A

REPORT

ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development Jawalakhel, Kathmandu, Nepal

May 2003

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page Executive Summary iii LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES vi LIST OF APPENDICES vii 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 Nepalese Agriculture 1 1.3 Priority to Poverty Alleviation 2 1.4 Gender Disrcimination 3 1.5 Fruit Cultivation 4 1.6 Growing in Nepal 5 2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 8 2.1 General Objective 8 2.2 Specific Objectives 8 3.0 METHODOLOGY 8 3.1 Reviews of Previous Studies 8 3.2 Field Survey 8 3.3 Field Visits and Monitoring 8 3.4 Report Preparation 8 4.0 REVIEWS OF THE PREVIOUS STUDIES 9 4.1 Citrus 9 4.2 Production Constraints 12 5.0 POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION REQUIREMENTS 14 5.1 Pollination 18 5.2 Significance of Pollination in Citrus Crop Pollination 18 5.3 Honeybee Pollinators 19 5.4 Pollination Requirements and Practices 21 6.0 SURVEY FINDINGS 25 6.1 General Information 25 6.2 Citrus Cultivation and Gender Involvement 25 6.3 Orchard Management 28 6.4 Farmers Awareness on Pollinators 29 6.5 Support to Citrus and Pollinators Promotion 30 7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 31 8.0 REFERENCES 34 APPENDICES 41 STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SURVEY 36 CHECK LIST FOR ACADEMICIANS 40

2 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1 Nepal: Key economic indicators 2 2 Trends in incidence and long-term target for poverty alleviation in Nepal 2 3 Gender disparity in Nepal 3 4 Fruit area and production in Nepal 4 5 Per capita annual consumption of fruits in Nepal 5 6 Citrus fruits producing districts by developmental regions in Nepal 6 7 Growth of citrus industry in Nepal 6 8 Commonly recognized citrus groups and their species 9 9 Total mandarin production area (ha) by developmental regions 10 10 Mandarin productive area (ha) by developmental regions 10 11 Mandarin production (mt) by developmental regions 10 12 Junar area and production by developmental regions 11 13 Kagati area and production by developmental regions 11 14 Nibuwa area and production by developmental regions 12 15 Main problems of citrus and suggested measures 13 16 Commonly recognized citrus hybrids 16 17 Citrus species and honeybee pollinators 18 18 Common arthropod visitors of citrus species (a, b, c) 22 19 Family structure and education status of citrus farming households 25 20 Source of income and savings of citrus farming households 25 21 Gender involvement in service and agriculture 25 22 a. Plantation and mortality of citrus saplings, b. Technicians feelings on citrus varieties grown by farmers with preference 26 23 a. Fruit sale by farmers from their orchards, b. Technicians responses on citrus marketing channel 27

3 24 Gender involvement in citrus plantation, fruit marketing and money handling 27 25 Various problems faced by citrus farmers 28 26 Pesticides used by farmers in citrus orchard 28 27 Indigenous knowledge of pest control practiced by farmers 28 28 a. Farmers awareness on harmful effects of pesticides, b. Technicians awareness on effects of pesticides on citrus pollination 29 29 Waiting period followed by users after spraying pesticides 29 30 a. Farmers awareness on pollinators visiting citrus flowers, b. Technicians awareness on citrus pollinators and pollination 29 31 a. Farmers with citrus orchard and beekeeping, b. Technicians awareness on wild honeybees visiting citrus flowers 30 32 Farmers awareness on biodiversity conservation and environment protection 30 33 a. supporting organizations to establish citrus orchard, b. Technicians suggestions on citrus growing and pollination promotion 31

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 1 Biodiversity conservation and productivity enhancement 31 1 IPM for pest management, conserving pollinators and increasing productivity 30 2 Photographs of citrus species, flowering, pollination, production, and marketing 41

LIST OF APPENDICES

4 Appendix Page 1 Structured questionnaire for survey 36 2 Checklist for academicians 41

5 Cash Crop Farming in Nepal: The Importance of Pollinators Diversity and Managed Pollination in Citrus

Executive Summary

Nepal offers a diversified climatic conditions and the natural resource base for low cost production of a wide variety of horticultural commodities of which citrus is one of the major fruits covering 25% of the total fruit area in 58 districts of the country and has been recognized as high value cash crop by National Agriculture Perspective Plan. At present, 55 districts, 49 in the hills and 6 in the terai covering a total area of 73775 ha produce 487326 mt citrus fruits in Nepal. APP (1995) puts higher demand i.e. more than double amount of fruits within the decades. A study was carried out to identify insect pollinator’s diversity and explore and marketing potential for generating cash income for improving livelihood of the rural subsistence farmers.

Of the 55 sampled households involved in citrus farming, the average household size of the sampled citrus farmer was 6.5. The major source of income was from citrus farming (Rs 43933/ household/ annum) followed by services (Rs 36090/household/annum) and other agricultural activities. The study also indicates that citrus farming is associated with higher income families rather than poor subsistence farmers.

Farmers planted different species of citrus crops of which was the main citrus grown in commercial scale with an average of nearly 200 per citrus farmers while was confined in very small scale production and sale. Other citrus crops were grown just for home consumption. The variety selection was based on easy high productivity and easy marketing Sapling mortality was the highest in Junar (>46%), intermediate in orange (18%) and lime (12%) with no mortality of Nibuwa saplings at the farmers field level. Majority of farmers (84%) sell their fruits through middleman (contractor) because they have no groups and have no access to distant market. Therefore, there exists a big gap between producers and consumers and farmers have no bargaining power of their produce and are deprived of higher profits.

The survey clearly showed a great disparity in gender involvement in citrus farming. It also indicated that involvement of male and female varied as per specific activities. Decision making and money handling (orchard site and citrus variety selection, harvesting and marketing fruits, training) was solely on the male’s possession while women’s involvement was even higher than male in some specific field works such as pit filling, weeding, manuring and intercropping indicating an ample opportunities of women involvement in citrus farming.

6 Citrus farmers have faced various problems such as natural (hailstorms), biological (Insects and disease pests, wild animals) and technical (experiences, skills, training etc) difficulties. There is no record of complete failure of crops for past 5-10 years, but majority of the farmers lost part of their crops due to unpredicted hailstorms, increasing pests and lack of irrigation facility. More than 50% of the farmers have been practicing control measures of which majority spray different chemicals while a few also apply their indigenous knowledge of pest management techniques. However, very few farmers (11%) are aware of harmful effects of pesticides and only few farmers (7%) wait after spray to pick up fruits. Technicians are better aware than farmers in this regard but that have not been transformed to farmers level. Development of citrus is mainly through the efforts of HMGN. But role of pollinators in citrus pollination and productivity enhancement has completely been forgotten. Majority of farmers and technicians are not aware of natural pollinators or managed pollination of citrus. More than 90% of the citrus farmers have no idea of pollinators and pollination of citrus and very few farmers (15%) have local bees in hives which is just for honey production not for managed pollination. Farmers are not aware of biodiversity conservation and environment protection. Rather, they have a common feeling that bees or insects suck fruit juice and reduce crop yield.

Based on the survey, orange and can be taken as priority crops and their production and productivity can be increased through the promotion of these crops and their pollinators. It has been learned from various high value crop production activities that group mobilization and community development has been proved better for institutionalization of the program and therefore, promotion of indigenous bees and conservation of other pollinators of crops in the hills and the mountains may not be possible in isolation rather working through group formation and their mobilization will develop capability of the local organization to run their activity themselves in the long run. Foraging preference of different pollinators including honeybees to crop pollination and their suitability at different ecological regimes need to be studied. Based on their preference, and efficiency on pollination of selected priority crops their establishment and isolation with species can be maintained in the future. Hence, the first priority is that citrus farming as the mainstay of subsistence farmers through group mobilization and the second priority its promotion through integrated approach are the best choices to increase productivity, conserve, natural and managed pollinators, and maintaining sound and healthy biodiversity as well.

7 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Nepal is a small Himalayan country with amazing bio-geographical setting along with climatic variations supporting rich biological diversity in a small area of 147181 km2. The climatic feature shows that it gets cooler from South to North decreasing temperature 1 0C with every 3 0 North Latitude and 0.5 0C at every 100 m altitude. Day and night temperature highly fluctuates in the western parts than in the eastern parts of the country. Southern facing of the land surface is warmer than northern facing and thus soil temperature is also influenced by land surface facing to north or south. Monsoon starts from South - Eastern part of Nepal and moves to North with average annual rainfall of 1500 ml (80% of total rainfall in June-August) with relative humidity higher in the rainy season and lover in the western parts than in the eastern parts.

Nearly, 7,000 species (0.5 percent of the total species that have been described so far worldwide) are available in the country. It contains only about 0.1 percent of the total land mass of the world while it harbors about 2 percent of flowering plants, 3 percent of pteridophytes, and 6 percent of bryophytes of the world flora (Upreti, 1998). In addition, about 5 percent (246) of the total flora reported are endemic to the country. A total of 844 species of birds are reported from Nepal of which 11 species are considered extinct. About 5,052 species of insects, belonging to 22 orders are reported so far from Nepal of which 1,131 species containing over 22 percent of the total species are known first discovered and described from Nepalese specimens (Thapa, 1997). Conservation and sustainable use of these natural resources is the need of the day.

1.2 Nepalese Agriculture Nearly, one-fifth of the total land area of the country is cultivated and 7 percent is under cultivable category; the area of operated land for agricultural purpose is less than 0.15 ha (per person). Therefore, most of the farmers in Nepal have subsistence farming. Saturation of cropped area, narrow base of year-round irrigation, imbalanced fertilizer use and consequently stagnant yield of major crops are the major features of Nepalese agriculture (APP, 1995). Agriculture was essentially the single most important economic sector in Nepal with almost all of the population engaged in this sector in or before the 1950s. Even at present, agriculture contributes nearly 50% of the national GDP and horticulture shares 14% of agricultural GDP (Table 1). Today, Nepal is one of the poorest nations in the world by all major indicators of social, economic and human development. Nepal’s agriculture has large potential to increase productivity through increase

8 specialization particularly in the hills which is suited to high value crops and livestock. The Ninth Plan (1998-2003) being implemented now has considered poverty alleviation as the important goal and this will continue as a challenge even in the future. The APP (1995) emphasizes crop diversification to introduce high value crops coupled with appropriate technology. Table-1. Nepal: Key Economic Indicators (1992/93-1996/97)

SN Particulars 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97

1 Current GDP at Factor Cost (NRs billion) 165.3 191.6 210.0 237.5 266.8 2 Share of Agriculture (%) 42.3 42.1 40.7 40.5 40.4 GDP Growth Rates at 1984/85 Price (%) : 3 Overall 3.3 7.9 2.9 5.7 3.9 4 Agriculture -0.6 7.6 -0.3 4.4 4.1 5 Non-agriculture 6.5 8.1 5.3 6.6 3.8 Crop Production Growth Rates (%) : 6 Overall -4.7 13.3 -4.0 12.4 4.0 7 Food grain -7.9 16.8 -7.9 15.4 2.9 8 Non-food grain 3.4 5.3 5.8 5.9 6.1 9 National Urban CPI (% change) 8.9 8.9 7.6 8.1 7.8 10 Gross Domestic Savings (% of GDP) 13.6 14.7 14.8 13.8 12.8 11 Gross Domestic Investment (% of GDP) 23.1 22.4 25.5 27.3 25.1 11.1 Exports (% of GDP) 10.1 9.7 8.0 8.0 8.0 11.2 Imports (% of GDP) 22.9 25.9 29.1 30.0 34.2 Source: HMG, Ministry of Finance, Economic Survey, 1997/98.

1.3 Priority to Poverty Alleviation The total operated area of land, as of 1992 Census of Agriculture, is 2.6 million ha (actually 2.4 million ha cultivated) of which 92.1 percent of land belong to the agriculture use with an average size of holding being quite less than a hectare. Therefore, majority of the farmers have substance farming and Nepal is one of the poorest country in the world (Singh, 1998). Household survey conducted in 1995/96 by CBS- the Nepal Living Standard Survey estimates Rs. 4404 (about US$ 80) per person per year to meet the minimum calorie intake including essential non-food expenses. On this basis, more than 40 percent of the population is classified as poor (Table 2). Another 28 percent more is found below one and a half times the designated poverty line. Over 80 percent of the poor live in the remote rural premises and agriculture is main source of their household income. Poverty, in general, is characterized by low income, which is the cause and effect of unemployment, under- employment and many other basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, health, education and social disparity. Poverty alleviation has been one of the major objectives of government plans (Table 2).

9 Table-2. Trends in Incidence and Long-term Target for Poverty Alleviation in Nepal

SN Sources/Periodic Plans Poverty Incidence/Alleviation Target

1 Survey of income, consumption and Overall poverty incidence of 36.2 percent employment conducted by NPC in 1977 2 Multipurpose household budget survey Overall poverty incidence of 42.6 percent conducted by NRB in 1985 3 The 8th plan (1992-97) document prepared by Overall poverty incidence of 49.2 percent NPC in 1992 4 Monitoring micro impact of micro policies Overall poverty incidence of 49.0 percent conducted by APROSC in 1992 5 National living standards survey conducted by Overall poverty incidence of 45.0 percent CBS in 1996 Ongoing and succeeding plans aiming poverty alleviation 1 Ninth Plan (1998-2003) A.D. To reduce poverty from 45 percent to 32.5 percent 2 Tenth Plan (2003-2008) A.D. To reduce poverty from 32.5 percent to 22.5 percent 3 Ninth Plan (2008-2013) A.D. To reduce poverty from 22.5 percent to 15 percent 4 Ninth Plan (2013-2018) A.D. To reduce poverty from 15 percent to 10 percent Source: K. K. Guru-Gharana, 1997. Poverty situation in Nepal. J Dev. Loc. Gov. Vol 1. No. 2. Local Development Academy, Kathmandu. Singh (1998).

1.4 Gender Discrimination Gender disparity is highly persistent and women and children are much more affected by poverty in both rural and urban parts of the country (Table 3). Table-3. Gender Disparity in Nepal

SN Particulars Male Female Total

1 Adult illiteracy (%) 47 81 64 2 Life expectancy (yrs) 55 53 54 3 Infant mortality (No/1000 live births) 91 105 98 4 Crude death rate (No/1000 population 12 15 13 5 Government servants and professionals (%) 4.3 1 3 6 Enrollments in school (percent of total enrollment) 66 34 100 7 Trained primary teachers (percent of total teachers) 85 15 100 8 Trained secondary school teachers (percent of total teachers) 90 10 100 9 Earned income share (%) 67 33 100 Source: National Planning Commission, 1995. Population Monograph of Nepal. Nearly two-third of the adult population are illiterate; less than half of the population has access to safe drinking water and a negligible proportion has access to sanitation services. Malnutrition is widespread and so is illness. About half of the children below five years of age are under weight. Over all life expectancy at birth is low. Infants and maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the world.

10 1.5 Fruit Cultivation The major fruit grown in the country are apple, citrus, mango, banana, pineapple etc. Fruits are being grown on an area of about 73775 ha representing nearly 8 percent of the total cropped area at present. The total production of fruits is about 487326 mt with an average productivity of 10.12 mt/ha (Table 4).

Table -4. Fruit Area and Production in Nepal (1993/93 to 2000/01)

Year Total area (ha) Productive area (ha) Production (mt) Yield (mt/ha)

1993/94 56191 37908 377911 9.97 1994/95 58989 39445 398288 10.10 1995/96 60960 41008 367490 8.96 1996/97 62919 42285 428225 10.13 1997/98 65205 43746 415167 9.49 1998/99 67494 45108 456013 10.11 1999/00 70068 46492 447334 9.62 2000/01 73775 48166 487326 10.12

Nepal has a diversified climatic conditions and the natural resource base for low cost production of a wide variety of horticultural commodities. Horticulture offers opportunity for high income per hectare in areas of acute land scarcity with favorable income generation, poverty reduction, and environmental effects. The high value of output per hectare assists in withdrawal of marginal lands from agriculture and the important role of high value tree crops on slopes both add greatly to environmental benefits. Fruits in human nutrition make balance diet which leads to the development of sound health and happiness of human beings. They are good source of energy because many of them contain digestible form of carbohydrate in the forms of sugars or starch or both. Citrus fruits contribute augmenting food, improvement in nutrition, generation of employment and income, and also help in maintaining healthy environment. Citrus fruits and fruit juice being refreshing and good source of vitamins, especially Vitamin-C and Vitamin B complex play an important role in human nutrition and are useful for the treatment of diseases arising from vitamin deficiencies including cough and cold (Cox, 1995). deficiency causes, scurvy disease, pain in joints, swelling of limbs, unhealthy gums, tooth decay, delay in wound healing and rheumatism. Doctors prescribe fruit juice for the treatment of many ailments like scurvy, night blindness, fever, anemia, ulcers etc. Dieticians recommended a consumption level of 30 gm of fruits, 200 gm of vegetables and 100 gm of potatoes per day per capita in balanced diet (FAO, 1986). This amounts to 10.95 kg fruits, 73.00 kg vegetables, and 36.5 kg of potatoes per capita per annum. Citrus consumption

11 in the developed countries is 40-50 kg per capita while it is only 3-5 kg in the developing countries of Asia and Africa. The total availability of fruits per head day comes to about 16.44 gm but taking post harvest losses of 25-30% into consideration, the actual availability is only 12 gm per head per day, which is very low quantity than the recommended level of 85 gm per head per day according to nutritional standards. Fruit consumption in the developing countries like Nepal is very low (Table 5). The total availability of fruits per head per day comes to be about 16.44 gm but taking post harvest losses (25-30% loss) into consideration, actual availability is only 12.11 gm per head per day which is very low quantity than the recommended level of 85 gm per head per day according to nutritional standards (FAO, 1987). National APP (1995) puts higher demand i.e. more than double amount of fruits within the decades. The rapid development of citrus is the outcome of National periodic plans formulated for intensifying the production of horticultural crops in hills and mountains in commercial scales.

Table- 5. Per Capita Annual Consumption of Fruits in Nepal

Particular Year 1990 2010 Consumption of fruits (kg) 6.00 13.60 Demand of fruits (mt) 95,946 149,477 MPHD (1990)

1.6 Citrus Growing in Nepal Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops grown in the world. It is also one of the major fruits of Nepal in terms of area coverage, production and export potential and has been recognized as high value cash crop by Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP, 1995). About 25% of the total fruit area in the country is covered by 15 species of citrus in 58 districts of the country. The total and productive area under citrus is 19018 ha and 11277 ha, respectively with annual production of 115067 mt (CBS, 2000). The citrus growing areas are mainly distributed between 26 45’ and 29 40’ North latitude, 80 15’ and 88 12’ East longitude, 900-1400 msl in mid hill districts of Nepal. At present, 55 districts, 49 in the hills and 6 in the terai covering a total area of 73775 ha produce 487326 mt citrus fruits in Nepal (Agri. Stat. Div. MOA, 2001).The largest citrus growing area covering more than 500 ha include Dhankuta in Eastern Development Region, Sindhuli, Ramechhap, kavre and Dhading in Central Development Region and Tanahun and Syngja in the Western Development Region, respectively. Citrus Development Division of HMGN (2000) focuses citrus growing on 44 districts and prioritizing 34 districts for its cultivation (Table 6). The area under citrus plantation in Nepal has increased about 6 times from 1975 to 1995 which jumped to more than 28 times in

12 2000/2001 (Table 7). However, the productivity is very low (8.88 mt/ha in 1975 to 10.20 mt/ha in 2000) compared to other citrus producing countries in the world (USA, 36.9, FAO, 1999).

Table-6. Citrus Fruits Producing Districts by Developmental Regions in Nepal (2000/2001)

Central Western Mid-Western Far-Western Eastern

Dhankuta* Sindhuli* Gorkha* Dailekh* Dadeldhura* Bhojpur* Ramechhap* Tanahun* Salyan* Baitadi* Terahthum* Kavre* Lamjung* Rukum* Doti* Sankhuwasabha* Sindhupalchok* Syngja* Rolpa* Achham* Panchthar* Dhading* Kaski* Pyuthan* Darchula Taplejung* Dolakha* Palpa* Jajarkot Bajura Okhaldhunga* Nuwakot Gulmi* Surkhet Khotang* Baglung* Kalikot Ilam Arghakhachi* Bankey Udaipur Myagdi* Solokhumbu Parbat* Area: 5161.51 ha Area: 5697.57 ha Area: 5806.47 ha Area: 2454.14 ha Area: 1553.15 ha Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p. * Priority districts: 34 out of total 44 citrus growing districts.

Table-7. Growth of Citrus Industry in Nepal (1975-2000)

Year Citrus Area (ha) Productive Area (ha) Production (mt) Yield (mt/ha)

1975 2600 1690 15000 8.88 1980 5200 3300 30000 9.10 1985 8448 5000 45100 9.02 1990 13515 7136 68639 9.62 1995 14628 8488 83375 9.82 1997 15940 9335 93046 9.97 1998 17026 10034 100352 10.00 1999 18007 10592 107250 10.13 2000 19018 11277 115067 10.20 Source: NCDP (1979, 1985, 1990); Agri. Stat. Div., MOA (1997, 2001)

There is a vast scope of growing citrus in the country. The followings points highlight the scope and significance of growing citrus fruits in the country. • Nepal provides almost all types of suitable climate conditions for growing many fruit crops including citrus. But, at present, the total area under citrus cultivation is very small

13 and demand is very high. In addition, the productive life of citrus is long and planting them once provides continuous production for long period of time that encourages farmers in fruit growing. • The demand of fruits is very high and supply is too low, and therefore, to meet the minimum requirement of fruits in daily diets recommended by per nutritionists, more and more area under fruit crops have to be brought and productivity has to be improved. • Citrus fruit growing provides better food as they are good source of vitamins and minerals and possess many medicinal properties. • Citrus crops give high energy return per unit area compared to other cereal crops growing. • Citrus fruits are basic needs for many kinds of industries or factories like canning, preservation, dehydration and essential oil extraction etc thereby supporting post harvest fruit industries. • Citrus growing not only helps development of package, transportation, refrigeration etc. but also promotes apiculture and further improvement on production and productivity through pollination services. • Citrus fruit growing create jobs to the rural poor and is a remunerative proposition for the rural subsistence farmers. Intercropping is possible during early stage of plant growth which provides additional incomes and efficient and economic use of human labor throughout the year. • Fruit tree growing conserves soil, retain moisture and prevent soil erosion and also maintain soil fertility. • Air pollution can be easily be minimized by massive planting of superior varieties because they are known to be the best air purifiers, maintain greenery and agro-diversity.

2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 2.1 General Objective: The general objective of the study is to identify insect pollinators’ diversity of citrus in citrus growing pockets in Nepal, and explore citrus production and marketing potential for generating cash income for improving livelihood of the rural subsistence farmers.

2.2 Specific Objectives: The specific objectives are as follows: 1. Review available literature on insect pollinators and pollination of citrus crops; 2. Conduct field survey of citrus growing pockets and record insect pollinators’ diversity during flowering and fruiting of citrus crops; 3. Interview citrus farmers regarding citrus growing situation, its progress and potential for income generation and improving their livelihood and living standard; and

14 4. Visits and discussion with technicians including policy makers for developing citrus industry to meet local market and export as well. 3.0 METHODOLOGY 1. Reviews of Previous Studies: Secondary information were gleaned through available literature such as APP, Annual Reports, Proceedings of Workshops, Journal Articles etc.

2. Field Survey: For the collection of primary information selected citrus farmers household survey was conducted. For this, survey questionnaire were prepared and shared with the working team, revised, modified and required numbers of hard copies printed to interview farmers. Then the finalized standard semi-structured interview type format was administered to collect necessary information such as socio-economic, land holdings, citrus growing, awareness of pollinators and environment including gender role in citrus farming. Similarly, checklist was prepared and discussed with the team, reframed and finalized checklist was used to discuss with technicians (academicians, extension and developmental workers, professional researchers and policy makers) to collect their views and vision in citrus farming and awareness on pollinators of citrus.

3. Field visits and monitoring: Time schedule was prepared and followed accordingly for survey and monitoring in the citrus growing areas, for recording insect pollinators and for interviewing citrus farmers.

4. Report preparation: Primary and secondary information were analyzed and report prepared. The report reviews present status of citrus farming, awareness of pollinators diversity and environmental safety and finally conclusion and recommendations have been made for selected citrus species development in a commercial scale.

15 4.0 REVIEWS OF PREVIOUS STUDIES 4.1 Citrus Cultivars Under citrus group, many members are being grown in many part of the world (Table 8). Many citrus species and varieties are also cultivated in Nepal. Among them, the three important species on which modern citrus industry of the country has been flourished include: Suntala (Citrus reticulata Blanco), Junar (C. sinensis Osbeck) and Kagati (C. aurantifolia Swing) (MOA, 2001). Table-8. Commonly Recognized Citrus Groups and Their Species

Group Common Name Scientific Name Acid Group 1. Citrus medica Lin. 2. Lemon C. limon (Lin.) Burm 3. (Jatti Khatti) C. jambhiri Lush. 4. Kharna Khatta C. karna Raf. 5. Lime C. aurantifolia Swing.(Lin) 6. Thahiti or Persion lime C. latifolia Tanaka 7. Sweet lime C. lemmettoides Tanka) Orange Group 1. Sour lime C. aurantium Lin. 2. Myrtle-leaf orange C. myrtifolia Raff. * 3. C. bergamia Risso. (C. limon x C. aurantium)* 4. Japanese summer C. natsudaidai Hayata 5. Sweet orange C. sinensis (Lin.) Osbeck Pumello Group 1. Chakotra C. maxima (=C. grandis) Osbeck 2. Grapefruit C. paradisi Macf. Mandarin Group 1. Santara C. reticulata Blanco 2. Satsuma mandarin C. ubshiu Marc. 3. Willow-leaf mandarin C. deliciosa Tenore 4. Cleopatra mandarin C. rashni Tanaka 5. King of Kunembo C. nobilis Loureiro. (C. reticulata x C. sinensis) 6. Tangerin C. Hort. Group 1. Ichang papeda C. inchangensis Swing. 2. Yusu of Japan C. junos Siebold 3. Khasi papeda C. latipes Swing. 4. Melanesian papeda C. macroptera Montr. 5. Mauritious papeda C. histrix DC. 6. Alemow C. macrophylla Wester Other Species 1. Rangapur lime C. limonia Osbeck * 2. Mediterranean limette C. limetta Risso. (Lemon x Lime) 3. Kitchi and Guntur sour orange C. maderaspatana Tanaka 4. Calamondin C. madurensis Loureiso 5. Indian wild orange C. indica Tanaka 6. Gajanimna of India C. penevesiculata Tanaka 1. Muntala (Fortunella japonica Swing/F. margorita) Trifoliate 1. Tinpate suntala (Poncirus trifoliate (Lin.) Corr.) Lemon 1. Mandarin lemon C. reticulata or Var Austera or C. aurantifolia x C. reticulate)* Calamondin 1. Kalamansi Citrus madurensis Lour. (C. mtis Blanco) (C. reticulate Var. austera x Fortunnela sp)* (Poncirus trifolia x Citrus sinensis)* (Poncirus trifoliate x C. sinensis) x Fortunella margarita* Source: Bal, J. S. 1997. Fruit growing. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 425 p. Rajput, C. B. S and R. S. Haribabu, 1999. Citriculture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 368 p. *Doubtful Classification

16 Mandarin (Suntala) is an indigenous fruit of Nepal and grown by its local name in different places. At present, Mandarin (Citrus reticulata), Junar (Citrus sinensis), Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia), and Hill lemon (Citrus pseudolemon) are cultivated in commercial scale. The other citrus fruits like Pumello (Citrusgrandis), Rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri), Sour orange (Citrus aurantium), Sweet lime (Citrus limettioides), Grapefruit (Citrus paradise), Calamondin (Citrus madurensis), Kumquat (Fortunella japonica) are found growing in homestead gardens. There is a vast scope of growing citrus crops in the country. Total area, productive area and production and productivity of commonly grown citrus i.e. mandarin, junar and lime are presented in Tables (9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14). Table -9. Total Mandarin Production Area (ha) by Developmental Regions (1996/97 to 2000/01)

Year Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total

1996/97 2273 1804 3225 1257 588 9130 1997/98 2469 1927 3480 1333 655 9864 1998/99 2635 2037 3676 1434 726 10509 1999/00 2726 2137 3915 1563 761 11103 2000/01 3025 2316 4343 1767 826 12275

Table -10. Mandarin Productive Area (ha) by Developmental Regions (1996/97 to 2000/01)

Year Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total

1996/97 1423 1044 1870 735 346 5418 1997/98 1525 1096 2083 782 377 5863 1998/99 1641 1157 2203 841 408 6250 1999/00 1713 1220 2327 887 440 6588 2000/01 1806 1287 2454 936 464 6946

Table -11. Mandarin Production (mt) by Developmental Regions in Nepal (1996/97 to 2000/01)

Year Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total 1996/97 15526 10814 20696 7068 3246 57350 1997/98 16758 11379 22750 7492 3715 62094 1998/99 18243 12092 24051 8227 4041 66654 1999/00 19055 13340 25384 8666 4379 70821 2000/01 20173 14099 26788 9102 4634 74796

The mandarin group includes all types of loose skin oranges locally called as santala. The fresh fruits are used for table purposes, juice is excellent for drinking and processed dry powder is marketed under various names, which is used for making , orange drinks etc.

17 Flowering starts from March, which lasts for about a month and need of pollinators is critical for setting good fruits and higher productivity. The sweet orange (tight skin orange) commonly known as mosambi is another important citrus fruit in the country. It requires dry and semi-arid conditions coupled with distinct summer and winter with low annual precipitation. In general, low humidity and severe winter result in good color development and external appearance in fruits whereas high humidity favors thin skin and plentiful juice. Table -12. Junar Area and Production by Development Regions in Nepal (2000/2001)

Regions Total area (ha) Productive area (ha) Production (mt) Yield (mt/ha)

Eastern 664 444 4853 10.93 Central 2605 1442 17725 12.29 Western 496 197 1894 9.61 Mid-western 226 113 1084 9.59 Far-western 404 243 2290 9.42 Total 4395 2439 27846 11.42 Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p.

Table -13. Kagati Area and Production by Development Regions in Nepal (2000/2001)

Regions Total area (ha) Productive area (ha) Production (mt) Yield (mt/ha)

Eastern 1273 758 5933 7.83 Central 653 411 3206 7.80 Western 723 440 3175 7.22 Mid-western 352 208 1555 7.48 Far-western 231 151 1079 7.12 Total 3232 1968 14948 7.60 Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p.

Table -14. Nibuwa Area and Production by Development Regions in Nepal (2000/2001)

Regions Total area (ha) Productive area (ha) Production (mt) Yield (mt/ha)

Eastern 174 131 1195 9.12 Central 91 66 515 7.80 Western 187 123 506 4.11 Mid-western 76 55 404 7.35 Far-western 70 47 336 7.15 Total 598 422 2956 7.00 Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p.

18 The mid-hill region (900 – 1400 masl) of Nepal, which accounts about 1.5 million ha is quite suitable for citrus cultivation. Mandarin, Junar, Acid lime, Lemon, Hill lemon, Rough lemon, Sour orange, Citron, etc. are the important citrus crops of this region. Lime and are also grown in Terai region of the country. Of the total area under citrus cultivation, 58%, 21%, 17%, and 4% are covered by Mandarin, Junar, Acid lime, and other citrus, respectively (MOA, 1997). Dhankuta in Eastern development region; Sindhuli, Ramechhap, Kavre and Dhading in Central development region; and Tanahu and Syngja in Western development region (7 districts) produce more than one-third of the total national citrus production. Some well known pockets for commercial cultivation of Mandarin include Sankhuwasabha, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Kavre, Dhading, Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahu, Kaski, Syngja, Gulmi, Sallyan, and Dailekh while Sindhuli and Ramechhap are famous for Junar cultivation. The area and production of citrus is increasing and substantial increase in area and production is quite encouraging. The total increment in production of citrus fruit since 1975 is about 600%. But the yield per ha (productivity) is low in comparison with other citrus producing countries. At present, more area is being brought into cultivation with targeted increase of the area of citrus production by 130% by 2015 AD (APP, 1995). This can be possible only by making citrus cultivation a profitable enterprise to the farmers through the adoption of scientific management of growing and maintaining healthy orchards, undertaking planting of superior varieties and maintaining diversity of citrus crops and their pollinators with minimization of post harvest losses. Efforts are needed take care of pollinators and maintaining diversity to increase the production and productivity of citrus fruits to meet the increasing demand for home consumption as well as exports.

4.2 Production Constraints In Nepal, the major problems in citrus growing faced by the farmers include: low productivity; problem of pollination and pollinators (which has been forgotten by all); lack of transport facility; poorly organized marketing channels; and citrus pests and citrus decline. Citrus Development Division (HMGN, 2001) have recognized some production constraints and suggested preventive or curative measures (Table 15). Although citrus tree blooms heavily, a small portion of flowers produce mature fruits, i.e. out of nearly 4500 flowers buds of lemon tree, 50% set fruit and only 7% of these fruits reach full maturity. In case of sweet orange, only 0.2 to 2% of the total flowers finally produce mature fruits.

19 Table-15. Main Problems of Citrus and Suggested Measures (2000/2001)

SN Problems/Constraints Suggested Measures

1 Poor Sanitation and Removal of pest infested, dried branches and Bordo-mixture painting. Tip Drying Prevention of other creepers climbing on the tree. No intercropping up to one meter away around the plant from its spread. Spraying Bordo-mixture at the time of new twig coming. 2 Mealybugs and Spraying Dimethoate (Rogor 25 EC) and Endosulfan (Thiodan 35 EC) Scales 1.5 teaspoonful per liter water during the time of new shoot sprouting 3 Fruitflies Ploughing and interculture operation in winter and soil application of 5- 10 gm Malathion dust per tree. Spraying Dimethoate (Rogor 25 EC) and Endosulfan (Thiodan 35 EC) 2 teaspoonful per liter water per tree during the time of new shoots coming and then after fruit setting. Collection and destruction of damaged and dropped fruits. 4 Citrus Gummosis Removing barks at the damaging site, spraying and pasting Bordo-paste. 5 Fertilization Use of balanced fertilizers i.e. 40-50 kg FYM, 557 gm Urea, 750 gm DAP and 1000 gm Potash per tree in winter before new shoot coming 6 Nursery Seedlings Timely top dressing and spraying Urea to seedlings in case of nutrient deficiency. Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Horticulture Center, Kritipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 29 p.

Research has indicated that minimum 2.3 m2 of the leaf area is needed to produce one kg of fruits in nine year old sweet orange tree for which good citrus variety and its proper management in terms of fertilization, timely irrigation and requirement of pollinators seems critical for healthy growth of plants and high quality fruit production (Tomiyasu, 1998). An efficient marketing mechanism that provides an opportunity to get a reasonable farm gate price, an incentive for increased production cannot be ignored in this endeavor. Major constraints gleaned through the literature and farmers’ feelings are listed below: • Absence of production of disease free planting materials on commercial scale and its certification. and are serious problems which are spread from nursery to field due to poor nursery management and absence of certification for disease free planting materials. • Heavy citrus decline in citrus plantation areas in many parts of the country. • Poor drainage and poor irrigation facility with many farmers in citrus growing pockets. • Imbalance fertilizer and nutritional deficiency of major and micro nutrients i.e. Zn, N, Ca. • Poor handling of citrus fruits and lack of organized and regulated marketing system. • Prevalence of disease and insect pests in commonly grown citrus cultivars. • Indiscriminate use of pesticides causing health hazards and environmental pollution.

20 5.0 POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION REQUIREMENTS

Insects are viewed from the harmful perspectives and aimed at killing them through several means including indiscriminate use of deadly chemicals. If good judgments are made keeping views on sustainable crop production, natural balance and pollution free environment, their beneficial aspects are immense. One of them is that insects provide pollination service to plants. Of the total pollination activities, over 80% is performed by insects. Lack of pollinators causes decline in fruit and seed production (Partap, 2001). Self-incompatible and cross-pollinated crops require pollinating service of efficient pollinators. Self-pollinating crops also benefit from insect pollination because such pollinated crops produce higher yields with good quality fruits. Insects including honeybees are unquestionably the main pollinating agents for many crop plants. Their role in pollinating vast array of flowering plants and maintaining natural diversity is beyond the imagination of poor farmers and even different scientists are in dilemma. Over the last five decades, considerable research has improved production practices i.e. adding nutrients, applying a number of chemical controls for pests (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides), as well as implementing other cultural practices demanded by the crops themselves to the environment conditions under which they might ever increase yields and quality. Often forgotten, however, has been the study on the effects of pollination and pollination practices on crops because it posses more difficult to ascertain results. However, the practices, especially those surrounding application of pesticides, are now reaching points of limited and in some cases, diminished returns. It is, therefore, fitting to reexamine the role of pollination as a practice whose time has come. Some pollination research was accomplished at those rare times when apiculturist and crop specialist could work together. In 1970s, pollination research was becoming more important. Some twelve years later at the Tenth Pollination Conference, Carbondale, Illinois there was evidence of new trends in research, focusing principally on commercial plant production, ignoring traditional agricultural crops that demanded greater role of pollinators. Pollinating citrus; a number of studies over the years have tackled the problem. However, much remains to be done and controversy continues about the pollination potential of bees and possible management strategies required to ensure adequate pollination of the citrus crop. It is difficult to issue hard and fast recommendations about citrus pollination for a number of reasons. There exist a number of citrus varieties and more are being developed all the time. Each has its own characteristics that must be addressed in order to assure adequate pollination. Recommendations for grapefruit will differ from limes which will differ from oranges. In addition, a good many variables exist under field conditions which often do not mirror those of controlled experiments. A host of plant-environment-pollinator interactions also comes into play, many of which are not well understood. Increasing knowledge about both plant communities and pollinator populations

21 can also change the focus of recommendations and research priorities. Finally, economic considerations may also dictate that issues of relatively small importance in the past may become overriding concerns in the future. There are a growing number of citrus varieties which require cross pollination because they are self-incompatible. Furthermore, a positive linear relationship between fruit size and number of seeds per fruit and where cross pollination is required, use of honey bees remains the most consistent, effective and economical means of ensuring adequate yields. Some studies have shown great significance pollination service of insect pollinators in citrus crops: Citrus can be infected by a number of insect pests and diseases but good cultural practices are all that is required to keep insects and diseases to a minimum and take their benefit in pollination. • Shading of the petals and stamens in the no bee cage was slower than in the cage with bees thereby bringing uniformity in flowering and early fruiting, pollination occurred shortly after flower opening in the bee cage, after which the stigma changed color to brown. In the no bee cage, the stigma remained cream colored and apparently receptive at least four days. • The pollen-less flowers of ‘Washington Navel’ are well known for their ability to set parthenocarpic fruits, but excluding pollinating insects resulted decreased production by as much as 86 percent. Orange tree pollinated by bees produced four times as much as trees isolated from bees. Wafa and Ibrahim (1960) obtained 31 percent increase in fruit set, 22 percent increase in fruit weight, 33 percent more juice and 36 percent more seeds from fruits on orange trees visited by bees than on trees from which bees were excluded which indicate that cross-pollination influence fruit set. • The value of citrus as a source of pollen is influenced by the kind involved. Less than 1 percent of the bees foraging on ‘Satsuma mandarin’ carried pollen loads as compared to 95 percent on ‘Hassaku’ orange. In fact, citrus is not considered as an excellent source of pollen, but honey. Citrus crops generally yield nectar copiously. Some blossoms contained 1.5 bee loads of nectar, averaging 20 microleters compared to 0.8 to 2.4 microleters per blossom for an alfalfa flower which is also an important nectar source. Because of the large amount and superior quality of honey that citrus blossoms produce, many beekeepers place their colonies in or near the groves and earn additional income from honey as well. • In grapefruit open pollinated flowers set about twice as many seeds, but more importantly four times as many fruit as selfed flowers. Duncan grapefruit is preferred by canners in spite of its seeds. The difference in fruit set could be of economical importance. • Lemon trees caged without bees produced 42.5 percent less than open pollinated trees, whereas the trees caged with bees produced only 10 percent less indicating that bees

22 contribute by distributing the self-pollen on the tree and other pollinators including bees played significant role in pollination irrespective of self- or cross-pollinated varieties. • Open pollinated flowers of sweet lime set fruit 80 to 100 percent, but only 40-60 percent emasculated and hand pollinated flower set indicating that strong pollinator activity might increase fruit set and total production of sweet limes. • Pummelo varieties grown commercially are self-incompatible. Bees or other insects are necessary for proper pollination and setting of fruit whether a is self-fertile or self- sterile. Growing number of citrus varieties are known to be self-incompatible, and hybrid types with such cultivars an appropriate pollen supply and pollinating agents is needed. • Mchedlishvili (1962) showed the importance of insect pollination in citrus by observing at varying distance from the apiary. Near the apiary, 42.5 percent of flowers set and 14.6 percent fruits were harvested. At 150 m from the apiary, 29.3 percent of the flowers set and 10.6 percent harvested while at 350 m distance, only 13.6 percent of the flowers set and 5 percent were eventually harvested. In addition hybrid complex are dependent upon or greatly benefited from insect pollination (Table 16). Hence, almost all citrus crops and their cultivars are benefited from insect pollination. Considerable attention has been given to citrus pollination recently. It has become increasingly clear that the pollination needs of a crop species varies greatly with the locality and cultivar concerned, so ideally pollination investigations are necessary in each general locality where crops are grown. In the developed countries, insect pollination has increased considerably during the past few decades and arrangements for insect pollination are now part of standard management practices. In the developing countries like Nepal, pollination and pollinators are completely forgotten by everyone- policy makers, researchers, extension workers, and farmers. Rather it is just opposite that farmers are complaining loss of crops due to bees and other pollinators considering them as crop pests. Even though beekeeping is known for honey production as well as pollination services to crops, the later has received no attention in the beekeeping research and development. Beekeeping’s important service of pollination has not only been underplayed by the planners, government authorities and also the agriculturists but also ignored altogether. Discovering potential pollinators, devising management techniques and increasing their population for commercial exploitation would help conserve naturally occurring pollinators, utilize them in pollination service thereby increasing quality production and productivity of fruit crops in the pollution free environment.

23 Table -16. Commonly Recognized Citrus Hybrids

Citrus Fruit Hybrid Between

Mandarin lemon Hybrid of (C. reticulata or Var Austera or C. aurantifolia x C. reticulata) Calamondin Hybrid (C. madurensis) of C. mitis with (C. reticulata Var. austera x F. sp) Citrange Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) Citrangequat Hybrid of (P. trifoliat x C. sinensis) x F. margarita Hybrid (C. nobilis) of (C. reticulata x C. sinensis) Bergamot orange Hybrid (C. bergamia) of (C. aurantium, Var. bergamia, C. limon x C. aurantium) Citrangidin Hybrid (C. mitis) of (C. sinensis x C. madurensis) Citrangor Backcross hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) x C. sinensis Cicitrange Backcross hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) x P. trifoliate Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. paradisi) Citrandarin Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. reticulate) Citremon Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. lemon) Citradias Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. aurantium) Citrumquat Hybrid of (P. trifolia x F. japonica or F. margarita) Procimequat Hybrid of (F. japonica x C. aurantifolia cv. Mexican) x F. hindsii Hybrid of (C. aurantifolia x F. japonica) Hybrid of (C. reticulata cv. Satsuma x F. japonica x F. cv. Meiwa) Eremolemon Hybrid of (E. glauca x C. lemon cv. Meyer) Eremaorange Hybrid of (E. glauca x C. sinensis) Eremoradias Hybrid of (E. glauca x C. aurantium) Citrangermor Hybrid of (E. glauca) x (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) Lemmonage Hybrid of (C. lemon x C. sinensis) Lemonime Hybrid of (C. limon x C. aurantifolia) Lemandrin Hybrid of (C. limon x C. reticulata) Hybrid of (C. sinensis x C. reticulata) Hybrid of (C. reticulata x C.paradisi), Pear Tangelo Rajput, C. B. S and R. S. Haribabu, 1999. Citriculture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 368 p.

5.1 Pollination The plants fall under the category of being self-pollinated or cross pollinated for the purpose of reproduction. The former are self fertile and does not need external help to set the fruits or seeds. Cereals come under this category that occupies 15 percent of the crops. The remaining 85 percent crops are cross pollinated as they need help of external agencies for fertilization i.e. transfer of male (anthers) part to the female (stigma) part. The external agencies may be wind, water, insects, birds etc. But the insects are the most abundant and efficient agents of pollination. Again among

24 insects, it is well established that honeybees are the most efficient pollinators. Since most of the crops are dependent on or benefited by honeybees, beekeeping has to play more significant role in crop pollination than in honey production.

5.2 Significance of Pollinators in Citrus Crop Pollination In the past, species were not concentrated in a particular locality, therefore natural pollinator’s population was ample for pollination. But modernization of agriculture through monoculture, over-enthusiastic use of inputs like fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides etc. has left the population of wild pollinators per unit area very scanty. Moreover, over reliance on insecticides (resulting in death of natural pollinators) and clean cultivation (destroying their natural food sources and habitats) further depleted their population. Thus we are left with only honeybees as pollinators which can be brought at any time in any numbers to the target sites where thousands of foragers go about their natural work of pollination. Some citrus species and honeybee pollinators are presented in Table 17. Their specially equipped body and large working hours on the crops coupled with additional benefits of honey and other bee products make them ideal pollinating agents.

Table 17. Citrus Species and Honeybees Pollinators in Nepal

SN Citrus Scientific name Flowering Source Abundance Bee species 1 Sweet lime Citrus limettoides Apr-May NP + DFIM 2 Sour orange Citrus aurantium Apr-May NP + DFIM 3 Sweet orange Citrus csinensis Apr-May NP + DFIM 4 Grapefruit Citrus paradisi Mar-Apr NP + DFIM 5 Mandarin Citrus reticulata Mar-apr NP + DFIM 6 Citron Citrus medica Mar-Apr NP + DFIM + Abundance in mid hills, D= Dorsata, F=Florea, C= Cerana, M= Mellifera

Citrus species are often cross pollinated and require pollinators. Most of them depend on pollinators for good pollination and expected yield from pollinators exceeds more than 400% compared to without pollinators. The total area of citrus plantation in the country is 19018 ha which require 57055 - 95090 strong bee colonies (based on general recommendation of 3-5 colonies per ha). Present production and productivity of citrus in Nepal is 115067 mt and 10.20 mt / ha, respectively which is far below the potential production level in comparison to developed country USA with 36.9 mt/ha (FAO, 1999). Proper management practices and timely arrangement of pollinators for healthy plant growth, vigorous flowering and good pollination help exploit the potential yield up to 40 mt/ha thereby adding farmers, income fourfold. Furthermore, citrus farmers obtain additional 100 kg of honey harvest per colony per ha valued Rs. 20,000.

25 Co-evolution of flowering plants and bees started about 225 million years ago and their mutalistic relationship continues (Price, 1975). Stone carvings and bricks from the palace of Assyrian kings as early as 800 B.C. depict the significance of pollen and pollination of fruits. Honeybees are the center of attraction to mankind from the beginning for their pollination services and beehive products. About 1/3rd of the total human diet comes from bee pollinated crops and pollination value worth about 143 times than honey production (Mishra 1998). Of the total pollination activities, insects alone perform over 80% and bees contribute nearly 80% of the total insect pollination, and therefore, they are considered the best pollinators (Robinson et. al., 1989). Honeybee pollination enhances quality and yield of seed and fruits. Lack of sufficient number of suitable pollinators causes decline in fruit and seed production (Partap, 2001). Nepal is a treasure house of honeybee and plant species well distributed in terai, midhills and highhills (Woyke, 1999). This wide diversity of honeybee and flowering plant species greatly influence crop pollination and bee-hive production. 5.3 Honeybee Pollinators The honeybee is unquestionably the primary pollinating agent of citrus; wind is not a major factor. Other pollinating insects are minor. Beekeepers readily place their colonies near citrus groves for the delicious honey the bees store and citrus specialists frequently intimate that an ample supply of bees is always in the groves (Krezdorn 1972). Moffett and Rodney (1971a) showed this may not be true. They observed an average of slightly less than one bee per 100 blossoms at Yuma, Ariz., and concluded that the population was so low that growers of most orchards needing insect pollination should have rented colonies for that purpose. During the peak bloom, the ratio was much less than one bee per 100 flowers. Such a population would not be likely to visit individual flowers more often than about once per hour. By contrast, Mchedlishvili (1962) reported 12 bee visits per blossom per hour. P. M. Packard (personal commun., 1972), State apiary inspector for Florida, estimated that only 220,000 colonies of honey bees were in the prime citrus area during bloom time in 1972 about one colony per 4 acres. He stated distribution is not systematic, with some areas overcrowded with bees and others having practically none. Butcher (1955) observed a zonal production effect in relation to distance of 'Minneola' from the apiary with the most marked effect 200 to 300 feet away. However, Robinson (1958) stated that honey bees worked equally well in all directions and were evenly spread to 400 feet. Honey bees collect both pollen (if it is produced) and nectar from citrus. The flower is so constructed that if the bee has visited a previous pollen-producing flower, some pollen is likely to be transferred to the next stigma visited.

26 Depending upon the cultivars involved, the results of insect pollination may have no effect, increase the number of fruits set, increase the size of the fruit, cause seed to be present, increase the number of seeds, or cause an overloading of the tree. • Foraging behavior of different species of honeybee to citrus differed significantly at different intervals of day and flowering stages of the plant. • Higher number of Apis mellifera foraged on citrus (3.1/ m2/min.) and they also visited many other plant species showing their superiority in Terai Region. Apis dorsata also foraged citrus. Citrus flowers were preferred by Apis mellifera followed by Apis dorsata specially for pollen. Their number was higher in the early morning hours and then declined afterwards. • Apis cerana never visited the flowers of citrus in presence of other species.

• All three species of bees A. dorsata, A. mellifera and A. cerana collected more pollen in the morning hours and nectar afterwards. • This finding shows that Apis mellifera is the most active and an efficient pollinator for wide range of plant diversities and honey producer for Terai regions of Nepal. • The situation is still serious in places where the natural pollinators are inadequate and inefficient. • In general, foraging activities of bees was higher during first half of the day due to the availability of pollen and nectar (Mazaffar and Ahmed, 2000) • Presence of Apis mellifera displaced and reduced the number of Apis cerana bees from the resources (Pratap, 1989). Honeybees show preference to more attractive floral rewards neglecting the less attractive ones (Free,1980). When 2 or more than 2 species of bee compete for the same floral sources, the stronger and more competitive species displace the weaker one from the resources and geographic areas affecting crop pollination. 5.4 Pollination Recommendations and Practices Little work has been done on the number of bee visits per flower, or the effect of cross-visitation between cultivars in relation to fruit set on citrus cultivars either dependent upon or benefited by bee pollination. Some recommendations have been made, without support or data, on colonies per acre and suggested placement. Oppenheimer (1948) suggested bringing bees in, if they were not present, to pollinate '' mandarins in Palestine. He did not indicate how many bees should be brought in or where the colonies should be placed. The placement of colonies of bees in citrus orchards for pollination has often been recommended. Baldwin (1916) without concrete data to support his statement recommended five colonies per acre. Van Horn and Todd (1954) recommended one colony per acre of ''. The Florida

27 Agricultural Extension Service (1961) recommended the use of bees and pollenizer cultivars to increase the number and size of tangelos. Robinson and Krezdorn (1962) recommended a minimum of one strong colony of honey bees per acre of 'Orlando' tangelos. Soost (1963) stated that most commercial kinds of citrus set adequate crops without cross-pollination, but where insect pollination is needed "one hive per 2 acres may be sufficient although this is not certain." Zavrashnli (1967b) stated that one colony per 2.5 acres doubled the crop. His research dealt with 'Washington Navels', 'Novogrusinskii' lemons, and 'Unshiu' . Haynie (1968) recommended one colony per 2 acres, the colonies in groups and properly spaced, for cultivars benefiting from bee pollination. There seems to be no uniformity in these recommendations, probably because each dealt with only one or a few cultivars in different areas of the citrus world and under different conditions. The weakness of the recommendations is that there is no indication given as to the relative bee population per unit of flowers and also no relation is shown between colonies per acre and bees per flower. For most efficient pollination of citrus, the meager data indicate that if bees are needed they should be distributed at the rate of one-half to five colonies per acre at about 1/4- to l/10-mile intervals. Consideration in the recommendation should be given to vigor of the colonies, other colonies in the area, acres of citrus, and other nearby plants attractive to bees, size of the citrus trees, and blooms per tree. For greatest benefit, the colonies probably should be present throughout the citrus flowering period. Beekeepers place their bees near citrus groves for the honey they obtain; however, these colonies may not be placed strategically or insufficient numbers for most effective pollination of all areas of a particular grove. The grower would profit most by arranging for the appropriate number of strong colonies properly placed and managed for citrus pollination although the honey obtained could be a factor in relation to locations and pollination fees. The citrus grower can gain far more than the beekeeper from such an arrangement. Some southern beekeepers are mainly in the business to sell bees. Packages, nucs and queen sales make up the largest percentage of their income. While there are small pockets that have plentiful bumblebees, squash bees and other pollinators, these bees are also in decline as well due to loss of habitat and food sources, and pesticide misuse. Such pollinators can be encouraged, not only by care in insecticide applications, but also by habitat and feed improvements for their sake. Hedgerows can be left a little wild. Important feed plants like sweet clover, vetch, buckwheat or goldenrod can be planted or allowed to bloom in some areas. Herbicides can be a good tool to keep blooming plants out of insecticide-use areas, but widespread use can starve out pollinators. Insects occasionally trouble citrus and may sporadically scar the skin of the fruit, but rarely do these pests render the fruit inedible or threaten

28 the health of the plant. In fact, citrus can be grown organically without much concern. Insects may be found on citrus at various times of the year, but the amount of damage done and the length of time present does not justify the time or expense involved to control them. If the trees are healthy, pests are seldom life threatening and as the citrus plant develops, insects become even less of a problem. Both pests and pollinators that visit citrus flowers are presented in Table 18a, 18b, 18c. Table-18a. Common Arthropod Visitors of Citrus Species

SN Class/Order Family Common name Scientific name 1 Acari Eriophytidae Citrus bud mite Eriophyes sheldoni Ewing Citrus rust mite Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashm.) 2 Tarsonemidae Broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus(Banks) 3 Tenuipalpidae Citrus flat mite Brevipalpusphoenicis (Geijsk.) 4 Tetranichidae Citrus red mite Panonychus citri (McGreg.) 5 Homoptera Aleyrodidae Citrus blackfly Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby Wooly whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus (Maskell) Citrus whitefly Dialeurodes citri (Ashm.) Berry whitefly Parabemisia myricae (Kuwan.) 6 Aphididae Spirea aphid Aphis spiraecola Patch Black citrus aphid Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonsco) 7 Coccidae White wax scale Ceroplastes destructor Newstead Florida wax scale Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock Pink wax scale Ceroplastes rubens Maskell Brown soft scale Coccus hesperidum Lin. Citricola scale Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (Kuw.) Mediterran black scale Saissetia oleae (Olivier) 8 Diaspididae California red scale Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) Florida red scale Chrysomphalus aonidium (Lin.) Dictyospermum scale Chrusomphalus dictyospermi (Morg) Purple scale Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman) Chaff scale Parlatoria pergandii Comstock Rufous scale Selenaspidus articulatus (Morg) Citrus snow scale Unaspis citri (Comstock) Arrowhead scale Unaspis yanonensis (Kuwana) 9 Margarodidae Cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi Maskell 10 Pseudococcidae Citrus mealybug Planococcus citri (Risso) Citrophulus mealybug Pseudococcuscitriculus Green 11 Psyllidae Citrus psylla Trioza erytreae (del Guer.) 12 Cicadellidae Green citrus leafhopper Empoasca citrusaTheron

29 Table-18b. Common Orthropod Visitor of Citrus Species

SN Class/Order Family Common name Scientific name 1 Hemiptera Coreidae Leaf-footed bug Leptoglossus phyllopus (Lin.) 2 Pentatomidae Citrus green stinkbug Rhynchocorris humeralis (Thun.) 3 Thysanoptera Thripidae Western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Perg.) Citrus thrips Scirtothrips citri (Moul.) 4 Orthroptera Acrididae American grasshopper Schistocerca Americana (Drury) 5 Coleoptera Bostrychidae Black giant bostrichid Apatemonachus Fab. 6 Buprestidae Citrus bark borer Agrilusoccipitalis Eschs. 7 Cerambycidae Citrus trunk borer Melanausterchinensis Foster 8 Chrysomelidae Black & red leaf miner Thryscoryssa citri Maulik 9 Curculionidae Citrus root weevil Pachnaeus litus (Germar) Citrus snout beetle Sciobius granosus Fahraeus 10 Diptera Tephritidae Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens (Loew) Oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tyroni (Frogg.) Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (wied.) 11 Hymenoptera Formicidae Leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens (Lin.) Argentine ant Iridomyrmex humilis (Mayr) 12 Lepidoptera Geometridae Citrus looper Ascotis selenaria reciprocaria (Walk) 13 Lyonetiidae Citrus leaf miner Phyllocnistis citrella Stain 14 Metarbelidae Bark-eating borer Indrabela quadrinotata (Walker) 15 Noctuidae Fruit-piercing moth Othreis cjeta (Cramer) 16 Olethreutidae False codling moth Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyr) 17 Papilionidae Lemon butterfly Papilio demolens demolens Lin. 18 Pyralidae Citrus moth borer Citripestris sagittiferella Moore Honeydew moth Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Milli) Carob moth Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) 19 Tortricidae Orange totrix Argyrotaenia citrana (Fernald0 20 Yponomeutidae Citrus flower moth Prays citri Milli. Citrus rind borer Prays endocarpa Meyrick

Wise growers will plan early and keep in touch with their beekeeper for progress reports. Late winter weather can greatly affect the bees, so it's also a good idea to monitor weather, wherever the bees are staying. Long rainy spells can reduce the bees' food supply; and late freezes can actually kill brood. Bees dwindle during winter and build in the spring. It is important that bees to build up FOR the crops to be pollinated, not build up ON them.

30 Table-18c. Common Arthropod Visitor of Citrus Species

SN Class/Order Family Scientific name 1 Hymenoptera Collectidae Collectus sp, Hylacus sp, 2 Halictidae Halictus sp, Lasioglossum sp, Nomia sp, Nomioides sp, Sphecodes sp, Systropha sp, 3 Andrenidae Andrena sp, 4 Melittidae Ctenoplectra sp, 5 Megachilidae Anthidium sp, Anthidiellum sp, Anthocopa sp, Chelicodama sp, Coelioxys sp, Hariodes sp, Lithurgus sp, Osmia sp. Parevaspis sp, Stelis sp, 6 Anthophoridae Amegilla sp, Ammobates sp, Anthophora sp, Braunsapis sp, Ceratina sp, Elaphropoda sp, Epeleus sp, Habropoda sp, Melecta sp, Morgania sp, Nomada sp, Parahophites sp, Pithitis sp, Protomielissa sp, Proxylocopa sp, Tetralonia sp, Tetraloniella sp, Tyreussp, Xylocopa sp. 7 Apidae Agrobombus sp., B. affinis, B. albopleuralis, B. americanorum, B. asiaticus, B. auricomus, B. borealis, B. distinguendus, B. fervidus, B. fraternus, B. haemorrhoidalis, B. hortorum, B. humalis, B. humtii, B. lapidaries, B. lucorum, B. occidentalis, B. pascournum, (hartum), B. pratorum, B. pyrosoma, B. ruderatus, B. rufocinctus, B. simillimus, B. sonorous, B. subterraneus, B. sylvarum, B. terrestris (lucorum), B. terricola, B. vegans, Bombos nevadensis, Hortobombus sp, Lapidoriobombus sp, Terrestribombus sp, Apis sp, Psithyrus sp, Trigona sp,

The pollination requirements of the different kinds of citrus vary considerably and range from parthenocarpy through self-compatibility to self-incompatibility. Generally, most citrus are "self- fruitful" and do not require bees for pollination. Experiments conducted overseas suggest that both fruit set and fruit size on some citrus varieties have been improved with pollination. Unfortunately, the seed content of some fruit also increases. A total of 15 commercial beekeepers, owning 30,881 colonies returned survey forms. A total of 85,586 colony rentals generated $2,759,156 in rental income and the average per colony pollination rental fee (for all beekeepers, for all crops including California almonds) was: $3225. The average commercial colony was placed in 2.77 pollination sets in 1999, for an average per hive rental income of $8930. The average commercial bee operation maintained 2,058 colonies and grossed $183,780 in pollination rental income for 1999. A total of 6 semi-commercial beekeepers returned survey forms: The average per colony pollination rental fee was: $3655. The average semi-commercial colony was placed in 1.2 pollination sets in 1999, for an average per hive rental income of $4385. The average semi-commercial operation maintained 120 colonies and grossed $5,262 in pollination rental income for 1999.

31 6.0 SURVEY FINDINGS

6.1 General Information The average household size of the sampled citrus farmer was 6.5 with higher literacy rate of adult male (69.6%) and illiteracy rate of female (74.2%) while minimum differences among the male and female schooling children (Table 19). The major source of income was from services (military, foreign job and retired persons) followed by citrus farming and other agricultural activities with disparity in gender involvement in services and agriculture activities (Table 20, 21). The study also indicates that citrus farming is associated with higher income families rather than poor subsistence farmers.

Table 19. Family Structure and Education Status of Citrus Farming Households (N=55)

SN Particular Male Female Total 1 Adult literate 64 28 92 2 Adult illiterate 27 78 105 3 Schooling children 88 75 163 Total 179 181 360 Field survey

Table 20. Source of Income and Saving of Citrus Farming Households (N=55)

SN Particular Service Citrus Other Agri Others 1 Income (Rs) 1985000 (39%) 2416300 (48%) 602000 (12%) 41500 (1%) 2 Total income (Rs) 5044800 3 Expenses (Rs) 3934800 (78%) Saving (Rs) 1110000 (22%) Field survey

Table 21. Gender Involvement in Service and Agriculture (N=55)

SN Involvement Male Female Total 1 Government service 4 1 5 2 Private/self employment 20 4 24 3 Agriculture 70 87 157 Total 94 92 186 Field survey

6.2 Citrus Cultivation and Gender Involvement Farmers planted different species of citrus crops in their farms (Table 22a). Orange was the main citrus grown in commercial scale with an average of nearly 200 plants per citrus farmers while lime was confined in very small scale production and sale. Other citrus crops were grown just for

32 home consumption. Reasons of variety selection and planting by the farmers have been indicated by the technicians (Table 22b). Sapling mortality was highest in Junar (>46%) followed by intermediate in orange (18%) and lime (12%) with no mortality of Nibuwa saplings at the farmers field level. Majority of farmers (84%) sell their fruits through middleman (contractor) because they have no groups and have no access to market (Table 23a). The marketing has been further clarified by the technicians that there is big gap between producers and consumers (Table 23b). Thus farmers have no bargaining power of their produce and are deprived of higher profits. The survey clearly showed a great disparity in gender involvement in citrus farming (Table 24). It also indicated that involvement of male and female varied as per specific activities. Decision making and money handling (orchard site and citrus variety selection, harvesting and marketing fruits, training) was solely on the male’s possession while women’s involvement was even higher than male in some specific field works such as pit filling, weeding, manuring and intercropping. It seems that there ample opportunity of women involvement in citrus farming.

Table 22a. Plantation and Mortality of Citrus Saplings (N=55)

SN Citrus Planted (No) Survived (No) Mortality (%) 1 Orange 12411 10125 18.4 2 Lime 553 482 12.8 3 Junar 54 29 46.3 4 Nibuwa 50 50 0.0 Total 13068 10686 (Avg 10) Field survey

Table 22b.Technicians Feelings on Citrus Varieties Grown by Farmers with Preference (N=20)

SN Variety Response (No) Percent Reasons of Preference 1 Orange 17 35 Available local variety, high productivity and good market 2 Lime 15 31 Low pest problem, year-round fruiting and good market 3 Junar 7 15 High productivity and good market

4 Nibuwa 5 10 Good market

5 Others 4 9

Total 48 100

Field survey

33 Table 23a. Fruits Sale by Farmers from Their Orchard (N=55)

SN Sale Response (No) Percent 1 Through contractor 46 84 2 At farm gate and home 6 10 3 Others 3 6 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 23b. Technicians Responses on Citrus Marketing Channel (N=20)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Farmer à Consumer 4 21 2 Farmer à Contractor à Consumer 7 37 3 Farmer à Collector à Trader à Consumer 3 16 4 Farmerà Contractorà Wholesaleà Retailà Consumer 5 26 Total 19 100 Field survey

Table 24. Gender Involvement in Citrus Plantation, Fruit Marketing and Money Handling (N=55)

SN Activities Male Female Total 1 Decision to grow crop 51 12 63 2 Decision to resource allocation 53 8 61 3 Orchard site selection 53 6 59 4 Orchard layout 54 5 59 5 Pit preparation 52 28 80 6 Pit filling 50 54 104 7 Weeding 51 54 105 8 Manure application 53 55 108 9 Intercropping in orchard 52 53 105 10 Orchard irrigation 53 48 101 11 Spraying orchard 55 5 60 12 Harvesting fruits 54 4 58 13 Marketing fruits 54 9 63 14 Attending meeting 52 50 102 15 Attending training 52 16 68 16 Handling money 52 13 65 Total 841 420 1261 Field survey

34 6.3 Orchard Management Citrus farmers have faced various problems such as natural (hailstorms), biological (Insects and disease pests, wild animals) and technical (experiences, skills, training etc) difficulties (Table 25. There is no record of complete failure of crops for past 5-10 years, but majority of the farmers felt losses by unpredicted hailstorms, increasing pests and lack of irrigation facility. More than 50% of the farmers have been practicing control measures of which majority spray different chemicals while a few also apply their indigenous knowledge of pest management techniques (Table 26, 27). However, very few farmers (11%) are aware of harmful effects of pesticides and only few farmers (7%) wait after spray to pick up fruits (Table 28a, 28b, 29). Technicians are better-off than farmers in this regard but have not been transformed to field level.

Table 25. Various Problems Faced by Citrus Farmers (N=55)

SN Problem Response (No) Percent 1 Natural (Hailstorms) 23 26 2 Insects (Bug, borer, leaf miner, fruitfly, aphids etc.) 23 26 3 Diseases (Root and fruit rot, fruit drop, scab, decline) 22 26 4 Irrigation 10 12 5 Wild animals (Hare, monkey etc.) 3 4 6 Others (Training, skills, variety etc.) 5 6 Total 86 100 Field survey

Table 26. Pesticides Used by Farmers in Citrus Orchard (N=55)

SN Pesticide Response (No) Percent 1 Dimethoate (Rogor 25 EC) 5 20 2 Methyl parathion (Metacid 50 EC) 3 12 3 Malathion, Nuvan 2 8 4 Carathion 1 4 5 Bordeaux mixture 14 56 Total 25 100 Field survey

Table 27. Indigenous Knowledge of Pest Control Practiced by Farmers (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Using indigenous knowledge (Cultural, botanical) 7 13 2 Unknown about indigenous knowledge 48 87 Total 55 100

35 Field survey Table 28a. Farmers Awareness on Harmful Effects of Pesticides (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Aware of symptoms (Headache, eye irritation, cough) 6 11 2 Unaware of any symptoms 49 89 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 28b. Technicians Awareness on Effects of Pesticides on Citrus Pollination (N=20)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Unaware 6 30 2 Aware 14 70 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 29. Waiting Period Followed by Users after Spraying Pesticides (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Waiting (four weeks or more) 4 7 2 Not waiting at all 51 93 Total 55 100 Field survey

6.4 Farmers Awareness on Pollinators Majority of farmers and technicians are not aware of natural pollinators or managed pollination of citrus (Table 30a, 30b, 31a, 31b). More than 90% of the citrus farmers have no idea of pollinator and pollination of citrus and very few citrus farmers (15%) have local bees in hive, which is just for honey production not for managed pollination. Neither farmers are aware of biodiversity conservation and environment protection (Table 32). Farmers have a common feeling that bees or insects suck fruit juice and reduce crop yield.

Table 30a. Farmers Awareness on Pollinators Visiting Citrus Flowers (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Aware 2 4 2 Unaware 53 96 Total 55 100 Field survey

36 Table 30b. Technicians Awareness on Citrus Pollination and Pollinators (N=20)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Unaware 15 56 2 Air 5 19 3 Bees 4 15 4 Bumblebees 3 10 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 31a. Farmers with Citrus Orchard and Practicing Beekeeping (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Farmers with beehives (A. cerana in local/modern hive) 8 15 2 Farmers without beehives 47 85 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 31b. Technicians Awareness on Wild Honeybees Visiting Citrus Flowers (N=20)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Unaware 15 79 2 Aware 4 21 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 32. Farmers Awareness on Biodiversity Conservation and Environment Protection (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Aware 2 4 2 Unaware 53 96 Total 55 100 Field survey

6.5 Supports to Citrus and Pollinators Promotion Development of citrus is mainly through the efforts of HMGN and technicians devoted in this sector (Table 33a, 33b). But role of pollinators in citrus pollination and productivity enhancement has completely been forgotten.

37 Table 33a. Supporting Organizations to Establish Citrus Orchard (N=55)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 HMGN (DADO, JT, JTA, Ag. Service Center) 54 98 2 Farmer Group 1 2 Total 55 100 Field survey

Table 33b. Technicians Suggestions on Citrus Growing and Pollination Promotion (N=20)

SN Particular Response (No) Percent 1 Not known 13 53 2 Encourage beekeeping 7 29 3 Citrus and beekeeping together 2 4 4 Citrus, beekeeping and IPM 2 4 Total 24 100 Field survey

Farmers attraction in citrus farming are due to following factors: • No problem of selling fruits either at farm (small scale) or at market (commercial scale). • High production and income compared to other traditional crops. • Low initial investment and low expenses for long-term production. • Comparatively low pest problems and high demand of citrus fruits in home and markets. • Easy and safe transportation compared to fresh vegetables. Citrus production especially, orange and lemon can be increased through the promotion of citrus crops and their pollinators. Therefore, integrated approach is best to increase productivity, conserve, natural and managed pollinators and maintaining sound and healthy biodiversity as well.

7.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Initiation of the Horticulture Development Project (HDP, 1985-97) under the technical cooperation of Japan was an important step in fruit development particularly citrus. With the objectives to increase the production of mandarin and sweet orange and thereby increase the cash income and employment opportunity of the farmers, and substitute the import and promote export, citrus priority program was launched in Dhankuta, Sindhuli, Ramechhap, Kaski, and Dailekh districts in 1985. Hill Fruit development Project (HFDP) under loan assistance of Asian Development Bank

38 (ADB/M) was implemented in 11 hill and mountain districts of eastern developmental region during the period of 1988-95. Main thrust of the project was to increase the production of citrus in the mid-hill region. Thirty-five citrus nurseries were established at the private sector for sapling production and distribution (HFDP, 1996). Farmers have increased and some farmers also have been organized in groups. However, productivity is very low and farmers and technicians are not ware of increasing citrus productivity through biodiversity creation, pollinator’s conservation and maintenance of pollution free environment Therefore, the main focus should be biodiversity conservation and productivity enhancement for poverty alleviation of majority of the hill farmers implementing ecologically and economically sustainable income generating activities with the promotion of pollinators and managed pollination (Figure 1) for which problem identification, exploring potentiality and development of strategies are the key for success that are indicated in Table 34.

Apiculture and Citrus Pollination

Pollination and Honey, Wax, Quality Seed/Fruit Pollen and Royal Poverty Production Jelly Production Alleviation

Income Generation and Economic Development

Figure 1. Biodiversity Conservation and Productivity Enhancement

Table 34. Natural pollinators: Approach to Biodiversity Conservation and Productivity Enhancement

Potentiality Constraints Strategies Ecological diversity Lacking information on flora, crop Inventory and floral calendar preparation of calendar, and information on pollination flora including high value crops for pollination Farming community Inaccessibility, difficult transportation, Training/awareness and promotion of income poverty, unemployment, ecological generating activity integrating beekeeping with degradation high value crop pollination Natural pollinators Lacking information on pollinators and Study of pollinators for productivity and their performance, and problems of pests pollination potentiality including pest and and pesticides pesticide management through IPM approach Technology Traditional beekeeping, honey hunting, Appropriate technology development and

39 lacking training, and poor delivery middle level extension workers for better result Market potentiality Problem of quality, lacking assured Quality control and high value product market, price policy marketing with regulated price policy

However, promotion of indigenous honeybees and other pollinators for biodiversity conservation and productivity enhancement in the mid-hills has been facing serious problems, which requires due consideration: • Health safety and environment aspects are receiving outmost attention and IPM is the aim for a sustainable agriculture (Figure 2). IPM programs through FFS help to mitigate pesticide use, promote sound ecological farming and create pesticide pollution free environment. Successful integration and use of control measures in IPM program depends largely on interdisciplinary working team and their involvement in developing a sound ecological farmers’ problem oriented IPM program.

No pesticide in orchard

Pollinator visits Pesticide sprays

No pollinators

C P

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r in orchard

s

o

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s

m

s

p

a

o

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l

a

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t

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t

Hybrid vigor Crop protection

Increase production

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Figure 2. IPM for Pest Management, Conserving Pollinators and Increasing Productivity • Honey hunting and massive destruction of indigenous native honeybees is a critical issue that needs to be addressed for indigenous honeybee protection and further multiplication. • Managed pollination of crops that has been largely forgotten part of agriculture requires due attention to increase productivity and diversity of crops and pollinators as well. Indigenous

40 honeybees are the most efficient pollinators and most of the crops are dependent on or benefited by them, beekeeping has to play more significant role in crop pollination for biodiversity conservation and in honey production for income generation. • Practical learning of beekeeping for their better management with qualified technician development working in isolation for which authorized institutions including capable INGOs and NGOs are to be brought in the mainstream in building capability. • Foraging preference of different pollinators including honeybees to crop pollination and their suitability at different ecological regimes need to be studied. Based on their preference, and efficiency on pollination of selected priority crops their establishment and isolation with species can be maintained in the future. • It has been learned from various other high value crop production activities that group mobilization and community development has been proved better for institutionalization of the program and therefore, promotion of indigenous bees and conservation of other pollinators of crops in the hills and the mountains may not be possible in isolation. This rather will develop capability of the local organization to run their activity themselves in the long run. For immediate action, we are left with only honeybees as pollinators, which can be brought at any time in any numbers to the target sites where thousands of foragers go about their natural work of pollination with long term vision of conserving natural pollinators. Specially equipped body and large working hours on the crops coupled with additional benefits of honey and other bee products make them ideal pollinating agents. Again among insects, it is well established that honeybees are the most efficient pollinators. Since most of the crops are dependent on or benefited by honeybees, beekeeping has to play more significant role in crop pollination than in honey production alone.

41 8.0 REFERENCES

Abrol, D. P. 1991. Conservation of pollinators for promotion of agricultural production in India. J. Anim. Morphol. and Physiol. 38 (1-2):123-139. APP. 1995. Agriculture perspective plan (APP). Agricultural Project Service Center and John Mellor Associates, Inc. NPC/HMGN and ADB, Kathmandu, Nepal. Bal, J. S. 1997. Fruit growing. Kalayani Publishers. New Delhi, India. Baldwin, E. G. Perfect pollination of citrus groves. Gleanings Bee Cult. 44:269-271. Butcher, F. G. 1955. Honeybees as pollinators of Minneola Tangelos. Fla. Hort. Soc. Proc. 68:313. CBS. 2000. Statistical year book of Nepal. National Planning Commission, Central Bureau of Statistics, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Cervancia, C. R. and A. C. Manila. 2000. Some aspects on the floral biology and pollination of Calamondin, Citrus madurensis (Lour.). Seventh IBRA Conference on Tropical Bees: Management and Dversity and Fifth Asian Apiculture Association Conference 19-25 March, 2000. Chiang Mai, Thailand. International Bee Research Association, Cardiff, UK. pp 293-294. Cox, J. E. 1974. Citrus. Proc. Fla. Sta. Hort. Soc. 74: 95-104. Crane, E. and P. Walker. 1984. Pollination directory for world crops. Intl. Bee Res. Assoc., London, U.K. DeGrandi-Hoffman, G. 1987. The honeybee pollination component of horticultural crop pollination systems In J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural reviews Vol 9. AVI Publications, New York. pp 237-272. Devenport, T. L. Citrus flowering In J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural Reviews Vol 12. Timber Press Portland, Oregon, USA. pp 349-408. Devies, F. S. 1986. The Naval orange In J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural reviews Vol. 8. Timber Press Portland, Oregon, USA. pp 237-272. FAO. 1993. Citrus fruit- fresh and processed annual statistics. CCP; CI/ST/93- Rome, Italy. Free, J. B. 1993. Insect pollination of crops (2nd edition). Academic Press, London. 684 pp. Jindal, K. K., D. R. Gautam and B. K. Karkara. 1993. Pollination and pollinizers in fruits In K. L. Chadha and O. P. Pareek (eds.) Advances in Horticulture Vol. 1: Fruit crops. Malhotra Pub. House, New Delhi. pp 463-480. Guru-Gharana, K. K. 1997. Poverty situation in Nepal. J. Dev, Loc. Gov. 1(2). Haynie, J. D. 1968. Bees and citrus blooms. Amer. Bee. J. 108:397. HMGN. Economic survey 1998/99. Ministry of Finance. HMGN, Kathmandu, Nepal. HMGN. 2000/01. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Horn, C. W. and F. E. Todd. 1954. Bee bouquets and better tangerines. Prog. Agri. Ariz. 6:11. Kaini, B. R. 1994. Status of fruit plant genetic resources in Nepal. In: M.P. Upadhaya, H. K. Saiju, B. K. Baniya and M. S. Bista (eds.) Plant genetic resources Nepalese perspective. NARC and IPGRI. NARC, Khumaltar, Kathmandu, Nepal. pp 103-111. Kevan, P. G. and H. G. Baker. 1983. Insects as flower visitors and pollinators. Ann. Rev. Ent. 28:407-453.

42 Khan, M. and M. K. H. Chandhri. 1964. Pollination studies in Citrus sinensis. Punjab Fruit J. 1962-64:26-27, 97-107. Krezdorn, A. H. 1972. Pollination requirement of citrus. Citrus Indus. 53:5-7, 28. Manzoor-ul-haq, M. Rafie-ul-din and A. Ghaffar. 1978. Effect of insect pollination on fruit bearing in Mandarin (Citrus reticulata), and physical and chemical properties of the fruit. J. Apic. Res. 17:47-49. McGregor, S. E. 1976. Insect pollination of cultivated crop plants. USDA/ARS Agriculture Handbook 496, Washington, USA. 411 pp. Mchedlishvili, G. I. 1962. Pollination of citrus trees by bees. Pchelovodstvo 39(9):17 (Russian). MDHP. 1990. Master plan of horticulture development in Nepal. Vol. 1: The master plan main report and Vol. 8: Demand and marketing analysis. MOA, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Mishra, R. C. (Ed.). 1998. Perspective in Indian apiculture. Agro Botanica, India. MOA. 1997. Statistical information of Nepalese agriculture. Agricuture Statistics Division, Kathmandu, Nepal. MOA. 2001. Statistical information of Nepalese agriculture. Agricuture Statistics Division, Kathmandu, Nepal. Moffett, J. O. and D. R. Rodney. 1972. Fairchild tangerines need both: honeybees, pollinator trees. Prog. Agri. In Ariz. 23(5): 6-7. Munawar, M. S. and Nasreen. 1999. Contribution of honeybees (Apis mellifera ) in fruit set on Citrus chinensis var Mausami. Proceedings of 23rd International Beekeeping Congress September 12-17, 1999. Vencuvor, Canada. pp 43 (Abstract). NCDP. 1990. Report- Seventh Five Year Plan. National Citrus Development Program, Nepal. Nijjar, G. S. and B. S. Sandhu. 1971. A study on the fruit set problem in sweet lime (Citrus limmettoides Tanaka). J. Res. (PAU) 8:411-415. Oppenheimer, C. 1948. Experiments with unfruitful Clementine mandarins in Palestine. Agri. Res. Sta. Rehovoth Bull. 48:1-63. Price, P. 1975. Insect ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA. Pratap, U. 2000. Foraging behavior of Apis cerana on sweet orange (Citrus sinensis var Red Junar) and its impact on fruit production In M. Matsuka, L. R. Verma, S. Wongsiri, K. K. Shrestha and U. Pratap (eds.) Asian Bees and Beekeeping Progress of Research and Development. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India. pp 176-177. Rajput, C. B. S. and R. S. Haribabu. 1999. Citriculture. Kalayani Publishers, New Delhi, India. Randhawa, G. S. and K. C. Srivastav. 1986. Citriculture in India. Hundustan Pub. Corp., India. 501 pp. Randhawa, G. S., N. Nath and S. S. Choudhary. 1961. Flowering and pollination studies in citrus with special reference to lemon (Citrus limon Burm.). Indian J. Hort. 18:135-147. Robinson, F. A. and A. H. Krezdorn. 1962. Pollination of the Orlando Tangelo. Amer. Bee J. 102: 132-133. Singh, S. 1998. Poverty and living standards. In: A compendium on environment statistics 1998 Nepal. HMG, NPCS, CBS, Kathmandu, Nepal. pp 599-618. Spiegel-Roy, P. 1996. Biology of citrus. Cambridge Univ. Press, Great Britain, UK. 230 pp.

43 Thapa, V. K. 1997. An inventory of Nepal’s insects Vol I. IUCN- The World Conservation Union, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tomiyasu, Y., S. K. Verma and D. B. Thapa. 1998. Citrus cultivation in Nepal (Nepali), Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 120 p. Upreti, B. K. 1998. Natural diversity. A compendium on environment statistics 1998 Nepal. HMGN, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central Bureau of statistics, Kathmandu. Nepal. pp 81-104. Van Horn, C. W. and F. E. Todd. 1954. Bees, bouquets and better Tangerines. Proc. Agri. Ariz. 6(1):11. Vansell, G. H., W. G. Watkins and R. K. Bishop. 1942. Orange nectar and pollen in relation to bee activity. J. Econ. Ent. 35:321-332. Vansell, G. H. 1944. Some western nectars and their corresponding honeys. J. Econ. Ent. 37:530- 536. Verma, L. R. and K. K. Jindal. 1997. Frui crops pollination. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 405 pp. Zavrashvili, R. M. 1967. Influence of bees on the yield of citrus trees on the commercial plantation of Georgia. Proc. 21st Intl. Apic. Cong. College Park, MD, USA. pp 450-451.

44 Appendix-1 STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SURVEY

Name of HH: Sex: Dev. Region : District: Village:

1. Socio Demographic Information: Particulars Male Female Total Number of HH Members Level Number Level Number Level Number a. Adult Literacy b. Schooling Children c. Govt. / Private Service Total persons involved in Agriculture: Male No ……. Female No……… Total No………..

2. Weather Information: (Name of the location and its Altitude: ------) Particulars Spring Summer Rainy Winter Temperature (Low/Med/High) Humidity (Low/Med/High) Rainfall (Low/Med/High) Frost (Low/Med/High) Snow (Low/Med/High) Wind (Low/Med/High)

3. Landholding/Farm Information: Particulars Low land Upland Total Land holding (ha) Cultivated Uncultivated Cultivated Uncultivated a. Un-irrigated land (ha) b. Irrigated land (ha) c. Leached land (ha)

4. Socio Economic Information: Annual Income and Expenditure (Rs) From Gov/Private Service From agriculture land From others: (Name of work or enterprise……………..) Total expenditure Total saving

5. Major Crop Information: Cereal Crops Vegetable Crops Other Cash Crops Name Area Prod Name Area Prod Name Area Prod

6. Citrus Crop Information: Citrus Variety Year of Number Number Land Used Fruit Harvest Production (kg) Planting Planted Survived (ha) (Month)

i) Who decides what crops to grow ? a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both ii) Who decides to allocate resource a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both iii) Who handles produce after harvest a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both iv) Who handles money after produce sale a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both

45 v) Any training received ? Mention name of raining, place, duration and year: 7. Have You Noticed Any Problems in Your Citrus Plants ? If yes, specify. Name of Citrus Crop Specific Problems Trees Infested (No) Estimated Loss (%)

If experienced failure of crop due to pests in last 5-10 yrs, specify, citrus crop, problem, year and loss......

8. Fruit Marketing: Citrus Fruit Selling Variety Fruit (Kg) Price (Rs/kg) Selling Cash handling (M/F) (M/F) At Farm Gate At Local Market At City Market Any other Market If stored locally i). Mention duration (months) and quantity (kg) of fruits consumed at home: ii). Mention duration (months) stored and name of citrus fruits locally stored: iii). Is your production increasing or decreasing ? ______iv). Reasons of (increase or decrease) a)______b) ______c) ______

9. Pesticide and Environment: Do you use pesticides in your citrus orchard? If yes, specify Name of Name of Name of Dose/Conc. No of Fruit No. of Cost of Citrus Pest Pesticide used Tree Treated Application Treatment

a. If sprayed or dusted, mention type of equipment used in pesticide application: ______b. Any problem to pollinators by pesticide? No/Yes, if yes, specify i) bees ii) wasps iii) buterflies iv) moths v) birds vi) other ( )

10. Are you aware of the harmful effect of pesticide? No/Yes. If yes, specify a) Effect on: human / animals / fish / birds b) Effect on: soils / crops / food / crop pests c) Effect on: pollinators / predators / parasites / bioagents d) Others, pls. Specify ------

11. After applying pesticides, do you notice any ill-health symptoms? No / Yes. If yes, which symptoms? a) Eye irritation b) Skin rashes c) Headache d) Vomiting e) Fever f) Cough g) Throat pain h) Chest pain i) Sweating j) Others, pls. specify

12. How long after spraying do you harvest citrus fruits? a) One to three days after b) One week after c) Two weeks after d) Three weeks after e) Four weeks after f) More than four weeks

13. Have you also been practicing pest control based on your own knowledge? No/Yes. If yes, specify a) Through cultural: b) Through mechanical: c) Through biological: d) Through chemical: e) Through host resistance: f) Others, pls. specify i) What method do you think the best to control pest in your orchard any of above and why? … ------ii) Farmer’s practice of citrus insect/disease control: ------

46 14. Have you adopted intercropping in your Citrus Orchard ? No. Yes. If yes, mention Intercropping crops Season Area (Ropani) Yield (kg) Price (Rs)

Do you believe that intercropping increase crop as well as pollinators diversity ? Yes/No.

15. Do you know about biodiversities? Yes/No. If Yes, specify: a) Pollinator diversity b) Citrus diversity d) Honeybee diversity e) Insect pest diversity

16. If you know bio-diversity, what ways bio-diversity can be protected? Specify: a) Growing various citrus crops b) Saving natural pollinators c) Using honeybees in pollination d) Aforestraion e) Minimizing environmental pollution

17. Pollinators Information: Do you believe that various polliantors visit your orchard? Yes/No. If yes, a. Who told you about pollinators for crop pollination? b. What type of pollinators have you seen in your citrus orchard ? i) Bees ii) Wasps iii) Butterflies iv) Moths v) Birds vi) Bats v) If others, specify …………………….. d. Number of natural pollinators is increase or decreasing and reason for it: i)------ii)------iii) ------iv)------

18. Bee pollinators: Do you know that honeybees pollinate your crops? No/Yes, if yes, a. Who told you about honeybees for pollination? b. Are there wild bee colonies in your locality? No/Yes, If yes colony No.___ and season______c. What percent of citrus fruit increase do you expect by honeybee pollination? d. Do other beekeepers bring honeybees in citrus flowering season? If yes, Colony No___ Month___

19. Do you keep honeybees? No/Yes. If yes, specify a) Pollination b) Honey production c) Both Races of bees No. of Annual Honey Price of Honey (Rs/kg) Hives Harvest (kg) Native honeybees in modern hive Native honeybees in indigenous hive European honeybees in modern hive Others specify - a). Who decides time of honey harvest and sale or use at home? i) Male ii) Female iii) Both b). Who keeps money and decides to spend ? i) Male ii) Female iii) Both c). Mention duration (months) and quantity (kg) of honey consumed at home: d) Is your honeybee colonies increasing or decreasing ? Reason i)______ii)______iii)______e). Is your honey production increasing or decreasing ? ______f). Reasons of (increase or decrease) i) ______ii) ______iii) ______

20. Organization Information: a. Where did you get support to establish citrus orchard / beekeeping from? ------b. Are you involved in any CBO, NGO etc? No/Yes. If yes, which organization? ------c. Does any organization support in citrus activities? No/Yes? If yes, specify name and type of help ------d. Does your organization support in beekeeping activities? No/Yes? If yes, specify name and help------e. Does your organization support in pollinators conservation activities ? Yes / No. If yes, specify name and help ------f. What kind of support do you expect in citrus, beekeeping, pollinator and biodiversity activities? Specify in priority (a – e) Citrus: a) b) c) d) e)

47 Bees: a) b) c) d) e)

Pollinators: a) b) c) d) e)

Biodiversity a) b) c) d) e)

21. List in priority five main problems that you have faced in your citrus orchard, beekeeping pollinators and biodiversity conservation in priority (a-e) Citrus: a) b) c) d) e)

Bees: a) b) c) d) e)

Pollinators: a) b) c) d) e)

Biodiversity a) b) c) d) e)

22. Gender Involvement in Citrus Production and Marketing: Types of Activities Gender involvement in various activities Male Time Female Time Citrus orchard site selection Layout of citrus orchard Digging pits for planting saplings Manure mixing and pit filling Citrus type and variety selection Nursery bed preparation Care of young plants in nursery Weeding and cleaning orchard Training and pruning plants Interculture and manuring orchard Intercropping in citrus orchard Orchard irrigation Spraying orchard for pest control Fruit harvesting Post harvest handling Fruit marketing Attending meeting Participating training Beekeeping and handling bees Feeding honeybee colony Pollination arrangement with bees Honey harvesting Honey marketing Money matters

Finally, any suggestions: ------

Thanks for cooperation

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49 Appendix-2 CHECKLIST FOR INFORMATION COLLECTION ON CITRUS WITH ACADEMICIANS

1. Name/Address/Position: 2. Main citrus varieties (local and introduced) in order of preference and priority: 3. Farmer’s cultivated citrus varieties with reasons of preference 4. Gender involvement in citrus cultivation and marketing 5. Citrus variety and seasonal production trend 6. Citrus varieties and blooming seasons and duration of blooming 7. Yield and market price of main citrus fruits and seasons of marketing 8. Production constraints of citrus in the country with specificity to citrus farmers 9. Market channel and constraints 10. Pollination awareness among farmers/officers/extension workers 11. Main natural pollinators and their population trends in citrus pollination 12. Wild honeybees colonies and their visits to citrus orchard 13. Honeybees and their role in citrus pollination and present population trend 14. Pesticide use and disturbance to citrus pollination 15. Pollination problems in other crops

16. National policy related to citrus promotion its implementation 17. National policy related to pollination promotion and its implementation 18. Any other comments and suggestions

Thanks for kind cooperation

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