USA – for heterozygote advantage, such as sickle-cell anemia or instance, the United Kingdom Eugenics Education Tay-Sachs disease [the antiquity of malaria on the Society founded in 1907. Through education and leg- African Continent is evident from the wide spread islation they promoted “positive eugenics”, encour- prevalence of a number of genetic traits refractory to aging the “fit” (the upper and middle classes) to malaria, including sickle-cell anemia, a genetic trait have larger families, the poor and dregs of society that protects against falciparum malaria—though should breed less. In Britain, the hope was to achieve sickle-cell anemia itself can be potentially fatal- and this essentially by persuasion, but in the United the Duffy negative factor, which appears to give 95 States of America and Scandinavia the compulsory percent of black African and their descendants resis- sterilization of defectives (including psychiatric pa- tance to vivax malaria (Loudon, P.180), which in tients and the mentally deficient) was carried out on their heterozygote form may offer an advantage an increasing scale. against, respectively, malaria and tuberculosis. Many In the decades following World War II, with the insti- people can succeed in life with disabilities, many of tution of human rights many countries gradually be- gan to abandon eugenics policies, although some . Western countries, among them the United States and * Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences- Ira- nian Research Center for Ethics and Low in Medicine. ISSN: 2393 – 9125 www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 190 SSRG International Journal of Economics and Management Studies (SSRG-IJEMS) – Volume 6 Issue 8– Aug 2019 the conditions early eugenics identified as inheritable health of the society), that in human populations (Pellagra is one such example); Joseph Goldberger there are no ―superior or inferior‖ genomes, and investigated it, showing it to be a nutritional disorder that human diversity contributes to the survival curable by addition of a protein to the diet, later and richness of humanity, it is important that the shown to be niacin (Lee, P.40)] are currently consi- genetics profession undertake an examination of dered to be at least partially, it not totally attributed to 1) the meaning of eugenics, both historically and environmental conditions. Similar concerns have in the modern world; and 2) whether existing or been raised when a prenatal (of or occurring in the future practices may constitute or lead to eu- period before giving birth) diagnosis of a eugenic genics. policies have been conceptually divided into two Most modern authors associate eugenics with categories: positive eugenics which encourages a Nazi programs to eradicate Jews, Gypsies, ho- designated ―most fit‖ to reproduce more often; and mosexuals, and other ―inferior‖ groups, in other negative eugenics which discourage or prevent a words, with genocide. In fact, eugenics was designated ―less fit‖ from reproducing. Negative eu- transpolitical, spanning the entire spectrum from genics need not to be coercive. A state might offer ultra-conservative to ultra-radical. In the United financials rewards to certain people who submit to Kingdom, most major social reformers and lib- sterilization, although some critics might reply that erals considered themselves eugenicists. John his incentive along with social pressure could be Stuart Mill, the best-known proponent of utilita- perceived as coercion. Positive eugenics can also be rianism, playwright George Bernard Shaw, and coercive. Abortion by ―fit‖ women was illegal in Na- philosopher Bertrand Russell were all eugenic- zi Germany. ists, though none believed in coercion by the During the twentieth century and today, many coun- government. tries enacted various eugenics policies and programs, including: genetic screening, birth control, promoting We prefer the following working definition of differential birth rates, marriage restrictions, immi- eugenics: ―A coercive policy intended to further gration control, segregation (both racial segregation a reproductive goal, against the rights, freedoms, as well as segregation of the mentally ill from the and choices of the individual.‖ For purposes of normal), compulsory sterilizations. Most of these this definition, "coercion" includes laws, regula- policies were regarded coercive, restrictive, or geno- tions, positive or negative incentives (including cidal, and now few jurisdictions implement policies lack of accessibility to affordable medical ser- that are explicitly labeled as eugenic or unequivocally vices) put forward by states or other social in- eugenic substance (however labeled). However some stitutions. Cultures or medical settings may be private organization assist people in genetic counsel- implicitly coercive and are aware of the need for ing, and repro-genetics may be considered as a form vigilance against tacit coercion, but considered of non-estate-enforced ―liberal‖ eugenics. (Eugen- such problems as part of the general social con- ics-New world Encyclopedia, 1 of 15 & 3 of 15.) text rather than as eugenic programs. Under the above definition, knowledge-based, Definition and Founder of Eugenics goal-oriented individual or family choices to have a healthy baby do not constitute eugenics. Eugenics [Greek eu, well+genos, birth] defined by Such choices are unlikely to affect the gene pool Charles Darwin‘s cousin, Francis Galton (1822-1911) or to reduce the numbers of persons with dis- English scientists, as the study of agencies under so- abilities. Most disabilities are not the results of cial control that may improve or impair the racial chromosomal or single-gene disorders, and most qualities of future generations, either physically or babies born with a genetic disorder are born to mentally. Galton founded the science of eugenics and families with no known risk for having a child published ―Hereditary Genius‖ (1869), and
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