From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions: the Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System

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R ip p le Effects, San Fran cisco From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions: The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System

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Part of the work described in this document was conducted with financial support from U. S. Department of Education, (Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) Phase I Contract No. RW97076120) and National Institutes of Health, National Institutes on Drug Abuse Grant (NIDA) (SBIR), Fast Track (Phase I and II) Contracts R44 DA13325- 01A1 & R44 DA013325-03. A 2006 grant to West Ed from the Lucile Packard Foundation for Children's Health, funded evaluation research on use of Ripple Effects as a universal intervention to promote resiliency. A Safe Schools/Healthy Students (SS/HS) grant awarded to Bibb County, Georgia in 2003, included evaluation of the impact of Ripple Effects as an indicated intervention in discipline settings.

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For all those children whose life circumstances put them at risk of failure to thrive The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview A synthesis of theory from the five directions Applied synthesis……………………………………………………………….. 1.1 Sources of factual data…………..………………………………………….. 1.2 Theory from five directions……………………………………………………. 1.2 Prevention science…………………………………………………………... 1.5 Education…………………………………………………………………….. 1.6 Technology…………………………………………………………………... 1.6 Business and economics……………………………………………………. 1.6 Humanities…………………………………………………………………… 1.6 How the pieces fit together…………………………………………………… 1.7 Not design by committee……………………………………………………… 1.7 The driving question…………………………………………………………… 1.7 Chapter-by-chapter summary…………………………………………….…… 1.8 Missing chapters?...... 1.9 Social-emotional learning (SEL)…………………………………………….. 1.9 Social equity and cultural competence……………………………………. 1.9 Logic model…………………………………………………………………….1.10 About references………………………………………………………………. 1.10 Diagram of Ripple Effects Logic Model………………………..……………..1.11 Appendix A: List of Ripple Effects program resources……….……………… 1.13

Chapter 2: The Context Large scale failure of children to thrive Incidence of children’s mental health problems………………………...... 2.1 Depression…………………………………………………………………… 2.1 Anxiety disorders……………………………………………………………. 2.1 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)……………………………………… 2.2 Phobias……………………………………………………………………….. 2.2 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)………………………….. 2.3 Eating disorders……………………………………………………………… 2.3 Manic-depressive illness……………………………………………………. 2.3 Autism and other pervasive developmental disorders……………………. 2.4 Schizophrenia……………………………………………………………….. 2.4 Incidence of school failure………………………………………………… .... 2.4 Dropout rates………………………………………………………………… 2.4 Incidence of juvenile social injury…………………………………………… 2.6 Juveniles are victims………………………………………………………… 2.6 Juveniles are perpetrators…………………………………………………… 2.6 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Social justice a necessary backdrop ………………………………………….. 2.7 Disproportionality……………………………………………………………… 2.8 Juvenile justice system…………………………………………………………. 2.9 Consequences………………………………………………………………. 2.10 Therapeutic sanctions……………………………………………………… 2.10 Probation……………………………………………………………………. 2.10 Restorative justice……………………………………………………………2.11 Recidivism and reentry………………………………………………………2.11 References………………………………………………………………...... 2.12

Chapter 3: Why is it happening? Risk and Protective Factors Complex interaction of factors………………………………………………... 3.1 Impact in multiple areas…………………………………………………….. 3.1 Implications for practice……………………………………………………. 3.2 Internal/external - fixed/malleable…………………………………………. 3.2 Internal (individual) factors…………………………………………...... ……3.3 Physical: neuropsychobiology……………………………………………… 3.3 Mental factors………………………………………………………………... 3.5 Emotional factors……………………………………………………………. 3.7 Behavioral factors…………………………………………………………… 3.8 School problems…………………………………………………………….. 3.9 Spiritual……………………………………………………………………… 3.10 External causes………………… …………………………………...………...3.10 Events…………………………………………………………………………3.10 Interpersonal relationships………………………………………………… 3.11 Circumstance……………………………………………………………….. 3.13 Policies……………………………………………………………………… 3.13 Social structures and processes…………………………………………… 3.14 Media influence…………………………………………………………….. 3.17 Evidence points to need to address whole spectrum…………..… ……….3.17 Most predictive risk factors………………………………………………… 3.18 Internal protective factors………………………………………………….. 3.18 Tipping the balance toward protection…………………………………… 3.20 References……………………………………………………………………... 3.21

Chapter 4: What Works? Effective strategies for reducing risk and enhancing protection Mitigating individual risk factors……………………………………………... 4.1 Range of effective strategies…………………………………………………….4.1 Cognitive ……….……………………………………………………………. 4.2 Behavioral……………………………………………………………………. 4.7 Social skill.…………………………………………………………………... 4.8 Counseling…………………………………………………………………… 4.9 Parent training………………………………………………………………. 4.13 The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

What’s missing: affective approaches…………………………………………4.14 SEL: Integrating modalities………………………………………………… 4.15 No approach “the best” ……………………………………………………… 4.16 How race and ethnicity fit……………………………………………………. 4.16 Linking most risk with greatest impact: A leveraged approach……………. 4.16 References……………………………………………………………………... 4.18

Chapter 5: Education The other half of the psycho-educational equation Educational philosophy………………………………………………………… 5.1 Art or science? ………………………………………………………………. 5.1 Either/or………………………………………………………………………. 5.2 Both/and……………………………………………………………………… 5.2 Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Philosophy of Education……………..…. 5.2 Learning context…………………………………………………………………5.3 Safety…………………………………………………………………………. 5.5 Connectedness and support………………………………………………… 5.9 Responsibility……………………………………………………………….. 5.12 Challenge……………………………………………………………………. 5.14 Wider equity issues…………………………………………………………. 5.16 Knowledge and meaning……………………………………………………... 5.22 Traditional position ………………………….…………………………….. 5.22 Critique of objectivist philosophy of knowledge…………………………. 5.23 Subjectivist position about knowledge…………………………………… 5.24 Critique of subjectivist approach to knowledge…………………………. 5.25 Learning process ……………………………………………………………5.29 Traditional model: cognitive and linear………………………………….. 5.30 Constructivist learning: whole system, pattern seeking…………………. 5.33 Social-emotional learning as a specialized form of learning…………… 5.41 Instruction……………………………………………………………………… 5.42 Goals………………………………………………………………………… 5.42 Roles…………………………………………………………………………. 5.43 Methods………………………………………………………………………5.44 Process: pure discovery…………………………………………………… 5.47 Process: supportive guidance……………………………………………… 5.49 Instructional differentiation………………………………………………… 5.50 Structure: universal design for learning (UDL)…………………………….5.53 Classroom management……………………………………………………….5.55 Classroom orchestration…………………………………………………… 5.55 Classroom management as pedagogy…………………………………….. 5.55 Ripple Effects tutorials in “Managing Diverse Learners Unit”…….……. 5.57 Assessment………………...…………………………………………………... 5.59 Pre-intervention assessment………………………………………………...5.59 Post-intervention assessment………………………………………………. 5.63 Data analysis……………………………………………………………….. 5.66 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Cultural competence……………………………………………………….. 5.67 Professional development………………………………………….….………5.68 Major report on effective practices………………………….….…………. 5.69 Effective content…………………………………………………………….. 5.69 Context………………………………………………………………………. 5.71 Learning process……………………………………………………………. 5.73 Frequency and amount…………………………………………………….. 5.76 Time and resource distribution……………………………………………. 5.78 Appendix B: Preconfigured scopes and sequences………………... .………5.80 References...... ……………….…………………..….…5.81

Chapter 6: Technology What it can and cannot offer social-emotional learning The challenge…………………………………………….…………………….. 6.1 Too much competing knowledge………………………………………….. 6.1 Complexity of SEL………………………………………….………………... 6.1 The possibilities………………………………………………………………….6.1 Differentiation………………………………………….……………………. 6.1 Domain expertise………………………………………….………………… 6.1 Scaling personalized guidance………………………………………….….. 6.2 Solution to thorny political problems……………………………………… 6.2 What technology can’t do…………………………………………. …………..6.2 Can’t make up for ineffective school policies……………………..……… 6.2 Can’t undo socialization and structural injustice…………………………. 6.2 Can’t unilaterally undo gross media distortions…………………………... 6.3 Can’t replace human interaction…………………………………………… 6.3 Shift in paradigm………………………………………………………………...6.4 What does the research say?...... 6.4 Platforms and formats not the issue...... 6.4 Information transfer...... 6.4 Assessment...... 6.4 Direct intervention to change behavior……………………………………. 6.5 Ripple Effects technology…………………………………………. ……………6.8 Expert systems: simulated good judgment……………………………………. 6.8 Ripple Effects’ knowledge base……………………………………………….. 6.10 RE inference engines………………………………………………………… 6.12 RE Interface design………………………………………………………..… 6.17 Whole Spectrum Learning Platform…………..……………………. ………...6.20 Appendix C: Index of topics in Ripple Effects for teens (grades 6-11)… …..6.44 Appendix D: Index of topics in Ripple Effects for kids (grades 2-5)……. ….6.53 Appendix E: Index of topics in Ripple Effects for staff ……..…………… ….6.56 References……………………………………… ……………….……………..6.58

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Chapter 7: Implementation Science Moving from ivory tower efficacy to real world effectiveness Major implementation challenges…………………………………………….. 7.2 Process challenges…………………………………………………………... 7.2 Program related challenges…………………………………………………. 7.2 Challenges at intersection of process and program……………………… 7.2 Technology not the whole answer…………………………………………. 7.3 Models of Implementation………………………………………………… …..7.3 Implementation process components………………………………………… 7.4 Components negatively correlated with success………………………….. 7.7 Implementation process stages………………………………………………... 7.8 Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Model of Staged Implementation………. 7.9 Implementation process characteristics……………………………………… 7.12 Program attrition - non-participation. ……………………………………. 7.13 Balance between fidelity and adaptation………………………………… 7.14 Summary of Ripple Effects Core Content and Process Components…… 7.18 Levels of implementation: tiered intervention………………………………. 7.20 Primary – Universal Promotion…………………………...………………...7.20 Secondary – Targeted Prevention…………………………………………..7. 22 RTI……………………………………………………………………………. 7.23 Tertiary – Individualized, Indicated/Positive Behavioral Intervention.…. 7.24 Intensity/Dosage……………………………………………………………. 7.25 Speed of implementation…………………………………………………. 7.26 Relevance…………………………………………………………………… 7.27 Affordability………………………………………………………………… 7.27 Initial investment…………………………….…………………..…………. 7.27 Net costs after short term return on investment…………...………………7.29 Long term return on investment………………………………...…………..7.30 Role of program design elements in implementation success………………7.30 Differentiation of learning……………………………………………………7.30 Data management………………………………...... ……………….7.31 Learning from ineffective programs………………………………………….. 7.31 Lightening the load………………………………………………………....7.32 Ease of use………………………………………………………………….. 7.32 Avoiding boredom…………………………………………………………. 7.33 "Customer is right" focus….………………………………………………. 7.34 References ………………………………………….…………………………. 7.36

Afterward: Who’s behind it?

From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

I am deeply grateful to the testing and analysis of Ripple Effects theoreticians who have developed the impact in their work. They have provided key strands of formal theory in the fields key insights to the development of the of prevention science, education, program. technology and business/economics that I am equally indebted to the many have found their way into Ripple Effects practitioners who have the difficult job of Whole Spectrum Intervention System. applying these insights in the real world I am indebted to the statisticians who and have shared their experiences. Their have created sophisticated computer qualitative evaluations have equal value models for testing the validity of various to me, and their work has also guided our hypotheses about risk, protection and program development. program effectiveness, and which have I am immensely grateful to the allowed me to hone the theory behind extended family that is Ripple Effects. our programs. Many are cited by name in Sarah Berg, who initiated formation of key references. Many more are not cited, the organization, has been the anchor for because they are wrapped into larger research as well as production efforts, meta-analyses that are referenced. and contributed generously to editing this I’m appreciative of the financial book. Lew Brentano spent hours verifying backing of a small group of Angel citations and proof reading, as well as investors, without whom Ripple Effects providing unending emotional support. would not have been born. I’m also Athena Guillory created the graphics that grateful for support from the Small are a hallmark of the Ripple Effects way. Business Innovative Research Program of Julianne Enriquez provided the National Institutes of Health, and the administrative support. Kerry Pifer did US Department of Education, which final proofreading. enabled development and testing of key Finally, I’m most grateful to and aspects of the program, and to the Lucille inspired by the children, youth and their Packard Foundation for Children’s teachers who inform, star in, use, Health, which funded West Ed to critique, and open themselves to be evaluate the impact of Ripple Effects on transformed by Ripple Effects software. resiliency assets. Thank you all. I am extremely grateful to all the researchers who have included the

From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview A synthesis of theory from the five directions

Applied synthesis ...... 1 Sources of factual data ...... 2 Theory from five directions...... 2 Prevention science...... 5 Education ...... 6 Technology...... 6 Business and economics ...... 6 Humanities...... 6 How the pieces fit together...... 7 Not design by committee ...... 7 The driving question ...... 7 Chapter-by-chapter summary ...... 8 Missing chapters? ...... 9 Social-emotional learning (SEL) ...... 9 Social equity and cultural competence ...... 9 Logic model...... 10 About references ...... 10 Diagram of Ripple Effects Logic Model ...... 11 Appendix A List of Ripple Effects program resources……………………….13

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

For more than a decade, the conceptual Readers are directed to five volumes framework of Ripple Effect Whole of Evidence of Effectiveness of Spectrum Intervention System (WSIS) has Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention been largely hidden beneath the intuitive System for those context-specific interface of Ripple Effects software, and/or descriptions. woven directly into the multi-media content. This makes the program simple, Prior to now, however, the entire engaging and accessible to users. It conceptual framework has not been undoubtedly at least partly accounts for the systematically described in a single system being recognized with 29 national document, nor have all these concepts and international awards across four been mapped directly to specific industries. But it makes it more difficult for components of the system. reviewers to evaluate the conceptual and The purpose of this monograph is to evidence base that it rests on. document the conceptual framework that Parts of that theoretical base are underpins the development, design, explicitly included in trainer and implementation, support and evaluation of implementer manuals, including the the Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum rationales for use of specific scope and Intervention System (WSIS) as an integrated sequences of the program to achieve set of technology enabled, stepped, Social- specific goals, and/or specific planning Emotional Learning (SEL) interventions for processes to ensure implementation primary, secondary and tertiary prevention success. Those simplified translations of of delinquent behavior, school failure, and various conceptual underpinnings serve the child and adolescent poor health and needs of line workers, who are asked to mental health outcomes. implement intervention programs with little time or resources to prepare for doing so. APPLIED SYNTHESIS

Readers are directed to those Ripple Effects’ theory base represents manuals (listed in Appendix A) for the synthesis of more than a thousand summaries of the rationale for 60 separate theoretical insights, deductively and content configurations of Ripple Effects for inductively constructed from basic primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. principles and empirical evidence, across dozens of disciplines, and hundreds of sub In addition, the “Background” sections disciplines. The Whole Spectrum of various scientific papers have Intervention System for SEL represents new documented the evidence-based sources of applications of those varied theoretical components of the system that have constructs within a single, cohesive particular relevance to specific examined technology-based system, with a very large, conditions of use and outcomes in each continuously updated, information base. study being reported. The development of this system has not been guided by intellectual loyalties to any

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview Page 1.1 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions single school of thought, tradition or and traditions. Sources of these insights, strategy. It has been guided by a rigorous strategies and processes are more disparate. commitment to three things: They cross disciplines, cross cultures, cross Accuracy of information boundaries of time and space. The sheer scope of this distributed knowledge Integrity of evidence requires some system for organizing it. Real-world applicability

THEORY FROM FIVE DIRECTIONS Sources of factual data The theoretical underpinnings of Ripple Ripple Effects WSIS draws information Effects’ technology-driven system can be from many credible sources. Information mapped to a theoretical compass rose with on prevalence and trends in substance five directions. abuse, social behavior, illness and injury Prevention science comes mostly from the National Institutes Education of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Technology Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), National Institute on Drug Business and economics Abuse (NIDA) and Centers for Disease Humanities Control (CDC). Personal and public safety information comes from various arms of the Justice Department, especially the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). Educational statistics and research findings come from the U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools (OSDFS), Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), Office of Institute of Education Sciences (IES), Education Resources The diagram on the next page identifies Information Center (ERIC), What Works 20 calibrated orientations, or disciplines, Clearinghouse (WWC), National Center for within these five overall domains that are Education Research (NCER), as well as two sources of Ripple Effects theory. They major pieces of education legislation: No include some 335 sub-disciplines. In turn, Child Left Behind (NCLB) and Individuals each of those sub-disciplines contains one with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). A or more theoretical constructs WSIS draws substantial amount of information about on directly. Those theories are woven into the specialized field of social-emotional the text as each applies throughout this learning has come from publications of the book. A very brief summary of the key non profit Collaborative for Academic, concepts that Ripple Effects has Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) and incorporated from each of the five major the American Institutes of Research (AIR). directions follows the diagram. Ripple Effects WSIS also draws theory directly from many academic disciplines

Page 1.2 Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview MULTIDISCIPLINARY THEORY FROM THE FIVE DIRECTIONS THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNINGS OF RIPPLE EFFECTS

Social Sciences Public health Psychology Confidentiality Customer focus Sociology Solution oriented Positive Wellness/Disease Developmental Structural functionalism Epidemiology Needs assessment Conflict theory Formative evaluations Social Contagion Behavioral Role theory Immunization Kids: look & feel - Communications theory Kids/staff: content Biochemical,Neuro Risk and protective factors Abnormal Anthropology Mental health Expert panel: fidelity to Culture science Clinical Program Implementation Cognitive Cognitive categories Universal promotion Implementers: data Kinship systems management Affective (Emotional) Targeted prevention Transpersonal Ethnography Intensive intervention Local control of content Participant-Observer Personalization of learning Buddhist Evidence of effectiveness Market orientation Dialectical Political science Randomized Controlled Trials Value added to prior investments User POV Power Implementation support Narrative (Case study) Neuroscience Meets funder requirements Experimental Interest groups Brain plasticity Consistent with legislation Technical support Public safety Social Brain chemistry Social justice Aligned with standards and frameworks Organizational Fits school constraints Legal rights Scalability: student, to site, to district, to state Criminal Justice Affordability Therapeutic Prevention as industry Sanctions Social marketing Timing Severity Prevention Consistency Ethics and Science Restorative justice Accountability Disproportionality Quality assurance Philosophy Probation Outcomes measurement Concept of Self Reentry Implementation Science Ongoing evaluation Logic Adoption: standards Critical thinking GUARANTEE Meaning Buy in: stakeholder consensus Fair labor practices Existentialism Training: info, skills, judgement Affirmative hiring Social Philosophy Site-based planning Ethics “Preferential option for the Humanism Implementation poor” Ghandian Adaptation and fidelity Dualism/Non Core components Evaluation Return on Investment Data analysis Social return Feedback Academic Scaling Social Sustaining Learning Theory Health Language Arts Knowledge and meaning Public Safety Communication Education Subjectivity vs objectivity Narrative Religious studies Financial return Essay Learning Long term -society Drama Communities of Differences Short term - truancy Story purpose Voice Humanities Beliefs & Values Intelligences Stakeholders Vocabulary Resilience Attitudes Shareholders Business Sentence structure Suffering Abilities and disabilities Journaling Self awareness Customers Critical reading Self-regulated learning (SRL) Students ESL Contemplative practice Instruction Teachers Skill training Parents Shaping attitudes Administrators Assessment Funders Professional Development Community Infrastructure Operating systems Art Learning Environment Hardware Pop art Safety and security Processing speed Electronic arts School climate Storage memory Literary arts Graffiti art Expectations Platforms Film Arts Support Workstation Illustration Relationships Network Photography Sound effects Educational policies Mobile devices Code of conduct Permissions Cultural competence Compatibility Classroom management Modularity Technology Standards & School size Software structure Frameworks Enterprise application Physical structure Curriculum Systemic reform Software as service Social-Emotional Learning Health Content management Core competencies Asset development Social Studies Expert system Engagement Civics Knowledge base Look and feel Strategies Affective Language Arts Interface design POV Accessibility Character Education Inference engine Interactivity Ease of use Social Behavioral Physical education Reporting systems Feedback Hearing Service Learning Platform independence Relevance Sight Cognitive Attention Career preparation Privacy protection Stimulation Attention span Assessment User customization Direct address Motor skills Rehearsal Game point structure Personalization Reading independence Modeling Games Cultural relevance Internalizing User generated content English language Transfer training learners

Figure 1.1 The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Prevention science and achievement. All are highly correlated with children’s mental health as well. Thus The science of prevention is a relatively it is not surprising that prevention of young field that began coalescing in the juvenile delinquency is tied closely to the 1980’s. With cultural antecedents in 19th prevention of and intervention with century efforts to prevent cruelty to substance abuse and mental health animals, it has its roots in social-science problems, and both are tied to programs to theory. Within the social sciences, prevent academic failure and promote psychology is its “true north.” school success. 17 branches of psychology, as well as From public health Ripple Effects sociology, anthropology, and political incorporates the concepts of: science contribute theory that finds direct Risk and protection application in the Ripple Effects system. Triage - tiered intervention From psychology: motivation and Epidemiology attachment theory; developmental, Immunization abnormal, and positive models; behavioral, cognitive, social-skill and Brain plasticity affective strategies Implementation science From sociology: group dynamics and organizational development principles Of the preventive strategies that have From anthropology: cultural awareness, been applied to public health and public competence and responsiveness safety challenges, certain psycho- From political science: social equity educational practices, delivered in school settings, have shown evidence of Public health and public safety effectiveness in changing children’s outcomes. They all work with some Public health and public safety have children and youth, in some situations. been the main application areas for this None work with everyone all the time. prevention theory. From applied research They all work better when delivered in in delinquency prevention, Ripple Effects research settings than when delivered in incorporates theories of: the real world of routine practice. The Criminality emerging field of Implementation Science Social and restorative justice developed out of the need to address this gap between theory and practice. It is from Therapeutic sanctions this field that Ripple Effects incorporates Disproportionality insights about: Rights of victims and the accused Stakeholders

Stages in the implementation process Delinquency is not solely a public safety issue. It also has serious implication Fidelity versus adaptation in terms of public health. Substance abuse, Componential analysis domestic violence, child abuse, bullying, Scalability and sustainability and sexual assault are all public health, as well as public safety issues. All are also directly correlated with school attachment

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview Page 1.5 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Education technology Ripple Effects has incorporated and applied theories about: Psycho-educational interventions, Universal instructional design whether in the form of affective, cognitive, Expert systems behavioral or social skill training, and whether delivered in school, health, Data structures community, or juvenile justice settings, are Security issues still a matter of education. Thus, theory and Platform constraints evidence about what works in education is a critical dimension of Ripple Effects The application of technology to the conceptual framework. specialized area of SEL is an incipient field From the field of education, Ripple with its own body of research on Effects incorporates and applies theory on: effectiveness. Ripple Effects has a place of Climate and context for learning leadership in that field. Philosophies of knowing and learning Pedagogy Business and Economics Curriculum and testing Even if a set of interventions is perfectly Professional development matched to strong evidence, delivered with a broad set of effective instructional Social-emotional learning (SEL) methods, and maximizes efficiencies of technology, it will not be scalable or Social-emotional learning forms the sustainable over the long term if it doesn’t bridge between general education and the also make good business sense for the psycho-social practices that promote good people who pay for it and use it. As a health, responsible behavior and academic social enterprise with a double bottom line, success. It includes attention to the diverse Ripple Effects has incorporated and applied methods by which important social from business and economics theories of: constructs, as well as specific social emotional-skills, are effectively transferred. Return on investment (ROI) From the emerging field of SEL, Ripple Accountability: warranties & guarantees Effects incorporates: Customer focused social marketing Definitions of social/emotional Marker-based program development competencies Fair labor practices Models for developing awareness and management of self and social Humanities relations. A social-decision-making model Theory derived from the humanities also contributes important elements to Ripple Effects system. Technology From the Visual Arts, the program has incorporated theory about: Emerging technologies are a force in Pop art, including graffiti art themselves and a major catalyst for shifting Photography paradigms in all three fields of health, safety and education. From the field of Film

Page 1.6 Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Artistic bias not the only possible workable solution, but it is one of a limited number that can From the Literary Arts, Ripple Effects incorporate all the important elements. system has incorporated principles about: To understand how theory and Audience sensibility evidence from twenty disciplines underpins Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention Voice System for SEL, it’s necessary to understand Relation between grammar & cognition the system itself. Use of story telling to motivate change A full description can be found in the From ancient and modern philosophy, accompanying monograph, entitled Ripple Ripple Effects WSIS system has Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention incorporated: System. Specific elements of the system are Aristotelian logic identified in the context of the theory that An existentialist approach supports them, throughout this volume. Ghandian nonviolence NOT DESIGN BY COMMITTEE Explicit discussions of norms and ethics

From religious studies Ripple Effects has Although Ripple Effects draws theory incorporated insights about: from many directions, the Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System was Concepts of self not designed by systematically gleaning Communities of purpose insights from each discipline and then Cultivation of resilience trying to put them together. That is a recipe for failure in product development. Rather, HOW THE PIECES FIT TOGETHER Ripple Effects’ multi-disciplinary approach has been an evolving, organic and iterative The scope of insights and evidence process, in which intuition has played as from these various perspectives clearly big a role as information, in which theory demonstrates that when it comes to and practice have consistently been tested preventing school failure, delinquency and against each other, and in which there has poor health and mental health outcomes, been no hierarchy of one domain of the biggest problem isn’t lack of knowledge understanding over another. The process or insight. The biggest challenge is finding has been driven by a set of real world, a way to fit the huge mound of what is driving questions. It is those questions, not known into some usable container or a 360 degree walk around the points on the system that can ensure practitioners and theoretical compass rose, that provide the children themselves timely, easy access to structure of inquiry for this book, and the those parts of it that can be of best use to logic model for the Whole Spectrum them, without being overwhelmed with Intervention System. what is not. Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum THE DRIVING QUESTION Intervention System is one arrangement that uses all the pieces and fits them How can we use emerging technologies together. Like with the Rubik’s cube, it is to foster in every child a heart of justice, an

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview Page 1.7 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions inquiring mind, a state of physical and CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER SUMMARY emotional health? This is the meta question that has Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of driven the development of Ripple Effects. the incidence and distribution of children’s Attempting to answer it has required first mental health problems and school failure. asking and answering a more concrete set It provides a more detailed description of of practical questions: the disturbing and persistently high rates of What is the empirical context for direct injury to children and youth, and by addressing child and adolescent failure them. In each case, how Ripple Effects to thrive? What is the actual incidence explicitly addresses each of these content of school failure? Poor mental health areas is described. outcomes? Delinquent behavior? How are these negative outcomes Much of the research about school distributed? failure, children’s mental health problems, What are the causes and risk factors of and anti-social behavior - has focused on school failure, delinquency and identifying specific risk factors that increase children’s poor health outcomes? How vulnerability to negative outcomes. The are they linked? Which can be same risk factors may affect one, two or all impacted at the individual level? three of these areas. Failure in any one area increases the risk of failure in both of the What individual-level strategies have others. These risk factors – and a parallel been proven effective in reducing risk set of protective factors that are their and enhancing protective factors that opposite twins – exist in multiple domains: are under personal control of students individual, family, peers, school, and the adults charged with their care? community, social structures and What instructional methods for processes. Chapter 3 describes which risk delivering those interventions have the and protective factors Ripple Effects’ WSIS most evidence of effectiveness? addresses, why, and where in the program What is the potential - and what are the to find them. limitations - of technology to match the Researchers across disciplines have most effective strategies with the most helped separate the numerous interventions effective instructional methods, in order developed to mitigate key risk factors into to address the particular strengths, risk groups that are effective, and those that are factors, and learning style of each not. Ripple Effects includes five of the most child? effective kinds of psycho-educational How can fidelity to science, cultural interventions, and applies them to several competence, and local control be hundred specific areas of learner interest maintained in a scalable, sustainable and concern. The effective strategies are process of implementing technology- discussed in Chapter 4; the application enabled programs? areas are listed in Chapter 6. Chapter 5 addresses the education side Each chapter in this book, addresses of the psycho-educational equation. It one of these questions. describes how Ripple Effects applies both classical and reformist educational theory, with a focus on learning context, learning differentiation, professional development

Page 1.8 Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

and specific methodologies to enhance failure. Even with technology, addressing social-emotional learning. social-emotional needs of learners is an Technology increasingly offers the essential part of the design of learning capacity to match the most effective systems, and greatly influences the degree delivery methods for the most appropriate of personal engagement in that process. subset of effective interventions, to address the most relevant risk factors, for each Social equity and cultural competence child. Multi-media technology, data base structures, expert systems and security The linked issues of social equity and protocols, all have important roles. Ripple cultural competence have also developed Effects’ use of each, and their combination as independent areas of inquiry and in the Whole Spectrum Learning Platform is research, but neither has a separate explained in Chapter 6. chapter. Like SEL, both are also woven Implementation issues have throughout this monograph. Social consistently hampered the effective transfer inequities are major risk factors for poor from science to service of best practices in mental health outcomes, school failure, prevention science, education and and delinquent behavior. Cultural technology. How Ripple Effects is competence is a necessary ingredient in specifically designed to address those strategies that address those inequities and issues, is the subject of Chapter 7. that can effectively mediate those risks. It is increasingly recognized as an important MISSING CHAPTERS? part of effective educational practices. Cultural relevance is a key factor in Social-emotional learning (SEL) implementation success or failure. It is one of the most important, and most often Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum model is overlooked aspects of technology an SEL Intervention System, in each of its development. Thus, it too belongs in every parts, and in all of its parts taken together. chapter. Social-emotional learning has developed as Because SEL, social equity, and cultural its own field of inquiry and research; yet it competence affect each of the subjects of is not given a separate chapter in this book. these chapters with similar patterns, Why? It is woven into every chapter, discussion of the role of these elements in because it affects every subject of every each area is unavoidably repetitive. This chapter. Social-emotional deficits are key potential redundancy may be an risk factors for poor mental health appropriate counterbalance to the outcomes, school failure, and delinquent persistent and far too common tendency to behavior. Social emotional skill-building discount or minimize the impact of all techniques are proven effective strategies to three of these elements. mediate those risks. The important role of social-emotional factors in the learning and LOGIC MODEL teaching process is increasingly demonstrated through brain science and Ripple Effects has developed a logic practical research. Social-emotional (as model for change that incorporates the full well as practical and political) needs of body of evidence and theory that is implementers and other stakeholders are outlined above and developed in each factors in implementation success or chapter, as well as the social-emotional

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview Page 1.9 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions learning theory that is woven between is. For instance, that a genetic component them. For the benefit of those readers who for shyness has been identified is a fact learn best by first seeing the big picture and included in the tutorial on “shyness.” then examining detail, a visual Documentation of research that support representation of that Logic Model is that fact is located at Ripple Effects offices, provided before the first chapter, rather in print and electronic files that fill a room. than after the last one. What is included here is a brief, referenced description of the personality theory that is sometimes cited to explain internal risk ABOUT REFERENCES factors for victimization, and which provides the rationale for including The theory base that will be more fully “shyness” as a topic at all. described herein is a mosaic built of pieces from several thousand sources. To Finally, scopes and sequences for reference in this print document each each of 60 separate configurations of specific study that supports every strategy Ripple Effects system for primary, that is presented in the software or secondary, and tertiary interventions to accompanying print manuals, and to meet specific goals, has already been reference each piece of work that supports documented separately in implementer the decisions that are implicit in the expert manuals for each of those areas. Readers system design, would invite both reader are directed to the original guides to see a fatigue and ecological waste. To not summary of the rationale for specific document those references invites criticism configurations. A complete index and for lack of rigor. organized table of contents for each Thus, this four-part compromise: In software program can be found at the end terms of general theory, only pioneers who of Chapter 6. are credited with original formulation, or A note about visual cues thought leaders who are most associated with a theoretical construct directly used in To clearly indicate how various Ripple Effects system are cited. elements of Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum In terms of effectiveness research, in Intervention System for SEL are derived most cases citations are limited to meta- from specific bodies of evidence and/or analyses of vetted studies. There are two specific theoretical constructs, discussion exceptions: In emerging fields, such as the of the Ripple Effects application follows study of mindfulness, where the body of presentation of the evidence-based theory, well designed research is not yet large and is placed against a grey background, enough to generate true meta analyses; and like this. in cases where Ripple Effects intervention itself was studied directly, individual For ease of reading, authors name and studies are cited. the dates for selected citations are included In terms of general factual information, in the text. The full citation for those key documentation of sources for easily verified references is at the end of each chapter. facts is generally not included in the Readers can access a more extensive program, but documentation of the bibliography by contacting rationale for including specific information [email protected].

Page 1.10 Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview Logic Model Impacting mediators of delinquency and school failure through use of technology to match most relevant best practices to individual need

5 Technology

Data Expert management system Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum

Desires and Knowledge Inference Interface SEL Intervention System goals Base engine design

Traumatic events

Components External School Manuals expectations climate Posters Stages 6 Emotional Implementation Forms Live Training Knowledge Science reactions Tech Support 5 User generated Characteristics Implementation content Disciplinary Learning Assistance actions

3 Educational Teaching 3 Theory EXPERT INPUTS Triggers LEARNER INPUTS Processing Assessment Best practices to ensure fidelity style Self- To enable individualization Self awareness Assessment tools Intelligences Professional development Training software 4 Learning Self- modes Competency Family management Data management levels 4 Implementation support Social Social Emotional Peers Giftedness 2 awareness Learning Risk factors School Relationship Disorders Cognitive skills Sensory Community Behavioral Responsible OUTPUTS preferences decision- making Process Fidelity Dosage Compliance Society Affective

Social skill Judgment / Efficacy / Internal Content Proximal Intent Skills assets mastery 2 Evidence-based Community Psycho-social organizing practices Reduced Reduced Self Reduced Resilience in Enhanced Mid term school antisocial internal understanding face of trauma protection failure behavior risks Emotional regulation Improved Fewer 1 Strengths/ Better Improved school Long term academic discipline Internal attendance climate Impulse performance referrals assets control

NIH Assertiveness Mental Health 1 Science-based DOE information Empathy School Success Connection OJJDP in community Delinquency Prevention Decision- making

Figure 1.2 The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

APPENDIX A: LIST OF RIPPLE EFFECTS PROGRAM RESOURCES

Product Software • Ripple Effects Coach for Kids (Grades 2-5) • Ripple Effects Coach for Teens (Grades 6-10) • Ripple Effects Coach for Staff (Implementers)

Needs assessment tools • Ripple Effects School Safety Group Profiler • Ripple Effects Respect for Person’s Group Profiler • Ripple Effects Individual Assessment Surveys (Resiliency, Norms, Self-efficacy)

Product user guides • Ripple Effects Coach for Kids User guide • Ripple Effects Coach for Teens User guide • Ripple Effects Coach for Staff User Guide

Manuals and guides • Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum SEL Intervention System • Ripple Effects Planning Guide • Ripple Effects Universal Promotion: Sample Scope and Sequences • Ripple Effects Targeted prevention: Risk Reduction • Creating a Plan for RTI and EIS: Individualized Behavior Interventions • Ripple Effects Positive Behavioral Intervention guide: Sample Individual Treatment Plans • Using Ripple Effects in Juvenile Justice Settings • Ripple Effects Personal Trainer for Parents • Ripple Effects Technology Guide • Ripple Effects Trainer’s Resources Guide

Additional resources • Classroom posters for elementary and middle/high school • Certificates of completion of training for 7 key skills • Social behavior observation form • Eagle Eye postcards

Video presentation resources • Overview (program overview) • ABC news report on student outcomes • Use of Ripple Effects as suspension alternative • Whole Spectrum Learning System

Evidence of Effectiveness • Vol. I Tertiary Prevention Outcomes (3 articles) • Vol. II Secondary Prevention Outcomes (7 articles) • Vol. III Primary Prevention Outcomes (2 articles) • VoL IV Implementation Process Outcomes (2 articles) • Vol. V Multi-Study Summary Analyses (4 articles) • Overview: Effectiveness Studies Summary- Methods and Results • Qualitative - Case studies - Describe real world use in various settings • Research bibliography

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview Page 1.13 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

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Chapter 2: The Context Large scale failure of children to thrive

Incidence of children’s mental health problems ...... 1 Depression ...... 1 Anxiety disorders ...... 1 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)...... 2 Panic disorder ...... 2 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ...... 2 Phobias ...... 2 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)...... 3 Eating disorders ...... 3 Manic-depressive illness ...... 3 Autism and other pervasive developmental disorders...... 4 Schizophrenia...... 4 Incidence of school failure ...... 4 Dropout rates...... 4 Overall rates...... 5 Correlations with income...... 5 Correlations with ethnicity...... 5 Correlations with disabilities...... 5 Correlations with attendance ...... 5 Correlations with crime ...... 5 Incidence of juvenile social injury ...... 6 Juveniles are victims ...... 6 Personal/public safety issues...... 6 Juveniles are perpetrators ...... 6 Social justice a necessary backdrop ...... 7 Disproportionality ...... 8 Juvenile justice system...... 9 Consequences ...... 10

Chapter 2: The Context From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Therapeutic sanctions ...... 10 Probation...... 10 Restorative justice...... 11 Recidivism and reentry...... 11 References ...... 12

Chapter 2: The Context

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Children’s delinquency, mental health problems and school failure are so Depression intertwined that it is often difficult to tease them apart. The main focus of this Up to 3% of children and 8% of teens monograph is delineating the theory that suffer from depression underpins RE technology-based program Depression in children and adolescents for preventing physical and social injury by is associated with an increased risk of and against children. To do that, it’s suicidal behaviors necessary not only to understand the Since 1964 the suicide rate among incidence of that social injury, but also to adolescents and young adults has be aware of the incidence of the doubled interlocking problems of children’s In 1996 (last year for which data is compromised mental health and school available) suicide was the 3rd leading failure. cause of death among 15-24 year olds In 1996, suicide was the fourth leading INCIDENCE OF CHILDREN’S cause among 10-14 year olds. MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS Ripple Effects for Teens includes tutorials on “depression,” “suicide,” “loss,” According to the National Institutes of “death,” “managing feelings” (of) Mental Health (NIMH) large scale, 1992 “sadness” and “anger,” as well as cognitive study, entitled “Methods for the behavioral skill training to manage self-talk Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent and reduce depressive symptoms. Mental Disorders” (MECA): A Los Angeles study of the 1 in 10 children suffer from mental impact of Ripple Effects as a health problems that interfere with school-based, psycho- normal development and functioning educational intervention for five cohorts of In any given year, fewer than 20% of urban teens who were involved in, or at those children will receive needed high risk for involvement in gang activity, treatment. showed significant deceases in their scores By 2020, childhood psychiatric on the Beck depression inventory, from pre disorders will rise proportionately by more to post intervention (Koffman, et al, 2009). than 50% (Estimate is based on evidence from the World Health Organization). Seven major illnesses and disorders Anxiety Disorders account for almost all of children’s disabling or disruptive mental health Anxiety disorders are the most common problems. They are: depression, anxiety mental health problems among children disorders, ADHD, eating disorders, manic and youth. One large-scale study of 9-17 depressive illness, autism spectrum years olds indicated as many as 13 percent disorders, and schizophrenia. of young people had an anxiety disorder in

Chapter 2: The Context Page 2.1 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions a year. Anxiety disorder can take the form Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) of generalized, exaggerated worry over everyday events. Anxiety disorders also can PTSD is a condition that occurs after take more specific forms described below. exposure to a terrifying event, including family and community violence. Violence Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) affects everyone, but it affects urban, poor, minority populations more than others. A OCD is a pattern of unwanted, randomized trial testing a mental health unstoppable, repetitive thoughts and intervention for children exposed to rituals. violence, in a Los Angeles middle school, Ripple Effects includes a tutorial on located in a low income, disorganized OCD, with science-based information on neighborhood, indicated that 17% of the the nature of the disorder and cognitive- 733 students who were tested had elevated behavioral training in strategies for Child PTSD Scale (CPSS) scores. The mean stopping and reframing persistent negative number of violent events directly thoughts, as well as relaxation techniques, experienced by each of those students in and strategies for breaking habits. It the previous year was 2.8; the mean encourages teens to talk to their school number of violent events witnessed by nurse, counselor or other trusted adults if each student was 5.6. 76% of that violence they have these symptoms. It also has involved knives or guns. specific tutorials on tics (nervous habits) PTSD symptoms can include and “pulling out your hair.” frightening, intrusive flashbacks, which wrest attention away from schoolwork, and Panic disorder can bring on hypervigilance, emotional Panic disorder is characterized by deadening, and a foreshortened sense of feelings of fear and dread, especially fear of future. A growing body of evidence death or going crazy, accompanied by directly links PTSD to both academic and intense, frightening physical sensations, behavioral problems at school (Saigh et al, such as chest pain, a pounding heart, and 1997). shortness of breath. Ripple Effects includes specific tutorials Ripple Effects includes a tutorial on on PTSD and trauma (“hard things”), as panic attacks, with science-based well as tutorials on family and community information on the nature of panic violence, and cognitive behavioral disorder, cognitive-behavioral training in strategies, including training in “relaxation strategies for stopping and reframing techniques,” “understanding feelings,” thoughts that reinforce the sense of doom, controlling thought (“self-talk)”, coping information about the availability of with “fear,” (managing) “stress,” and social prescription medication when symptoms problem solving, all components of are disabling, and encouragement for effective live interventions for children with students who have these symptoms to talk PTSD (Stein et al, 2003). to a school nurse, counselor or other trusted adult. Phobias

Social phobias are excessive fears of being unsafe or embarrassed in social situations. Other phobias may be about

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specific situations, objects, animals, or are anorexic, 1 to 3 percent are bulimic, conditions, from shyness to claustrophobia. and .7 to 4 percent have binge eating Ripple Effects includes a tutorial on disorders. There is insufficient data to phobias, as well as the related tutorials, make estimates for males, though many “shyness” and “embarrassment”. practitioners believe male eating disorders are greatly underreported. The causes of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder eating disorders are not clear, and (ADHD) interventions vary, depending on the kind of disorder and other factors in the ADHD is the most commonly subject’s life. diagnosed disorder of childhood, affecting Ripple Effects includes a topic on from 3-5 percent of school-aged children. “eating disorders”, which addresses Its main symptoms are attention and anorexia and bulimia. Anorexia is one of concentration patterns that are the life threat topics, in which students are developmentally lower than would be strongly urged to seek medical help for expected, paired with impulsivity. ADHD their problem. The eating disorders has been specifically linked to both tutorials also include training in emotional academic and behavior problems at school regulation, and encourage students to and in the workplace. Medication and explore topics that they think might be behavior training have been shown to be linked to their condition, including the two most effective modalities for “control.” students with ADHD. Ripple Effects includes tutorials on Manic-depressive illness ADHD, with science-based information on the nature of the disorder and why Manic-depressive illness usually medication is sometimes used to address it. appears in late adolescence or early It also includes cognitive and behavioral adulthood. It is a serious mental illness for training on ”paying attention,” mindfulness which medication is essential, with mood techniques, and tutorials on normal stabilizers, such as lithium, being the most learning differences. It includes a tutorial common. on prescribed and unprescribed use of Because of it’s later onset than other Ritalin by children and adolescents. Staff mental health problems that affect children and student programs both include and adolescents, and because it must be interactive profiles that can be used for first treated with medication, not solely psycho- pass screening for ADHD. The staff educational training, manic depressive program includes instructional and illness is not separately covered as a topic behavioral strategies that teachers can use in Ripple Effects. However, involuntary to extend students’ attentional capacities. hospitalization (“5051”) related to mental illness (for which manic depressive illness Eating disorders may be the referring condition) is covered in the program, and leads to training on Eating disorders include anorexia, dealing with feelings of shame, and loss of bulimia nervosa, and binge eating without control. In addition, normal mood swings purging. NIMH estimates of eating are addressed in the tutorials, “changing disorders among adolescent and young feelings” and “PMS”. adult women are: one half of one percent

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Autism and other pervasive Whether the universal, social-emotional developmental disorders capacity building for children that the program offers can be protective later in A spectrum of pervasive, life, for individuals who are predisposed to developmental, brain disorders are covered the illness is an area of exploratory under the umbrella term autism spectrum research. disorder. Signs of autism usually develop by preschool. Symptoms and deficits have All of the mental-health problems a very wide range, from mild described above have disabling and communicative deficits, to serious disruptive effects on children’s lives. More language difficulty. Social skill training has often than not, those disruptive effects been shown to be an effective intervention include negative impacts on school with children with mild to moderate autism performance. How big of a problem is spectrum disorders, including mild school failure? Who does it affect? How is Asperger’s syndrome. it linked to delinquency? Ripple Effects Coach for Staff includes training on how to recognize and respond INCIDENCE OF SCHOOL FAILURE to communicative disorders. Ripple Effects’ child and teen programs do not have a Dropout rates tutorial called autism spectrum, but do have a series of tutorials named to Metrics for defining school failure are correspond to children’s own perception of hotly debated. The most definitive indicator these deficits and the desires that are of school failure is student dropout rates, thwarted by them. For instance there are but there is little consensus about how to tutorials on “not invited”, and on “making define dropping out. Some scientists use friends,: “having a conversation,” (not) dropout “events’ each year.“ Others “interrupting,” and (understanding) “eye believe that number greatly understates the contact.” Ripple Effects’ child and teen cumulative dropout effect. They use instead programs are used in dozens of special the inverse of the graduation rate. It stands education programs across the country to to reason that if only 10.7% of students promote social skill development with from low-income families dropped out, children and youth who show symptoms of then almost 90% would have graduated. mild autism spectrum disorder. But if 10% dropped out every year starting at sixth grade, the graduation rate would be Schizophrenia just 40%, closer to what it actually is for American Indian and Latino students. The Schizophrenia is a disabling adults’ National Dropout Prevention disease marked by delusions and Center/Network (NDPC/N) drawing on hallucinations. Some signs of these more than 20 years of funded research and cognitive and social impairments may analysis, has developed a set of statistics appear early in childhood, but there is no that provides some startling pictures of the way to tell when they will develop into the school dropout situation in the United serious illness that affects about 1% of the States. The following are all taken from a population. summary report published by NDPC/N Ripple Effects does not include any (Reimer & Smink, 2005) direct intervention for schizophrenia.

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Overall rates not graduate is dwarfed by the even much higher dropout rates for these groups of Overall 30% of US students fail to students in large urban high schools. In graduate some urban centers, an African American The rates at which students disappear male student has less than 10% chance of between grades nine and ten has tripled graduating with his class. over the last 30 years One high school student drops out Correlations with disabilities every nine seconds Across demographic groups the drop

out rate for students with disabilities A Ripple Effects tutorial directly was 52% addresses the issue of dropping out, in the In every group, students with social and context of social decision making. As emotional and behavioral disabilities importantly, tutorials address a range of drop out at twice the rate of the rest of issues correlated with increased risk of their demographic group dropping out, from teen pregnancy to family background. A Ripple Effects tutorial directly addresses some of the issues, including

“stigma” and “bullying,” that make school Correlations with income more difficult for students with disabilities.

At 5.4%, students from middle income Correlations with attendance families have more than triple the dropout rate each year as students from high Truancy rates are strong predictors of income families (1.7%). Students from low drop out rates. Six variables are most income families have twice the dropout associated with truancy: dislike of school, rate (10.7%) each year of those from problems with parents, learning problems, middle income families. family conflict, and feeling socially incompetent. Correlations with ethnicity Ripple Effects student training software has tutorials on “truancy,” “dropping out,” Only 51% of Black students, 52% of and each of the six variables most Hispanic students and 54% of American associated with poor attendance. Indian students nationwide graduate, compared to 72% of white students and Correlations with crime 79% of Asian students. These rates are established by dividing the number of 75% of American’s state prisons students in a cohort who graduate with a inmates are high school drop outs regular diploma, by the number of students 59% of Federal inmates are high school in the cohort who should have graduated. drop outs Some from each group who don’t graduate, High school drop outs are 3.5 times have moved to where they are not being more likely than high school graduates counted. Some do not drop out but cannot to be arrested in their life time pass the standardized tests needed to get a diploma. The already disproportionate representation of Black and Hispanic students nationally among those who do

Chapter 2: The Context Page 2.5 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

A 1% increase in high school own home. For children, the younger they graduation rates would save are, the more likely that the most serious approximately $1.4 billion in threats to their safety are within their own incarceration costs home, with schools being a close second. A one year increase in average More than half of all juvenile property education levels would reduce arrest and violent crime victimization occurs in rates by 11% schools (Harris et al, 2000). Because being victimized as a child is a key risk factor for victimizing others as an INCIDENCE OF JUVENILE adolescent or adult, reducing the SOCIAL INJURY incidence, duration and long-term effects of early victimization is a key part of Juveniles are victims delinquency prevention.

According to the Office of Juvenile Ripple Effects content includes personal Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s (OJJDP) Juvenile Offenders and Victims: safety training for children, teens and adults 2006 National Report: working with youth to prevent and intervene in child victimization. One of every four violent crime victims Training for elementary age children known to law enforcement is a includes tutorials in “personal safety” juvenile, most of them are female “touch”, physical abuse (“beaten”, More than one-third of juvenile victims “bullying” and “fighting”. Training for teens of violent crime known to law includes physical and sexual abuse by enforcement are under age 12 adults, and peer exploitation, including Estimates of the number of youth who “bullying,” “cyber-bullying,” “dating are bullied each year by their peers abuse” and “rape.” All tutorials encourage ranges from 7 to 18 million children to disclose victimization and Between 400,000 and 2,000,000 youth related mental health issues to a trusted are victims of sexual exploitation each adult, and include training in year “assertiveness,” “asking for help,” and “managing feelings,” such as “anger” and In 2003, child protective services “shame.” Training for adults include agencies received an estimated 2.9 “handling disclosure” (of abuse or suicidal million referrals for 5.5 million children impulses). alleging that children were abused or

neglected. Law enforcement/justice For comprehensive coverage of the system personnel accounted for theory and content for use of Ripple Effects substantial proportions of reports for for personal safety and violence neglect (26%), sexual abuse (26%), and prevention, see the Ripple Effects guide psychological maltreatment (30%) Targeted Prevention: Risk Reduction. (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006)

Personal/public safety issues Juveniles are perpetrators

The concept of public safety includes Children and youth, especially protection from threats of harm in public adolescents, are not only places, including schools, and within one’s disproportionately victims of crime and

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injury, too often they are also perpetrators, One third reported having property who pose serious threats to public safety. stolen or damaged at school Many times these groups overlap, with Half of high school seniors said they juveniles being victims in one setting and had tried illicit drugs at least once perpetrators in another. Juveniles and Twenty-eight percent of seniors, 22% of young adults account for a disproportionate 10th graders, and 12% of 8th graders amount of all criminal activity. That reported recent heavy drinking includes: Thirty percent said that in the past Crimes against persons: assault, battery, month they had ridden in a vehicle bias crimes, domestic or dating with a driver who had been drinking; violence, and sexual offenses 12% admitted to having driven after Crimes against property: shoplifting, drinking; 30% of high school students theft, vandalism, graffiti, fire setting said they were offered, sold, or given Drug and alcohol related crimes: drunk drugs at school in the past year (Snyder driving and drug dealing et al., 2006) Status crimes: truancy and “possession” offenses, including illegal possession of Ripple Effects for Teens training alcohol, prescription drugs, some software includes tutorials on “weapons,” weapons “stealing,” “property destruction,” “drinking” and “substance abuse.” Ripple Effects for Teens training All tutorials include training in one or software includes tutorials for therapeutic more core social-emotional abilities. They intervention with youth charged with encourage disclosure of underlying trauma, “assault,” “battery,” “bias crimes,” including previous victimization, and “domestic (or dating) violence”, sexual related mental health issues. offenses, including “rape”, “sexual harassment”, as well as “shoplifting,” For a fuller description see the guide: “theft,” “vandalism,” “graffiti,” “fire Uses in Juvenile Justice Settings. setting,” drug and alcohol related crimes including “drunk driving” and “drug SOCIAL JUSTICE dealing,” status crimes such as “truancy”, A NECESSARY BACKDROP and “possession” offenses, including illegal Increasingly, experts agree that the possession of alcohol and prescription backdrop of all discussion of juvenile drugs. behavior problems, crime, and threats to public safety must be social justice. Every In 2006, OJJDP reported results of a major research association now has at least 2003 survey of high school students about one special interest group to address this their behavior over the previous 30-day issue. Social justice is fairness writ large. It period: is the most essential prerequisite for long- Six percent of high school students said term public safety. At its most basic, it is they carried a weapon onto school understood to guarantee the right to life, property; three times that many carried work, food, clothing and shelter without a weapon, when off school property fear of injury or exploitation.

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Ripple Effects tutorials for both staff and juvenile justice system (National Council students explicitly address social justice on Disability (NCD), 2003). Some studies issues, including economic justice suggest that pressure on schools to raise (“money”), gender equity, racial justice and academic performance propels efforts to reasonable accommodation for disabilities. push youth with disabilities into alternative The programs include tutorials on non- education settings and the juvenile justice violent methods to gain redress of social system (Osher et al. 2002). injustice, up to and including as a last Disproportionately high contact rates resort, non-violent civil disobedience. for students with social-emotional disabilities and for African American, Native American and Latino students, and DISPROPORTIONALITY the disproportionate overlap between the two groups, along with the overlap with Despite its nomenclature, juvenile overrepresentation of young people who justice may be anything but just. come from economically stressed Disproportionality is the phenomenon backgrounds, provide compelling evidence whereby some classes of people are that, for a complex combination of reasons, overrepresented in the juvenile justice the standard of fairness and social justice as system. African American, Latino and necessary preconditions for public safety Native American youth are over- are not being met. While the evidence base represented at every level of the system, for reducing disproportionality is less compared to their proportion in the general developed than for other areas, a number population (Hsia, Bridges & McHale, of strategies, on multiple levels, show 2004). They are punished more arbitrarily promising effects (Hsia, 2006; Hsia, et al., and more severely than Caucasian 2004). Some research indicates that counterparts (Conley, 1994; Hartney, 2008; minority discrimination may “operate Huizinga et al., 2007; Mauer, 1997). through a series of incremental steps Many researchers suggest that students through the stages of the juvenile justice with disabilities, especially social- system that collectively result in the emotional disorders, (who are covered by aggregate differences observed at later the Americans with Disability Act (IDEA), stages of processing” (NCD, 2003; citing are not only overrepresented in juvenile Pope and Feyerherm 1995; Sampson and justice settings, but are denied services to Lauritsen 1997). which they have a legal right once they become involved with the system. There is Ripple Effects’ Whole Spectrum so little documentation of what happens in Intervention System addresses the social justice settings to young people who have justice issues of discrimination based on been identified in other settings as having either ethnicity or social-emotional special needs, as to make it impossible to disorder, or both, through individual skill quantify this allegation. However, there is training for both children and adults. no evidence to suggest that Software for teens provides training in disproportionate rates of discipline against how to “make a complaint”, “resolve students with social-emotional disorders, conflict” with teachers and other adult which is well documented in schools, authorities, and constructively “confront suddenly reverse themselves as behavior injustice,” including “ethnic bias”, and sanctions are escalated within the wherever they encounter it. It includes

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specific tutorials on ‘bias offenses’ from juvenile justice system. Of those, close to both target and perpetrator points of view. half of all juvenile court referrals are The software is used extensively within handled informally (Mears & Kelly 1999). Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Those that remain are subject to any or all Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) of the following five components of the frameworks, to reduce disproportionate juvenile justice system. At each of the first over-identification of African American, four stages, the disproportionality identified Native American and Latino students above is a factor. identified as having social-emotional Accusation (arrest and charging) disorders, and over-representation of Judgment (trial or judiciary hearing) students with social-emotional disorders in discipline proceedings. Imposition of consequences (sentencing Training software for adults provides or disposition) ongoing coaching in effective methods for Fulfilling the consequences (probation, deconstructing race-based attitudes, and community service, fines, jail, prison) constructively managing problematic Facilitating reentry into the community behavior at its earliest occurrence. As with While the terms and processes differ children, the adult training programs uses between juveniles and adults, the basic this evidence based prace and: starts with components are the same. people’s strengths (Brendtro & Shahbazian,

2004), address diversity issues explicitly Ripple Effects’ delinquency prevention (not by innuendo); avoid censure for honest training can be implemented at all stages in reactions; model positive alternatives; the juvenile justice process to reduce operate in a restorative, not punitive recidivism, and increase success for justice- context; and allow participants to save face involved youth. It embeds evidence-based (Wachtel & McCold, 2000). practices in the software, ensuring fidelity to proven strategies, regardless of the JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM facilitator or adaptation of usage. Ripple Effects’ teen program includes It is important to look at therapeutic tutorials on “arrest,” “police,” “probation,” interventions in terms of how they fit within “jail,” and “consequences.” It includes the conceptual frameworks of an evolving specific tutorials on chargeable offenses system of juvenile justice. Many children including “shoplifting,” “assault,” “theft,” who are victims of injury and exploitation “graffiti,” “prostitution,” “weapons have no contact with the juvenile justice possession,” illicit drug use by drug system, and most perpetrators of juvenile category, and “drug dealing.” crime are never formally arrested. Many Its modular, database structure allows juveniles who are involved in crime at 15 for the continuous enrollment process that or 16, are no longer involved in crime by characterizes many juvenile justice 18 or 19. Nonetheless, early contact with settings. It addresses reentry through the juvenile justice system is one of the strengthening skills that deepen ties to the strongest predictors of later criminality and community. Supplemental computer-based aggression (Lipsey & Derzon, 1998). training is available for implementers in Only a fraction of all crimes juvenile justice settings. perpetrated by juveniles is referred to the

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For comprehensive coverage of graduated system of negative consequences Ripple Effects for Juvenile Justice, see when warranted, and standards for creating the guide Ripple Effects: Uses in Juvenile and imposing effective, therapeutic Justice Settings. consequences.

Consequences Therapeutic sanctions

There is little disagreement about the Therapeutic sanctions are fact that young people need to be consequences for anti-social behavior that subjected to some consequences for illegal have as their purpose “curing” rather than and antisocial behavior. There is more punishing. As with medicinal cures, for disagreement about what those every one that is proven to work, many consequences should be. Timing, severity more make claims that cannot be and consistency are three factors that have substantiated. Nonetheless, dozens of repeatedly been shown to be tied to the sanctions have been shown to be effective effects of consequences. Immediate with some young people in some sanctions are more effective than delayed situations. None is effective with all. There ones. Less severe, consistent consequences is more evidence for five major categories are much more effective than more severe, than for others: behavioral, cognitive, inconsistent ones (Howell, 1995; Howell & social skill, attention-focusing, and parent Lipsey, 2004). skill training. They all show more effects with children who have higher risks (Burns The use of Ripple Effects student & Hoagwood, 2002; Greenberg et al. training software at the moment of 2001; Lipsey & Hawkins, 2007; Rones & disciplinary infractions provides Hoagwood, 2000). These are described at immediate, matter-of-fact, measurable, and greater length in Chapter Three. consistent delivery of consequences that are logically linked to the behavior that Ripple Effects program includes all five precipitated them. Hundreds of tutorials of the most effective approaches in cover all of the most common infractions, hundreds of tutorials that are context and most of the less common ones, specific for both concrete behavioral increasing the likelihood of finding training infractions and underlying risk factors. (See that directly correlates to the problem next chapter for details.) behavior. The elementary and teen versions both Probation include tutorials on predicting consequences. This training emphasizes Probation is a period of time when cognitive techniques to develop awareness offending youth are (theoretically) placed of cause and effect. It focuses on if/then under increased scrutiny, to reduce the and why/because sentence construction. In chance that they will re-offend. Conditions addition, it includes behavioral training to of probation sometimes include stop impulsive reactions long enough to participation in a treatment program. “buy time” to consider their consequences. Ripple Effects Professional Ripple Effects has begun to work with Development software provides staff probation departments to provide an option training in the rationale for developing a for proactive skill building among youth

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who are on probation. The Company often defined differently between states. As provides direction on how to use the a benchmark, cross-state data indicate that training software as part of an nearly 60% of juveniles are referred to the electronically supervised diversion courts more than once. Re-arrest rates for program, in which completion of assigned incarcerated youth range from 12 to 55%. tutorials directly related to the offense, are Sanctions that include career preparation automatically monitored and certificates of elements generally have lower recidivism completion are provided. rates than those that do not. Sanctions enacted in the context of a community of Restorative justice ongoing support also have better effects. The most successful of those supportive Restorative justice has as its focus the programs include educational and health healing of community, rather than the services as well (Snyder & Sickmund, punishment of behavior (Butts & Mears 2006). 2001; Howell 1995; Bender, King & Torbet, 1996; Zehr, 1990). It often Ripple Effects training software includes involves a process whereby the offender career preparation tutorials, with an encounters the victim, recognizes the emphasis on training in soft or “21st personal injury he or she has caused, century” skills that have been identified as makes an apology, and if property or success factors in the workplaces of the medical costs are involved, commits to future. Ripple Effects also includes tutorials making restitution for those losses. An on using community resources. Finally, it important part of that process is acceptance includes a set of tutorials on mental health of the apology, and formal re-inclusion of issues that are common among young the offender into the community. offenders, especially PTSD, depression, and substance abuse. This combination Ripple Effects training software includes provides practical, skill-based support for tutorials for “restorative justice,” “making successful reentry. apologies” and “connecting with community.” Perhaps more importantly, it See the guide Uses in Juvenile Justice reinforces the cultivation of “empathy,” Settings for a full list of tutorials in each and provides step-by-step training for area. increasing the offender’s ability to understand a victim’s perspective, before MUST ALSO ADDRESS RISKS the offense occurs. An interruption of the cycle of recurrent Recidivism and reentry delinquent behavior and child victimization requires direct, supportive Going to jail can be a huge culture intervention that is individualized, shock for a juvenile offender. Once a evidence-based and therapeutic in order to young person has been incarcerated, address the presenting behavior problems. reentering the outside world can be equally However, to have a genuinely preventative disorienting. A return to the system is effect, that intervention also needs to sometimes the path of least resistance. address the underlying risk factors that give Recidivism rates among juvenile offenders rise to delinquent behavior. Understanding are collected at the state level only, and are

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what those risk factors are is the subject of Crime and Delinquency. Oakland, CA: the next chapter. National Council on Crime and Delinquency. REFERENCES Howell, J.C. & Lipsey, M.W. (2004), A Practical Approach to Evaluating and Improving Juvenile Justice Programs, Juvenile and Berg, S. , Cluver, S., Brentano, L. and Ray, A. Family Court Journal. National Juvenile and Ripple Effects Technology Guide. Ripple Family Court Judges Association. Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006. Howell, J.C. 1995. Guide for Implementing the Brendtro, L., & Shahbazian, M. (2004). Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Troubled children and youth: Turning Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. problems into opportunities. Champaign, Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, IL: Research Press. Office of Justice Programs, Office of Burns, B. J., & Hoagwood, K. (2002). Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Community treatment for youth: Evidence- Prevention. based interventions for severe emotional Hsia, H. (2006). Disproportionate minority and behavioral disorders. New York: contact technical assistance manual (3rd Oxford University Press. ed.) . Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Butts, J.A. & Mears, D.P. (2001) Reviving Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Juvenile Justice In A Get-Tough Era. Youth Department of Justice. & Society, Vol. 33, No. 2, 169-198. Hsia, H., Bridges, G., & McHale, R. (2004). Bender, V., King, M., Torbet, P. (2006). Disproportionate confinement: 2002 Advancing Accountability: Moving Toward update. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Victim Restoration. Pittsburgh, PA: National Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Center For Juvenile Justice. http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abst Conley, D. J. (1994). Adding color to a black ract.aspx?ID=241537 and white picture: Using qualitative data to Huizinga, D., Thornberry, T.P., Knight, K.E., explain racial disproportionality in the Lovegrove, P.J., Loeber, R., Hill, K., et al. juvenile justice system. Journal of Research (2007). Disproportionate minority contact in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 135-148 in the juvenile justice system: A study of Greenberg, M.T., Domitrovich, C.E., & differential minority arrest/referral to court Bumbarger B. (2001). The prevention of in three cities. Report unpublished by the mental disorders in school-aged children: U.S. Department of Justice. Made available Current state of the field. Prevention & by the National Criminal Justice Reference Treatment, 4, Article 1. Retrieved March 1, Service. 2002, from Koffman, S., Ray, A., Berg, S., Covington, L., http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume Albarran, N., Vasquez, M. (2009). Impact 4/pre0040001a.html. of comprehensive Whole Child Harris, P., Middleton, W., & Joiner, R. (2000). Intervention and Prevention Program They typical student as an in-group among Youths at Risk of Gang Involvement member: Eliminating optimistic bias by and and Other Forms of Delinquency. reducing social distance. European Journal Children & Schools, A Journal of the of Social Psychology, 30, 235-253. National Association of Social Workers, vol. Hartney, C. (2008, March). Native American 31, #4, pp 239- 246. youth and the juvenile justice system. Lipsey, M.W., Hawkins, D. (2007, May) Focus: Views from the National Council on Prevention Of Antisocial Behavior: The

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Most Effective Interventions For Changing Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Kids, training software, The Most Predictive Risk Factors. Version 2.0, 3.0, 3.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., Organized Paper Symposium, Society for San Francisco, CA. 2005 – 2009. Prevention Research Annual Meeting, Ray, A. Ripple Effects Respect for Persons, Washington, D.C. training software, Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Lipsey, M.W., & Derzon. J.H. (1998). Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2000 – Predictors of violent or serious delinquency 2009. in adolescence and early adulthood: A Ray, A. Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler. synthesis of longitudinal research. In R. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. Loeber & D.P. Farrington (Eds.). Serious and 1999 – 2009. violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Staff, training successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, software, Version 1.1, 2.0. Ripple Effects, CA: Sage. Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006 – 2009. Mauer, M. (1997). Intended and unintended Ray, A. Ripple Effects Survey Engine, Version consequences: State racial disparities in 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, imprisonment. Washington, DC: The CA. 2003 – 2009. Sentencing Project. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Targeted Prevention: Mears, Daniel P., and William R. Kelly. 1999. Risk Reduction. Ripple Effects, Inc., San "Assessments and Intake Processes in Francisco, CA. 2007 Juvenile Justice Processing: Emerging Policy Ray, A. Ripple Effects Teaching Coach, training Considerations." Crime and Delinquency software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., 45:508-529. San Francisco, CA. 2004 - 2006. National Institutes of Mental Health. Methods Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Teens, training for the Epidemiology of Child and software, Version 2.1, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2. Ripple Adolescent Mental Disorders (MECA). Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2004 – 1992. 2009. Osher, D, Rouse, J, Woodruff, D., Kendziora, Ray, A. Using Ripple Effects in Juvenile Justice K., & Quinn, M. (2002). Addressing Settings. Ripple Effects, Inc. San Francisco, invisible barriers: Improving outcomes for CA. 2007. youth with disabilities in the juvenile justice Reimer, M. & Smink, J. Information about the system. Washington, DC: U.S Department School Dropout Issue Selected Facts & of Education. Statistics. National Dropout Prevention Ray, A. Relate for Kids, training software, Center/Network. (2005) Version 1.0, 1.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Rones, M., & Hoagwood, K. (2000). School- Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. based mental health services: A research Ray, A. Relate for Teens, training software, review. Clinical Child and Family Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Psychology Review, 3, 223-241. Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. Saigh, P.A., Mroueh M., Brenner, J.D., Ray, A. Respect for Persons Profiler. Ripple Scholastic Impairments among Traumatized Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2005 - Adolescents. Behavior Research and 2009. Therapy.. 1997: 35; 429 – 436. Ray, A. Ripple Effects Bring It On, training Snyder, H.N. & Sickmund, M. (March, 2006). software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006: San Francisco, CA. 2003 – 2004. National Report. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Juvenile Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Partnerships for Safer

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Communities, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Stein D J, et al. (2003) Fluvoxamine CR in the long-term treatment of social anxiety disorder: the 12- to 24-week extension phase of a multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Int Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 6: 317–323. Wachtel, T. & McCold, P. (2000). “Restorative Justice in Everyday Life.” In J. Braithwaite & H. Strang (eds.), Restorative Justice in Civil Society (pp. 117-125). New York: Cambridge University Press. Zehr, H. (1990). Changing Lenses: A New Focus for Crime and Justice. Scottsdale, Pa.: Herald Press.

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Chapter 3: Why is it happening? Risk and Protective Factors

Complex interaction of factors…………………………………………………….. 1 Impact in multiple areas………………………………………………………….. 1 Implications for practice…………………………………………………………. 2 Internal/external - fixed/malleable………………………………………………. 2 Internal (individual) factors………………………………………………………… 3 Physical: neuropsychobiology………………………………………………….. 3 Brain states……………………………………………………………...... 3 Processing disorders………………………………………………………….. 3 Brain development……………………………………………………...... 3 Gender…………………………………………………………………...... 4 Race and ethnic identity………………………………………………...... 4 Alcohol and drugs……………………………………………………...... 4 Mental factors…………………………………………………………………….. 5 Cognitive impairment…………………………………………………...... 5 Rational choice……………………………………………………………….. 5 Impulsivity…………………………………………………………………….. 6 Cognitive distortions………………………………………………………….. 6 Misreading motives………………………………………………………..... 6 Rationalization………………………………………………………………. 7 Distorted sense of self……………………………………………………..... 7 Emotional factors…………………………………………………………………. 7 Inability to feel for others………………………………………………..…. 7 Emotional dysregulation………………………………………………...….. 8 Behavioral factors………………………………………………………………… 8 Social skill deficits……………………………………………………...…… 8 Externalizing behavior…………………………………………...…………. 9 School problems………………………………………………………………..… 9 Spiritual………………………………………………………………………….. 10

Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Lack of conscience……………………………………..………………..… 10 External causes…………………………………………………………………….. 10 Events…………………………………………………………………………….. 10 Prenatal or perinatal complications………………………………………… 10 Trauma…………………………………………………………...………….. 11 Interpersonal relationships…………………………………………………….. 11 Attachment disorders…………………………………………………...… 11 Maltreatment………………………………………………………………. 12 Parental style……………………………………………………………….. 12 Circumstance………………………………………………………………..…...13 Family structure……………………………………………………………. 13 “Bad” neighborhood………………………………………………………. 13 Policies……………………………………………………………………….… ..13 School policies………………………………………...……………… ...... 13 Juvenile justice policies……………………………………..………… ...... 13 Social structures and processes…………………………………………….….. 14 Subcultures of delinquency…………………………………………………. 14 Acculturation process…………………………………………….…………. 14 Social injustice……………………………………………………...………. 15 Sexism………………………………………………………………………. 15 Racism and ethnic bias…………………………...……………………….. 15 Homophobia……………………………………………………………….. 16 Class influences……………………………………………………………. 16 Social status…………………………………………………………..……. 16 Media influence………………………………………………………………… 17 Evidence points to need to address whole spectrum………………….………. 17 Most predictive risk factors………………………………………………..…… 18 Internal protective factors………………………………………………..…..… 18 Resiliency………………………………………………………………..….. 18 Empathy - the hallmark………………………………………..……..…… 18 Connectedness………………………………………………………..…… 19 Autonomy…………………………………………………………….….… 19

Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Problem solving……………………………………………...…….……… 19 Implications for academics………………………………………..……… 20 Tipping the balance toward protection………………………………..……… 20 References………………………………………………………………….……… 21

Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Across cultures, throughout history, Complex interaction of factors there have been efforts to explain why some people – and disproportionately Many of these factors are mediators and young people – injure others and moderators of each other: impulsivity and themselves. In the modern era, poor peer relationships are independent psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, factors in delinquency and school failure. physicians and political scientists have all They are also highly correlated with each attempted to turn philosophical debates other (Hawkins et al. 1998). Similarly into empirical ones. Hirschi’s Social attachment disorders and poor social skills Control theory (1969), Merton’s Strain are independently linked to delinquency theory (1949), various theories about and social-emotional disorders, as well as Rational Choice, Differential Association highly correlated with each other (Allen, J., (Sutherland, 1924) Social Disorganization Marsh, P. McFarland, C., Boykin (Shaw & McKay, 1929), Culture, McElhaney, K., Land, D., 2007). In each Subculture and Biological Determinism, all case the former is a mediator of the latter, have some basis in empirical evidence. but other factors may be mediators as well. Many theories encompass more than one This fact has increasingly led experts to factor in their models to explain agree that malfunctional behavior by the delinquency, school failure and poor overwhelming majority of youth who mental health outcomes for children. Many become involved in it, cannot be attributed models overlap in factors they identify as of to any single cause, but instead represents greatest importance. in each case, some unique combination of Today, the most prominent models to the constellation of possible individual and explain children’s failure to thrive revolve social, fixed and mutable factors in any or around the theories of risk and protection all of multiple domains, that can motivate (Loeber and Farrington 2001, Catalano and it. (Hawkins, Jenson, Catalano & Lishner, Hawkins 1995; Farrington 1998; Howell 1987; Kleinman, 1997). and Hawkins 1998; McCord et al. 2001). These theoretical models collectively Impact in multiple areas identify more than a hundred risk factors that operate in multiple life domains. Each The potential net result of these has been statistically correlated with interacting influences is not only pro-social juvenile delinquency, and/or school failure, or delinquent behavior, but also poor or and or poor mental health outcomes. Each better health outcomes; and school failure is an independent risk factor; combined, or success. The co-occurrence of behavior they compound that risk. Some experts problems with mental health problems and estimate that a 10-year-old exposed to six academic challenges is so common that it or more risk factors is 10 times as likely to is often difficult to tease them apart. Anti- commit a violent act by age 18 as a 10- social behavior, school failure, and year-old exposed to only one risk factor adolescent health and mental health (Herrenkohl et al. 2000).

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From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

problems, such as substance abuse, PTSD themselves. External factors include social and depression, have been shown to be relationships (between peers, or between inter-dependent variables that can be parents and teachers and the children linked to each other, as well as to common under their care), family circumstance external risk factors, such as family (social, economic, parental substance discipline patterns, parental mental health, abuse and mental health), and structural poverty, and community violence (Diperna issues, from school policy to unjust social & Elliott, 1999; Feshbach & Feshbach, processes and economic policies that 1987; Hawkins, Farrington & Catalano, weigh against poor and minority young 1998). people.

Implications for practice Figure 3: Graph of risk factors

Thus to effectively reduce risk of delinquency for the whole subset of young people who have higher risks of becoming involved in delinquent behavior requires identifying the whole spectrum of salient risk factors, then finding ways to tailor interventions to address the particular combination of factors which comprises the most relevant set for each individual. Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System recognizes that risk factors are multi-variate, multi-determinate, Most of these factors are at least partly and interactive, and that they operate in malleable, certainly all skill-based factors multitudinous possible combinations that are. While some factors, such as body have idiosyncratic impact on each chemistry or family circumstance, may be individual. This is the rationale for fixed, and out of children’s control, including content to address more than 100 children and adolescents have substantial specific risk factors in the Whole Spectrum control over how they react to these Intervention System. factors. The nature of those reactions may separate those who thrive despite harsh Internal/external - Fixed/malleable circumstances, from those who don’t (Werner, 1992). With evidence and theories for so many How and why Ripple Effects risk factors in so many domains, it is easy incorporates theory about a very wide for program developers, practitioners, and range of internal and external risk factors, of course, youth themselves, to get and how and why it emphasizes a few overwhelmed. However, it is possible to factors that research has shown are strongly organize them along just two axes: internal correlated with delinquency and school vs. external factors, and fixed vs. mutable failure and can be significantly impacted factors. by specific practices is described below. Internal factors include physical, mental, emotional, behavioral and spiritual characteristics of children and youth

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INTERNAL (INDIVIDUAL) FACTORS it impossible to accurately measure the relationship between these processing Among the individual, internal factors disorders and risk of delinquency. that are variously cited as causes, Nonetheless, according to the National mediators or moderators of delinquency Council of Disabilities what evidence is are: available strongly suggests that people with sensory integration difficulties, Asperger’s Physical: Neuropsychobiology Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and neurological disorders, including attention Brain states deficit disorders, all have disproportionate involvement with juvenile justice (NCD, Imaging studies have shown the links 2009). between activation of specific regions of Ripple Effects’ software program for the brain, especially the amygdyla (Giedd, adolescents has lessons on “hearing 2008; McAnarney, 2008) and certain disorders,” “visual impairments,” “attention behavior, such as impulsivity, and deficit disorders,” “communication hyperactivity. Hyperactivity in turn has problems,” and “learning disabilities.” The been identified as an independent, staff training software includes skill training biological factor in risk of delinquency in how to help children mediate the risks (Hawkins et al. 1998). associated with these disorders. The content in Ripple Effects’ student Ripple Effects’ approach is to assume tutorials includes science-based that, with very rare exceptions, all students information about the bio-chemistry of can learn pro-social behavior, but that mood and behavior. It has tutorials on biological factors may affect both the most “exercise,” “puberty,” “addiction” and effective instructional method and the “illness,” including some “mental illnesses” training dosage required for each such as “depression.” Lessons on individual, as well as their possible need “hyperactivity” and “impulsivity” include for medications. information about possible biological roots for this behavior. Lessons are designed to Brain development help students recognize the difference between an explanation for anti-social It has long been known that a huge behavior (there are many valid ones) and spurt of brain growth occurs in early an excuse for it (there are almost none). childhood. Only recently has it become clear that adolescence represents a second Processing disorders opportunity for major growth, especially emotional growth. It is also a time of As discussed in Chapter 2, long before “pruning” during which the brain sheds contact with Juvenile Justice, children and some cells in favor of consolidating others youth with communicative/processing (Society for Neuroscience, disorders make up a large and fast growing http:www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename= percentage of students assigned to special brainBriefings_Adolescent_brain) . needs classes, as well as to disciplinary Ultimately, like spring pruning, this has the referrals. The lack of widespread screening positive value of preparing the brain for a for neurological and communicative major growth spurt. A short-term disorders in Juvenile Justice settings, makes consequence is impulse disinhibition and

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reduction in ability to predict Race and ethnic identity consequences (Sowell, et al. 2001). This developmental “anomaly” undoubtedly Ethnic identity resides in the self, but is contributes to the disproportionate conferred by others. As noted in the involvement of adolescents in most forms previous chapter, it is a major risk factor for of crime. societal sanctions for anti-social behavior. African American, Latino and Native Ripple Effects is responsive to the American youth are over-represented at developmental issues with the adolescent every level of educational disciplinary brain by providing intensive training in systems, as well as the juvenile justice impulse control and a range of lessons system, compared to their proportion in the related to impulsive aggression and general population (Leone et al. 2003; recklessness. Skiba et al. 2002). There is no evidence

that any factor intrinsic to ethnic identity accounts for these differences (Huizinga & Gender Elliott, 1987). Gender is one of the strongest Ripple Effects provides lessons on race correlates with incidence and severity of and ethnicity for both students and staff. reported juvenile delinquency, with males The staff program targets and deconstructs outpacing females on both parameters. adult, race-based stereotypes and Males have higher rates of both impulsivity expectations. and aggression. While some of those Student lessons are intended to debunk differences can be attributed to differential myths based on racial or ethnic stereotypes socialization patterns, and sexism within and to engender ethnic pride and mutual the juvenile justice system (Rhodes & respect. A lesson on “discrimination” helps Fisher, 1993), brain imaging studies have students examine their perceptions of clearly shown that the prefrontal cortex, the unfairness and take constructive – rather part of the brain involved in reasoning and than aggressive action – to address inequity decision-making is smaller and less active when they see it. in aggressive males than in any other group (Craig, Harper & Loat, 2004; Nelson & Alcohol and drugs Chiavegatto, 2001). The role of gender in school failure and Alcohol and drugs impair cognition and mental health outcomes is more complex disinhibit physical impulses. They are and cannot be disentangled from social highly correlated with school failure and justice issues discussed on page 3.15. poor mental health outcomes, especially depression. They are so highly correlated Ripple Effects provides a formal lesson with juvenile delinquency and adult on gender and cites both biology and criminality that substance abuse prevention culture as sources of differing social is an integral part of almost all delinquency behavior, with links to those topics. It trains prevention programs. In this area, as in so both students and staff to examine their many others, correlation does not equal own perceptions of gender-based causation. differences, and reminds them that males and females are in all ways theoretically equal before the law. Ripple Effects training software begins substance abuse prevention at the

Page 3.4 Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS elementary level, and expands it in the learning disorder that muddles or adolescent program. The teen program complicates the decision-making process. includes science-based information about Low verbal IQ and delayed language the chemical base and biological effects of development have both been linked to drugs and alcohol in tutorials on delinquency, even after controlling for race “drinking,” “alcoholism,” “marijuana,” and class (Moffitt, Lynam, and Silva, 1994; “tobacco”, “addiction,” opiates, “club Seguin et al. 1995). Attention problems drugs,” “methamphetamines” (under have also been linked to delinquency various names), “rohypnal” (the “date rape” (Hawkins et. al., 1998). drug), “Ritalin” (as a potential treatment for ADHD), and “prescription drugs” such as Ripple Effects includes specific lessons “Oxycontin”. All lessons integrate relevant related to cognitive impairment (“mental proven effective strategies, including disabilities,” “dyslexia,” and “attention decision-making emotional regulation and problems).” Ripple Effects has broken down social skill training, with an emphasis on the elements of pro-social behavior into a resisting peer pressure. Scope and Legolike set of tiny modules that are sequences for substance abuse prevention accessible to students with mild to and intervention are included in moderate cognitive impairment. implementer manuals. The Ripple Effects program provides One RCT of rural adolescents intensive training in two language indicated the Ripple Effects structures which are essential to logical program had significant, positive processing: if/then, and both/and. effects on attitudes about alcohol. Other By structuring the system to allow studies showed neutral effects (Bass et al. limitless repetition, students who need 2008; Perry et al. 2008). higher doses of remedial training can receive it without stigma or teacher fatigue. Mental factors

Several theories cite thinking patterns Rational choice as the root of delinquent behavior. They are directly correlated with mental health By contrast, the theory of rational problems, such as depression and anxiety choice (Bentham,1748-1832; Cornish and disorders as well. Faulty thinking may be Clarke, 1986), also referred to as the result of innate cognitive impairment, “consequentialism” posits that individual or may be a learned or chosen response. It choices that violate community norms are can include faulty reasoning, anti-social self-interested, conscious decisions made norms, self-justifying distortion, or with awareness of trade-offs between risk conscious decisions to do the wrong thing. and reward. It emphasizes free will and personal responsibility. Modern prevention Cognitive impairment theory recognizes both the importance and the limitations of this model (Binder, Geis, This theory posits that the individual Bruce, 1997). Social scientists, health has reduced capacity for rational choice at scientists, criminologists and educators all the time of the behavior. The incapacity recognize values-based decision-making as may be the result of innate, mental a key factor in personal safety, civic deficiencies (retardation), or a cognitive

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responsibility and school success (Bandura, also directly linked to poor school 1967; Elias & Bruene Butler, 2005). performance. The inability to delay Ripple Effects identifies conscious gratification can predict long term social decision-making as one of seven key life functioning (Eigsti et al. 2006; Mischel et skills, and explicitly and implicitly teaches al. 1988). it throughout the program. The program Ripple Effects content for both students treats “consequentialism” (“predicting and staff addresses the issue of impulsivity consequences”) as an independent skill, directly and indirectly. In addition to with focus on developing the cognitive providing training to implementers on how structure of if/then sentences as a necessary to control their own impulses, the staff precondition for predicting future program considers the link between consequences of immediate actions. impulsivity and attention deficit disorders The Ripple Effects approach to in students, and provides training in decision-making includes awareness that managing impulsive student behavior. unsafe, illegal and self-destructive decision- The student program includes both making is more often the result of cognitive and behavioral impulse control “irrational” choice, rather than conscious training. It provides tutorials for concrete weighing of costs and benefits. It also application of impulse control techniques recognizes that norms and values strongly in many areas, including “recklessness,” impact those decisions. Moral rightness, “sexual impulses,” “aggressive impulses,” according to a student or teacher’s personal and impulses to violate norms, such as code of values, is presented as a criterion “lying” and “cheating”. for evaluating every decision. There are embedded links to decision-making Cognitive distortions training in dozens of lessons on substance Misattribution of motive, rationalization use, interpersonal relations, and school- of personal actions and a distorted sense of related behavior. self are the most common cognitive Separate lessons treat the topics of distortions that can lead to delinquent “options,” “norms,” “values,” “self- behavior. determination” and “responsibility.” Misreading motives Impulsivity Offenders are more likely than non- Impulsivity as a potential explanation of offenders to interpret accidental actions as delinquency is the flip side of the rational purposeful, and benign intent as aggressive choice argument. It posits that the inability (Hawkins, 1996; Heider, 1958). This to slow reactions (physical impulsivity) and misinterpretation can begin at a very young to think through consequences (cognitive age and is a factor in school-based impulsivity) long enough to consciously aggression, long before it becomes make decisions about them causes risky delinquent behavior (Hawkins, 1996; and anti-social behavior. Nelson et al. 2008). As noted earlier, researchers have Ripple Effects devotes an entire lesson established a positive relationship between in both the elementary and adolescent hyperactivity, impulsivity and risk taking programs to distinguishing accidental from and later violent behavior (Hawkins et al (“accident”) from purposeful (“on purpose”) 1998). Hyperactivity and impulsivity are behavior.

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Rationalization image.” There is a specific lesson on “self esteem,” with the parenthetical title (“not Many offenders rationalize their crimes, self-centeredness”). relieving themselves of all responsibility. They tell themselves “she asked for it” Emotional factors (domestic violence), “they won’t miss it” (theft); “they started it” (gang violence); Inability to feel for others “they like it” (sexual assault); “they deserved it” (abusive discipline); “they are There is considerable evidence that evil” (gay bashing), etc. some people have a greatly reduced ability Ripple Effects corrects this type of to feel for others (Feshbach, 1975). Without cognitive distortion directly in applicable that initial sensitivity, values based on the lessons, such as “rape’ and “bias crimes,” concerns of others are meaningless. Strong as well as indirectly in lessons on evidence points to neurological roots of “responsibility”. It addresses cognitive some diminished capacity is associated distortions generally in the tutorial on with autism spectrum disorders (Decety & internal triggers, also called “self-talk.” Meyer, 2008). Evidence shows a strong link between reduced empathy and exposure to Distorted sense of self traumatic events (Main & George, 1985). But also between reduced emotional Psychologists have repeatedly tied a competence and lack of parental modeling distorted sense of self to delinquency and (Eisenberg, Cumberland, Spinrad, 1998; later criminality (Kelley, 1996). Recent Main, Hesse & Kaplan, 2005). research has focused on the tie between an Long thought to be innate, a growing inflated and/or narcissistic sense of self and body of evidence supports the conclusion crime and aggression (Baumeister, Smart & that although some people have an Boden, 1996). A weak sense of self is tied innately greater starting aptitude for to increased risk of becoming a victim of empathy (Gardener, 1993), it is a learnable bullying, violence or exploitation. skill-set that has affective, cognitive and

behavioral components (Bar-On & Parker, Two of the seven key skill-sets in both 2000; Goleman, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, the staff and student programs are devoted 1990). It can be systematically developed to strengthening a strong, healthy and (Bar-On, Maree & Elias 2006; Elias et al. realistic sense of self. One skill set focuses 1994), and gradually or abruptly on self-awareness/understanding (“know extinguished. yourself”), the other focuses on Ripple Effects’ instructor-led and “assertiveness”. electronic staff training includes Exercises to increase self-awareness recognition of the neuro-biological roots of include 37 interactive self-profiles, and some diminished affective capacity. more than 2,000 journal writing exercises. Severely diminished emotional capacity, These lessons and interactive profiles regardless of the cause, is beyond this develop awareness of body, mind, heart program’s ability to remediate. However, and soul. There are also specific lessons on for both adults and children who have strengths and weaknesses, and risk and learned not to feel for others, whether that protective factors, as well as self-efficacy- diminished capacity is the result of related topics of “goal setting,” exposure to trauma or simply insufficient “perseverance,” “mindfulness” and “self-

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skill training, Ripple Effects WSIS provides aggression in school settings (Brackett & a set of lessons in the affective (“identifying Mayer, 2003; Brackett & Rivers, 2007; feelings”), cognitive (“perspective taking”) Durlak & Weissberg, 2007), and reduced and behavioral (“showing care”) aspects of recidivism among offenders (Wilson, Lipsey empathy. & Derzon, 2003; Lipsey & Hawkins, 2007). Ripple Effects offers a full unit on Emotional dysregulation emotional regulation (“managing feelings”) If some people seem to lack the at all three program levels. The set of capacity to feel, others can be so swamped tutorials includes standardized, cognitive- by their feelings that they have little control behavioral strategies, such as managing over them. A growing body of research has self-talk, identifying internal and external linked emotional dysregulation with anti- triggers, and practicing relaxation social behavior, including early-starting techniques. The program also offers more conduct problems (Calkins & Howse, than a dozen lessons on controlling 2004; Dishion & Patterson, 2006) and specific emotions that fuel crimes of externalizing behavior in school settings. passion, especially anger, fear and (Gilliom et al. 2002). Poor emotional jealousy. knowledge and skills among children are associated with depression, anxiety, Behavioral factors violence, drug and alcohol use, destructive relationships, and poor academic Social skill deficits performance (Eisenberg et al. 2000; This theory posits that anti-social Halberstadt, Denham & Dunsmore, 2001; behavior is the result of specific social skill Rivers, Brackett & Salovey, 2007). These deficits, from the inability to resist peer effects don’t disappear at the end of pressure, to the inability to start or stop a childhood. Lack of self-control has been conversation. These deficits may be due to: linked with persistent effects throughout life simple ignorance; lack of modeling; a (Caspi, Henry, McGee, Moffitt & Silva, range of learning disorders, most especially 1995; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001). The inability communicative disorders, such as to control emotional reactions and Asperger’s syndrome and autism spectrum; behavioral responses due to situational cultural variance in what is understood as variables is so closely tied to criminality courteous and respectful; and/or normal that “crimes of passion” is a legal category differences in temperament that predispose recognized in most jurisdictions. some people to seek more or less contact This category, too, is one in which with others. Regardless of the cause of the personal change is possible. Research deficits, abundant research has shown that consistently shows that emotional social skills are learnable (Elias et al. 1997; regulation is a learnable skill (Rivers & Zins et al. 2004). Brackett, 2007). Standardized, cognitive- behavioral techniques for emotional Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum regulation, including recognizing emotion Intervention System incorporates the theory by physical cues, managing internal that some, but by no means all, anti-social triggers (“self-talk”) and external triggers, as behavior, can be attributed to deficits in well as relaxation training, can improve learnable social skills that enable the self-control and result in reduced formation of constructive relationships.

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Adult implementers are trained to developmentally appropriate content assume that the bulk of students’ anti-social specific to the form of aggression being behavior is related to skill deficits that can cited. be remediated with standardized training The professional development software protocols, adapted to individual interests trains educators in how to respond to and learning styles. students’ aggressive behavior in non- The programs provide developmentally shaming ways that promote behavioral appropriate training in 75 specific social change. skills from social graces, such as “introducing oneself,” “expressing School problems sympathy,” and “giving complements,” to group participation skills, such as “joining Low academic performance, low a group or game,” “participating in commitment to school, and low discussion” and “resolving conflict,” to educational aspirations during the skills for resisting peer pressure and elementary and middle school grades are responding to aggression by others. all linked to higher risk for child delinquency (Herrenkohl et al. 2001). As Externalizing behavior noted in the previous chapter, and discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5, Aggressive behavior (including fighting, non-academic problems at school can have bullying and defying authority) is strongly greater impact on future trajectories than linked to early delinquency (Tremblay and academic ones. LeMarquand, 2001). This behavior may arise out of any combination of the factors Ripple Effects addresses academic identified above, or be conditioned by performance, commitment and aspirations, external influences. It is an individual as well as school climate issues, such as characteristic, but clearly a mutable one. peer relations. Available tutorials include topics such as, “goals,” “thoughts,” “luck,” “success-phobia,” “future not there,” Ripple Effects content addresses “strengths,” “resilience,” “effort,” “learning children’s aggressive behavior in individual styles,” “smarts,” “study habits,” “following treatment plans for tertiary intervention for instructions,” “attention problems,” the following behavior: “Angry – cold “problem solving,” “choosing,” “making predatory,” “Angry – reactive,” “Bias friends” and “fighting with friends,” activity/hate crimes,” “Bullying,” “Defiant,” “getting help,” school failure,” “people “Disrespectful,” “Disruptive in class,” problems,” “bullied,” “teased,” “teacher “Disruptive on playground,” “Fighting,” conflict,” “cheating,” “cutting class,” “Impulsive,” “Poor judgment,” “Sexually “discrimination,” “talking back,” “blurting harassing, Stalking”). out,” “making a complaint.” dropping out,” Ripple Effects also addresses “English language learner,” “failing,” externalizing behavior in secondary “grades,” “skipping,” “late,” “hating prevention curricula for violence, bullying school,” “sleepy,” “Special Ed,” and sexual harassment. Content for those “suspended,” “tests.” students’ curricula share skill training in “empathy,” “impulse control,” “management of feelings” and “problem- solving.” They each have additional,

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Spiritual promote any explicitly religious values, but neither is it completely value neutral. Lack of conscience To support formation of conscience among children and teens, especially those Conscience is the ability to discern who are not receiving explicit, values- between perceived moral good and moral based parental direction, content in RE evil, coupled with the desire to choose the includes values clarification lessons, perceived good. (It does not include the lessons on norms, sensitization toward ability to implement those good intentions.) others, training in specific values that are Modern Western medicine defines lack of intrinsic to democracy, such as fairness, conscience as a rare medical disorder, a and a decision-making framework that psychopathology, called “conduct includes “rightness” as a criteria in making disorder” when it occurs in children (DSM personal choices. Ripple Effects staff IV, 1994, 2000). Experts differ widely in training lesson on behavior problems, attribution of the sources of lack of recognizes “conduct disorder” as a medical conscience. Some attribute it to physical condition that is real, but rare, and almost causes, from traumatic brain injury to never the explanation for discipline-worthy communicative disorders. Some attribute it behavior in normal classroom settings. to social forces and/or interpersonal trauma (see below). Some attribute it simply to lack of learning. EXTERNAL CAUSES Building on the work of Piaget (1962), Kohlberg considered the formation of Those who explain delinquent behavior conscience as a normal developmental task in terms of external influences cite events, that began in early childhood (1981). Many interpersonal relationships, life contemporary psychologists believe that circumstances, and social policies and social learning, rather than natural moral processes in multiple domains as catalysts. development, accounts for a stronger or Unfortunately, large numbers of educators weaker conscience. believe that these conditions of adversity Like Kohlberg, the Ripple Effects’ automatically condemn students to approach recognizes the formation of underachievement and anti-social conscience as a critical and ongoing behavior. developmental task. Like social learning theorists, content in Ripple Effects Ripple Effects content includes and recognizes that normal moral development addresses external risk factors because they is heavily influenced by peer and have social, emotional and cognitive community norms, and by personal impacts on youth that can be partly religious beliefs, as well as by intra- mitigated by some combination of skill personal abilities. building and decision-making. Ripple Effects considers the formation of conscience to be largely a parental Events responsibility, that often has a strong religious component. Thus the program Prenatal or perinatal complications provides skill building in assertiveness techniques that empower individuals to Researchers have identified a link live the values they profess. It does not between smoking or excessive drinking during pregnancy, and complications in

Page 3.10 Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS delivery, and later aggression and mental in the face of trauma (Werner, 1992; health problems in these children (Kandel Benard, 2005). & Mednick, 1991), though not between Ripple Effects addresses the generic those complications and non-violent issue of trauma (“hard things”), including offenders. (Hawkins et al. 1998). an interactive profile that provides a first- Ripple Effects provides one lesson on pass screening for PTSD. It provides pregnancy that teaches youth to avoid training and an interactive, self-profile in tobacco, alcohol and drugs when pregnant. “resilience,” the quality that enables some which includes optional lessons - that people to endure traumatic circumstances administrators can delete - on birth control and events and not just survive, but as well as lessons on abstinence and actually thrive. It offers subsets of tutorials controlling sexual impules. on “managing change” (flexibility). It provides tutorials that address “no future,” Trauma and ones that promote skills in “asking for help.” Research reveals a strong link between The program provides tutorials on traumatic experience in multiple domains, coping with specific potentially traumatic and conduct problems, lower academic experiences ” from “loss of a pet,” to performance (Cook et. al., 2005; Delaney- “parental abuse,” including: “dating Black et al. 2002; Greenwald, 2002; Hurt, abuse,” “emotional abuse,” “being beaten” Malmud, Brodsky & Giannetta, 2001; or “molested,” “arrest,” “bullied,” being Kelley, Ko & Siegfried, 2004) and of “ridiculed” for learning or other course, PTSD. Traumatic brain injury, in “disabilities,” the “death of a loved one,” particular, "frontal lobe" syndrome, is “(being subject to) discrimination,” linked to impulsivity and aggression (as “parents’ divorce,” “domestic violence,” well as other symptoms). Impulsivity and “breaking up,” “failing a grade,” (being aggression are in turn correlated with placed in a) “foster home,” (being exposed delinquency (Kraus, 2009). to) “gang violence,” (being a target of) “gay Not all trauma is physical. Emotional bashing” or other “hate crimes,” “(being) trauma, including exposure to homeless,” “being an immigrant,” neighborhood violence also has “hospitalized for mental health issues,” debilitating effects that are correlated with “going to jail,” “(being) left out,” “(being) delinquent behavior. School itself is sexually harassed,” “stalked,” or “raped,” sometimes the locus of trauma (Osher et al. “(having) a suicidal friend,” “experiencing 2007). an act of terrorism” or “natural disaster.” A frequent symptom of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a foreshortened Interpersonal Relationships sense of future (Schwarz et al. 1991; Lavi et al. 2005; Evans et al 2001), which reduces Attachment disorders motivation to achieve in school, and reduces the relevance of predicting Some research indicates that healthy consequences, a key factor in delinquent attachment between caretaker and child is behavior. Across domains, social- a predictor of life long capacity for emotional competency has consistently empathy and healthy social relationships. been shown to be a major resiliency factor (Ainsworth et al. 1978; Bowlby, 1999).

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Ripple Effects lessons recognize the role females (Courtois & Watts, 1982; Finkelhor that relationships with primary caretakers & Browne, 1986; Herman & Hirschman, play in children’s ability to affiliate, and the 1977; Tsai & Wagner, 1978). program lets kids in on the secret). However, Ripple Effects does not subscribe Ripple Effects student software provides to the belief that insecure attachment developmentally appropriate lessons on patterns need be deterministic for life. physical, sexual and emotional The program systematically teaches a maltreatment (abuse), as well as overall set of skills to deepen empathy and personal safety training for younger promote social bonding. They include: children. It teaches children and youth to “empathy,” “feelings-names for,” “mixed recognize and report maltreatment and feelings,” “changing feelings,” sexual exploitation, to resist exploitation “responsibility-for feelings,” “predicting when it is safe to do so, and to report feelings,” “perspective taking,” maltreatment to a trusted adult. “understanding motives,” “showing care,” “paraphrasing,” “body language,” “asking Analysis of thousands of student questions,” “solidarity-showing”; records, as well as anecdotal “communication skills” (“introducing evidence from both students and yourself,” “conversations,” “thanking teachers collected as part of someone,” “expressing sympathy,” implementation analysis, confirms that “compliments-giving,” “compliments- students use RE software to get help with receiving,” “apologies,” “ignoring”); group issues related to abuse and neglect. The skills (“authority-dealing with,” “resolving private, non-judging nature of the conflict,” “joining a group,” “sharing,” technology may account for reports of “making space,” “having discussions,” increased rates of disclosure of serious “supporting dissent,” “appreciating problems such as abuse, following use of diversity,” “democracy-participating in,” the program. “getting help,” “helping others,” “using mentors,” “using counselors,” “using Parental style community resources”); and social values Parents’ lack of respectful (“courtesy,” “fairness,” “generosity,” communication, discipline that is “honesty,” “kindness,” “loyalty,” inconsistent, overly harsh, or lacking, and “promises,” “respect-showing,” failure to supervise their children are all “responsibility,” “trustworthiness”). correlated with negative social, academic Maltreatment and health outcomes for their children (Farrington & Hawkins, 1991; Hawkins et Abused and neglected children have al. 2008). increased risk of delinquency, mental Ripple Effects addresses lack of parental health problems and school failure. Serious skills, especially communication skills and maltreatment as children is correlated with discipline patterns in the Personal Trainer the most violent crime (Kakar's 1996 for Parents guide. review of Climent & Ervin, 1972; Blount & In the student program, separate lessons Chandler, 1979; Monane et al. 1984). Early address “family discipline”, “talking to victimization is linked to a tendency parents”, and “conflict with parents.” All toward revictimization, especially for lessons include an activity designed to help

Page 3.12 Chapter 3: Risk and Protective Factors The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS children reflect on the role that family plays tutorials on “gangs,” “guns,” and in the topic under consideration. “bullying.”

Circumstance Policies

Family structure School policies

Parents’ substance abuse, and mental School policies concerning grade health issues, as well as family size, are retention, suspension, expulsion, and risk factors for delinquency, with families school tracking of juvenile delinquency having more than four children at higher have been linked to increased delinquent risk (Lipsey & Derzon, 1998; Wasserman & behavior (McCord, Widom & Crowell, Seracini, 2001). 2001). Severe punishment structures are Ripple Effects program includes lessons linked to more – not fewer – incidents of on parental substance abuse (“alcoholic students misbehaving (Heal, 1978). There parent”), family structure (“family”), sibling is a strong relationship between rates of conflict (“sibling”), and “divorce”. out-of-school suspension and juvenile Recognizing that most family problems incarceration, and between racial are out of the control of most children, and disparities in school discipline and juvenile that some parents will not voluntarily seek incarceration (Leone et al. 2003; Skiba et help in solving them, the Ripple Effects al. 2003). approach is to help children identify family Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler (a strengths, understand family history, web-based survey tool) assesses perceived compost family “crap,” and report family- school policy and its fair or unfair based abuse, through having a friends and applications. family application in every lesson. Content for both the live trainer-training course and Coach for Staff software “Bad” neighborhood includes training in how to develop, publicize and implement policies that Substantial research points to a promote a safe school where every student connection between school failure, learns. It includes training in how to use delinquency and child PTSD - and living in both intangible values and tangible signs to a low income, high crime neighborhood transform school climate into one that (McCord, Widom, and Crowell, 2001), supports the success of every student and especially one with weak social controls every staff member. and/or high transience, (Herrenkohl et al. 2000). Children cannot control the Juvenile justice policies neighborhood they live in; they can learn to control their reactions to it. Although intended to promote greater Ripple Effects provides direct training respect for the law, as documented in the on strategies for living in a difficult previous chapter, too often uneven, neighborhood in the tutorials disproportionate and gender-biased “neighborhood” and “violence.” It working policies within the juvenile justice includes cognitive-behavioral training for system have contributed to the very high dealing with feelings of shame or rate of repeat minority contact with embarrassment, links to training in “belonging” and “assertiveness,” and

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juvenile justice systems for delinquent few or none. The electronic guides have behavior. body tattoos, an example of an art form Ripple Effects does not directly address that is sometimes associated with criminal juvenile justice policies. However, it does activity, but need not be so. It includes a include tutorials on “legal rights” and tutorial on “graffiti.” Ripple Effects “arrest” to apprise all young people of their approach to graffiti is that it is a valid art rights, and to help mediate the uneven form, separate from “destruction of impact of these policies on poor and property” (“vandalism”), which is clearly minority students who have identified as illegal and thus wrong. disproportionate negative experiences with the JJ system. Acculturation process Acculturation is the process through Social structures and processes which two cultural groups come in contact, and one overwhelms the other, often Subcultures of delinquency destroying the traditional fabric of meaning Some researchers, such as Walklate and support that enabled the original (2003), posit that peer groups, such as culture to thrive. For individuals in the gangs, form an actual subculture where indigenous culture, it can lead to loss of criminal behavior is valued in itself and native cognitive categories. When the can increase a youth’s status. Others acculturation process loosens those believe this makes too sharp a distinction cognitive arrangements, a psychological between what is deviant and what is sense of dislocation, a kind of psychic free “normal” (Brown, 1998). Some researchers fall, called “anomie,” occurs (Durkheim, suggest variance from behavioral norms is 1897). It can be reflected in a generalized less about delinquent subculture, than “normlessness,” a condition in which the about valid cultural differences, which are participant is no longer attached to overruled by the dominant European- traditional values and ways of thinking, but centric culture (Taylor, 1990; Triandis, does not identify with a new way either. 1989). Not all criminal delinquency is In the United States, Native Americans violent. Graffiti artists who work in public are the group that has been most obviously places present an example of a non-violent, traumatized by the acculturation process, but usually illegal, expression of an but many immigrant children and their alternative subculture. families also experience the disorienting Ripple Effects software includes a effects of too rapid cultural change. separate lesson on “subcultures.” The Ripple Effects recognizes the impact of program recognizes hip-hop subculture as the acculturation process, through tutorials a valid set of cultural expressions. Young on “cultural conflict,” “ethnic pride,” people who adopt the trappings of that “community background,” and “immigrant subculture may or may not become status.” It also includes training in skills for involved in criminal activity. Ripple Effects handling both “normal change” and adolescent software program has a hip-hop “unplanned change.” Ripple Effects look and feel, with ethnically ambiguous recognizes the impact of different cognitive guides. This style was favored by all categories in tutorials across a range of demographic groups of teens, both those topics: “time,” “work,” “education,” with multiple risk factors and those with

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“health,” “humor,” “risk,” “effort,” even On the other hand, some scholars have “eye contact.” documented consistently unequal, gender- The software includes staff training that based treatment of juveniles, with girls’ develops the ability to recognize and arrest rates growing much faster than boys appreciate these kinds of cultural since 1987, and their sentences harsher differences as equally valid, diverse than boys for very minor crimes (ABA, framings of fundamental reality. It also 2001; MacDonald & Chesney-Lind, 2001). examines the implications for school and Ripple Effects provides a training social success of different cognitive tutorial that addresses sexism directly, and categories. also addresses related issues such as gender stereotypes, and sexual exploitation. The Social injustice 5,000 plus hand drawn illustrations in the program are carefully designed to Injustice in the school, community and counteract gender-based stereotypes. society that form the context for children’s actions, is only recently being recognized Racism and ethnic bias as a predictor of juvenile delinquency, school failure and poor mental health As noted in Chapter 1, African outcomes. Racism, sexism, classism, and American and Latino youth are homophobia all can be independently disproportionately represented at every correlated with increased risk for children. level of the criminal justice system Ripple Effects has specific tutorials on (Gallagher, 1999; National Council on social justice as a positive concept and on Crime and Delinquency, 2007). They are confronting injustice at the level of punished more arbitrarily and more individuals and institutions. It also has severely than Caucasian counterparts separate lessons on the most common (Skiba, Michael, Nardo & Peterson, 2000). forms of injustice that are tied to increased Long before these children have formal risk of delinquency, as seen below. contact with juvenile justice, they are disproportionately represented in school Sexism discipline settings. (Lietz & Gregory, 1997), suspensions (Costenbader & Markson, Sexist practices in Juvenile Justice and 1998; Skiba et al 2003), expulsions (Skiba school settings cut both ways. The arrest et al. 2000), and corporal punishment rate for male juveniles continues to be (Gregory, 1996). There is a strong much higher than that for females. Apart relationship between rates of out-of-school from biological differences that may partly suspension and juvenile incarceration, and explain higher incidence of male between racial disparities in school delinquency, as mediated by boys’ greater discipline and juvenile incarceration (Skiba impulsivity and aggression, some et al. 2002; Leone et al. 2003). researchers argue that boys are socialized Ripple Effects explicitly addresses the toward aggression, including sexual issues of racism and diversity appreciation aggression, and girls to passivity and in the software programs for both students increased risk of victimization, in and staff. everything from the toys they are given, to As described in Chapter 5, the Ripple differential responses to social behavior, Effects approach is to place the major from infancy on (Rhodes & Fisher, 1993). burden for correcting racial or ethnic bias

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on adults, not children, with specific stage of delinquent behavior and no part of tutorials for implementers and the juvenile justice system in which the administrators on deconstructing race- rich do not have strong advantages over the based attitudes, expectations, and poor, from the ability to purchase treatment behavior. However, it does provide student services at early signs of psychosocial training in “diversity appreciation” and disorder, to the ability to secure private “connecting in community,” as well as counsel to challenge the system at every tutorials for constructively dealing with turn. “ethnic conflict,” “prejudice,” Both absolute and relative economic “discrimination” and “unfairness.” advantage are correlated with economic crimes, including theft and drug dealing Homophobia (OJJDP). Family income level is also strongly, Individual fear or hatred of gay identity, directly and independently correlated with in concert with widespread cultural school achievement, which in turn is approval for denial of rights based on correlated with delinquency (Comanor & sexual orientation, is directly correlated Phillips, 1998). with bias crimes, both inside and outside the juvenile justice system (APA, 1998; In the Ripple Effects program, both staff Franklin, 2000). and student training software address the For adolescents, having a minority issue of class differences. The kids and sexual orientation is correlated with teens programs include a separate lesson depression, and higher risk of substance on “money,” as well as related lessons that abuse, a criminal offense for juveniles range from “economic justice,” to (Safren & Heimberg, 1999). “ashamed about family,” and cognitive It is reasonable to hypothesize, but as behavioral training to deal with those yet unverified, that failure to include gay feelings. people in the full protection of the law can The staff training includes sensitivity reduce their allegiance to those laws. training about why poor students are Ripple Effects includes training about frequently unable to take advantage even of “free” extra curricular programs, a factor homophobia in both staff and adolescent in school engagement. versions of its program. Ripple Effects teen software also includes the topics of “sexual Social status orientation,” “bias crimes,” “making a complaint” and “getting help.” Due to the Separate from income, many intense national controversy about this sociologists believe uneven distributions of issue, some clients elect to delete those social power, often based on educational topics from the teen software. background, but also including differential respect for some occupations (garbage Class influences collector versus software engineer, or small business owner), reduce or expand the Independently of all other factors, horizon within which an individual can family income is directly correlated with imagine a future, and diminish the poor school outcomes, and with formal perceived impact of individual choice contact with the juvenile justice system, as because of that (Bandura, 1978; Rosenberg are local labor market opportunities & Pearlin, 1978). (McNulty & Bellair, 2003). There is no

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Ripple Effects recognizes social status Anderson, 2008). In addition, there is as a real risk or protective factor for strong evidence that media exposure can adolescents, and provides lessons that contribute to fear and anxiety in children. addresses elements that teens say comprise Impact of media exposure is not all it, such as “appearance” and “athletic negative. It has been correlated with ability.” It also offers a tutorial that directly increases in empathy and altruism (Wilson, addresses the issue of personal power. 2008) and educational programming has Woven throughout the training software are been correlated with increased short term messages about the negative effect of social-emotional awareness. (Wilson, comparisons between people, and 2008). encouragement for young people to define Ripple Effects includes an exercise on themselves in terms of internal qualities. media analysis in each of the 550 lessons in the elementary and teen software Media influence programs. In addition, it has separate lessons on “video games,” and “online The average American youth now courtesy,” “safety,” “bullying,” spends a third of a day using some form of “harassment” and “hate.” electronic media. The impact of cultural imagery including television, movies, EVIDENCE POINTS TO NEED music videos and video games, on TO ADDRESS WHOLE SPECTRUM aggression, health and mental health outcomes and sexual activity, is heavily For each of these factors, internal and debated. At the least, violent imagery has external, fixed or mutable, there is strong been identified as a factor in both in empirical evidence of correlation between hyperactivity, and in low-level aggressive the identified factor and subsequent behavior that is not illegal, but if exhibited delinquency. Each theory can be said to at pre-pubescent ages is correlated with hold part of the truth. Yet it can equally be greater risk of delinquency (Bandura et al. said that none contains the whole truth, 1963, 1965; Bushman & Anderson, 2001; and the relationships between the parts of Huesmann, & Eron, 1986; Huesmann et al. what is true are complicated and 2003). Other research has found direct idiosyncratic to each individual. Some correlations between aggressive behavior factors may “constitute risks during one and violent media consumption (Anderson stage of development but not another, and et al. 2003; Anderson, 2009). In general, factors that predict the onset of violence researchers agree that the impact is partly are not necessarily the same as those that mediated by the real world context of predict the continuation or cessation of viewer/participant (Bushman & Anderson, violence” (Youth Violence: a Report of the 2001). Surgeon General, 2001). In terms of risky health behaviors, Ripple Effects’ psycho-educational researcher claim modest evidence that software incorporates thousands of level of media consumption of any kind empirically derived “components” of the (not just violent imagery) is correlated with truth, without singling any one out as being obesity, modest to strong evidence that it more important than all others. Because contributes to drinking and smoking, but children act and react in milieu that may not evidence that independently links it to include all or any of these factors, the early sexual activity (Escobar Cahvez &

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Ripple Effects library of more than 700 Social relations (sociability, social self- multimedia tutorials for students and staff, concept); these are dependent both on in combination with the parent training ones own actions and the actions of manual, and primary, secondary and others) tertiary intervention guides for Family factors (parental warmth, implementers, together address each and discipline style and family functioning) all of these risk factors from the perspective School behavior (academic of students, and some from educator and performance, school participation, parent perspectives as well. adjustment) The goal is not to convince students that they can control many factors that are Internal protective factors clearly out of their control, but to train them in constructive ways to interact with These risk factors interact not only with these factors. In particular, it is to train each other, but also with their positive them in how they can notice, shape and twins, protective factors, which operate on leverage their reactions to these factors. the same continuums in each direction.

Resiliency Most predictive risk factors Many children with higher risks Like emotions, although all statistically demonstrate an emotional “self-righting correlated risk factors may be equally valid, tendency” that enables them to weather they are not all equally predictive of adversity and even thrive (Werner, 1992). delinquency. In a meta-analysis of This ability is defined as resilience. A set of hundreds of longitudinal studies, Wilson, social-emotional abilities together comprise Lipsey and Noser (2007) identified the five the internal components of this risk factors at age 10 that are most characteristic (Benard, 2004). There are predictive of anti-social and delinquent external components as well. behavior at age 16, after controlling for Variously termed assets, competencies, socio-economic status (SES), gender and or personal resilience strengths, these key race/ethnicity. Deficits in some core social- abilities have been found in long-term emotional competencies were bundled developmental studies of youth facing under the heading “personal multiple risks and adversities to be critical characteristics,“ deficits in others, such as to transforming their lives from risk to sociability, were placed in the category resilience (Werner, 1992, Benard, 2004). “social relations.” Those factors include, in A particular grouping of four categories order of correlation strength: of these human strengths has been Prior anti-social behavior, including associated with greater resilience. Those categories are social competence, externalizing behavior (the source of autonomy, problem solving, and sense of most school based, disciplinary purpose (Benard, 1991, 2004). referrals) Personal characteristics, such as Empathy - the hallmark attention control, emotional regulation, problem solving (all are skill-based Foremost among social competence characteristics) strengths is that of empathy, sometimes called the “hallmark of resilience.” (Werner

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1989, 1992). According to Daniel 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy research has Goleman, empathy is the fundamental clearly established that “confidence, effort, people skill and associated with life long and persistence are more potent factors in personal and professional positive life success than innate ability” (Maddux, outcomes (1992). 2002, p. 285). Ripple Effects’ systematic Ripple Effects programs include 30 empathy training includes the interactive profiles designed to promote self affective, cognitive and awareness of key social emotional abilities behavioral elements of “identifying with and four profiles designed to increase others,” “perspective taking,” and understanding of one own body (“sports” “responding” and “listening” to others. and “exercise type,” “body type,” “body image”); mind (“learning style,” “intelligences,” “giftedness,” “learning Connectedness disorders,” “attention,” “mindfulness”), heart (“temperament,” “identifying and Another key social competence understanding feelings”; and soul (“creative strength is “connectedness,” the ability to connect and communicate with others. style,” “values” and “beliefs”). It also includes specific lessons on “strengths and Through this strength, young people are weaknesses,” “risk and protection,” able to form caring relationships, one of the most powerful of environmental protective “impulse control,” “management of feelings,” “self-talk” and “self-confidence” factors. Ripple Effects provides separate Problem solving tutorials for connectedness skills of “joining groups,” Werner and Smith found that “Among “participating in conversations,” the high risk individuals who succeeded “appreciating diversity,” “helping others,” against the odds, there was a significant “making friends,” “showing respect to association between…a nonverbal measure others,” “taking responsibility,” and of problem-solving skills at age 10 and “getting help.” successful adaptation in adulthood” (1992, p. 176). Autonomy Under the category of “problem solving” skills, Ripple Effects provides “Autonomy skills” are built on self- separate tutorials for each step in the awareness, having an understanding of problem solving process (“brainstorming,” one’s own strengths, risk and protective “evaluating alternatives,” “setting goals,” factors, learning style, feelings, and choosing and “testing solutions”) as well sensations. According to Goleman, self- overall topics for both “problem solving” awareness is the most critical source of and “decision-making,” and dealing with emotional intelligence (1992). Other specific problems such as “bullying,” autonomy skills include self-management “sexual harassment” and “unfair treatment skills such as impulse control, ability to by a teacher.” stop emotional reactions, feeling management, and self-talk. Autonomy also Having a sense of purpose includes includes having a sense of self-efficacy, a intrinsic motivation, a sense of future, belief in one’s power to accomplish what having goals and a success orientation, one wants to accomplish (Bandura, 1977, exerting effort, and having an optimistic

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attitude. A positive and strong future focus any individual child will fail school, have has consistently been identified with poor mental health outcomes, and/or academic success, a positive self-identity, become involved in delinquent behavior. and fewer health-risk behaviors (Masten & Which factors most impact which children Coatsworth, 1998; Snyder et al. 2002). is much less clear. The Ripple Effects training software The question becomes “what are the includes lessons on motivation and goal most leveraged ways to tip the scales in setting for both students and staff. In favor of protection, over risk, for each child addition, the student programs include in the unique circumstances of his or her lessons on “effort,” “optimism” and life?” “future.” One logical answer is to provide direct, supportive, developmentally appropriate Implications for academics and culturally competent, personalized intervention for students at risk of These abilities exist in the social- substance abuse and/or academic failure, emotional realm, but have implications for as well as delinquency. the academic realm as well. A meta- Ideally this would include: analysis of SEL programs by University of Illinois researchers demonstrated that Immediate, positive behavioral promotion of social-emotional competency intervention that is personalized, is correlated with success in school on evidence-based, and therapeutic to three levels: attitudes, behavior, and address presenting behavior academic achievement (Durlak & problems as they occur Weissberg, 2007). Personalized guidance to address Evidence from 11 studies of the the underlying risk factors that give effectiveness of Ripple Effects rise to problem behavior mirrors these results and can be Skill training to build personal found in Evidence of Effectiveness, strengths that can confer resilience Volumes I, II, III, IV. V. in the face of risk Not only are these factors protective against delinquency, the exploding field of But how does one do all that? How can positive psychology provides evidence of it be scaled and sustained? How can it be strong correlations between these core paid for? The most effective of such personal strengths and positive health, interventions are the subject of the next social, behavioral, and academic outcomes chapter. as well. Although culturally mediated, these core strengths are believed by many experts to transcend cultural boundaries (Eccles & Gootman 2002; Werner & Smith, 1992).

Tipping the balance toward protection

The overall evidence is clear. A wide spectrum of both risk and protective factors mediate and mitigate the probability that

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violence. The Journal Of Adolescent Jay N. Giedd, M.D (2008), The Teen Brain: Health, 26(3):176-86 Insights from Neuroimaging, in Journal of Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Adolescent Health Volume 42, Issue 4, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Pages 335-343 (April 2008) California Press. Justice by Gender: The Lack of Appropriate Howell, James C., and J. David Hawkins Prevention, Diversion, and Treatment (1998). “Prevention of Youth Violence.” In Alternatives for Girls in the Justice System. M. Tonry and M. Moore (Eds.) Youth 2001. Washington, DC: American Bar Violence: A Review of Research, Crime and Association and the National Bar Justice, Vol. 24. Association, at Chicago: University of Chicago Press. http://www.abanet.org/crimjust/juvjus/girls. Huesmann L, Eron L. (1986). Television and the html aggressive child: a cross-national Kakar, S. (1996). Child Abuse and Delinquency. comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Maryland: University Press of America Erlbaum. Kandel, E., & Mednick, S.A. (1991). Perinatal Huesmann, L. Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C., and complications predict violent offending. Eron L. (2003). Longitudinal relations Criminology 29(3):519–529. between children's exposure to TV Kelley, T. M. (1996). A critique of social violence and their aggressive and violent bonding and control theory of delinquency behavior in young adulthood: 1977 – 1992, using the principals of Psychology of Mind. Developmental Psychology, 39, No. 2. Adolescence, 31, 321-338. Huizinga, D. and Elliott, D. S. "Juvenile Kelley, A., So, Susan, Siegfried, Christine (2004) Offenders: Prevalence Offenders Incidence, Victimization and Juvenile Offending, The and Arrest Rates by Race." Crime and National Child Traumatic Stress Network Delinquency 33(2): 206-223, 1987. Juvenile Justice Working Group (2004) Huizinga, D., Thornberry, T.P., Knight, K.E., Kleinman, A. (1997). The clustering of mental Lovegrove, P.J., Loeber, R., Hill, K., et al. and social health problems: Importance for (2007). Disproportionate minority contact policies and programs. Updates on Global in the juvenile justice system: A study of Mental and Social Health, 2, 1, 1-2. differential minority arrest/referral to court Kohlberg, L. (1981). The Philosophy of Moral in three cities. Report unpublished by the Development. Joseph Rowntree U.S. Department of Justice. Made available Foundation. by the National Criminal Justice Reference A Kraus, G Valerius, E Seifritz, M Ruf, J D Service. Bremner, M Bohus and C Schmahl. Script- Hurt H; Malmud E; Brodsky N L; Giannetta J., driven imagery of self-injurious behavior in (2001) Exposure to violence: psychological patients with borderline personality and academic correlates in child witnesses. disorder: a pilot FMRI study. Acta Archives of pediatrics & adolescent Psychiatrica Scandinavica () (2009) medicine (2001); 155(12):1351-6. Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Ian W. Craig , Emma Harper and Caroline S. Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Loat (2004), The Genetic Basis for Sex Health, Mannheim, Germany. Differences in Human Behaviour: Role of Lavi, Tamar Ph.D.; Solomon, Zahava Ph.D. the Sex Chromosomes, in Annals of Human (2005), Palestinian and Israeli Youth of the Genetics, Volume 68 Issue 3, Pages 269 – Intifada: PTSD and Future Orientation, in 284, Published Online: 2 Jun 2004 Journal of the American Academy of Child

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& Adolescent Psychiatry: November 2005 - Adolescent Health: official publication of Volume 44 - Issue 11 - pp 1176-1183 the Society for Adolescent Medicine. 2008 Lederman, C. S. and Brown, E.N. (2000). Apr; 42(4):321-3. Entangled in the Shadows: Girls in The MacDonald, J. M. and Chesney-Lind, M. Juvenile Justice System. Buffalo Law Review (2001). Gender Bias and Juvenile Justice 48:909-925. Revisited: A Multiyear Analysis. Crime & Leone, P. E., Christle, C. A., Nelson, C. M., Delinquency 47:173-195. Skiba, R., Frey, A., & Jolivette, K. (2003). Maddux, J. (2002). Self-efficacy: The power of School failure, race, and disability: believing you can. In C. Snyder and S. Promoting positive outcomes, decreasing Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive vulnerability for involvement with the Psychology (pp. 277–287). New York: Oxford University Press. juvenile delinquency system. College Park, Maryland: National Center on Education, Main, M., & George, C. (l985). Response of Disability, and Juvenile Justice (EDJJ). abused and disadvantaged toddlers to Lietz, J. J., & Gregory, M. K. (1978). Pupil race distress in agemates: A study in the daycare and sex determinants of office and setting. Developmental Psychology, 2l, exceptional education referrals. Educational 407-4l2. Research Quarterly, 3(2), 61-66. Main, M., Hesse, E., & Kaplan, N. (2005). Linda Garner Evans, Judy Oehler-Stinnett Predictability of attachment behaviour and (2006), Structure and prevalence of PTSD representational processes at 1, 6, and 18 symptomology in children who have years of age: The Berkeley Longitudinal experienced a severe tornado, in Study. In K.E. Grossmann, K. Grossmann & Psychology in the Schools, Volume 43 Issue E. Waters (Eds.), Attachment from Infancy 3, Pages 283 – 295 Published Online: 10 to Adulthood. pp. 245-304. New York: Feb 2006. Guilford Press. Lipsey, M.W., & Derzon. J.H. (1998). McCord, J., Widom, C.S., and Crowell, N.A., Predictors of violent or serious delinquency eds. 2001. Juvenile Crime, Juvenile Justice. in adolescence and early adulthood: A Panel on Juvenile Crime: Prevention, synthesis of longitudinal research. In R. Treatment, and Control. Washington, DC: Loeber & D.P. Farrington (Eds.). Serious and National Academy Press. violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and McNulty, TL, Bellair, PE. (2003). Explaining successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, Racial and Ethnic Differences in Adolescent CA: Sage. Violence: Structural Disadvantage, Family Lipsey, M.W., Hawkins, D. (2007, May) Well-Being, And Social Capital. Justice Prevention Of Antisocial Behavior: The Quarterly. Masten, A. and Coatsworth, D. Most Effective Interventions For Changing (1998). The development of competence in The Most Predictive Risk Factors. favorable and unfavorable environments: Organized Paper Symposium, Society for Lessons from research on successful Prevention Research Annual Meeting, children. American Psychologist,53, 205– Washington, D.C. 220. Loeber, R., and Farrington, D.P., eds. 2001. Merton, R.K. (1949) Social Theory and Social Child Delinquents: Development, Structure. New York: The Free Press. Intervention, and Service Needs. Thousand Mischel, W., Shoda, Y. & Rodriguez, M.I. Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. McAnarney ER. Adolescent brain development: Science 244 (4907), 933. forging new links? The Journal of

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Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Rutler, M. & Silva, P.A. (Eds.), Handbook of research in emotional (2002). Sex differences in antisocial and behavioral disorders (pp. 54-77). New behavior, conduct disorder, and violence in York: Guilford. the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. Perry, S.M., Bass, K, Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Impact of a computer-based social- Press emotional learning intervention on Moffitt, T.E., Lynam, D.R., & Silva, P.A. (1994). objective school outcomes among diverse Neuropsychological tests predict persistent adolescents: A summary analyses of six male delinquency. Criminology, 32, 277- randomized controlled trials. Expanded 300. from poster presentation at the 2007 Monane, Mark; Leichter, Donald; Lewis, Annual Meeting of the Society for Dorothy Otnow M.D., (1984). Physical Prevention Research. Abuse in Psychiatrically Hospitalized Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Children and Adolescents. Journal of Amer Childhood. New York: Norton. Piaget, J. Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry: (1966). SPECIAL SECTION: Recent Studies in Child Ray, A. Relate for Kids, training software, Abuse, November 1984, Vol. 23 - Issue 6 Version 1.0, 1.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., San National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. (2007). “And Justice for Some: Differential Ray, A. Relate for Teens, training software, Treatment of Youth of Color in the Justice Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San System.” Oakland, CA: National Council Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. on Crime and Delinquency, retrieved from Ray, A. Respect for Persons Profiler. Ripple http://www.nccdcrc.org/nccd/pubs/2007jan Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2005 - _justice_for_some.pd 2009. National Council on Disability Ray, A. Ripple Effects Bring It On, training National Disability Policy: A Progress software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., Report. March 31, 2009 San Francisco, CA. 2003 – 2004. Nelson, D.A., Mitchell, C. & Yangm C. J. (2008) Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Kids, training software, “Intent Attributions and Aggression: A Version 2.0, 3.0, 3.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., Study of Children and their Parents.” San Francisco, CA. 2005 – 2009. Abnorm Child Psychol 36:793–806 Ray, A. Ripple Effects Respect for Persons, Nelson RJ, Chiavegatto S. (2001) Molecular training software, Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple basis of aggression. Trends in Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2000 – Neuroscience, 24(12):713-719. 2009. Osher, D., Cartledge, G., Oswald, D., Ray, A. Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler. Sutherland, K. S., Artiles, A. J., & Coutinho, Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. M. (2007). Cultural and linguistic 1999 – 2009. competency and disproportionate Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Staff, training representation. In R. B. Rutherford R. B. software, Version 1.1, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Rutherford was a college football and Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006 – 2009. basketball coach at Oregon State Ray, A. Ripple Effects Survey Engine, Version University. Coaching years Rutherford was 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, the head coach of the Oregon State Beavers CA. 2003 – 2009. football team from 1920–1923. During his Ray, A. Ripple Effects Teaching Coach, training tenure there, he compiled a 13-14-6 software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., record. Jr., M. M. Quinn, & S. R. Mathur San Francisco, CA. 2004 - 2006.

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Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Teens, training in Asperger syndrome: a cognitive profile. software, Version 2.1, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2. Ripple Neurocase. 8(3):245-52. Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2004 – Siegfried, C. B., Ko, S. J., & Kelley, A. (2004). 2009. Victimization and juvenile offending. Rhodes, J. E. & Fischer, K. (1993). Spanning the National Child Traumatic Stress Network: gender gap: Gender differences in Juvenile Justice Working Group, Retrieved delinquency among inner-city adolescents. from www.nctsnet.org. Adolescence 28: 879-889. Shaw, C.R. & McKay, H.D. (1929), Juvenile Rivers, S. E., Brackett, M.A., Salovey, P., & Delinquency and Urban Areas, University Mayer, J.D. (2007). Measuring emotional of Chicago Press, Chicago intelligence as a set of mental abilities. In Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & G. Matthews, M. Zeidner & R.D. Roberts Peterson, R. (2002). The color of discipline: (Eds.), The science of emotional Sources of racial and gender intelligence: Knowns and unknowns (pp. disproportionality in school punishment. 230-257). New York, NY: Oxford Urban Review, 34(4), 317-42. University Press. Skiba, R.J., Simmons, A.B., Ritter, S., Kohler, Rogers K, Dziobek I, Hassenstab J, Wolf OT, K.R., & Wu, T.C. (2003). The psychology of Convit A. Who cares? Revisiting empathy disproportionality: Minority placement in in Asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev context. Multiple Voices, 6, 27-40. Disord. 2007 Apr;37(4):709-15. Snyder, C. R., Shorey, H. S., Cheavens, J., Rosenberg, M., & Pearlin, L.I. (1978). Social Pulvers, K. M., Adams, V. H., & Wiklund, class and self-esteem among children and C. (2002). Hope and academic success in adults. American Journal of Sociology, 84, college. Journal of Educational Psychology, 53-77. 94, 820–826. Safren SA, Heimberg RG. (1999) Depression, Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Tessner, K. D., hopelessness, suicidality, and related & Toga, A. W. (2001). Mapping continued factors in sexual minority and heterosexual brain growth and gray matter density adolescents. Journal of Consulting and reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: Inverse Clinical Psychology, 67(6):859-66. relationships during postadolescent brain Salovey, P., & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional maturation. The Journal of Neuroscience, Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and 15, 8819–8829. Personality, 9 185-211. Sutherland, Edwin H. (1924) Principles of Schwarz, Eitan D. M.D., F.A.P.A., F.A.A.C.A.P.; Criminology, Chicago: University of Kowalski, Janice M. Ph.D. (1991), Chicago Press. Malignant Memories: PTSD in Children and Taylor, O. L. (1990). Cross-Cultural Adults after a School Shooting, in Journal of Communication: An Essential Dimension of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Effective Education, Revised Edition, The Psychiatry: November 1991 Mid-Atlantic Center, 1990 Seguin, J.R., Pihl, R.O., Harden, P.W., Triandis, H.C. (1989). The Self and Social Tremblay, R.E., and Boulrice, B. 1995. Behavior in Differing Cultural Contexts, in Cognitive and neuropsychological Psychological Review, 1989, Vol. 96, No. characteristics of psychically aggressive 3, pp 506-520 boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology Tsai, M. & Wagner, N. N. (1978). Therapy 104(4):614–624. groups for women sexually molested as Shamay-Tsoory, S.G., Tomer, R., Yaniv, S., children. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 7, Aharon-Peretz, J. (2002). Empathy deficits 417-427.

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Veysey, B.M. (July, 2003). Adolescent girls with mental health disorders involved with the juvenile justice system. Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice. Walklate, S (2003) Understanding Criminology – Current Theoretical Debates, 2nd edition, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Wasserman, G.A., & Seracini, A.G. 2001. Family risk factors and interventions. In Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs, edited by R. Loeber and D.P. Farrington. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 165–189. Werner, E. E. (1992). The children of Kauai: Resiliency and recovery in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 262-268. Werner, E. and Smith, R. (1992). Overcoming the Odds: High-Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood. New York: Cornell University Press. Wilson, B. Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism. (Children and Electronic Media). The Future of Children. Princeton- Brookings, Spring 2008. Wilson, S.J., Lipsey , M. W., & Derzon, J.H. (2003). The effects of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 71, 136- 149. Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General. (2001) U.S. Department of Health & Human Services: Washington, D.C. Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg. H. J. (Eds.). (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? New York: Teachers College Press.

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Chapter 4: What Works? Effective strategies for reducing risk and enhancing protection

Mitigating individual risk factors...... 1 Range of effective strategies...... 1 Cognitive therapy…………………………………………………………….. 2 Mental processes………………………………………………………….. 3 Attending to thought...... 3 Logical reasoning ...... 3 Perspective taking...... 4 Ascertaining motive...... 4 Brainstorming...... 5 Problem solving...... 5 Cognitive restructuring…………………………………………………… 5 Correcting distorted sense of self...... 6 Addressing inflammatory messages ...... 6 Reducing stereotyping ...... 6 Addressing rationalization of anti-social norms ...... 6 Promoting emotional regulation…………………………………………. 7 Behavioral……………………………………………………………………. 7 Reinforcement and consequences………………………………………. 7 Social skills…………………………………………………………………… 8 Skill streaming……………………………………………………………. 9 Counseling……………………………………………………………………. 9 Characteristics of effective counseling for social-emotional challenges………………………………………………………………... 10 Characteristics of personal guidance through Ripple Effects………… 11 Client centered...... 11 Non-judgmental ...... 11 Encourages affective exploration...... 11 Demonstrates active listening...... 12 Offers science-based information about areas of client concern...... 12

Chapter 4: What Works? From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Offers relevant evidence-based strategies ...... 12 Protects confidentiality ...... 12 Refers out serious problems ...... 12 Parent training………………………………………………………………. 13 What’s missing: affective approaches……………………………...... 14 Emotional intelligence…………………………………………………...14 Affective education……………………………………………………… 14 Empathy training………………………………………………………… 14 Conation - motivation……………………………………………………15 SEL: integrating modalities…………………………………………………. 15 No approach “the best”……………………………………………………….. 16 How race and ethnicity fit……………………………………………………..16 Linking most risk with greatest impact: a leveraged approach…………….. 16 References ...... 18

Chapter 4: What Works?

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

training for personal action in multiple MITIGATING INDIVIDUAL domains: family, peer relationships, school, RISK FACTORS community, social structures and media influence, always from the perspective of Identifying mutable risk factors for the individual. juvenile delinquency provides the opportunity for mitigating those risks RANGE OF EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES through strategies for change. Implicit in every risk factor is an hypothesis for Within the broad category of addressing it. For instance, identification of individual, internal interventions, also impulsivity and emotional dysregulation as called psycho-educational interventions, risk factors has given rise to cognitive researchers have identified numerous interventions for managing feelings and effective interventions to address specific reactions, especially anger and fear. risk factors (Burns & Hoagwood, 2002; Similarly, the correlation of neighborhood Greenberg, Domtrovich & Brumbarger, disorganization with juvenile delinquency 1999; Rones & Hoagwood, 2000; Wilson, has given rise to community organizing Gottfredson & Najaka, 2001). efforts to reduce the number of liquor The largest meta-analyses of effective stores in certain neighborhoods. psycho-educational, school-based, In the last three decades, hundreds of interventions for aggressive and disruptive interventions have been designed to behavior have been conducted by Wilson address risk factors related to delinquency (Sandra), Lipsey, and Derzon. Originally and pre-delinquent behavior. Many have published in 2003, these studies were been developed to address juvenile designed to identify shared characteristics aggression; many more have been designed of effective programs. A 2007 update of to address illegal use of alcohol and drugs. that meta-analysis analyzed 249 studies As with risk factors themselves, these (Wilson & Lipsey, 2007). Mark Lipsey and programs can be divided into those David Wilson collaborated on two earlier designed to address internal factors, and meta-analyses that included non-school those designed to address external based interventions, which showed many influences on children and youth. similar results (Lipsey & Wilson, 1993, The focus of Ripple Effects Whole 1998). The researchers grouped the tested Spectrum Intervention System (WSIS) is the interventions into six major categories of individual’s internal capacities. It targets approaches, or treatment modalities, with factors under personal control – body, the important caveat that many programs mind, heart and soul – both for youth and include at least two of these approaches. for the adults who are charged with their The categories are: care. The emphasis is on promoting skill- Cognitive therapy based, social-emotional capacities. That Behavioral strategies said, Ripple Effects WSIS includes

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Social skills training PTSD that often co-occur with delinquent Counseling therapy behavior (Butler, Chapman, Forman, Beck, 2006; Kendall, 2000). There is strong Peer mediation evidence that they have been effective in Parent training reducing aggressive and disruptive

behavior in juveniles, with a major meta- They further divided these treatment analysis reporting mean effect sizes of .20 modalities into four formats: universal, for universal service delivery formats and selected, special programs (i.e. special .29 for selected programs (Wilson & Lipsey, education) and comprehensive programs 2007). They have also been shown to be (multi-modal multi-level programs, often effective in reducing recidivism rates open-ended in length). among juvenile offenders (Lipsey & Wilson, Ripple Effects WSIS can be described in 1998). Lipsey, Landenerger and Lipsey’s terms of this conceptual framework. It is a meta-analysis of cognitive behavioral combination program that incorporates five interventions with offenders showed a of the above six treatment modalities, each larger mean effect size (.45) for cognitive described in more detail below. It is programs than for any other offender designed for tiered delivery in universal, intervention (2005). With both children targeted and selected formats. Although its and adults, these strategies are more subject matter is wide and deep, it does not effective with individuals who have higher match Wilson and Lipsey’s definition of a risk. Brand name programs, such as “comprehensive program.” It is more often “Reasoning and Rehabilitation” (Ross & the selected, psycho-educational Ross, 1995) and “Moral Reconation component of a larger program. Therapy” (Little, Robinson & Burnette, 1999) are neither more, nor less effective Cognitive than “generic” cognitive interventions (Wilson & Lipsey, 2007). The link between thought and behavior There are two main forms of cognitive has long been recognized as important. As therapy. One focuses on mental processes, a structured therapeutic intervention, such as attending, logical reasoning, cognitive therapy has evolved over the last perspective taking and brainstorming. The century, from Freud’s focus on ongoing other focuses on restructuring the content analysis of possible conscious or of thought, such as replacing inflammatory subconscious patterns of thought, to Aaron self-talk with calming statements, or Beck’s systematized method of deliberately replacing anti-social norms with pro-social changing how people think, in order to norms. Many programs include various change how they feel, what they believe, combinations of the two. Anger and how they act (Beck, 1975). The current management and social decision-making focus is on short terms strategies for programs both combine them and are shaping the process and/or content of commonly considered specific categories thought in order to support specific goals of cognitive training. for safe, healthy, successful behavior. A large body of research has shown that cognitive-behavioral therapies are effective in addressing mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and

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Mental processes phenomena, which need neither to be changed, nor acted upon, but simply Cognitive therapies that focus on recognized and accepted. While there are mental processes involve developing one insufficient studies to allow a robust meta- or more of these mental capacities: analysis of this latter approach, individual attending to thought, especially studies have shown that this practice of recognizing internal triggers, critical quieting the mind can activate the area of thinking/logical reasoning, perspective the brain responsible for affect. It has had taking, and brainstorming. Logical these results with children and youth reasoning and non-linear brainstorming are (Bögels et al. 2008; Lutz et al. 2008). integral to decision-making models that Ripple Effects includes a “mindfulness” have been proven effective in reducing module that links to tutorials for “self-talk” inter-personal aggression in youth and and “physical sensations.” adults (Beyth-Marom, Fischhoff, Jacobs- Quadrel, & Furby, 1991; Elias & Bruene- Logical reasoning Butler, 1999; Durlak, 1983; Fischhoff, Crowell, & Kipke, 1999; Freedman et al. Logical reasoning and critical thinking 1978; Shure & Spivack, 1988). Attention capacities include the ability to gather focusing strategies are linked to emotional information and accurately identify a regulation and improved mental health problem, engage in a pattern of outcomes for conditions linked to consequential logic, and reach defensible delinquency (Brefczynski-Lewis, Lutz, conclusions based on evidence at hand. Schaefer, Levinson & Davidson, 2007; These thinking processes are frequently Napoli, Krech & Holley 2005; Semple, Lee associated with the pursuit of science, but & Miller, 2006; Singh et al. 2007; they are useful in social-emotional and Zylowksa, et al. 2008). academic situations as well. The ability to engage in the consequential logic of an Attending to thought if/then structure is a key component of impulse control. Recognizing the logic Attending to thought is an attention- fallacy in drawing global generalizations focusing methodology whereby the mind from limited experience (i.e. “I flunked a consciously becomes aware of itself, of the test; it shows I’m too stupid to succeed in body, and of the surroundings. Also school.”) is also a factor in self-efficacy and sometimes called “mindfulness,” academic improvement. monitoring self-talk can be a first step in cognitive restructuring and emotional Ripple Effects WSIS promotes rigorous regulation (Luria, 1973). Some practices reasoning as an independent capacity, and proceed from simple mental awareness to as part of a structured decision-making an effort to stop, or cancel inaccurate or model. There are specific lessons on inflammatory self-talk, and then to actually correctly “identifying a problem,” restructure the content of thought. (See “evaluating alternatives” against criteria of below.) Others use mental practices to alter “safety,” moral “rightness,” “effectiveness,” physical sensations (i.e. relaxation and emotional impact, and “testing techniques). A smaller group of practices solutions.” At each developmental level in emphasize maintaining a detached the training software, there is a lesson on awareness of thought and physical “predicting consequences.” The program sensations as arising and departing treats consequentialism (predicting

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.3 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions consequences) as an independent skill, and then the ability to predict how other with focus on developing the cognitive might feel, it is possible that training in structure of “if/then” sentences as a perspective taking could actually increase necessary precondition for predicting future offenders’ ability to manipulate others. consequences of immediate actions, and Programs that combine cognitive with drills students in its use. Every one of the affective and behavioral components in 700 lessons in the combined training empathy training have been demonstrated programs includes a five-part critical to be effective in reducing school-based thinking and assisted writing exercise, in aggression (Durlak & Weissberg, 2007; the form of an animated journal. Elias et al. 1994; Greenberg et al. 2003). Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Perspective taking Intervention System includes training in Perspective taking is a related, perspective-taking as part of a four part cognitive strategy designed to promote strategy for developing empathy, which identification with victims and potential also includes understanding feelings, victims. Lipsey’s meta-analysis indicates showing care and resisting the impulse to that training in perspective taking is less turn people into objects (stereotyping). In effective than the cognitive approaches of addition to the free-standing lesson on reasoning and norm setting (1992b). In fact, perspective-taking, training in perspective there is evidence that some offenders may taking is built into the structure of every enjoy seeing others suffer. This may not other lesson. Participants are asked to take adequately take into account the fact that the part of the protagonist in every scenario perspective taking is only one part, the that introduces a new topic. cognitive element, of a three part, A randomized controlled trial of evidence-based system for developing the impact of Ripple Effects on empathy, which also includes affective and resiliency assets demonstrated both behavioral elements (Eisenberg & Fabes, increased scores on empathy scale of the 1990; Eisenberg & MIller, 1987; Feshbach, California Healthy Kids Survey, and greater 1982). Nor do meta-analyses of individual felt experience of connectedness among interventions include data on the classmates who were in the control group effectiveness of perspective taking that that had daily contact with students in occurs in restorative justice settings, where experimental group (De Long-Cotty, 2008). offenders are encouraged to actually listen Ascertaining motive to the experience of their victims (Butts & Mears 2001; Howell 1995; Bender, King & Ascertaining motive is a logic driven Torbet, 1996; Zehr, 1990). process that includes gathering information A growing body of evidence supports about situational and facial cues, clarifying the notion that empathy is a learnable set ambiguity and reaching a conclusion (Crick of skills that have affective, cognitive and & Dodge, 1994). behavioral components (Bar-On & Parker, To address misattribution of motive (i.e. 2000; Bar-On, Maree & Elias 2006; Elias et “he did it on purpose”; “that teacher hates al. 1994; Feshbach, 1982; Goleman, 1995; me”) Ripple Effects incorporates a lesson Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Absent the on “accidents and on purpose,” which affective component, which promotes first links to training in reading “situational the capacity to know one’s own feelings,

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cues” and reading “facial cues”, and reasoning and brainstorming is an effective “asking questions” in ambiguous situations. intervention for promoting problem solving (Durlak & Weissberg, 2005; Elias & Brainstorming Bruene-Butler, 1999; Shure & Spivack, 1988); reducing pre-delinquent, aggressive Brainstorming is the process of behavior (Dodge, 1980); reducing intent to generating options to subsequently engage in use of controlled substances evaluate. It requires temporarily suspending (Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992); and the active judgment that is so useful increasing the chance of school success before–and again after–this step. There is (Elias et al. 1994; Zins, Weissberg, Wang & evidence that the quality of a decision may Walberg, 2004). Several evidence-based be linked more to the quantity of the prevention curricula recognize the options considered than to their initial importance of decision-making and quality, and that considering poor personal responsibility, not only for alternatives is a useful step in getting to prevention of delinquent behavior, but also better ones (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987; for promotion of positive youth Gallupe, et al. 1992; Osborn, 1963). development (Durlak & Weissberg, 2005; Although a cognitive capacity, Elias & Bruene-Butler, 1999; Shure & brainstorming ability can be limited by Spivack, 1988). Ripple Effects is among over-developed logical thinking, if them. analytical strength leads to prematurely closing off alternatives that don’t meet pre- Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum defined criteria. Brainstorming can also be Intervention System identifies conscious limited by lack of a belief in one’s capacity decision-making as one of seven key life to come up with a solution (lack of self- skills and explicitly and implicitly teaches it efficacy) (Bandura, 1997). throughout the program. It includes lessons In Ripple Effects, stand-alone lessons in personal responsibility at both elementary and middle/high school levels. for both students and teachers promote There are embedded links to decision- brainstorming skills, including how to making training in dozens of lessons on maximize the value of group brainstorming substance use, interpersonal relations, exercises and how to consciously suspend school related behavior judgment in order to generate multiple A randomized controlled trial of alternatives. Lessons also promote the the impact of Ripple Effects on efficacious belief in one’s ability to come resilience assets demonstrated that up with options. Each of the journal it had significant positive impact on exercises include the step of identifying problem solving skills among sixth graders possible options. In addition, every lesson who had moderate risk factors for starts with a problem-solving scenario that delinquency, including ELL status (De Long- presents a challenge and asks participants Cotty, 2008). to brainstorm options available to the protagonist, and to evaluate the benefits Cognitive restructuring and risks of those options. Cognitive restructuring attempts to Problem solving actually change the content of thought. There is substantial evidence that When applied to offenders it most often training in the combined skills of logical addresses:

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.5 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Distorted sense of self (i.e. inflated, Addressing inflammatory messages narcissistic sense; unrealistic “victim” identity, and/or weak sense of self– To address inflammatory messages efficacy Ripple Effects includes a tutorial for shaping the content of self-talk ("internal Misattribution of hostile motive triggers), including learning to recognize Inflammatory messages that fuel anger, and correct inaccurate or inflammatory fear or other emotions messages. It also provides specific, Stereotypes associated with bias crimes corrective messages to use in response to Anti-social norms as rationalization of emotionally inflammatory self talk that anti-social behavior fuels anger, fear, envy and jealousy.

Correcting distorted sense of self Reducing stereotyping

To correct a distorted sense of self, To reduce stereotyping associated with Ripple Effects provides training in cognitive bias activity, in collaboration with the restructuring for both an inflated, Leadership Conference on Civil Rights narcissistic sense of self (under the topic Education Fund and Partnership Against “self-centered”), and an unrealistically Hate, Ripple Effects developed a set of weak sense of self–efficacy (under the more than 35 tutorials that include training topics “power”/”control”). Two of the in stereotypes and ethnic conflict, as well seven key skills in both staff and student as appreciating diversity, and empathy Ripple Effects programs are devoted to training strengthening a healthy, but not inflated sense of self. One set focuses on self- (See Promoting Respect, Stopping awareness/ understanding (“know Hate. Partnership against Hate, 2006. yourself”); the other focuses on “assertiveness,” the ability to command Addressing rationalization respect for oneself and one’s beliefs. of anti-social norms Exercises to increase self-awareness, To address rationalization of anti-social include more than 37 interactive self- norms, Ripple Effects WSIS supports profiles, and more than 2000 journal formation of conscience among children writing exercises. There are lessons and and teens, especially those who are not interactive profiles to develop awareness of receiving explicit, value-based parental body (“body image,” “exercise type”), mind direction. Content in Ripple Effects (“learning style,” “intelligences”), heart includes values clarification lessons, (“temperament,” “identifying feelings”) and lessons on norms, sensitization toward soul (“creativity,” “beliefs” and “values”), others, and training in specific values that as well as lessons on “strengths” and are intrinsic to democracy, such as “weaknesses.” Self-efficacy related topics “fairness,” “honesty,” “respect,” include “goal setting,” “perseverance” and “responsibility” and “respect for diversity,” “mistakes.” There is a specific lesson on and a decision-making framework that “self-esteem,” with the parenthetical title includes “rightness” as a criteria in making (“not self-centeredness”). personal choices. Separate lessons treat the topics of “options,” “norms,” “values,” “self-determination” and “responsibility.”

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Moral “rightness” according to as student category, as are programs that rely on or teacher’s personal code of values, is contingency contracts that spell out presented as a criteria for evaluating every specific agreed upon commitments and decision. Specific lessons deconstruct consequences for not honoring them. mental constructions that put responsibility on the victim for “bullying,” “rape,” “dating Reinforcement and consequences abuse,” “molesting,” “hate crimes” and The central insight from behavioral other exploitation topics. psychology is that reinforcement (consequences), not thoughts, or Promoting emotional regulation motivation, shapes behavior (Skinner, To promote emotional regulation, 1953). In general, positive reinforcement is Ripple Effects WSIS offers a full unit on more effective than negative reinforcement. emotional regulation (managing feelings) in Sincere, focused praise can be an effective both student training programs, as well as positive reinforcement. However, overly the staff coaching software. It includes general, insincere praise is not effective, standardized, cognitive-behavioral and praise for adolescents may backfire, if strategies, such as managing self-talk, delivered in public instead of private identifying internal and external triggers, settings (Dweck, 2002). and practicing relaxation techniques. The Behavioral psychology posits that the program also offers lessons on controlling strength of targeted change partly depends these specific emotions: “anger,” “fear,” upon the schedule (rate/interval and “sadness,” “shame,” “disappointment,” consistency) of rewards and punishment. “envy,” “disrespect,” “jealousy,” Initially, very consistent reinforcement is “frustration,” “grief,” “guilt,” “loneliness,” needed to establish behavior. Once “embarrassment,” “anxiety,” “numbness.” established, a variable ratio schedule is more effective than a fixed one to maintain Behavioral it (Skinner, 1953, 1978). Since escaping punishment is a reward in itself, the fact Under the category of behavioral that acts of juvenile delinquency often interventions, theoretically any number of result in no punishment, means that in delinquency prevention strategies that strictly behavioral terms, anti-social address physical behavior might fit, from behavior is strongly reinforced by boot-camp type, physical training programs inconsistencies in the very system of to relaxation techniques, to physical punitive sanctions that seeks to change it. impulse control, to posture training as part Thus it should not be surprising that meta- of assertiveness. However, by convention, analyses have consistently indicated that among psychologists behavioral programs severely punitive, but inconsistent behavior have a more limited meaning. They are management techniques do not have understood as those that explicitly evidence of effectiveness in reducing incorporate principles of behavior delinquency or recidivism (Lipsey, 1995). modification (stimulus-response- Although individual studies have reinforcement) as first defined by B.F. shown some positive effect with token Skinner. Programs that utilize explicit, systems of reinforcement (Abramowitz & tangible, formal reinforcement, such as O’Leary, 1991), those results have not held “token economies,” are included in this up when studies are combined for meta-

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.7 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions analysis (Lipsey & Wilson, 1998). They A structure for written commitment have not been demonstrated to be effective to specific goals (journal), which in reducing recidivism among offenders. can become the basis for student However, a caution is in order. One of the contracts dangers of meta-analyses is that they fail to Certificates of Recognition for account for population specific outcomes. successful completion of all the Contracts have been shown to be effective components of each of the seven when used in school settings, especially key social-emotional abilities with students identified as having special needs (Heward, 1987; Martin & Pear, Social skill 2005). Monetary rewards have been shown to be effective in motivating some groups Another category of effective of low-income students. This is an example intervention is social skills training. where the standardization of data that Technically social skills would include all meta-analysis depends on may be those capacities – and only those capacities inconsistent with recognizing important - that involve interaction with others. variances in data, especially those However, in practice, several programs that associated with socio-economic and are classified as social skills training for cultural differences and/or disabilities. purposes of meta analyses include training Ripple Effects incorporates behavior in cognitive-behavioral techniques that modification by providing: address intra-personal issues, such as Positive reinforcement in the form coping with stress. In addition, many of animated rewards and praise, for programs that are categorized as social skill any answer in surveys of attitudes programs promote affective education, or self-appraisal and correct emotional regulation, and impulse control answers in all tests of concept as well. mastery, In the academic literature, social skill training most often refers to structured, Feedback from interactive exercises step-by-step-learning of any skill that in the form of a video game style involves interaction with other people. It point structure can run from aggression replacement Training for students and teachers therapy for adolescents, to training in how in how to deliver specific, focused to conduct a retail transaction for young praise people with Down’s syndrome. Training in how to recognize and The most common forms of skill respond to compliments training for delinquency prevention are Training and education for context specific; for instance, resistance implementers in the theory of skill training for substance abuse and reinforcement, practical strategies aggression reduction training. Individual on how to use natural Education Plans (IEPs) for students with consequences, praise, and a communicative disorders, such as Autism graduated system of negative spectrum disorders and Asperger’s consequences to shape behavior syndrome, often include such structured skill training under the umbrella “life skill training.” Universal prevention programs more often target proactive social skills

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such as “making friends” or “showing It provides step-by-step training in care.” both “communication” and “group skills,” including: “introducing Skill streaming yourself,” “conversations,” “thanking someone,” “expressing A key concept in social skill training is sympathy,” “giving and receiving “skill streaming” popularized in the compliments,” “making apologies,” curriculum of that name by Arnold “ignoring (provocative behavior)”, Goldstein (Goldstein, 1988). This refers to “appreciating diversity,” “dealing the five-part process of teacher modeling, with authority,” “resolving student role playing, group performance, conflict,” “joining groups,” “having feedback, and transfer training (practicing discussions,” “making space,” the skills at home and in the community). “getting help,” “helping others,” Lipsey’s meta analyses of social skill “sharing,” and “accessing training programs did not include community.” substance abuse prevention programs, which comprise a substantial amount of It offers tutorials that address issues school-based prevention programming. of status (“respect”), “power,” and Analysis of impact of social skill training as “economic and social relations,” a substance abuse prevention program has which impact citizenship and consistently demonstrated positive impact, effective participation in a when implemented with fidelity in both democracy. live (Botvin et al. 1990; 1995) and In addition, the design of Ripple computer-based settings (Marsch, Bickel, & Effects Whole Spectrum Learning Badger, 2006). Platform incorporates a body of Ripple Effects WSIS incorporates and evidence about how to effectively applies theory on social skill training in conduct social skill training, these ways: including the use of modeling and It devotes a whole unit at each level rehearsal and transfer training (See Chapter 5 for discussion and (children, adolescents, adults) to Chapter 6 for detailed diagrams of developmentally appropriate how this is accomplished.) training in generalized assertiveness, including voice, A three-arm, randomized, posture, eyes and message, as part controlled trial in a New York City of generic training. It offers specific middle school, showed lessons for: “confronting behavior,” significantly higher scores for social skills “standing up for beliefs,” “making related to conflict resolution (p<.05) and complaints,” “taking control,” showing respect (p<.05), as measured by “communicating feelings,” blind observers, in the group exposed to “confronting injustice,” “setting Ripple Effects, as compared to the control limits,” and “stating needs.” group (Stern & Repa, 2000).

Counseling

Research has shown that individual and family counseling can be effective methods

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.9 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions for reducing risk factors related to presents clients with a set of potentially delinquency. Meta-analyses have not effective strategies that could enable them validated the effectiveness of group to constructively deal with a presenting counseling as an effective method to problem, and refers out clients who need impact measurable outcomes (Lipsey & more extensive therapy or medical help Hawkins, 2007). The focus here is on Borders & Drury, 1992; Whitson & Sexton, individual counseling. 1998). Carl Rogers, the originator of client- Individual counseling as a therapeutic centered therapy, believed that a therapist’s intervention to prevent delinquency is often genuine positive regard and empathy were delivered by school counselors. Less the only requisites for clients to better trust frequently, it is delivered by clinical and understand themselves, and to change psychologists who travel between schools their behavior as a result (Rogers, C. 1959) in a district. The American School Ripple Effects’ technology-enabled Counselors Association recommends a Whole Spectrum Intervention System ratio of 1 counselor to 250 students (ASCA functions metaphorically like a guidance website, 2009). According to the National counselor. It does not dispense medical Center for Education Statistics, the national advice, but it “listens,” paraphrases and re- average is closer to 1 counselor for 475 presents learner input, and then presents students (2007). The ratio of trained strategies that could be of help. Users psychologists to students is much lower. “present” their personal challenges through Because by definition it is a one-to-one their selection of topics. The expert system relationship, individual, live counseling by built into the program matches those a qualified professional may be the least challenges to a prescriptive set of proven- scalable of the effective interventions. effective strategies for meeting them. By Nonetheless, it has proven outcomes and clicking on links, learners can go deeper must be explored. into the suggested strategies. In the process, School counselors are formally charged the program unobtrusively guides them to with promoting academic success, career the formation of core social-emotional preparation and social-emotional competencies, including problem-solving development for all students equally. skills, which are the building blocks of Counseling as a selected intervention for resilience. students with behavior problems is focused Ripple Effects WSIS has been vetted by on social-emotional development. a diverse group of psychologists and However, few students with aggressive psychiatrists for use in school counseling behavior at school voluntarily seek out settings. It is used in many schools to counseling. bridge communication between students and counselors by providing a vocabulary Characteristics of effective counseling of social emotional experiences, to prompt for social-emotional challenges disclosure of personal problems, including abuse, and to triage a heavy case load. Ideally, counseling focused on social- Students with minor concerns can use the emotional problem solving has these training software to explore independently; characteristics: It is person-centered, non- so that counselors can focus on those judgmental, invites affective (non students or situations that are most urgent intellectual) exploration of experience, and/or require the most expertise. involves active, reflective listening,

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Counselors report that students or gangs, but appearance issues and peer sometimes disclose underlying problems, relationships. Students expressed almost no including physical and sexual abuse after interest in proactively learning core social use of the program. emotional abilities. Instead, their expressed A study of use of Ripple Effects interest was in “nots” – “not thin,” “not software by 3,685 students over, popular,” “not athletic,”” not good three years in discipline settings in looking.” Thus these topics were added to 40 schools indicated 27% of elementary the program before first release (Ripple students, 38% of middle school students, Effects internal data, 1998-2007). And 36% of high school students, voluntarily used the program for personal Non-judgmental guidance and counseling for issues not Counselors attempt to be non- directly related to their behavioral offense. judgmental; a computer can literally be so. When given the opportunity, more than The computer literally has no preference 95% of students in six RCTs, took about whether students choose an advantage of the opportunity to receive exploitation topic from the perspective of private guidance on topics of personal perpetrator (“bully”), target (“bullied”), or interest to them, which were not required witness (“bystander”). However, once a by the study protocol (Ray, Berg & given topic is chosen, a computer is Patterson, 2008). capable of communicating all the biases and judgment that any individual counselor Characteristics of personal guidance is. through Ripple Effects In the case of Ripple Effects training software, use of peer voices rather than Exposure to Ripple Effects WSIS adult authority reduces the felt impression approximates a counseling experience in several ways: of judgment. In addition, tutorials involving anti-social behavior, treat the experience of Client centered perpetrators as understandable, though not acceptable, and maintain a posture of Users of the software are at the center respect in tone and style throughout. of the Ripple Effects experience. It is “all about me.” They choose what topics to Encourages affective exploration explore, choose how much of themselves Scenarios for each of hundreds of to reveal, choose what set of skill training Ripple Effects topics have questions about opportunities to take advantage of, and the feelings of the protagonist in the choose the gender of their electronic guide. situation being explored. Every journal User-regulated topic selection allows each exercise includes a writing opportunity for person to select and explore the issue or users to identify their own feelings about risk factor most important to her or him. the issue being explored. There are a whole Formative evaluations involving set of lessons on core skills for identifying, focus groups in several classrooms understanding and communicating of high school students indicated feelings, (“mixed feelings,” etc.). An entire that the desired point of entry for most unit is directed toward “managing students are not traditionally recognized feelings.” risk factors, such as family violence, drugs

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.11 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Demonstrates active listening Offers relevant evidence-based strategies

Ripple Effects software invites, attends Even the most gifted, experienced to, reflects and validates learner’s interior child psychologists, let alone beginning experience. More than 30 interactive self- school counselors, rarely have personal profiles pose questions, “listen” to user expertise in providing training in all five of responses, and mirror back the content the most effective approaches described they have provided. In addition to profiles above. It’s even less likely that either group for core social emotional abilities, there are would also be expert in the whole interactive self-profiles related to norms, spectrum of much less common, but also social values, and propensity toward valid approaches to dealing with exploitation or victimization in a idiosyncratic risk factors that may influence relationship. The peer voices in the vulnerability to delinquency, especially software literally resonate with the voices mental health problems. inside users’ own heads. The assisted As described on pages 2.1-2.4 and writing journal exercises provide word suggested by its name, Ripple Effects prompts to help less verbal students name incorporates a Whole Spectrum of effective their own experience, and provide open- interventions, with a focus on cognitive, ended opportunities for self-expression for behavioral and social skill training students who are more fluent. The strategies for hundreds of concrete interactive profiles mirror back problems. Through an expert system it representations of what learners say about presents a small subset for consideration by themselves. users, based on the selections they have Process evaluations consistently made. show that student users report feeling “listened to” by the Protects confidentiality program (Correspondence and interviews, Ripple Effects protects client Ripple Effects, 2000-2008). confidentiality by password protecting each Offers science-based information user’s input into the program, encrypting about areas of client concern. journal entries, and providing a “privacy screen” that can be lowered at the click of For specific concerns, such as “panic a mouse. attacks,” “pulling (one’s) hair out,” “post traumatic stress (PTSD),” “obsessive- Refers out serious problems compulsive disorders,” “tics,” and For all problems that potentially involve “depression,” the tutorials include serious injury to self and/or others (i.e. symptoms and definitions from DSM-IV. “anorexia”, “suicidal thoughts,” etc.) and Where non-medical interventions have for those that may have a basis in chemistry been proven effective, such as changing or biology (i.e. “attention deficit disorder”), self-talk to control “anxiety”, tutorials as well as those that may require intensive, include training or guidance in those longer term therapy, Ripple Effects directs methods. learners to seek further medical help and links them to training in how to use community resources and how to ask for help.

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Parent training health, and economic outcomes, though not with reduced crime or substance abuse Extensive research has shown that (Hawkins et al. 2008). parent training as early as pregnancy and The Wilson-Lipsey meta-analysis of early childhood can have positive effects school based programs to reduce on the child, as he or she matures (CDC, aggressive and disruptive behavior (2007) 2009). Numerous researchers have found did not include free-standing, parent that parent training helps reduce education programs. It included only those aggressive, antisocial, and delinquent parent programs that supplement psycho- behavior among children (CDC, 2009; educational programs targeting youth. Of Dumas, 1989; Feldman & Kazdin, 1995; the 249 studies included in the meta- Kazdin, Siegel, and Bass, 1992; Satterfield analysis, only 11 included parent training. et al. 1987; Tremblay et al. 1992). These All of these were part of comprehensive, parent training programs address family multi-level programming, which was the and parental risk and protective factors. least effective service format, with mean Protective factors include parental effect size of only .05, which was not supervision, attachment to parents, and significant. consistency of discipline (Huizinga, Ripple Effects does not have a free Loeber, and Thornberry, 1995). Remedial standing, parent support software training interventions may focus on poor program. The teen program does include supervision, excessive family conflict, tutorials on “pregnancy” and “teen family isolation, sibling drug use, and poor parenting”. It also provides adolescents socialization (Kumpfer & Alvarado, 1995). with generic training in cognitive- Some parent programs are framed in behavioral and communication strategies, terms of children’s behavior. For instance similar to those promoted in Parents Who the extensively tested, model program The Care™, which have been correlated not Incredible Years addresses “lack of only with improved academic and commitment to school, early and persistent behavioral outcomes for young people, but antisocial behavior, and family conflict” in also with more effective parenting practices a 12-week program that involves group later in life. discussion of a series of 250 video vignettes In addition, Ripple Effects offers an (Webster–Stratton, 1984; Webster–Stratton, illustrated Personal Trainer for Parents 1985). Other programs are framed in terms manual as a supplement for use with stand- of parent experience. Parents Who Care, alone parent programs, or as an enrichment another extensively tested program from of - and take away from – parent teacher the Seattle Social Development Project, conferences. The Personal Trainer for focuses on setting a context of risk and Parents includes coaching in protection, developing positive communication and discipline patterns, communication skills to promote bonding, cognitive-behavioral skills for emotional and developing positive discipline/ family regulation, and how to recognize and management skills (Haggerty, Skinner, leverage their children’s learning strengths. MacKenzie & Catalano, 2007). Social- Finally, the Coach for Staff software emotional training at the elementary school includes coaching for teachers in how to level, which also includes parent education communicate effectively with parents and workshops, has been correlated with long invite greater involvement of parents in term (15 years later) higher educational, their children’s school activities. To foster

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.13 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions that positive communication, the Ripple focused exclusively on affective capacities Effects system includes positive of recognizing, understanding, labeling, communication post cards, in which “The expressing and regulating emotions (Rivers, Eagle Eye” pounces on something each Brackett, & Salovey, 2007). They suggest parent’s child has done right. The noted that without formal attention to this behavior can be any concrete, expression domain, serious program deficits can result of a component of one of the seven key and outcomes will fall short of what is social emotional competencies listed on possible. Neurobiological research page 5.28. A social observation form confirms both that separate parts of the checklist is available via the web to hone brain govern thinking, feeling, and teachers’ recognition of positive behavior. behaving and that those parts are closely The post cards can be sent electronically or linked, often react simultaneously and thus through the postal service. over time get “wired together” to such an extent that they “fire together” (Goldsmith, WHAT’S MISSING: AFFECTIVE Pollak & Davidson, 2008). Brain and APPROACHES cardiology research has led to increased awareness of the controllable, physiological dimensions of emotion, and In the models used here, affective has tested a wide range of techniques for approaches are not separated out from changing or regulating emotion, from cognitive, behavioral, or social skill cognitive therapies described above, to modalities. Affective treatment modalities light boxes, to breathing and meditation are implied, but not described, in many of exercises (Davidson & Lutz, 2008; McCraty the counseling program protocols. There is & Tomasino, 2006). no doubt that mind, body and emotion are intertwined on many levels (Damasio, Empathy training 2005), and many effective programs include attention to all three (Feshbeck, A specialized field of affective 1975, 1982). education that has critically important social implications, is empathy (Feshbach, Emotional Intelligence 1975.1982; Ickes,1997, 2003; Goleman, 1995; Eisenberg et al. 1992, Davis, 1994, Yet some scientists posit that Hoffman,2000; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1990). recognizing, understanding, labeling, Researchers are studying how it is expressing and regulating emotion involves triggered, fostered, measured, and lost. a distinctly separate set of abilities that are Although the evidence being accumulated enhanced by cognitive and behavioral supports many, sometimes conflicting techniques, but not fully explained by them theories about the origins of empathy, and (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Hoffman, 1982; all affective capacities, there is now general Eisenberg & Fabes, 1987, 1990. 1995); agreement that affective capacities are both Batson,1991). separate from cognitive and behavioral Affective education capacities, and heavily influenced by those. Thus it is not surprising that Under the acronym RULER, Bracket sometimes it is described as a state of felt and Rivers (2007, 2008) have developed an identification with another, sometimes as entire program of affective education, “everyday mind reading” (Ickes, 2003),

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sometimes as being able to step into personal goals at all?" The wide spread someone else’s shoes, and sometimes as failure to motivate whole subgroups of caring behavior that reflects some felt young people, especially urban Latino and awareness of the other. African American youth, to stay in school Ripple Effects content draws heavily and obey the law, suggests that it would be from this field. Empathy and emotional useful to do further analysis on this issue. regulation, with their constituent abilities, Ripple Effects addresses conation with represent two of the seven Ripple Effects specific tutorials on: “what you love,” key skills. There are individual tutorials for “goals,” “success-phobia,” “future,” each of the following: “control,” “unmotivated,” “hopeless.” Empathy: “feelings-names for,” “mixed,” “changing,” “owning them,” SEL: Integrating modalities “predicting,” “perspective taking,” “understanding motives,” “showing you Despite the value of separating out care,” “paraphrasing,” “body language,” affective modalities, there are risks as well. “asking (open-ended) questions.” Empathy training, without corresponding Managing feelings: “mindfulness,” training in assertiveness and establishing “physical sensations,” “triggers-inside,” limits and boundaries, conceivably could “triggers-outside,” “relaxing,” “expressing have the unintended consequence of feelings,” “letting go,” “laughing,” simply developing more pliant victims. This “practicing happiness.” is especially true for females who have been previously victimized and may be Conation - motivation overly sensitized to the perpetrators’ expressed feelings and needs On the other Another set of approaches that are not hand, social skill training in assertiveness, teased out in these studies target "conation" paired with cognitive training in predicting or motivation in its broadest sense. This logical consequences, without the addition concept straddles the line between affect, of empathy training, conceivably could decision-making, and behavior. It is the result in developing more skillful process of self-reflective inquiry that leads manipulators. to motivation and intentionality (Huitt, The difficulty in drawing clear lines 1999). In even simpler terms, but important between obviously interconnected ones to resistant adolescents, it directly phenomena has led some researchers, as addresses the question, "But why (do it?)." well as practitioners, to move in the Dweck has looked at the role of a “growth opposite direction. A group of researchers mindset” – a belief in the importance of associated with the Collaborative for effort versus innate ability–in fostering Academic, Social and Emotional Learning motivation (Dweck, 2006). Many social (CASEL) combines social, emotional, problem-solving models include goal cognitive and behavioral approaches under setting as a first step (Elias & Clabby, 1992). a single category of social-emotional Bandura's model of self-efficacy includes programming. By doing so they have been motivation, goal setting and perseverance able to accumulate a body of evidence that as important factors in self-regulation lends itself to sophisticated statistical (1997), and self-regulation in turn is folded analyses. into cognitive-behavioral models for A series of those analyses have change. But the prior question is "why set demonstrated positive impact of this more

Chapter 4: What Works? Page 4.15 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions broadly described, social-emotional more effective than universal ones, larger programming on attitudes, behavior and effect sizes are found with younger youth, academic performance (Zins et al. 2004). and those who have higher risk. (Wilson & In a meta-analysis of the impact of after- Lipsey, 2007). In all areas, for both students school programming, Joseph Durlak and and teachers, there are larger positive Roger Weissberg examined the combined effects for individualized instruction than impact of programs that include any for one size fits all (Bender, 2002) and combination of these strategies, on greater effects for ongoing, embedded behavior and school performance, and coaching, than for one-time only training identified positive changes in attitudes, sessions (Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman behavior and school performance (Durlak & Wallace, 2005). & Weissberg, 2007). For these reason Ripple Effects includes Social-emotional capacity building in the Whole Spectrum of these approaches, children that combines affective, each individually and in a myriad of behavioral and cognitive approaches has context-specific combinations. Greatest use resulted in both short terms reductions in of Ripple Effects is among middle school school-based aggression (Greenberg,et al. students with elevated risk of school failure 2003; Grossman et al. 1997) and long term and delinquency. improvement in health, educational and economic life outcomes (Hawkins, HOW RACE AND ETHNICITY FIT Kosterma, Catalan, Hill, & Abbott, 2008). Ripple Effects approach is to explicitly These recent meta-analyses of effective incorporate cognitive, behavioral (physical interventions statistically control for race and verbal) affective, and social skill and ethnicity. That sets aside the reality training, as well as counseling techniques. that ethnic identity is itself a major risk Most lessons involve specific skill training factor for societal sanctions for anti-social in at least two of these modalities. Many behavior, starting with school-based include three. discipline as documented on pages 2.8, 2.9, 3.15 and 3.16. NO APPROACH “THE BEST” The correction Ripple Effects makes for the impact of race and ethnicity on Each of these strategies for reducing behavior is not to extract it from the anti-social and delinquent behavior has intervention, but to explicitly address it in been proven effective with some children tutorials for both students and teachers, as and youth, in some situations, some of the described in Chapters 3, 5, 6 and 7. time. None of the first three – cognitive, behavioral or social skill training – is LINKING MOST RISK WITH greatly more effective than the others, with GREATEST IMPACT: all having a mean effect size in the range of A LEVERAGED APPROACH .20 as part of universal interventions, and .29, as selected intervention (Wilson & With so many tested strategies to Lipsey, 2007). choose from, and so many risk factors to None of these effective practices work consider, against a backdrop of limited with all juveniles, in all situations, all of the resources the question arises: ”What is the time. In general, selected interventions are most leveraged way to put what has been

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learned about what works, with whom, gender, class and ethnicity, taken together under what conditions, to the best use?” It this multi-disciplinary body of evidence was exactly this question which led Lipsey suggests that a leveraged way to approach et al to cross correlate the most effective delinquency prevention would be to target strategies with the most important risk higher risk children with ongoing, factors. A reminder: the identified risk individualized training in evidence-based factors at age 10, which most predicted strategies that positively affect externalizing delinquent behavior at age 16, in order of behavior, attention, self-regulation, and correlation strength after controlling for social problem-solving, and target their socio-economic status, gender, and race teachers with on-going coaching in and ethnicity, were: effective methods for strengthening Prior anti-social behavior, (including personal leadership, deconstructing race- externalizing behavior) based attitudes, and constructively managing problematic behavior at its Personal characteristics, (lack of earliest occurrence. attention control, emotional regulation, In terms of content, it would promote problem solving) universally protective, personal Social relations (sociability, social self- characteristics for both students and the concept) adults who work with them; make available Family factors (parental warmth, the full range of proven effective strategies discipline style and family functioning) in developmentally appropriate ways; School behavior (academic correct inappropriate behavior without performance, school participation, blame or shame; be culturally competent; adjustment) and address issues of race, class and gender directly. The first three have the potential to be This combination of approaches largely under the control of students contains serious challenges from the themselves. The last is largely under the perspectives of both pedagogy and combined control of students and their implementation. The next chapter teachers. Parents have the biggest influence addresses the pedagogical issues. on family factors, but children can learn to have growing control over their own reactions to those factors. (Benard, 2003). The identified effective strategies include: Behavioral strategies Cognitive therapy Social skills training Counseling therapy for individuals and families Parent training

Adding these elements together, and reintegrating the important factors of

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Chapter 5: Education The other half of the psycho-educational equation

Educational philosophy………………………………………………………… 1 Art or science? ………………………………………………………………. 1 Either/or………………………………………………………………………. 2 Both/and………………………………………………………………………. 2 Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Philosophy of Education………………… 2 Learning context………………………………………………………………… 3 Safety………………………………………………………………………….. 5 Ripple Effects school safety profiler…………………………………… 5 Safety training for students…………………………………………… 6 Addressing warning signs……………………………………………. 6 Obvious "in" and "out" groups…………………………………………. 6 Name calling is common………………………………………………. 7 Charges of unfairness not fully addressed……………………………... 7 Rude or rough behavior is accepted. …………………………………. 7 Discipline is inconsistent………………………………………………. 7 Teachers feel afraid or under siege……………………………………. 7 Students feel disrespected by teachers………………………………… 8 "Loners" are not recognized as being at risk……………………………8 There is little or no public recognition for most students…………… 8 School leadership is weak or disrespected…………………………… 9 Connectedness and support………………………………………………… 9 Social relations………………………………………………………. 9 Support for students………………………………………………… 10 Positive behavioral support…………………………………………… 10 Support for teachers………………………………………………… 11 Support to increase parent involvement…………………………..… 11 Opportunities for social-emotional learning……………………..… 12 Responsibility……………………………………………………………….. 12

Chapter 5: Education From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Shared vision……………………………………………………..… 13 Aligned policies…………………………………………………..… 13 Enforceable rules…………………………………………………… 13 Consistent, logical consequences…………………………………... 13 Problem solving structures and processes………………………...… 14 Challenge……………………………………………………………………. 14 External expectations……………………………………………….. 15 Internal factors……………………………………………………… 15 Personal relevance……………………………………………………. 15 Internal motivation……………………………………………………. 15 Stimulation……………………………………………………………… 15 Wider equity issues…………………………………………………………. 16 Social-cultural heritage of inequity…………………………….…… 16 Persists even in “progressive” models………………………...…… 17 Ripple Effects’ bias: preferential option for the poor……………….. 17 Discrimination based on ethnicity………………….………………. 18 English language learners (ELL) limited english proficiency (LEP)…. 18 Gender gap………………….……………………………………… 19 Students with disabilities…………………………………………… 20 Physical and cognitive………………………………………………… 20 Social-emotional disorders…………………………………………… 20 It’s not always children who have special needs…………………… 21 Knowledge and meaning…………………………………………………….. 22 Traditional position………………………………………………………… 22 Knowledge is objective…………………………………………………. 22 Knowledge is inert…………………………………………………. 22 Content standards & frameworks……………………………………. 23 Critique of objectivist philosophy of knowledge………………………… 23 Subjectivist position about knowledge…………………………………… 24 Critique of subjectivist approach to knowledge………………………… 25 Social-emotional learning as a specialized field of knowledge…….. 25 SEL frameworks and standards…………………………………………27

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Thematic contexts for SEL…………………………………………….. 29 Trend toward integration……………………………………………… 29 Learning process………………………………………………………………. 29 Traditional model: cognitive and linear……………………………………30 Learning as conditioned response……………………………………… 30 Critique of classical model of learning process……………………….. 31 Neuro-scientific evidence…………………………………..…………...31 Developmental differences……………………………………………. 31 Social-cultural heterogeneity………………………………………..… 31 Non english symbol system in place……………………………….… 32 Delaying decision-making compounds risks………………………… 32 Delaying self-expression is problematic……………………………… 32 Promotes passive consumerism in learning…………………………. 33 Constructivist learning: whole system, pattern seeking…………………. 33 Non-linear sequencing……………………………………………… 34 Affective involvement……………………………………………… 34 Problem solving…………………………………………………… 35 Reflective self inquiry………………………………………………. 35 Whole person transformation……………………………………… 36 Social-cultural context……………………………………………… 36 Language development…………………………………………….. 37 Journaling………………………………………………………………. 38 Metaphor………………………………………………………….….… 38 Learning differences………………………………………………… 38 Intelligences……………………………………………………………. 39 Learning style preferences…………………………………………….. 39 Critique of learning style typing……………………………………. 40 Reconciliation of perspectives………………………………………… 40 Learning disorders and disabilities………………………………….. 41 Social-emotional learning as a specialized form of learning……………. 41 Social learning processes…………………………………………… 41 Instruction……………………………………………………………………… 42

Chapter 5: Education From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Goals………………………………………………………………………… 42 Roles………………………………………………………………………… 43 Methods…………………………………………………………………….. 44 Process: transmission………………………………………………. 44 Process: transaction………………………………………………… 44 Process: learning cycle……………………………………………... 45 Four key instructional approaches for SEL…………………………… 46 Process: pure discovery……………………………………………………. 47 Critique of discovery methods……………………………………… 47 Process: supportive guidance……………………………………………… 49 Instructional differentiation………………………………………………… 50 Zones of proximal development…………………………………… 50 Immediacy…………………………………………………………. 50 Scaffolding…………………………………………………………. 51 Questioning as scaffolding: bloom’s taxonomy…………………….. 52 Structure: universal design for learning (UDL) ………………………….. 53 The role of story……………………………………………………. 54 Classroom management……………………………………………………… 55 Classroom orchestration…………………………………………………… 55 Classroom management as pedagogy…………………………………….. 55 Integration of instructional and group management practices………. 56 RE managing diverse learners unit………………………………….. 57 Ripple Effects tutorials in "Managing Diverse Learners Unit"…………… 57 Orchestrating learning to prevent discipline problems……………... 57 “With-it-ness” ……………………………………………………… 58 ”Overlapping” (multi-tasking) ……………………………………… 58 Smoothness………………………………………………………… 58 Momentum………………………………………………………… 59 Assessment……………………………………………………………………. 59 Pre-intervention assessment……………………………………………….. 59 Response to intervention (RTI) ………………………………...…… 60 Observational assessment………………………………………….. 61 Self-assessment…………………………………………………….. 61

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Pre-intervention assessment of organizational readiness……………. 62 Post-intervention assessment……………………………………………… 63 Assessment as measure of concept mastery………………………… 63 Assessment as means to content mastery…………………………… 63 Assessment of performance knowledge…………………………… 64 Assessment of external outcomes………………………………….. 64 Assessment of implementation process…………………………… 65 Data analysis…………………………………………………………………66 Interpretation of assessment results………………………………… 66 Cultural competence………………………………………………………. 67 Effective cross-cultural capabilities……………………………………. 67 Promoting cultural competence in students………………………… 68 Promoting cultural competence in teachers. ………………………. 68 Professional development……………………………………………………. 68 Major report on effective practices…………………………………………69 Effective content……………………………………………………………. 69 Grounded in the concrete……………………………………..…… 69 Focused on student learning processes and assessment…………….. 70 Includes expert presentations of best practices for specific challenges……. 70 Relevant/useful…………………………………………..………… 70 Context……………………………………………………………………… 71 Situated in community……………………………………………… 71 Job-embedded………………………………………………………. 72 Integrated into larger goals and assessment structures…………….. 72 Learning process…………………………………………………………… 73 Active engagement in students’ learning cycle…………………….. 73 Includes modeling…………………………………………………. 73 Includes learner-generated and peer-generated content…………… 73 Self-regulated……………………………………………………… 74 Shared reflection…………………………………………………… 74 Participatory planning and shared decision-making……………..… 74 Emotionally supportive……………………………………………... 75

Chapter 5: Education From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Non-blaming……………………………………………………….. 75 Personalizes and supports each teacher’s own SEL process…………. 76 Frequency and amount……………………………………………………. 76 Sustained, not episodic…………………………………………….. 76 Sufficient dosage…………………………………………………… 76 Tiered intervention for staff………………………………………… 77 RE universal intervention for staff………………………………….… 77 RE targeted intervention for staff……………………………………… 77 RE individualized intervention for staff…………………………….… 78 Time and resource distribution……………………………………………. 78 Appendix B: preconfigured scopes and sequences………………………… 80 References………………………………………………………………………81

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY Psycho-educational interventions have been developed and tested primarily by Art or Science? psychologists. However, as the name suggests, these treatment modalities have Despite the recent trend toward their source in dual disciplines. They not transforming education into pure science, only deal with the human psyche, they also Schools of Education still properly reside in are educational modalities and their Colleges of the Arts. The roots of primary locus of delivery is public schools. educational practice are in philosophy. Psycho-educational interventions are used Evidence suggests that philosophical not only to address anti-social and orientation – not exposure to quantitative delinquent behavior in schools, but to data – largely determines how educators prevent or reduce mental health disorders view teaching, learning, knowledge and that frequently co-occur with anti-social the use of technology (Darkenwald & behavior, and to directly address psycho- Merriam, 1982). That view in turn affects social components of school failure. In development and implementation of school addition they are increasingly used for level policies, relationships with students, school-based, positive youth development parents and colleagues, instructional programs, including character education practice, classroom management strategies, and core social-emotional skill building. attitudes toward assessment, and High rates of school failure among understanding of the specialized field of youth with multiple risk factors for social-emotional learning. delinquency is well documented and On the one hand, basing teaching and causes for that failure have been learning practice on philosophical extensively studied (Ferguson, 2002; Jencks positions has resulted in many kinds of & Phillips, 1998; McCall, Hauser, Cronin, ignorance replicating and perpetuating Kingsbury & Houser, 2006). Environmental, themselves over many centuries. Not the behavioral and instructional factors all least of these are gross inaccuracies about have been shown to play a role (Bennett et the role of ethnicity and social class in al. 2004; Hammond, Linton, Smink & learning. This is partly why scientific Drew, 2007; McEvoy & Welker 2000). evidence of “what works” has become Thus research and theory in the field of indispensable to educational reform. education has much to add to On the other hand, reducing valid understanding of best practices for school- educational practice to what can be proven based, preventive interventions to address in variable-stripped, randomized, anti-social behavior, as well as best controlled trials fails to recognize that practices to boost academic achievement, philosophical insights and various especially among young people at elevated combinations of intuitive understanding risk for delinquency. and hard earned, practical wisdom greatly contribute to the art of education. To

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dismiss the insights from deep philosophy versus individual discipline approaches; and the wisdom gleaned from everyday conditional contracts versus unconditional teaching and learning experience simply acceptance. Professional development is because they have not been fully tested episodic or job embedded, about under controlled conditions, is to risk knowledge transfer or skill-building, depriving children of the very thing science collaborative or competitive, built around and government and education all agree is expert instruction or personal reflection. their right: the best practices to ensure Assessment is periodic or continuous, success in academic learning and subjective or objective, personal or successful socialization into the role of impersonal, based on standardized tests or responsible citizens. real world products and outcomes. Recent developments in brain research, especially neuroscience, provide some Both/and help in resolving the tension between the science and the art of education. Brain These dichotomous categories studies support elements of a wide range of represent the purist endpoints of various philosophical positions and greatly expand expressions of two opposite philosophies of what can legitimately be called “evidence- learning that are at the forefront of based” practices in education, especially in educational debate today. They are often social-emotional education. In particular, broadly grouped under the umbrella terms an explosion of neuroscientific findings in “traditional” and “progressive” education. the last decade have substantiated Both can claim a connection with classical philosophical insights associated with philosophy and ancient educational constructivist education that previously had practices. Both present coherent models been considered idealistic conjecture by that address learning modes and many education scientists. instructional methodologies. Both can cite evidence of positive outcomes. The former Either/or has accumulated more quantitative evidence, the latter more qualitative Educational philosophy and theory is evidence. Both can cite recent brain often framed in terms of various sets of research to defend their positions. Although dueling opposites: Knowledge is subjective the two sets of positions are sometimes or objective, fluid or inert, expanding or presented as mutually exclusive fixed, particular or universal, about philosophies, they can also be seen as two meaning or about facts. Learning is active halves of a 360 degree arc of education. or passive, personal or universal, about spontaneous discovery or systematic Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum investigation, involves cognitive or Philosophy of Education affective, social or behavioral procedures. Pedagogy is either learner or instructor It is this whole spectrum, 360 degree centered, content or process focused, framing that is the rationale for Ripple involves linear or non-linear sequencing, Effects’ incorporation of both sets of innovative or proven practices, relies on principles into different parts of its system. teachable moments or scheduled lessons. Rather than treating these approaches as Classroom management involves autocratic competing ideologies that demand a vote or democratic decision-making; ecological for or against, or as mathematical points on

Page 5.2 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS a line, the Ripple Effects approach is to Cai & Osher, 2007; Spier, Cai, Osher & treat them like variants of hue and Kendziora, 2007). An unsafe, hostile, saturation that make up a circular color chaotic or simply indifferent learning palette (Figure 5.1). From this full palette, a environment is correlated with poorer wide range of rich learning experiences for school performance among all students, each student can be drawn. especially those who have personal Far from being logically incompatible, learning challenges. That is why most a color and its direct opposite can be used successful prevention programs target not together to strong effect. For example, the only learners, but also the learning pairing of demanding expectations with environment, as a major protective or risk lavish student support results in higher factor for students (Gottfredson, 1986; outcomes, than either approach creates Solomon et al. 2000; Hawkins, Catalano, independently (Osher et al. 2003.) Kosterman, Abott & Hill, 1999; Reynolds, The educational theory that underpins Temple, Robertson & Mann, 2001). Ripple Effects WSIS has sources in science Dozens of factors have been and art; in experimental trials and empirically correlated with more – or less – qualitative studies; in brain research and effective learning environments. In a meta- philosophical insights. They apply to: analysis of factors related to reduced school failure and drop out rates, David The learning context Osher describes four major characteristics The nature of knowledge and that define a school climate conducive to meaning positive social and academic outcomes for The learning process students. They are: safety, support, Instructional methods responsibility, and challenge (2007). Classroom management practices Recent brain research, in particular fMRI and PET imaging techniques, have Cultural competence confirmed that there are neurobiological as Assessment well as psycho–social explanations for why Professional development all four of these factors are directly related to school outcomes (Caine & Caine, 2002). LEARNING CONTEXT They do not fall neatly into one side or the other of the traditional versus progressive debate. As in physical environments, these Educational research shows that the factors exist in ecological relationships to learning environment is consistently and each other. A change in one can affect all significantly correlated with both the others. behavioral and academic outcomes (Spier,

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RIPPLE EFFECTS WHOLE SPECTRUM PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

FigurePage 5.1 5.4 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

reinforced throughout the school years, so Safety that it becomes automatic in times of greatest stress (Elias, et al 2006). Perry Common sense indicates that people identifies episodic “alarm” as a separate who are in the middle of a hurricane, or state that activates the limbic part of the victims of a crime still in process, or even brain, the seat of emotion. Something preoccupied with waiting for either to sensed in the environment triggers an occur, are less likely to be successful in emotional reaction. That primitive sensing learning a new skill in algebra than people may be accurate and protective, but may who can calmly focus on new learning, also be inaccurate, a false alarm projecting with support and without distraction. threat where there is none. This is Nevertheless, until rigorous meta-analyses consistent with the misattribution of hostile and brain research could confirm these motives that is characteristic of many youth self-evident facts, the roles of school safety offenders (Lipsey et al. 2007). In this – emotional as well as physical – in student emotion-driven frame of mind, only achievement had been widely immediate consequences can be underestimated. Now the scientific considered. By contrast, a calm state – but evidence is in. not a bored one – activates the neo-cortex, The connection between school safety which makes abstract thinking possible. and academic performance is rooted in This is why some SEL programs, like Social neurobiology. Neuroimaging has Decision Making (Elias, Bruene-Butler, demonstrated that perceived threat 1999), first calm children before teaching activates the primitive part of the brain them reasoning skills, even in discipline responsible for fight/freeze/flight reactions settings. It at least partly explains the (subcortex), at the expense of higher order, correlation between calming exercises problem-solving functions in the prefrontal before testing, and higher standardized test cortex. In the survival mode, responses scores in language and math (Thayer, become more limited and automatic; Hansen, et al. 2009). nuance is lost (Gruneberg and Morris, Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum 1979; Perry, 2007); people are unable to Intervention System addresses physical, engage in complex thinking (Le Doux, social and emotional components of school 1996). Students who are terrified at school safety at three levels: the school, the (including social terror) may freeze, act out, educator, and the student. It provides or simply withdraw (Perry, 2007). Short of resources for assessment of school safety, stark terror, when fear is a chronic state, for prevention of school-based violence, stress fatigue can kick in, and the brain and provides both students and staff with “downshifts” to compensate (Caine & training in how to deal with threatening or Caine, 1994). Impulsive, short-term unsafe conduct. Included in that training thinking and behavior may be the result. are strategies for self-calming and Whatever is previously learned and emotional regulation. automatic will come to the surface (Le Doux, 1996; Perry, 2007). This why some Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler experts assert that social-emotional learning must be continually rehearsed and Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler is a web-based tool to measure perceived

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safety at the school level. The Profiler is weapons, presence of drugs or alcohol. The made up of separate online surveys to survey also measures students' perceived capture the perspectives of students and ability to use social skills to handle educators. Both students and educators can challenging situations, and their access to see school results, and can compare and confidence in community resources for perceptions. The survey queries all parties problem solving, two aspects of student regarding discipline/school climate, respect support. for persons, presence of, or access to Screen shots from Ripple Effects Web-based School Safety Profiler– Questions (left) and Summary Report of Results (right)

Figure 5.3 Figure 5.2

Safety training for students situations, and handling disclosure of physical or sexual abuse by youth. Ripple Effects content library includes personal safety training for children, teens For a more comprehensive and staff. description of the use of Ripple Safety training for elementary age Effects for personal safety and violence children includes general safety training prevention, see the supplemental Ripple and training in personal safety issues of Effects guide Targeted Prevention: Risk physical and sexual abuse, bullying and Reduction. fighting. Safety training for teens includes Addressing warning signs physical and sexual abuse by adults, and peer exploitation, including bullying, The Office of Safe and Drug Free cyber-bullying, dating abuse and rape. It Schools has identified ten school-level also includes topics on fighting, threats, signs of a potentially unsafe environment weapons and recklessness, and trauma, (1998). whether related to natural or human- Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum caused disasters. School administrators can Intervention System addresses each of these delete any topic that consider inappropriate ten indicators, both at the level of the for any student group. student and the level of the adult. Training for staff, includes dealing with threats, deescalating potentially violent

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Obvious "in" and "out" groups, Rude or rough behavior is accepted.

Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System includes lessons on Intervention System includes professional “cliques,” “not-invited,” ”left out,” and development on how to develop and “community connectedness” for both implement a code of conduct that would students and implementers. preclude rude and rough behavior. In addition, it offers training to both students Name calling is common and staff on courtesy, as well as tutorials on specific ways of using body language to Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum communicate caring and assertiveness, Intervention System includes lessons on rather than either passivity or aggression. It name calling that address the role of includes training for staff on cultural perpetrators and the reactions of students differences about what may be perceived who are targets. It includes several lessons as rough or aggressive. It includes lessons on stereotypes that often motivate name for younger students on keeping their calling, including stereotypes based on hands and feet to themselves. ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation. Discipline is inconsistent Charges of unfairness not fully addressed Ripple Effects includes coaching for Ripple Effects includes the topic teachers on how to design and deliver “fairness” as a specific lesson for both consistent discipline within a code of students and teachers. The professional conduct that includes clear rules with a development software coaches graduated system of consequences. It also implementers in how to constructively deal includes professional development to raise with charges of unfairness, and how to put awareness of possible racial bias in in place a problem solving structure, disciplinary responses. including how to use advisory period for It provides students with training both group problem solving. on respecting authority and on confronting In addition, it not only encourages unfair practices, including discrimination. students to confront perceived unfairness, Additional lessons for students help them but also trains them in constructive ways to distinguish parental discipline from abuse. do so, with an emphasis on confronting Training materials for parents encourage unfair policies and behavior, as a positive consistent, moderate discipline. alternative to attacking people or otherwise acting out. Teachers feel afraid or under siege Ripple Effects goes one step further, it addresses fairness not only as an Ripple Effects professional development interpersonal issue, but also as a societal software includes lessons for teachers on one. The topic of social justice is addressed how to manage fear, respond to threats and directly and in terms of many of its forms, de-escalate potentially dangerous such as economic, gender, racial and situations. Training points include having a ethnic justice. back up system and a clear protocol for handling emergency situations. In addition, staff coaching includes lessons on “assertiveness” and “commanding respect,”

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both of which are correlated with reduced vulnerability for those learners who both attacks on teachers. are informed by thoughts, principles and ideology, rather than feeling or instinct, Students feel disrespected by teachers and learn by sitting back and watching, rather than jumping in and doing. Abundant evidence indicates that Temperament profiles help students perception of disrespect by teachers, understand how a natural inclination especially for African American students is toward introversion and cooler personality a key factor in reducing student motivation can lead to greater social isolation. Ripple (Ferguson, 2006). Effects does not put the whole burden for Respect is a two-way equation. Ripple change on socially isolated students; rather, Effects School Safety Profiler provides clear a configuration for use as a universal data about the degree to which students in promotion program develops community- a given school feel disrespected by building skills in all students. teachers, and indicates whether there is a A randomized controlled trial gap in the perception of respect between conducted by West Ed indicated students and teachers. Data from School that when an experimental group Safety Profiles completed by dozens of of students was exposed to Ripple Effects’ schools around the country show a empathy training, not only were their gains consistent pattern of discrepancy in in empathy scores significantly higher than perception between teachers and students their classmates who were not exposed, but in three key areas: respect by teachers for peers in the same classrooms had students, presence or absence of bullying, statistically significant greater net gains in and availability of drugs or alcohol (Ripple connectedness scores. In other words, Effects records, 2002-2007). when one group learned to show care, the Ripple Effects’ professional other group felt more included (De Long- development software includes lesson for Cotty, 2008). both teachers and students on giving, as well as getting respect, including training There is little or no public recognition on how to use voice, eyes, body, posture, for most students proximity to communicate respect for, and command respect from others. Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System provides printable "Loners" are not recognized as being at risk recognition certificates for completion of a full unit of computerized training for each Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum of seven key social-emotional Intervention System specifically includes competencies. The video game point the topic, “loner.” The program has scoring system also recognizes learner community building exercises that are achievement in completing content designed to increase a sense of belonging assessment exercises. Ripple Effects for both students and adults. It trains includes lessons for both teachers and teachers in ways to include loners without students on “compliments” and “praise.” putting them on the spot, such as having Professional development software them play the 3rd party “watcher” role, if encourages staff to pounce on pro-social there are role plays. In addition, interactive behavior. Supplemental web resources profiles on learning style differences provide teachers with a Social Behavior identify possible social isolation as a

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Observation Form to heighten their Social relations awareness of that behavior and templates for mail or electronic postcards to notify Empirical research on school outcomes parents when the “Eagle Eye” has consistently shows that positive, caring recognized their children’s pro-social relationships between adults and students behavior. Instructors are encouraged to at school is an important factor in the have a method for peers to recognize each learning environment, especially for other’s pro-social behavior. students who may not have positive parental support (Blum & Rinehart, 1998; School leadership is weak or disrespected Wimberly, 2002; Ferguson, 2008). Having positive relations with pro-social peers is Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum equally important (Johnson, 2000; Intervention System includes a whole unit Wentzel, 1998). Both are resiliency factors on leadership development for educators. among students with multiple risks for Training lessons in that unit parallel the school failure and conduct problems components of seven core social-emotional (Benard, 2004). abilities in the student programs. In Social relationships at school are not addition, there is a specific lesson on only the context for learning and behavior; motivation. In a separate unit on “Making a growing number of scientists and Programs Work” there are tutorials on educators argue that they are directly practical logistics of leadership, such as involved in the learning process itself. engaging stakeholders in decision-making Neuroscientists argue that every individual and getting buy in. is born with a “contact urge.” Monkeys deprived of social contact fail to thrive Connectedness and Support physically; evidence suggests there may be cognitive costs as well. Recent brain A safe environment is sufficient to studies have identified “mirror neurons” prevent injury to children, and to allow through which, when one monkey sees them to activate the parts of their brain another poked with a stick, the parts of the required for higher-level thinking. Although brain responsible for sensing pain light up it is necessary to ensure their school in the observing monkey. This is a success, it is not by itself, sufficient to do neurochemical example of the deep links so. An environment that is safe, but between social beings (Gopnik, Meltzoff & indifferent, cannot ensure success for Kuhl 1999). It partly explains why injury to students most at risk of failure. Lack of any is an injury to all. Caine and Caine, positive social connection to school has who have developed a twelve point system been repeatedly tied to lowered academic of education based on direct application of performance (Osher et al. 2003, Lee et al. mind-brain research to K-12 education 1999), externalizing and aggressive argue that “All students have the capacity behavior (Battistich & Horn, 1997; to comprehend more effectively when their McNeely, 2004), and high drop out rates needs for social interactions and (Jerold, 2006). Positive social connection is relationship are engaged and honored” linked to positive social relations and (2004). supportive services. In Ripple Effects student training software, a whole series of lessons coach students on how to choose friends, and

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how to form and sustain positive support, through specific lessons on relationships with them. Ripple Effects “getting help” and “using community builds into its training software for children resources,” as well as a lesson on how to and teens, core skills that enable mutually approach and talk to a counselor, and how respectful and gratifying personal to find and work with mentors. Every one relationships. The program also addresses a of the hundreds of topics has an assisted wide variety of relationship issues in journal activity that includes identifying concrete terms: “dating,” “friends,” and exactly who the student can turn to for help “solidarity” are all topics; so are “fighting,” with whatever issue s/he is exploring. “bullying” and “dating abuse,” “peer In formative evaluations, students pressure” and “parents.” report that the software program The student training software also “listens to me” and “it’s like a includes specific lessons on how to friend.” Both qualitative and quantitative improve communication and relationships data indicate that students use the Ripple with parents and with teachers. The tutorial Effects program to get guidance and “teacher conflict” is one of the most encouragement on personal topics, popular in the teen software. especially related to abuse and parental Every lesson has a transfer training alcoholism. application for friends and family. Quantitative data from outcome studies Professional development software indicate that more than 96% of all students includes both core competency training in who have minimal exposure to Ripple connectedness (relationship) skills and Effects (3.5 contact hours over seven specific social skill training to enhance weeks), also voluntarily use the software to educators’ personal relationships with access individualized support and guidance students, parents and other teachers. It on topics of personal concern. However, addresses the teacher/learner bond directly disaffected students are unlikely to get the with lessons (including video modeling) to initial exposure unless it is required rather promote empathic identification of teachers than invited, and compliance monitored with students, and to develop their ability (Bass, Perry, Ray & Berg, 2008; Berg & to communicate their care. Training Ray, 2008). includes specific suggestions such as greeting students by name at the door, Positive behavioral support keeping abreast of students’ extra curricular The combination of student and staff activities, and using body language to software also provides implementers with a communicate care. flexible method for providing positive behavioral support to students in Support for students classroom, counseling, and discipline Ripple Effects student training software setting. Training for these setting level uses addresses the issue of student support on make up a whole set of tutorials in the several levels. It provides direct support Coach for Staff software. and personal guidance on a host of Ripple Effects balances the experts’ personal issues, including health and emphasis on positive youth development, mental health issues, from anxiety and with the implementers’ practical need to social isolation, to obesity, to talking too address a specific behavior problem at a much. It builds student capacity to find particular point in time; and with students’

Page 5.10 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS genuine interest in understanding why they provide students with individualized do things, and how they can have more support to encourage achievement of control over their actions. The student specific goals. For instance, if the software provides cognitive-behavioral and expectation is for students to score high on social skill training to address dozens of tests, they can assign the “testing” tutorials. behavioral infractions recognized at most If the expectation is for students to keep school districts, from “talking back,” to hands and feet to themselves, a lesson by “cheating,” to “fighting,” to “bias that name can show students how. Finally, activities.” Ripple Effects Coach for Staff trains The software does more. Individual implementers to handle disclosure of tutorials address not only specific behavior personal problems by students, including problems, but also underlying reasons for abuse and other issues for which school those problems in the domains of the personnel are mandated reporters. individual, family, peer, school, and community. It includes both risk and Support to increase parent involvement protective factors, with separate but Parental involvement in school is a key equivalent names for how adults and youth factor in overall school success and success may identify them. of each student, even those whose own Support for teachers parents are not directly involved. School based programs that help stretched-thin Ripple Effects professional development parents meet their own needs draw more software provides teachers with five kinds participants than those designed for parents of support: personal guidance about their to help their children (Epstein & Lee, 1995; own social-emotional experience and its Cotton & Wikeland, 1989). role in self-care and in supportive teaching; Ripple Effects WSIS supports parents problem-solving support and guidance for and parent involvement in these ways: particular challenges with students as they An Illustrated parent-training guide arise; technical skill training in classroom addresses expectations, communication, management; coaching in cultural discipline, self-regulation, learning competence and responsiveness; and differences. Schools can download and training in implementation of Ripple Effects print it without cost and other student-centered, prevention and Schools can buy extensions of their intervention programs. institutional licenses to allow training As with the student program, Ripple software to be installed at home Effects professional development software Teachers can use “Eagle Eye” postcards takes the point of view of the learner in to notify parents of their children’s every scenario. At a time when teachers are prosocial behavior under siege from many directions, Ripple Staff software provides training in how Effects is unequivocally on their side. It has to use conferences to help parents a specific lesson on how to obtain support understand how their children learn best, for themselves, including taking advantage and how to strengthen bonds between of underused, district level, intermediary parent and school resources. Teacher implementation of the Family relationships, especially parent- Ripple Effects student software also child relationships, have a special place in increases the capacity of educators to the student programs. “Talking to parents,”

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“conflict with parents,” “family history,” emotional competency (skills and feelings), “curfews,” and “embarrassment about the latter on values and choices consistent family,” all are tutorials in the student with democracy and ethical behavior. software Ripple Effects is a comprehensive Research on impact of Ripple program that promotes social-emotional Effects indicates that that non- competencies in students and in the adults professionals (including parent that work with them. Seven core social volunteers) facilitating the software can emotional abilities (self understanding, have outcomes equal to and greater than empathy, assertiveness, impulse control, certified teachers providing live instruction management of feelings, decision making, in life skills during the same periods (Bass, connection to community), broken down Perry, Ray & Berg, 2008). Thus Ripple into 120 micro-components, form the core Effects encourages schools to hire parents of the program. Hundreds of additional as facilitators of the software training, lessons use various combinations of those especially in after-school programs. They components to concretely address specific can leverage their relationship with social, emotional and academic students and the community without challenges. A listing of the Seven Key Skills compromising the fidelity to science-based and their component parts can be found on practices, which is built into the program. page 5.28.

Opportunities for Responsibility social-emotional learning A sense of personal and collective The correlation between social- responsibility is the third marker of emotional learning programs and school successful learning environments. It is a safety has been well documented for more major factor in felt culture, and a key than two decades (Payne, Gottfredson & predictor of involvement in delinquent Gottfredson, 2003; Gottfredson et al activity (Osher, 2000). Schools that 2004). The correlation between SEL and encourage both students and teachers to positive peer-to-peer (Flook, Repetti, take responsibility for their actions, and Ullman, 2005) and teacher-student that actively engage them in setting goals relationships (Murray & Malmgren, K. and shaping the rules and expectation that 2005) is also well established. Now the link govern their behavior, produce higher between social-emotional learning academic performance and stronger bonds programs and academic achievement has to school (Wentzel, 1991). They have also been empirically established. A lower rates of violence and lower drop out growing body of research has demonstrated rates than environments that don’t that social-emotional learning (SEL) (Wentzel, 1991). That shared sense of programs positively impact school responsibility cannot be legislated. Rather, performance (Durlak et al. 2008, five mutually reinforcing and aligned Greenberg et al. 2003, Hanson et al. 2004, factors contribute: a shared vision of a Zins et al. 2004, Dymnicki et al 2009). learning community characterized by Many researchers categorize these SEL responsible behavior and academic programs in two major groups: positive success, institutional policies that support youth development (PYD) and character that vision (Osher et al. 2003), embodiment education (CE). The former focus on social- of those policies in a Code of Conduct with

Page 5.12 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS a clear set of rules (Albert, 1996, 2003); a need to maintain trust and confidence with consistent set of graduated consequences mandated reporting responsibilities. for breaking the rules (Osher et al. 2003); In the Teen and Elementary training and a problem solving structure and software, students are trained to report process to address challenges as they arise anything that could jeopardize the safety of (Elias and Bruene-Butler, 1999). a peer, teacher or the school community. They are encouraged to confront unfair Shared vision policies without attacking policy makers. A shared vision and sense of common Enforceable rules purpose contribute to the sense of shared responsibility that marks successful A set of clearly stated, widely schools. They are more commonly found in disseminated, enforceable rules is yet small schools, and those that serve a another indicator of a school marked by a clearly defined academic niche, than large sense of personal and group responsibility. “generic” schools (Raywid, 1999; Cotton, Ripple Effects includes training for staff 2001; Meir, 2002). on how to involve students in developing Ripple Effects Coach for Staff provides effective, enforceable rules and how to coaching in how to create and sustain a bring a culturally competent and vision of shared purpose and success for responsive mindset to the interpretation of the whole school community, which rules. It includes training for students in includes the vision that all members treat how and why to respect those rules. each other with respect and all high school students graduate. The staff development Consistent, logical consequences software also includes coaching for setting school-wide, cooperative goals in positive The persuasive power of rules is terms, and holding to a vision in the face of enhanced by a uniform system of obstacles. graduated consequences for breaking those rules. The most effective consequences are Aligned Policies logically related to the behavior that occasions them, uniformly applied, and not Ripple Effects Coach for Staff unduly severe (Lipsey and Wilson, 1998). encourages administrators to develop – and Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum teachers to push for – school-wide policies Intervention System is designed to enable a that reflect the operating vision, are standardized, consistent, graduated set of consistent with district guidelines, and with disciplinary consequences for dozens of which every classroom and extra curricular school based behavioral infractions, from setting can be aligned. Although it talking back, to cheating, fighting, hate generally does not make recommendations crimes, etc. It can do so without sacrificing about specific policies the Professional the personalization that is correlated with Development software includes coaching greatest positive effect. The consequence on policy issues related to safety and (completing a Ripple Effects topic) is fairness. Teachers are trained in their legal directly related to the offense of the same responsibilities as mandated reporters. The name. Rule breaking behavior is listed by coaching includes guidance on how to several names, reflecting the separate, but handle disclosure of abuse, balancing the equivalent terms that adults and youth may

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use to identify the same behavior (i.e. effectiveness and impact on the feelings of “Skipping” vs. “Truancy”). others), selecting a solution to test, trying it, getting feedback and fine tuning. In See Tertiary Intervention: Sample addition, the assisted journal writing Individual Treatment Plans for function of the training software adds two instruction for how to use Ripple Effects more elements: at the beginning, naming students program in graduated system of one’s feelings about the situation or consequences that allows for both experience being explored; at the end, standardization of response and identifying who in the community can be a individualization of treatment. For instance: resource to help with solving this problem. 1st offense: Student is given a A problem-solving framework underlies warning (same for every student) the structure of the entire Ripple Effects system, with 700 scenario-based, 2nd offense: Assigned tutorial multimedia problem statements that can be dealing directly with problem jumping off points for personal or behavior (same process for every collective problem solving. student; content differs by student) The professional development program 3rd offense: additionally required to includes coaching in how to put a problem scroll through the list and find what solving structure in place, with examples of s/he thinks might underlie the kinds of structures that have evidence of problem behavior (process the effectiveness (for example, rotating group same for everyone, content differs of problem solvers, regular class meetings, by student) peer mediation). While consistently coaching educators to involve students in Problem solving structures and processes the problem solving process, the software Training in social problem solving for also points out that it is unfair and non-academic areas has repeatedly been unrealistic to expect students to shown to result in school based aggression, independently handle problems, such as starting with children as young as second racial conflict, that adults are unwilling to grade (Elias et al. 1986; Weissberg & Elias, deal with. For peer mediation to work, it 1993; Elias & Bruene-Butler, 1999). Recent must complement adult authority, not meta-analyses have also linked it to substitute for it. improved academic performance (Zins et al. 2004). Both analytical and creative Challenge thinking contribute value to the process. When either is omitted during the problem A safe nurturing, supportive, solving process, effectiveness declines responsible environment can, by itself, (Huitt, 1992). produce strong links to school. However, it Ripple Effects provides both educators can’t ensure academic proficiency or and students with training in the problem success. Another important and necessary solving process. It includes the classic characteristic of effective learning method of identifying the problem, environments is academic challenge. There brainstorming alternatives, evaluating those are three aspects of positive challenge in a alternative against clear criteria, (Ripple school environment: external expectations, Effects suggests fairness, rightness, safety, internal meaning and motivation, and

Page 5.14 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS academic stimulation and engagement Internal Motivation (Osher et al. 2004). The drive for meaning is its own External expectations motivation (Gopnik, Meltsoff and Kuhl, 1999), but can be countervailed by internal Implicit and explicit external beliefs about the impossibility and/or expectations affect student performance, negative social costs of pro-social behavior and perhaps as importantly, teacher and academic success (Bandura, 1986, perception of student performance 1997; Huitt, 1999). (Weinstein, 2008; Murphy & Hallinger Ripple Effects student training software 1985; Brophy, 1983). directly and indirectly addresses the issue Ripple Effects WSIS directly addresses of internal motivation and agency external expectations of students’ success (conation). It systematically develops self- in the professional development software. It efficacy through lessons on self-awareness, trains teachers in how to set and personal strengths, goals, confidence, and communicate universal expectations for control. It addresses the issue of norms student academic success and responsible against social and academic success in behavior. It raises consciousness about specific lessons on “success-phobia” and how unconscious stereotypes about “school failure.” It explicitly encourages ethnicity and income can affect teachers’ students to set high goals for themselves expectations for individual students. It also and reminds them often of their strengths addresses group level expectations for and capacity for greatness. students, by incorporating site-based goals in the site planning process. Stimulation While teachers often cite defiance as Internal factors the number one behavior problem in Equally important to student success schools, observational research has are internal factors that impact learning, documented that “goofing off” (behavior including personal relevance, internal that arises out of boredom) is much more motivation and stimulation. frequently the source of disruptive activity (Malone et al. 1998). Boredom has also Personal relevance consistently been identified as a key factor in drop out decisions (Bridgeland et al. Ripple Effects assumes every student 2009). Threat is not an effective antidote to has some trigger point that is the place of boredom (Perry, 2007), but sensory, greatest personal interest and concern. The cognitive and affective stimulation are program ties more than 500 evidence- (Caine & Caine, 2005), as is “positive based, social-emotional training modules stress” (Seligman, 1993). Deft orchestration to more than 1500 personally relevant of what’s happening in the classroom, in topics for children, adolescents and adult particular maintaining momentum through staff. Learners can enter from whatever instructional transitions, (Kounin, 1970) point has the greatest personal meaning for can also reduce boredom. them, and be led, step-by-step, to training in core social-emotional abilities that bear Ripple Effects includes “bored” as a on successfully handling that issue. specific topic in the student programs. as well as “unmotivated”, and “what you love.” Sensory stimulation of the parts of

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the brain that respond to visual, sound, The classical Greek system of education text, and kinesthetic cues are built into the reserved formal learning for the leisure design of the Whole Spectrum Learning class, a group comprised mostly of slave Platform. Specific instructions for direct holding, male patricians. It was a system physical rehearsal of target skills is defined by – and biased for – the included in each lesson. Instructions for economically and socially rich. Education sports application further extend the was designed to prepare the rich for opportunities for physical engagement in patronizing governance of the poor; it was the social-emotional learning process. On a not designed to prepare the poor for their parallel track, the staff training program own governance. Classical Roman also addresses the issue of bored students, education, while maintaining class and provides strategies for engaging diverse distinctions, and still excluding slaves, cast learners with multiple kinds of instruction. a much wider net. It was the first Western Both cognitive stimulation and experience of scaled, “public” education. classroom orchestration are issues best The purpose of Roman education was to understood in the broader theoretical advance an empire in which loyalty was framework of learning and pedagogy maintained through the ties of citizenship. (pp.5.57-5.58) that is the basis for the Education was the primary means of Whole Spectrum Learning Platform socialization for both citizenship and described in Chapter 6. empire building. Today schools retain that function of socialization toward Wider equity issues citizenship. Unlike the Greek education for the elite, which put a premium on Schools are a context for education and independent thinking, public education for have a context for education. They have a the Roman lower classes emphasized specific social-cultural heritage, and are training in how to be proficient soldiers located within a matrix of active socio- and builders (roles for which females could economic and cultural influences that seep not yet be imagined to fit). This put a through the walls like gas. The impact of premium on formal structures of authority, socio-economic influences on juvenile consistent codes of discipline, and the involvement in the criminal justice system value of following instructions – values has been described in Chapter 1. Many of recognizable in many schools today. For those same forces impact the educational the distinctly smaller, Roman “middle” system and explain why, for far too many class, education was focused on urban students of color, schools pave the developing skills for administering way to prison (Ferguson, 2006; McCall et bureaucracies and waging war. For the yet al. 2006). A particular paradox for both much smaller group of true aristocrats, education and justice is that while they are classical Roman education was similar to both considered bedrock institutions of classical Greek education. The role of the democracy, neither has its origin in a humanities, especially oratory, was prized system of equality. for the few who would enter politics, as befit their rank. Yet that exposure to the Social-cultural heritage of inequity humanities did not lead to renouncing the inhumane practices of human slavery and Educational inequity is part and parcel gender exclusion. It has taken many of western cultural heritage (Kellner, 2003). centuries for “ideal” educational policies to

Page 5.16 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS evolve from social exclusion, to separate content and process within Ripple Effects but equal education, to full inclusion of all. WSIS reflects philosophical bias in any area Even when formal policies have advanced, (and it is almost impossible to have none) real world, daily practices have often Ripple Effects leans toward “a preferential lagged behind. option for the poor” (Gutierrez, 1988). Taken as a whole, Ripple Effects is an Persists even in “progressive” models affirmative, educational measure to The classical education model that was empower the poor, whether that poverty is formally built on social inequity is a condition of body, mind, heart, spirit, explicitly criticized, even disdained, by physical, mental or emotional infirmity, many modern, progressive educators. Yet it social status, family structure, has been at least an implicit part of discriminatory laws, ethnic labeling or contemporary models for education as other impoverishing internal or external well. Most alternative models for learn-by- forces, including economic ones. doing, “democratic” education have been Ripple Effects addresses the impact of developed within private schools for the class differences directly in both the economically elite, and within university student and teacher software. Student settings, as “segregated” schools for the software includes a tutorial on class children of the educationally elite. While (“money“), and also related tutorials on slavery has been eliminated, and gender feelings like envy and shame. It addresses exclusion has greatly receded, socio- lowered aspirations (“hopeless”) and a economic inequities continue to be a major foreshortened sense of future (“no future”), influence in schools and learning (Oakes et characteristics that are often associated al 2004; Oakes, 1985; Kozol, 1991). with both poverty and trauma. (A related There is no single stronger predictor of topic, “rich,” addressed special stresses that student educational failure than poverty impact children of great privilege, was (USDE, 2001). Economic forces don’t stop included in the original design, but had to at the schoolhouse door. The economic be dropped due to lack of resources.) “haves” have access to better schools with The professional development software more resources, staffed by better trained addresses the links between economic and more experienced teachers who have status and student and teacher expectations higher expectations of their students and for educational success. It raises provide them more support, than the “have consciousness about the impact of nots” (Oakes, 1985; Oakes, Mendoza & economic status on simple things like Silver, 2004). Thus, universal academic participation in “free” field trips, which proficiency cannot be realized without require special clothing or materials. addressing the issue of gross economic On the structural level, the use of inequity between students. Ripple Effects software supports economic equalizing forces in education, by making Ripple Effects’ bias: the very best instructional practices Preferential option for the poor available to all students, regardless of experience levels of their teachers, and by Ripple Effects implicitly and explicitly providing less experienced teachers, who rejects educational bias toward those who disproportionately serve the poor, with have disproportionate social, economic, immediate access to more experienced and political power. To the degree that the

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teachers’ earned wisdom and modeling via Ripple Effects addresses the volatile the software. issues of disproportionate academic failure and discipline referrals correlated with race Discrimination based on ethnicity and ethnicity, with a non-blaming, multi- level approach to social justice and cultural The outside-the-schoolhouse competence from perspectives of school, correlation between African American, students and teachers. It is described in Latino, and Native American ethnic detail at the end of this chapter (pg. 5.67). identity and poorer lifetime health and earning outcomes, as well as the specific English Language Learners (ELL) overrepresentation of these groups in Limited English Proficiency (LEP) criminal justice settings, as described in Chapter 2, is mirrored within schools, in The poorer school performance of disproportionate academic achievement, English Language Learners is easier to discipline and special education referrals. understand – and to justify – than poorer In 2006 the Northwest Evaluation performance that can be traced to ethnic Association analyzed academic stereotyping, although often the two go achievement data from more than 500,000 together. There is great debate about students between third and eighth grade. whether equal education for They found that at the end of each grade, undocumented ELL children, whose European-American students performed parents may be in the country illegally, is a better than African-American and Hispanic matter of social justice, or simple charity. If students. Students from wealthier schools the latter, some argue that it is an outperformed students from poorer schools. unaffordable level of generosity in harsh For each score level, at each grade, in each economic times. However, the economic subject, minority students grew less than counter-arguments for educating all European-Americans and students from children to a basic level of proficiency are poor schools grew less than those from strong. Educated immigrants have lower wealthier ones (McCall, Hauser, Kronin, participation in crime, higher earnings and Kingsbury, Houser, 2006). pay more taxes than their undereducated African American, Latino and Native peers. Regardless of one’s position on the American students are disproportionately education of undocumented children living represented in school discipline settings of in America, for American citizens and legal (Lietz & Gregory, 1997) suspensions immigrants who arrive at school with (Costenbader & Markson, 1998; Skiba et al. limited English proficiency (LEP), an equal 2003), expulsions (Skiba et al. 2000), and opportunity to learn is a basic civil right. corporal punishment (Gregory, 1996). This To assist English language learners ethnicity-based disproportionality exists make a successful transition to English, independent of related variables, such as Ripple Effects provides peer narrated audio, income and learning disabilities. It is an matched to text in the program, engaging urgent civil rights issue within schools that illustrations as visual clues, and word must be addressed with unyielding prompts in the journaling exercises. It also commitment and great sensitivity. This allows learners to complete the journal unsolved equation has two sides: that of writing exercises in any language teachers and that of students. Both must be recognized by the computer. addressed.

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It is usually the case that until ELL higher in math and science and girls students fully master decoding skills, they scoring higher in language related tests. It is do not have opportunities to participate in possible that by the time the argument is higher order thinking for comprehension. settled the gender gap will be erased. High By delaying these higher order skills school “aptitude” differences among boys beyond the time they would be and girls of the same class and ethnicity are developmentally appropriate in their native shrinking fast. A narrowing of achievement language, these students are at a gaps between males and females is disadvantage for succeeding in college, accelerating each year. Among African even when they complete high school. Americans, females now outpace males in With Ripple Effects, because of the school achievement by almost every narrated text, word prompts, and measure. A legitimate question is whether opportunities to write in their own boys are now being left behind. language, these students can temporarily As with class and ethnicity, gender suspend their decoding skills and engage in stereotypes may begin outside the school, higher order thinking about the content but they insidiously impact much that goes area in which they are indisputably experts, on inside, including social behavior and their own lives. Ripple Effects also dynamics. Across all ethnicities, girls still addresses the phenomenon of lowered have much higher chances of being targets reasoning demands on ELL students of sexual harassment at school; boys still because of the imposition of stereotypes have much higher chances of being about limited academic ability by some referred for discipline-related infractions. teachers, and internalization of those Feminist critical theorists assert that these limiting stereotypes by some students. One discrepancies must be partly traced to student tutorial provides training in how to differences in socialization, which more confront discriminatory expectations by greatly rewards aggressiveness in boys and teachers. Another (“ELL”) includes a true passivity and quietude in girls (Weiler, story by an Hispanic student, who refuses 1991; Elsworth, 1989). to believe the counselor, who tells him he In some cases, ethnic stereotypes are will not have sufficient command of overlaid on gender ones, and vice versa, to English to go to college. The student set a even more pernicious effects. The personal goal and ended up getting a full stereotypes that African American boys scholarship to University of Cal Berkeley. have a greater chance of ending up in the Additional tutorials specifically address criminal justice system than they do of motivation, goals, family background, completing college, and that African culture. American girls are more likely than not to become their children’s sole source of Gender gap financial support, are both remnants of a system of enslavement. Both have some Since the passage of Title IX legislation basis in statistical probability. Yet neither is in 1972, gender equity in education is the predictive of an individual student’s future. law, from sports to math and science. The persistence and reinforcement of these Scientists continue to argue about whether stereotypes becomes, for too many there are biological, gender-based students, self-fulfilling prophecies. differences in cognitive capacities that As described in chapter 3, Ripple account for boys’ historically scoring Effects addresses gender issues directly in

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tutorials for both students and teachers. It through related topics such as also addresses them within a wider “wheelchair,” and “special education.” framework, as in the “confronting injustice” Students with mobility related disabilities tutorial, where the scenario is about how have physical accessibility to the program girls in the school could respond to being wherever they have computer access. Rich denied equal playing time on the soccer images and full sound to text equivalents field. The software addresses gender for all videos make Ripple Effects software stereotypes implicitly in the thousands of fully accessible both to students with illustrations, which use a strict scoring hearing impairment who can focus on the system to ensure that girls and boys are text and pictures, and to dyslexic students equally portrayed as and LEP students who don’t need to active/assertive/athletic/achieving. One of actively decode in order to understand and the hardest stereotypes to break has been analyze the main themes. that of the typical body shape of a teen or The organizational structure of more pre-teen girl. Hundreds of drawings have than 10,000 micro tutorials within the 700 had to be returned to the artists for revision, topic areas, makes the program accessible to correct “Barbie doll” personifications to students with short attention span, that can insidiously influence girls’ physical regardless of cause. The “impossible to fail” and mental health. information structure enables students who have not has success in other academic Students with disabilities contexts to have a first success. “Live text” (which includes narration for all screens), For most of this country’s history, but not “graphic text” (where words are indeed, for most of recorded western embedded with illustrations) can be civilization, students with recognizable translated to Braille with third party mental disabilities and a wide range of assistive devices for the visually impaired. physical disabilities were excluded The size of the screen can be enlarged completely from school. Following the through system preferences to pattern of progression for other civil rights, accommodate mild visual impairments. the status of students with disabilities However, because the program is so image progressed in stages from total exclusion, to heavy, it is not recommended for students separate (and usually inferior) educational with severe visual impairments. opportunities, to equal rights under the law. Since 1975, by special federal Social-emotional disorders legislation, all students who have identifiable disabilities are entitled to a free Upwards of 80% of all students and full education in the least restrictive identified as having special needs have environment possible. This is true whether been referred for social-emotional, those disabilities and disorders are behavioral or communicative disorders cognitive, physical, or social-emotional. (Data Accountability Center, OSEP, 2009). These include clinically diagnosed Physical and cognitive conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder, conduct disorder, and impulsivity. In Ripple Effects, physical and Social-emotional readiness to learn, cognitive disabilities are directly addressed regardless of the cause, is a fundamental through tutorials by name (i.e. “hearing equity issue, of no less importance, and impaired,” “dyslexic,” etc), as well as

Page 5.20 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS potentially far more serious consequences, disproportionately referred for those than any other equity factor. Students with disorders. It is also being used as a emotional disturbance have worse school reasonable accommodation for certain outcomes than students from any other cognitive and sensory impairments. disability group. They “fail more courses, Ripple Effects’ Coach for Staff software obtain lower grade point averages, miss and supporting materials directly supports more days of school, and are retained at creation of learning environments where grade more than other students with instruction in emotional self-management “disabilities” (AIR, 2009). A clear link has is an integral part of all learning. It offers been established between social-emotional specific tutorials to help teachers deal with competency and school and life success. emotional outbursts and common behavior For children with social-emotional problems, such as defiance and disruptive disorders, the need for remedial SEL behavior. training and psycho-educational best practices is acute. It’s not always children who have As described in Chapters 3 and 4, special needs Ripple Effects offers a full spectrum of Unfortunately not all children who affective, attention, cognitive, behavioral, have been labeled as emotionally disturbed social skill and personal guidance strategies have a true disorder. In some cases, the to meet the immediate and longer term child’s “special need” is actually a needs of students with social-emotional classroom teacher’s need to have someone disorders.Tutorials that explicitly address else deal with a correctable behavior social, attentional, and emotional disorders problem. This is especially true for novice (“dyslexia,” “attention problems,” teachers and those with low-level “depression,” “cutting,” etc.) as well as classroom management skills. For children physical disabilities, all help directly who are being shunted into Special Needs affected students to develop resilience and classifications for behavior problems that assertiveness, and to approach trusted could easily be correctable within adults for help. These lessons also help mainstream settings, the need to relieve students without disabilities to develop classroom teachers of the too heavy burden increased empathy toward students with of personally providing that training is disabilities. Field reports indicate that urgent. tutorials on emotional regulation and social Ripple Effects is responsive to teachers’ skill training, which can be repeated as need for supportive services, by directly many times as needed, have been used providing students with needed behavior successfully with students who have mild correction, independent of the teacher’s to moderate communicative disorders, like personal skill level. mild forms of Asperger’s syndrome (Ripple In other cases, the child’s “special Effects Client Reports, 1999-2009). need” is directly linked to overlapping The most widespread use of Ripple interests of parents and policy makers, who Effects across the United States is as a “least both benefit by having challenging children restrictive environment” intervention as classified as severely emotionally disabled part of individualized intervention plans (SED). The government provides financial (IEPs) for students who have been identified incentives to parents whose children are as having social-emotional disorders, or diagnosed with conduct disorders, but not who have risk factors for being

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to those who raise responsibly behaving learning and instruction. Major differences children despite adverse circumstance. between traditional and non-traditional Schools can raise their mean standardized understandings of the nature of knowledge test scores and avoid punitive intervention, have to do with the objectivity of if they by excluding the scores of severely knowledge, its inertness, its structure, and (misbehaving) students who are failing in its valid measures. schools. Both sets of incentives are misaligned against the students’ interest. Traditional position Their families are caught in a terrible double bind. If their children behave Knowledge is objective responsibly and succeed in school, the family can pay a heavy financial price. If A basic principle of the traditional they fail, extra income is more easily position, one that can be traced at least as assured. It is because students’ outcomes far back as ancient Greek philosophy, is are so closely tied to social policies and that there is an objective, “true” world that dynamics outside the school door, that this exists apart from culture and apart from the wider context needs to be kept continually learner. In particular, it exists apart from in mind, when designing intervention the learner’s senses and emotions. Because programs. it is objective, it can be described – and Misaligned parental incentives known – in terms of concrete facts and described above is one reason that Ripple procedures. Effects recommends hiring parents to The knowledge base of The Whole facilitate student use of the student Spectrum Intervention System incorporates software, even – for some children with empirically validated, factual information intensive needs – in their own homes. for hundreds of topics from credible, As can be seen from the above, school academic and government sources in culture does not exist independently of a health, education and juvenile justice. It wider social context. But these wider presents specific, procedural knowledge social-equity issues still do not fully explain (skills and best practices) that have been the fact that even when the setting is safe, have been correlated with specific supportive, designed to encourage personal outcomes, as described in Chapter 4. and collective responsibility, academically challenging and located within a Knowledge is inert framework of commitment to social equity, A second major classical principle in a substantial minority of students may not the West is that the world, and knowledge learn what is intended or assigned. Specific about it, is fixed. Thus it can be sliced and processes of learning, teaching, classroom diced into chunks. Those chunks can orchestration and assessment – the poured into and out of containers, traditional “stuff” of schools, is still a big including the container of the mind. This part of the picture. rationale underpins the division of knowledge into specific disciplines. It is the KNOWLEDGE AND MEANING logic underlying computer programming and all data base structures. It is the Theories about knowledge and rationale for breaking educational meaning precede and underpin models of standards and frameworks into a multitude

Page 5.22 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS of specific learning objectives and well- Far from being a fixed quantity, the defined lesson plans for meeting them. amount of recorded knowledge is expanding at remarkable speed. Although Content standards & frameworks there are wide discrepancies in the A nested set of objective content estimates of rates of knowledge expansion, standards and frameworks operate on the there is equally wide agreement, that federal, state, county, city and district whatever the exact rate of expansion, the levels. State policies govern curricular amount of human knowledge in many requirements, including requirements for fields has reached the point that no human non-academic areas, such as character memory can include it all. education, service learning, work place Separate from the sheer volume of skills, GED requirements, and/or discipline factual and procedural knowledge being policies. There are state criteria for amassed is its relevance. Focusing on fixed adoption of both text books and knowledge and procedures made sense in supplemental materials. a manufacturing economy where a substantial proportion of workers were Ripple Effects has sliced an evidence- required to master a limited set of driven, factual and procedural knowledge information and skills to be proficient. It base into tens of thousands of chunks, makes much less sense in a service-based components that can be individually economy, where idiosyncratic, case based learned and tested for. decision-making is frequently needed. It See how specific tutorials can be does not allow sufficient flexibility to matched to National Health Standards and address the needs of a rapidly changing Frameworks for health world. An increasingly complex, (www.rippleeffects.com/education/support/ information and service-based economy, implementation/health.html) and state requires not only high level thinking skills, standards for Language Arts in the areas of but higher level social interaction than at Listening and Speaking, Writing, Reading, any time in history (The Partnership for 21st Media Analysis and Production Century Skills, 2004). (http://www.rippleeffects.com/education/la Each and all of these factors have nguage_artsalignment.html) as well as contributed to development of new models some social studies standards. Ripple of knowledge, with new implications for Effects has been certified as meeting learning and teaching. California state requirements for supplemental materials in terms of social Ripple Effects houses a huge, multi- content. media content library in a data base structure with the capacity for continuous expansion. Although still delivered on a Critique of objectivist disk or flash drive, the program has more philosophy of knowledge than quadrupled in size since first Despite the obvious value of objectivity introduced. It is not intended to be in the public schools, there are both completely known by any one learner. theoretical and practical critiques of this Rather The Whole Spectrum Intervention position, especially when it is applied to System is a flexible and fluid one, so that social-emotional learning. this content base can be approached and implemented in myriad ways, to meet

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myriad purposes, and adapted to changing constructed is rooted in physiology as well learning circumstances. as philosophy. Data from brain imaging Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum techniques show that the individual Intervention System builds skills for positive evolutionary process of understanding is social interaction, collaboration, accompanied by changes in the physiology considered decision-making, and of the brain (Huttenlocher, 2002). Brain adaptation to change that are requirements imaging also provides proof that raw of a 21st century work place. Tutorials experience – even without cognitive include: “Knowing yourself:” “Learning awareness of it – changes the brain style,” “Intelligences,” “Temperament,” (Cozzolino, as cited in Caine and Caine, “What you love,” “Stress response type,” 2006). The search for patterns affects how “Beliefs and values,” “Creative potential,” and which cells work together (Diamond, “Strengths and weaknesses,” “Setting 1988). Groups of cells that are called on goals,” “Reflecting on performance,” simultaneously and repeatedly form “Dealing with criticism,” “Self-esteem,” response patterns that eventually get wired “Communication skills,” “Introducing together, and from then on fire together yourself,” “Having a conversation,” (Hebb, 1961). In this way, people bring “Expressing thanks,” “Expressing different brains to each new experience, sympathy,” “Giving a compliment,” not only in terms of native aptitudes, but “Receiving a compliment,” “Making an also in terms of the cellular blocks of apology,” “Ignoring,” “Dealing with subjective content built from their authority,” “Sharing;” and “Group skills,” experiential bases of understanding. A such as “Making space,” and” Joining a growing body of brain-based research group or game.” supports the contention that meaning is a deeply personal thing, all the way down to Subjectivist position about knowledge the cellular level. In this sense, as Francisco Varela has described, all cognition is John Dewey (1859-1952) was the first embodied, and in a constant state of to articulate in an educational context the change (1991). theory that the world – or at least any Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum person’s understanding of it – is not a fixed Intervention System formally recognizes the and certain reality. Although considered primacy of learners’ personal experience – the father of educational pragmatism and especially emotional experience – as the partly motivated by political framework and entry point into new considerations, Dewey’s starting point was understanding. It provides more than 1000 philosophy. He posited there was an separate topical entry points into the irrefutable contingency to all reality, which training program in the teen software is “constructed” in real time, by each alone, with several hundred more each in person in an evolutionary process. Each the elementary student and staff training person’s conscious or unconscious versions. Because of the deeply personal understanding of self – including emotional nature of the learning experience, it builds understandings – interacts with stimulus in safeguards for privacy and protections from the environment to form a new for confidentiality into the program. reality, in successive layers of meaning. Since people have very different Recent brain research suggests that the starting points, the constructionist view position that reality is individually leads to the conclusion that there is not one

Page 5.24 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS objective reality, but a multiplicity of multiplicity of deeply personal realities. This subjectivity of knowledge has understandings of reality. face validity for social-emotional Ripple Effects begins each tutorial with experience and understanding. The words a mini case study, a scenario that highlights “alcoholic parent,” or “bullied,” are just the subjectivity of social-emotional two examples of hundreds of salient, highly experiences and promotes perspective subjective aspects of reality that may be taking as a means toward wider and deeper generically classified as common risk understanding, as in the sample narrative factors for youth at risk for delinquency and below. dropping out, but which represent a

Sample Script: (test and narrated audio)

Every weekday when John wakes up he’ s filled with dread. He hates going to school where he’s treated like an outcast and forced to do boring work. In fact, John hates school so much, he’s pretty much stopped going.

Figure 5.4: Mini case study screen from tutorial “hate school” in Ripple Effects for Teens

Critique of subjectivist The position that incorporates the most approach to knowledge data is that both traditional and progressive understandings of knowledge are true, but Despite the philosophical and brain- partial. based arguments that support a subjective As described above, Ripple Effects approach to knowledge, such an incorporates both objectivist and approachto all knowledge is vulnerable to subjectivist philosophies of knowledge into obvious criticism as well. If reality were separate elements of the Whole Spectrum entirely subjective and meaning created Intervention System. entirely by the learner(s), there would be no point to curriculum-based instruction at Social-emotional learning as all (Winn, 1993). There would be no a specialized field of knowledge justification for objective standards. Common sense argues that unlike the Straddling the border between meaning of the word “loved,” the reality psychology and education, Social- and meaning of the word “two,” (at least in Emotional Learning is an emerging, the dominant, base 10 system – an specialized field. It incorporates both important caveat) is essentially traditional and non-traditional independent of a student’s experience of it. understandings of the role of subjectivity and objectivity in knowledge. CASEL has

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identified a specific group of abilities that SEL frameworks and standards comprise social-emotional competencies (2003). They include subjective areas of Even within the inherently subjective self-awareness (feeling-informed area of social-emotional learning, there is understandings of both self and others); a growing consensus that mastery of an body of social relationship/communication identifiable body of social-emotional skills that have been negotiated by social knowledge (awareness +judgment + and cultural agreement, and strictly procedural skills) is needed for successful cognitive proficiencies, such as being able school and life experience in a diverse to construct and use an if/then sentence in society. Because this is so, universal order to evaluate options for decision standards and frameworks for SEL have an making. appropriate place. With social-emotional learning, even more than academic areas, Universal skill building the challenge is to provide standards and The field of social-emotional learning frameworks for learning that preserve core rests on the belief that, even though people concepts, while allowing for local variance may have differing innate aptitudes for one in how and when they are applied. Some or other of the competencies, all are national, non-profit organizations with learnable (Salovey, et al 2004, Weissberg & specific mandates, such as Character Elias, 1993). The Collaborative for Education Partnership (CEP), Search Academic, Social and Emotional learning Institute and the Collaborative for (CASEL) defines social-emotional learning Academic, Social and Emotional learning as “the process of acquiring the (core) skills (CASEL) have developed and recommend to recognize and manage emotions, “common” standards or principles for their develop caring and concern for others, discipline, outside of government. A few make responsible decisions, establish states have adopted them with minor positive relationships, and handle revisions. challenging situations effectively” (Zins and See how Ripple Effects matches to Elias, 2006; CASEL, 2007). These core grade-by-grade, SEL standards competencies can be matched one to one developed by CASEL (Elias, 1999). to Ripple Effects’ tutorials as seen in Table (http://www.rippleeffects.com/education/SE 5.1 on page 5.27 L/alignment.html) Ripple Effects has further broken down See how Ripple Effects lessons can be these key competencies into more than 100 matched to 12 of 13 principles of the micro-tutorials, as seen on page 5.28. Character Education Partnership. ,http://www.rippleeffects.com/education/CE P/alignment.html)

Page 5.26 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS CASEL key competencies Ripple Effects Tutorials

Self-Awareness Understanding feelings Identifying emotions Identifying feelings, mixed feelings

Recognizing strengths Strengths, learning styles Social Awareness Empathy Perspective-taking Perspective taking Appreciating diversity Diversity appreciating (ethnicity, gender, religion, disabilities)

Self Management Impulse control, self talk Managing emotions Managing feelings Goal setting Goals, perseverance, success-phobia

Responsible decision making Decision making Analyzing situations Motives (accident/ on purpose, Predicting feelings (situational and facial cues).

Assuming personal responsibility Responsibility Respecting others Respect, citizenship Problem solving Problem solving, identifying problems, brainstorming options, evaluating alternatives, testing solutions

Relationship skills (relationships) Connectedness (relationships) Communication Communication skills, questions, listening, body language, discussion, making room for others

Building relationships Connecting with others, making friends, talking to parents

Negotiation Resolving conflict, fighting (w friends, w parents) Refusal Refusing, assertiveness, peer pressure (alcohol, drugs, sex)

Table 5.1: Ripple Effects tutorials matched to CASEL core competencies

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List of Ripple Effects “Seven Key” skills and their components

Knowing Who You Are learning style sympathy-expressing disappointment smarts compliments-giving discouraged feelings compliments-receiving disrespected temperament apologies embarrassment emotional intelligence ignoring envy what you love Social Skills fear body authority-dealing with frustration sports & exercise type community resources grief guilt values conflict-resolving guilt-survivor character counselors-using jealousy creativity citizenship loneliness self-esteem discussions-having numbness family background dissent-supporting revenge risk and protection diversity-appreciating sadness community history groups-joining shame resilience getting help suicidal goals helping others unworthy accepting yourself mentors sharing Controlling Impulses Commanding Respect space-making reactions-stopping behavior-confronting support-getti n g consequences-predicting beliefs-standing up for Social Values lie complaints-making courtesy cheat control-taking fairness steal feelings-communicating generosity hit injustice-confronting justice ridicule limits-setting kindness sexual impulses needs-stating loyalty defy authorit y pressure-resisting reliability Making Decisions rights-exercisi n g respect-showing problem-solving Identifying with Others honesty problem-naming feelings-names for responsibility brainstorming feelings-mixed trustworthiness alternatives-evaluating feelings-changing Managing Feelings feelings-owning them solutions-trying mindfulness Dropping out feelings-predicting sensations-physical perspective taking Skipping triggers-inside Using drugs motives-understanding triggers-outside care-showing it Experiments relaxing Recklessness paraphrasing feelings-expressing body language Sex letting go Gangs questions-asking laughing solidarity-showi n g Weapons happiness-practicing Connecting with Others anger *Words in italics = Communication Skills anxiety application areas introducing yourself crazy feelings conversations crying thanking someone depression

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The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

2001; Sarason, 1996; Wilson et al. 2001). There are too many to fit into the available Thematic contexts for SEL school day. Even if they could all fit, there Thematic, targeted prevention programs is substantial redundancy in the skill-based use training in social-emotional learning to training that many utilize. Thus the trend is reduce specific social injury, substance toward “combination” prevention programs abuse, health and mental health problems. that address health, behavioral and For more than two decades school-based academic issues in a coordinated way, prevention programs have been in place to integrated into the academic mission of address one or more of these issues. Today schools (Elias et al. 1997; Zins et al. 2004). there are school-based, prevention These are often also called programs for bullying, bias activity and “comprehensive” programs, although sexual harassment; for gangs and gun Lipsey and other researchers reserve the violence; for tobacco, alcohol and drug word comprehensive to describe programs abuse (often with separate programs for that have components to reach families and prescription drugs and street drugs); for communities directly, as well as student obesity and eating disorders; for depression programs. Ideally these programs focus on and suicide prevention; for physical, sexual skill training in core social-emotional and emotional abuse; for pregnancy and abilities that are broadly applicable to sexually transmitted diseases, especially academic, as well as social and health HIV; for low self esteem and low challenges (Zins, et al. 2004; Elias, Gara, aspirations. Although they often target Schuyler, Brenden-Muller & Scyette, 1991). common areas, such as assertiveness, for The latter describes Ripple Effects skill development, they each rest on an approach. objective body of factual knowledge. As described in the Introduction, Ripple LEARNING PROCESS Effects includes both a large library of factual information, procured from credible With basic differences in sources, and a body of subjective understandings about the very nature of knowledge gradually accrued by each knowledge, it is not surprising that learner, for each learner, through exercises traditional and non-traditional positions such as journal writing and completion of also diverge in their understanding of how interactive profiles. the process of learning occurs. In the traditional model, since knowledge is fixed, it needs to be stored somewhere; that place Trend toward integration is memory. The question is how it happens. Despite positive results with individual programs, prevention practitioners, Traditional model: cognitive and linear researchers and educators increasingly recognize that having a fragmented, Classical thinkers submit that the piecemeal set of prevention programs for process of learning and remembering is an ever expanding list of health and social overwhelmingly cognitive and linear. It issues is not a viable option for public always progresses in predictable stages schools (Elias et al. 1997; Gottfredson, from simple to complex. The ancient

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From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Romans set out a three-stage process for all It offers different versions of the learning: from rote memory to logic, to program based on different developmental decision-making and self-expression. In a levels: elementary, middle/early high more calibrated model, Bloom’s famous school, and adult. At the elementary level, taxonomy set the sequence as a six stage it focuses more on simple memory, progression of cognitive ability that understanding, and adherence to rules that involves remembering, understanding, promote learning and behavioral readiness. applying, analyzing, synthesizing/creating, At the adolescent level, a more than evaluating (Bloom, 1956; Anderson, L. doubled content base increases 2001). Howard Gardner posits “five kinds opportunities for higher level thinking of minds” that parallel this developmental involved in personal decision-making in a model (2006). host of contexts. Modern models of information Ripple Effects implicitly builds formal processing all identify pure sensory input as sequencing and adherence to that the first stage in memory making. Many sequencing into the fixed progression of cognitive scientists who favor an slides within each “info” and “how to” information processing approach cite lesson for every tutorial. It organizes evidence that before information is stored logically related chunks of knowledge into in long-term memory, it is organized using linear sequences through an embedded one or more mediating structures of system of hyperlinks. For those who are memory: declarative (for factual intent on preserving a linear sequence of information), procedural (for skill training) simple to complex, a left to right structure and/or imagery (to motivate, support and in the buttons at the bottom of each screen supplement the first two. (after the first button) can meet these needs. Ripple Effects provides more than 60 preconfigured scopes and sequences for Learning as conditioned response dozens of specific curricula and individual treatment plans. See page 6.44 for list. Calibrated and sequenced, grade-by- grade, academic curricula are derived from Evidence indicates that a this model. Both brain research, which developmental, formally sequenced shows the gradual development of the parts approach works well for most students in at of the brain responsible for higher order least some areas, and at least some students thinking, and developmental psychology in most areas. A substantial majority of (Piaget, 1959) at least partly confirm the students master increasingly complex simple to complex progression of learning. material and pass from grade to grade Behaviorism, which became popular without major incident (NCES, 2004). in schools in the 1960’s, emphasized that Critique of classical model learning is less about cognition than trained of learning process habit (Skinner, 1954; Lewis, 1999). Skinner cited the same progression from simple to While many students succeed, a complex, in a “stimulus, response, substantial minority of students fail to reinforcement” cycle of progressively more progress at the expected rate, are left complex conditioning. further behind each year, or drop out Ripple Effects incorporates traditional altogether. Brain studies, developmental understandings of learning in these ways: psychology, demographic data, a

Page 5.30 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS fundamental shift in workplace of the components of the broad synthesis of requirements, evaluation findings, and learning and memory processes described cultural critique all provide some above. The program supports declarative understanding of why the classically memorization by repeating the same sequenced approach to learning does not information in several formats for each work for some students. lesson, and by circular linking to those concepts from many directions. It tests for Developmental differences comprehension of both factual and The traditional model assumes technical knowledge with interactive “got developmental consistency within each age it” games. It provides opportunities for group, when IQ tests and physical and applying insights in transfer training psychological assessments all indicate that exercises for friends and family. It promotes differences in innate cognitive capability, analysis through thought provoking affective development, and brain growth questions that accompany the case study patterns are greater within cohorts at every scenarios, true video stories, and “info” and grade level, than are mean difference “how to” screens. It provides a structure for between cohorts. creating and synthesizing learning through By consolidating lessons at the the interactive journal, as well as opportunities to contribute true stories to elementary (grades 2-5) and middle/high be incorporated in the program. It enables school (grades 6-11) level, rather than self-evaluation through interactive self- having separate versions for each grade, profiles, and provides a scorecard of Ripple Effects allows greater flexibility in completed activities. In addition to these responding to developmental differences. cognitive methodologies, it utilizes the

classic, operant conditioning technique of Neuro-scientific evidence positive reinforcement to cement new learning. Citing a wide range of neuroscientific evidence to support their thesis, prominent Social-cultural heterogeneity brain-based educators and theory From the social-cultural perspective, a synthesizers Renate and Geoffry Caine traditional model of learning assumes suggest that higher order learning is more socially homogenous learning groups, complex than simply logic and decision- when demographic data clearly making. They say it is comprised of ”a demonstrates that today’s schools are broad synthesis of abilities that include anything but. Where once students formal operational thinking, and ability to attended schools that were largely deal with abstract and complex relations,” segregated by ethnicity and class, now but also include “capacities attributed to most students attend schools where social executive functions such as working diversity and economic diversity is memory, flexibility, self-directed learning, increasingly the norm. Socio-economic affective intelligence and knowing oneself” differences have been consistently linked to (Caine R, 2004). differences in both social-emotional and The Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum academic readiness to learn (Magnusson Learning Platform (Chapter 6) with its and Duncan, 2009). structure of multiple modes of instruction for every tutorial, specifically supports each

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In the professional development (Goldberg, 2001). The pruning of program, and in the student software as redundant cells in the pubescent brain, in well, Ripple Effects directly addresses both preparation for a major growth spurt class and cultural differences and their leading to adulthood, may result in impact on learning orientations. It temporary decreases in impulse control addresses them indirectly in topics such as and a stunted ability to accurately predict “success-phobia” and “pressure to consequences (Society of Neuroscience, succeed” in the teen program; and in 2007). However, these are reasons to instruction on personal space and keeping accelerate, not delay, exercises that would hands and feet to oneself in the elementary activate the executive function. program. Recommended frameworks for social- emotional learning begin training in social Non English symbol system in place decision-making by second grade (Elias & Bruene-Butler, 1999 ). Many adolescents come to school for Ripple Effects teaches key cognitive the first time, with a non-English language structures of logic and causality, such as and symbol system already in place. To delay their access to higher order thinking if/then and why/because sentence structures, beginning in second grade, and practice until decoding of a new symbol reinforces them from many different point system is completely in place does not make political or practical sense. of entry. It provides teens direct decision- making training in the following areas: Ripple Effects does not make complex (using) “drugs” (more than a dozen by or higher order learning exercises name), “drinking,” “smoking,” “dealing dependent on first mastering elementary drugs,” “(having) sex”, (getting) ”pregnant,” symbol decoding. By providing audio (carrying) “weapons,” (being) “reckless,” tracks of peer narration of text throughout “lying,” “running away,” “breaking rules,” all programs, learners who are struggling “cheating,” “skipping school,” “dropping with the basics of decoding written English out.” can leapfrog that step to engage directly in decision-making training and other higher Delaying self-expression is problematic order thinking exercises. Not only the delay of decision-making Delaying decision-making compounds risks training, but the delay of formal training in self-expression, including emotional Abundant empirical evidence – from expressiveness, until logic is well teen driving fatalities, to date rape and established, is also problematic. It can pregnancy rates, to school discipline rates, increase the risk of anti-social forms of self- to teen rates of involvement in crime expression. People express emotions (Chapter 2) – suggest that delaying training without training, beginning at infancy. In in formal decision-making until light of the terrible social injury linked to adolescence provides too little help with emotional dysregulation by young this crucial process and presents it too late. offenders, the argument to begin teaching It is true that the executive function does them socially acceptable ways of not fully develop until late adolescence; expressing themselves, from a young age, and executive functions in the prefrontal has face validity. This latter approach is cortex orchestrate emotions, thinking, reflected in the standards for SEL, which memory, body and physical movement

Page 5.32 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS encourage pro-social emotional democratic institutions (Freire, 1987; expressiveness starting at a very young age. Dewey, 1965). Substantial anecdotal evidence also Ripple Effects provides a series of documents the link between increased tutorials to promote an activist relationship opportunities for self-expression, especially to learning and to life. They include goal through creation of new media, and setting and personal assertiveness, and also reduced involvement in anti-social activity, skills for confronting injustice and but few experimental studies have mobilizing others, as well as topics such as systematically studied this link. Creative (finding) “what you love.” This is true for expression is an integral aspect of some both student and staff training. prevention programs that have scientific evidence of success, such as the RULER Constructivist learning: affective development program (Brackett whole system, pattern seeking and Rivers, 2007). The combination of face validity and strong qualitative evidence In the constructivist model, learners argues for increased support for training in instinctively seek out and find the expressive arts, especially during middle knowledge most important for them to school. Beyond that, in most cultures know. This is the basis of the nomenclature throughout history, creative expression has “discovery learning.” Both observational been recognized as valuable in its own studies of human infants, and brain right, needing no external justification. imaging, support the hypothesis that all Ripple Effects offers formal training in humans – indeed all sentient beings – are emotional expressiveness that includes born with an instinctive drive to discover emotionally expressive writing in every patterns and meaning in their environment tutorial, on every topic, at every grade (Gopnik,1999). They cannot make that level. It also includes a tutorial on exploration using their minds alone. Caine creativity, with an interactive profile so that & Caine, who identify themselves as brain- each student can better understand not based constructivists, stress the importance whether s/he is creative, but how. of recognizing learners as whole systems in Supplemental materials for the teen which emotion and all the senses are program include a series of art exercises involved in learning. They define learning through which students complete graffiti as “the bridge between instinct and reality” style classroom posters with pro-social (2004). In this model, learners not only messages. look for patterns embedded in reality, they actually build these patterns, using the base Promotes passive consumerism in learning of prior experience as their starting point. Finally, treating knowledge as a volume Wittruck coined the term “generative of data in search of a dispensary teaches learning” (1974, 1990) to enlarge the students to be consumers, not agents of notion of constructivist learning to include learning. By extension, some educators the concept of “connectionism,” whereby believe it prepares students to be new notions are linked not only to prior spectators, rather than actors in their own personal experience, but also to their own lives. Many in the school reform movement internal components to form new notions. think this is a fundamental flaw that Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum reinforces social passivity and weakens Intervention System aligns with constructivist philosophy in that it is learner

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driven and explicitly promotes pattern- through the expert system described in the seeking. The system provides a method for next chapter. learners to store, enhance and change their In terms of process, the Whole subjective understandings of content, to Spectrum Learning Platform provides 10-13 recognize patterns linked to that content kinds of learning options for every topic. through real world transfer training Those instructional models are physically applications to friends, family and media arranged from left to right, in a zigzag analysis, and to generate new notions from progression that begins with concrete case idiosyncratic arrangements of the study, then moves to declarative learning, components of the program. then to procedural, then back to story, then to analytical exercises, then to subjective Non-linear sequencing interpretations, with imagery used at every step. However, there is no requirement, nor In the constructivist model, because even the recommendation, that learners learners start from different points, it use them in that order. follows that they cannot all take the same paths or sequences to arrive at a given Affective involvement place. This is true in terms of both content and process. Brain research supports the Brain studies have now confirmed that, notion that there are myriad pathways to far from impeding learning, emotion is learning that are not each the shortest central to learning and memory, and neural distance between two points; emotional experience is a differentiating instead they are more like intersecting characteristic of learners (Damasio, 1994, jungle paths (Edleman, 1992). 1999). Dewey’s philosophical insight that In terms of content, the embedded emotion is a component of most, if not all, linking system in Ripple Effects Whole experience is biologically true and may be Spectrum Learning Platform allows literally imprinted at the molecular level (Pert, billions of pathways to learning, with all 1997). It follows that, tying learning to an roads ultimately leading to training in core emotionally weighted experience makes it social-emotional competencies. Learning is more memorable, if the emotional self-regulated by the learner, within a set of experiences is not negatively stressful options selected in real time by the built-in (Perry, 2003), an important caveat. expert system, as being most relevant at In the constructivist model, because each choice point. Although learners can emotional history constitutes a large part of follow a multitude of “jungle paths,” their the base of personal experience, and the choices at each intersection are not parts of the brain that regulate emotion are unlimited. There is a logic built into each involved in all learning (Dasmasio, 1999), intersection, based on scientific theory and emotion and physicality are integral to the evidence of effectiveness. Finite sets of learning process (Caine & Caine, 2001, possible options are provided at each turn. 2005). The possible combinations of unique Ripple Effects enables students to learning experiences overall is nearly access training through any one of more infinite, but the presentation of available than 1000 doors of their most deeply felt options at each point is not. This delimiting personal interest and need. Because of available paths is done in real time students can explore any topic they want (in addition to those assigned), learning is

Page 5.34 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS automatically meaningfully located in each hypotheses about what is most true through student’s most relevant, real world debate and argument, often internal. The experiences – both personal and extensive use of case studies in law and social/cultural. This instantly activates and business schools is consistent with this enlists in learning, the parts of the brain model. that process emotions and make learning Ripple Effects’ introduction of each most likely to stick. In every case study topic as a case study that requires (scenario screen), Ripple Effects provides idiosyncratic problem solving also fits this questions that prompt learners to explicitly model. Each of the 700 learning tutorials in identify the role of emotion in the situation the Whole Spectrum Intervention System being discussed. It asks learners to begins with a case study, a situational hypothesize the emotions of protagonists in statement of dissonance or problem-solving the case studies (scenarios). scenario, from the point of view of the The assisted journal writing exercises person experiencing it. Direct engagement prompt learners to consciously identify in a real world, problem-solving process their emotional reaction to the material precedes all other modes of learning being discussed. offered in each tutorial, as seen in the In addition to the deep personalization screen by screen walkthrough at the end of of content, Ripple Effects implicitly Chapter 6. promotes affective involvement through the use of compelling, true video stories, titles Reflective self inquiry with “attitude,” and emotionally provocative illustrations. In addition, the Piaget refined Dewey’s concept of how program provides procedural training in the individual construction of identifying, understanding, regulating and understanding proceeds. He described the expressing a whole range of specific adaptive processes of assimilation and emotions. accommodation. If new information from Finally, the continuous availability of a the environment is consistent with prior software-based system makes it possible for understandings, it is assimilated intact. If students to access learning at each one’s new information is inconsistent with prior most emotionally salient moment. The understanding, it trimmed or stretched (or success of widespread use of Ripple Effects in the words of some cognitive in ISS settings, where student feelings often psychologists when referring to delinquent run high, is consistent with this theory from offenders, “distorted”) to make it fit. brain science about the emotional Because the role of the individual is components of learning. paramount in this process, thinkers who follow in the mode of Piaget emphasize the Problem solving primacy of meta cognition (the mind becoming aware of itself) and self- If, as Dewey and followers suggest, reflection, as methods of learning within a knowledge is based on reconciling new problem-solving framework (Perkins, information from the environment with 1995). They favor learning activities in prior personal understanding, then all which the mind can become more aware learning is at least partly an active, of itself, where there are opportunities for idiosyncratic, problem-solving process to dialogue, real or simulated, internal or resolve dissonance. Learners test external.

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Reflective self-inquiry is the primary Ripple Effects recognizes that a learning approach of the entire Ripple transformational approach has special Effects program. Learners are actively relevance for young people whose life guided to compare their prior life circumstances are chronically challenging, experience with new information and are (such as crushing poverty), and/or who guided in methods for reconciling the experience intensely disorienting personal dissonance in way that allows them to events (sometimes as simple as being jilted construct a path to success. Specific by a boyfriend or girlfriend). During the tutorials are devoted to developing meta early stage of development of the training cognition. “Learning styles” and software, students – and later teachers – “intelligences” are topics under the broader provided lists of what these potentially unit “knowing yourself” for students and transformative events and conditions are. “self-understanding” for teachers. Hundreds have been incorporated into the three versions of software (Kids, Teens, Whole person transformation Coach for Staff).

At the far end of the constructivist side Social-cultural context of the learning continuum is a whole person, “transformational” model. It The Russian psychologist, Vygotsky, assumes that all learning involves a whole- concurred with Piaget that understanding person change in perspective. Learning is of the world is inherently subjective. at every step a matter of autopoesis, the However, Vygotsky argued that human making of “self” (Varela, 1998). That understanding is more socially and transformation is physical, psychological, culturally, than individually, constructed. social, emotional and cultural. The model He introduced the idea of reality as being is consistent with the evidence from brain defined by social agreement. In this respect science for the physically transformative he anticipated the concept of “cultural nature of all learning. competence,” an increasingly important The breakthrough moment when element of the instructional process, phonics make sense and the world of discussed at greater length on page 5.67. reading opens up has been transformative Ripple Effects recognizes the contextual for many. Coming to a deep understanding basis for all knowledge, with emotional of oneself, or another person, which is the experience, social relations and cultural heart of social-emotional learning, is framing all having a role in the unlikely to be anything but construction of meaning. Ripple Effects transformational. Mezriov, who articulated promotes social construction of meaning the transformational model for adult through providing discussion questions that education (1994), posits that life crises are can be answered in class, providing often the triggers for such transformational, extension activities that prompt discussion social-emotional learning. Thus this model with friends and family, and by providing has special relevance for learners who face skill training in communication and group multiple levels of adversity and barriers to skills. It includes development of learning, including students at most risk for perspective taking and cultural competence delinquent behavior and poor mental as major thrusts of the professional health outcomes. development program and includes

Page 5.36 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS diversity appreciation in the student turns driving the program and played and program. argued over the correct answers to games However Ripple Effects diverges from and most accurate responses for the social constructivist approach in that interactive, personal profiles. The most often, the primary learning event intervention group had significant higher happens in private, and then is transferred gains in pre-to-post scores on assertiveness to a social setting. and lower scores on aggression, after a This approach is consistent with single 50 minute session, compared with a substantial evidence that group discussion demographically matched comparison of personal, emotional and behavioral group, who had no differences at baseline. issues can generate much energy, but not One of the most fascinating qualitative equivalent measurable change in behavior; findings was that students did indeed that group level counseling does not have negotiate agreement about the meaning of the same positive effects as individual social communication, and strenuously counseling (Wilson and Lipsey, 2007); and argued their opposing points of view, that there are comparatively better especially about dating behavior, with outcomes from differentiated learning, strong gender differences very evident (Ray, versus one size fits all techniques (Pintrich, 1999, personal notes). 2000; Wolters, 2003). On the other hand, there is also evidence that negotiating Language Development social agreement (including through the In Vygotsky’s view the mechanism for use of technology in online learning) may social construction of meaning is language, be an effective way to support higher level in particular, everyday conversational thinking processes in cooperative settings language (1978). This is consistent with (Ada, 2009). ethnographic data from anthropologists Ripple Effects training software supports who recognize that cognitive categories the process of negotiating social carried in everyday language mediate agreements, an important set of skills for reality for members of a cultural group. It is team-based learning. It offers specific consistent with the historical development tutorials on participating in group of consciousness-raising groups as a discussions, including training students, as prelude to social action (Freire, 1978), and well as teachers, to increase wait time to with the demand from marginalized groups maximize participation, so that a broader to remove racist, sexist and homophobic set of experiences can be part of shared language from all educational materials, as group understandings. a necessary precondition for social justice, The first pilot study of impact of not as its eventual result (AERA Social Ripple Effects teen software in Justice SIG). In Vygotsky’s model, 1998 provided empirical evidence vocabulary building, training in grammar, that it can be an effective tool for personal journaling, conversation skills, negotiation change in group, as well as private settings. skills, and cultural competence are all A number of broken computers in the lab essential to effective learning. resulted in all students having to share, a divergence from the one computer per Journaling student protocol that had been part of the original design. Ninth grade students in Vygotsky was among the first to identify very active groups of 2-5 members took journaling as an instructional method that

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facilitates the process of internalizing involving discussion with friends and dialogue to shape understanding (Vygotsky, family. There are consciousness-raising 1962). Other researchers have tutorials about social cultural context, demonstrated how journaling can including lessons on “class,” “gender,” reinforces the skill of reflecting what is “ethnicity,” “immigrant status” and being discussed with others (Beyerbach, “disabilities.” 1992; Burnham, 1992; Reinersten & Wells, 1993). Learning differences

Metaphor Despite pronounced disagreement among educators about the nature of the Another set of researchers (Lakeoff & learning process, there is now nearly Johnson, 1980) have identified metaphor as universal agreement that – however it is a specific link between existing knowledge, defined – there are some differences in and its successor understanding. They how various students learn. A growing argue that the full set of feelings, contexts mound of data from both testing and brain and social meanings, as well as cognitive studies suggest that there is substantial understanding associated with the variation in learning aptitudes, orientations, metaphoric image, can have a potentially and developmental readiness to learn. powerful impact on how new information Different kinds of learning occur for is organized into patterns. different people with different degrees of Ripple Effects incorporates Vygotskian ease or difficulty, in different contexts principles in its emphasis on language (Gardener, 1983; Sternberg, 1988). There is development as a major tool for social- not agreement on exactly what those emotional growth, in its exclusive use of learning differences are and how they are second person, conversational best addressed. conventions, rather than formal tone and Ripple Effects includes an integrated set grammar to convey key concepts, and in of lessons in the staff training program, on the incorporation of peer narrated, differences in learning orientation, learning conversational audio tracks matched to styles, learning disorders, attention text. It includes extensive use of verbal and capacities, giftedness and testing. Both staff visual metaphors. Tutorials cover specific training and student programs recognize conversation skills, negotiation of differences in cognitive capacity, with understanding, vocabulary of social- lessons on “cognitive impairments” and emotional experience, and language “giftedness” in the staff program and structures of inclusion and cause and “special ed” in the student programs. effect. All narrative is informal dialogue, as To address the need for leaning process between peers, in non-scientific language. differentiation without loss of Journal writing for every lesson is designed standardization of content, Ripple Effects to facilitate the internal dialogue that leads provides no fewer than 11 differentiated to understanding. It includes separate options for learning for every topic. The exercises for describing phenomena, Whole Spectrum Learning Platform identifying feelings about experience, (Chapter 6) addresses sensory, cognitive, brainstorming options, committing to goals and attention differences, as well as and finding support in a wider community. differences in motivation and temperament. Every tutorial includes an exercise

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Intelligences Learning style preferences

Howard Gardner presents a strong case In contrast to Gardner’s work on the for there being not only differences in level what of intelligence, a variety of other of learning aptitudes traditionally researchers have focused on individual associated with intelligence, but in kinds of differences in how people learn (Keefe, intelligence. He presents data to suggest 1979; Merrill, 2000). Some researchers that in addition to aptitudes for language focus on sensory orientation in learning, and math, there are native intelligences in dividing learners into visual, auditory or the areas of music, spatial abilities, kinesthetic groups (VAK). Others cite physical prowess, intra-personal and inter- differences in information processing styles personal intelligence, and ability to for different kinds of learning and memory connect with the natural world (1988). He (Atkinson & Shiffron, 1968). Still others cites brain plasticity studies as evidence have constructed typologies that assume that these are not fixed, but expandable some correspondence between aspects of aptitudes. Some brain scientists dispute the temperament and learning tendencies. precision of the neuroscience behind They include the original Meyer’s Briggs Gardner’s argument (Stahl, 1999), but Type Indicator (MBTI), and several others, laypeople, as well as educators, recognize usually built on two dimensional, bi-polar the truth of the simple observation that models, such as Keirsey’s temperament people have different talents, and can sorter (KTS). Still others focus on how leverage those talents to affect their individuals approach, process, apprehend, environment differently. The latter is a key manipulate and retain new information, measure of Gardner’s definition of using various combinations of sensory intelligence (1983). orientation, temperament, kinds of Ripple Effects training software for staff engagement, and processing styles as includes coaching in how to recognize, indices: Canfield (CLSI) Dunn and Dunn affirm, and leverage a broad range of (LSI, Grasha and Reichmann Gregoric intelligences across disciplines. The student (GRSLSS), Hill (CSI), Kolb (LSI), and software, under the topic “smarts” provides Witkin's (EFT). basic information to help students Ripple Effects includes a series of understand the range of ways in which they interactive profiles that utilize orthogonal, are smart. The entire program promotes the bi-polar axes related to temperament, systematic development of both intra- social-emotional skills and/or learning style personal and interpersonal aptitudes. Every preferences. Each of them have strong lesson has a sports application to leverage evidence of construct validity behind them; the aptitudes of students who have a strong yet none can be considered as scientifically kinesthetic abilities, and interactive games valid assessment tools, and they are not to engage kinesthetic learners. Every lesson presented as such. Their value is not in in the professional development program providing a schema to add yet one more includes transfer-training opportunities for set of labels to learners, but in catalyzing math, language arts, sports and advisory an ever-deepening process of self- contexts. discovery. The program uses learner input to create a snapshot of a particular combination of factors, at a certain point in time.

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Results that reflect learner input are theorized just a few decades ago. Thus provided instantly in graphical, narrative learning profiles derived from personality text, and audio forms. There are 37 such typing cannot be considered fixed or static; profiles in the teen program: four in the they are in a constant state of flux. Because elementary program, six in the training these are dynamically evolving preferences software for staff. Together they create a or types, and may change depending on composite picture, as well as separately physical, social and emotional contexts, providing individual snapshots. These some researchers suggest that to funnel all moment-in-time images are not intended to instruction into a form that a student be enduring. This combination of multiple, express a preference for in a certain temporary profiles to estimate a variety of context, at a certain point in time, may be a factors that impact learning, recognizes disservice to them (Zarghani,1998). both that precise, universally reliable Reconciliation of perspectives typing of a multi-dimensional reality is impossible, and also that having some There is no doubt that if learning means of systematizing, current learning difference classifications become a lock- strengths and preferences can be box for limiting student opportunities, then, practically helpful in understanding and using them does a great disservice. On the addressing those differences, both for other hand, if learning difference “profilers” learners and their teachers (Bates, 1994). At becomes tools for greater self- the least, it can increase self awareness, a understanding, and for expanding the range first step in self-efficacy (Bandura, 1987). of options available to each student, then Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Learning they offer promise for enriching education Platform is designed with the assumption for all. that learning style and temperamental The latter marks the Ripple Effects differences exist, but are often malleable. approach to addressing learning Enabling students to choose from a wide differences. Ripple Effects profiles are not range of learning modes each time they static. Each time the learner completes the approach a new topic maximizes the profile it can reflect a new reality. The flexibility of this system. temporary nature of each profile is Critique of learning style typing consistent with the concept of brain plasticity, the neuroscientific explanation of Critics challenge categorizing student the huge potential for human change. The by learning type on four levels. First, notion of an ever present possibility of temperament and learning differences are deep change has special relevance for so many and so nuanced that efforts to students who have a history of academic cluster them into two or a few categories and social failure. To allow for change and may be simplistic to the point of being bad plasticity, the software does not use science. Secondly, with the exception of information drawn from student profiles to the Myers Briggs test and the Five Factor predetermine or limit options for learning Point Personality Profiles (Goldberg, 1993; modes. Each learner has full access to all of Costa and McCrae, 1992; Cattell, 1996) the available modes of learning, every personality typologies have limited time. evidence of cross-cultural validation. Thirdly, personality, like the brain itself, is more plastic than pioneers in this field

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Qualitative research in the form students with a wide range of learning of interviews with teachers and differences: multiple means of students indicates that which of representation, multiple means of the available modes each learner will make expression and multiple means of use of depends not only on learning engagement (CAST, 2008). preferences, but also on emotional Ripple Effects provides training for connection to the topic being addressed. teachers on how to recognize various The greater the emotional connection, the learning disorders. It provides coaching in more likely a student is to take advantage how to address these challenges both of all available presentation formats (Ray, directly, and through the use of Ripple Berg,1999-2009, personal interviews.) Effects student program in regular In addition to the learning styles classrooms. That training includes profiler, Ripple Effects software includes coaching in specific instructional some three dozen other self-profile techniques that have been proven effective exercises, spread across the three for students with different disorders. programs, with proportionally more in the teen program than in the two others. The Social-emotional learning as a scientific base for the profiles comes from specialized form of learning three places. For medical conditions such as PTSD or ADHD, questions probe for CASEL defines social-emotional “symptoms” taken from DSM IV. For learning as “the process of acquiring the social-emotional competencies such as (core) skills to recognize and manage empathy, questions probe for specific emotions, develop caring and concern for abilities researchers have identified as key others, make responsible decisions, components of that competency. For risk establish positive relationships, and handle and protective factors, content is from NIH challenging situations effectively” (Zins and and CDC funded studies. Ripple Effects Elias, 2006; CASEL, 2007). The field of profiles have been vetted by a diverse social-emotional learning rests on the belief group of child psychiatrists and that, even though people may have psychologists, as well as educational differing innate aptitudes for one or other of specialists. the competencies, all are learnable (Salovey, et al 2004; Weissberg & Elias, Learning disorders and disabilities 1993).

In addition to normal variations in Social learning processes learning, a range of learning-linked anomalies have been identified, including Just as the field of social-emotional sensory, cognitive, attention, learning can be described in terms of its communicative, emotional and behavioral knowledge base, it can also be described in disorders, and “premature” development of terms of the learning processes that have certain sets of cognitive abilities been proven effective in developing these (giftedness). social-emotional skills and capacities. Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Bandura (1986) is credited with identifying Learning Platform, described in greater the key elements of social learning to detail in the next chapter meets three major include modeling, rehearsal and criteria for meeting the learning needs of reinforcement. Goldstein (1988) expanded

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the model into the five-part process of to constructivist understandings. Relative teacher modeling, student role playing, position on this continuum impacts group performance, feedback and transfer understanding of educational goals, roles, training (practicing the skills at home and instructional methodologies and classroom in the community. orchestration. The structure of Ripple Effects Whole With Ripple Effects’ model of a Spectrum Learning Platform provides continuum of color, rather than a series of opportunities for the key elements of discrete mathematical points, commitment modeling, rehearsal, reinforcement, to one position does not logically disallow feedback and transfer training, in every incorporation of another. lesson, as described in greater detail in the next chapter. Goals

INSTRUCTION That schools exist to create literacy and competency is a given among educators; however, the nature of that literacy and It is impossible to completely separate competency is variously understood. The the process of learning from models of narrowest understanding limits the goals of instruction. Nonetheless, the art and schools to creating academic literacy and science of teaching is its own discipline, competency. The work of the school is the covered by the umbrella term, “pedagogy.” work of the mind, period. Pedagogy is an ancient Greek concept, literally translated as “to lead the child.” Ripple Effects program explicitly Originally a pedagogue was the person, promotes mental proficiency and academic usually a slave, who took care of the non- achievement. Student software includes academic factors that enabled young topics like ”study habits,” “attention,” students to access their instruction, from “testing,” “effort,” ”reflection on walking them to school, to carrying performance,” “school – hate it”, and musical instruments. The meaning of the “success phobia.” Coach for Staff software word gradually evolved to focus more on explicitly rests on the assumption that with teaching than on enabling preconditions, the right support, all students can succeed or assurance of access. However, the academically. “more than instructional content” root has The Dewey-informed goal of never been completely lost. Today socializing students for active participation pedagogy encompasses both the art and in democracy and the real world of work science of teaching. It includes academic implies creating political literacy, social instruction, but is not limited to it, competency, and work place skills as well. incorporating also classroom orchestration, Douglas Kellner reflects this theory when professional development models, he suggests that the goal of schools is to assessment, and increasingly, the “promote multiple literacies appropriate to specialized field of social-emotional the novel, material conditions, learning. The first area of focus here is transformation and subjectivities emerging instruction. in the contemporary era” (2004). This As with theories of knowledge and linking of pedagogy with community and learning, instructional models can be democracy is a key theme in theoretical represented on a continuum of instructivist models of education toward social

Page 5.42 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS liberation, from Paolo Freire (1970) to Betty The goal of Ripple Effects Whole Friedan (1963), and each of their Spectrum Intervention System is to be an ideological descendants. effective supplement for education of the Ripple Effects explicitly addresses the whole child. In addition to providing role of education in preparing citizens to universal social-emotional learning actively participate in a democracy, and opportunities for students and teachers, become productive members of the work Ripple Effects provides learners with force, through topics that promote civic opportunities to address individual engagement, such as “Democracy – doing concerns and risk factors from multiple it,” “Commanding respect,” “Standing up domains that impact the whole child at for a belief,” “Resisting pressure,” school. “Exercising rights,” “Patriotism,” “Loyalty,” “Dissent,” “Confronting injustice,” Roles “Including others,” “Resolving conflict,” “Making a complaint,” “Making Related to the goals of instruction is the Decisions,” “Predicting Consequences,” role of teachers in achieving those goals. “Honesty,” “Fairness,” “Respect,” “Justice,” The traditional model is teacher centered “Responsibility,” “Resisting stereotypes,” and authority based. The instructor is a “Appreciating diversity,” “Racial “sage on the stage,” content expert and differences,” “Cultural differences,” “Ethnic sole trainer who determines what to teach differences,” “Disabilities,” “Gender and how to teach it. S/he is accountable for differences,” “Personal preferences,” “Hate end results. Traditionally, all power resides crimes,” “Immigrant,” “Lesbian/gay.” Any in this teaching role. Teachers fulfill this topics can be deleted to conform to local role not by being liked by their students, mandates. but by being obeyed and ideally, respected A yet more expansive interpretation of as well. schools’ goals for students includes the Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum development of emotional literacy and Intervention System incorporates a number competency as CASEL has articulated of pedagogical roles. On the one hand, it is (2003). In this model, the goal of the school a “sage on the stage,” relieving individual is to attend to and educate the “whole teachers of the impossible burden of being child.” Adherents of the latter approach depositories of all relevant knowledge for cite recent research that links social- any group of students, especially within emotional literacy and competency to science and social science disciplines. It is academic success (Zins et al. 2004, the content expert on factual and reduced criminal activity (Lipsey and procedural information. It sets out the Wilson, 1998), higher life time earnings groups of “best practice” methodologies (Hawkins, 2009), and better health and from which students can choose. mental health outcomes (Greenberg et al. An alternate, emerging model is of the 2001); Wilson et al. 2003). While this role of teacher as “guide on the side.” It is expanded interpretation is a relatively learner-centered and responsibility-based. recent development in American It focuses on the role of teachers as education, education of the whole person catalysts, rather than mediators, of students’ is not a new idea. It has been the explicit learning process. It recognizes educators’ model for Jesuit education since the 16th major responsibilities as the primary agents century (Kolvenbach, 2005).

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for socializing young people into a students. In interviews with their teachers democratic society and also encourages the or counselors, as recorded on video, and/or involvement of students in power sharing reported by school staff to Ripple Effects, and decision-making. students talk about how the software In other parts of the Ripple Effects respects them and listens to them, they say program, the software is a guide on the side it “feels like a friend” to them. (Ripple that simply facilitates students’ engagement Effects archives, 1998-2009). in self-regulated learning. With Ripple Effects, students have the power to choose Methods what they are interested in and choose the gender of their electronic guide. They can Process: transmission determine and self-regulate their learning The traditional model of instructional process. Ultimately, as they agree to in methodology is one of “transmission.” It is writing in an opening screen, they are aligned with the notion that there is a set responsible for how they use the program body of facts and procedural knowledge and what they gain from it. that need to be passed on, generation to Ripple Effects professional development generation, from all teachers to all students. program provides specific training to help In this model “content is king.” Each teachers share power without teacher is fully responsible for ensuring that compromising their authority. a specific knowledge base is being Even more fundamental a shift than that transmitted with integrity. The most of sage to guide, is that which redefines conservative model is one of every teacher teachers’ primary identity, not as instructors directly dispensing that content, through at all, but as learners themselves, engaged didactic instruction, following a preset in a continual process of gradually curriculum. expanding understanding, in which The Ripple Effects system is aligned students are not only co-learners in a with the transmission model in these ways: mutual learning endeavor, at times they are It includes a body of content expertise. The their teachers’ most effective guides as well “info,” “how to”, and “model” screens (Wei, Hammond, Andree, Richardson and provide direct instruction on both facts Orphanos, 2009). “info” and procedures (“how to,” “movie At this farthest point along the models)”. The training software builds continuum the role of teachers is not only formal sequencing into a table of contents, to learn, support, and instruct, but to cross or course outline, for each software over the line from instructor to intimate product. Supplemental manuals provide 60 friend, to enter into a personal relationship preconfigured curricula with scopes and of equality as well as mutual trust and sequences for use in primary, secondary respect with each student. and tertiary prevention programs. Each and Ripple Effects professional development all draw on established best practices from program provides practical training for the most relevant body of knowledge. teachers in how to develop personal relationships of trust and mutual respect Process: transaction with their students. In addition, the software itself becomes Further along on the continuum is a partner in learning and sharing for many what could be called a “transaction” model

Page 5.44 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS of instruction. Instructors still are in charge thinking. Since the program is self- of setting learning objectives, but this regulated there is no time pressure to come model assumes some exchange of value. up with quick answers. Students who might Instructors make a presentation, ideally ordinarily get closed out of classroom providing both a conceptual framework discussion, get a chance to reflect privately, and concrete examples, then ask probing with cues, at their own pace. The questions. Students provide feedback, professional development software answer questions, complete assignments. includes training for teachers in how to ask The instructor uses this feedback to correct open ended questions that deepen thought misunderstandings, provide opportunities and how to extend wait time beyond the for practice, and then assess learning. This average one second commonly granted, to mixed model of instruction is the most 3-7 seconds, to increase both participation commonly used in the United States. It is and higher order thinking. widely incorporated into lesson plans on every subject. Process: learning cycle In the Ripple Effects system, interactive Bridging some of the remaining profiles and games are marked by this quid distance between instructor-controlled, pro quo. Ripple Effects presents interactive instruction and pure information, checks for understanding, uses constructivism is Bybee's model of a cues from learners to provide feedback, spiraling “learning cycle” of engagement, and tallies up points for completion of exploration, explanation, elaboration, and correct answers. evaluation (1997). The difference from There is substantial data that if the Bloom’s taxonomy is not in the kinds of content is presented in a clear and correct learning – and by default, instruction – that manner, and if students have opportunities occur, as much as in their order and the to actively practice and provide feedback, more proactive role of the learner in the academic achievement, as measured by process. Bybee cites studies that indicate scores on standardized tests, can improve. “the learning cycle as a model of However, data also shows that as much as instruction is far superior to transmission 90% of questioning in classrooms is models of instruction in which students are directed to the most basic level of learning, passive receivers of knowledge from their rather than higher order thought, even teacher (Bybee, 1997), but does not present among teachers who have as their goal to data that indicates it is the learning develop critical thinking. Most questions sequence, rather than learner engagement are answered by the same few students that accounts for that difference. whose “boot time” is quick enough to fit The Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum into the average one second wait time, Learning Platform (Chapter 6) does not even when substantial research points to have a fixed order for different modes of longer wait time as being a factor in both learning. It does set the starting point for all class participation and higher order of them with direct engagement in a case thinking (Casteel and Stahl, 1973; Rowe study scenario, during which learners are 1972; Stahl 1990; Tobin 1987). guided to take the perspective of the Ripple Effects reverses the proportion protagonist. This is consistent with Bybee’s cited above of questions that require model of personal engagement as being the factual knowledge, versus higher order starting point of every learning cycle. With

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the Ripple Effects system, however, after very specific skill component and deliver a that first step, the learner selects the very focused piece of science-based elements and drives the order of the information. The point of focus may be instructional process by choosing to click directed by the instructor, may be chosen on different buttons at the bottom of the by each learner, or may be determined screen, in any order. A left to right order jointly by them, or by a planning team. approximates Bybee’s learning cycle, but Three of the 10 - 13 instructional there is no recommendation that students modes offered in each lesson include proceed in that order. explicit instruction: (“Info,” “How to,” All tests of content mastery are in the “Modeling”). In development of the form of engaging games that pull learners software a conscious decision was made to into the process of learning through trial take background concepts and learning and error, and thus restart the cycle. As objectives that had formerly been noted earlier, Ripple Effects’ continuum of segregated in teacher lesson plans and color metaphor for a logic model, does not explicitly include them in the student prevent the inclusion of contrasting, even program, in the “Info” and “How To” opposite instructional methodologies in screens. any combination of orders in a single Qualitative data in the form of lesson. observation of students and interviews with them suggest that Four key instructional approaches for SEL as few as 25% of students actually expose themselves to these fact-centered screens In a 2008 analysis of which specific as part of their completion of teacher- instructional procedures were correlated assigned topics. Those who do, find it with positive school outcomes for social- useful. Perhaps more importantly, even emotional learning programs, Durlak et al students who don’t routinely use the “Info” identified four, with the acronym “SAFE”. screens feel respected that they are trusted Three are associated with traditional with explicit information about what they instruction: linear Sequencing, teacher- are supposed to learn. defined Focus, and Explicit instruction; one Ripple Effects system requires active is associated with constructivist methods – learning at every moment, from every Active engagement of the learner in the student. Because of the computer-based process. structure, students can’t sit in the back of As described earlier, Ripple Effects has the class and not participate. Every one of three different sequencing systems that the hundreds of tutorials provides a variety operate simultaneously. Two of them are of active learning options at the desktop linear, one implicit in the hyperlink and beyond. Of particular relevance for structure of the software, one explicit in social-emotional learning are the built in implementer manuals. One is non-linear, opportunities for participation in case-study comprised of millions of potential links that discussions and behavioral skill rehearsal, are formed in real time, based on random including role plays. choices or personal associations of the The identification of effective learner. approaches for universal, group-level Ripple Effects system also places a high instruction in SEL does not negate the value premium on Focus. The hundreds of micro or importance of more calibrated, tutorials each are designed to develop a individualized instruction as well.

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Process: pure discovery with friends, family and in sports settings. However, as noted above, it does not At the end of this continuum, are presume that experiential learning is the various “pure” interpretations of only path to understanding in every context constructivist instructional models. The for every person. Explicit knowledge most controversial of these is “pure transfer and behavioral instruction are discovery.” Dewey’s intellectual equally parts of the system. The program as descendent, Jerome Bruner argues that the a whole opens up a very large world for knowledge gained through self discovery is self-discovery (more than 1500 entry somehow more accessible or useful for topics). However, Ripple Effects has not future problem solving than knowledge that seen any evidence to support the fact that is received through direct transmission. At students will automatically engage in using the least, students are more likely to the program to discover what interests remember things that they discover on their them. In at least one instance, after the own. A key element of this model is that program was purchased and set out on a discovery is not a purely cognitive, or even table, learners never ventured beyond the psychological event, it is heavily associated first scenario screens, partly because they with “doing”– manipulating objects, didn’t naturally “discover” all the buttons at performing experiments (Bruner, 1966). the bottom of the screen, which would As described earlier, brain research have led them to their options. supports the general theses that personal Once learners are inside the Ripple search for meaning, and emotional and Effects world, learning is explicitly self- physical involvement, intensify learning regulated, but it is also implicitly guided experiences and make it more likely that through the expert system that decides those experiences will be embedded in which options to present at every given memory. It doesn’t support the conclusion choice point. that what ends up embedded in memory is factually true, or consistent with academic Critique of discovery methods standards by which students ultimately will be measured. Nor does it support the John Anderson, Lynn Reder, and conclusion that because some people learn Herbert Simon provide evidence that a best by doing, all people share that discovery-based process is an inefficient predilection. Finally, it doesn’t support the learning and assessment procedure (1997). conclusion that all students will be However, it must be noted that the context motivated to “discover” the same things of their study is the hard science of that are grade level requirements in public mathematics, not the soft area of social schools. emotional learning. Nonetheless, Once more the Ripple Effects approach substantial research points to the fact that to instruction is a hybrid one. It includes most learners need some formal guidance specific tutorials on experimenting, and to meet learning objectives (Kirschner et al. provides several instructional options for 2006; Tuovinen and Sweller, 1999). Mayer learning by doing, including games to makes the more specific critical point that assess content mastery that can be discovery-based learning may be effective completed through a process of trial and for experienced learners, but not for novice error, rehearsal/role play opportunities, and learners (2004). He presents substantial real world exercises to engage in offline empirical evidence of the greater

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effectiveness of use of “solved examples” and substance abuse, the majority for novices, and guided discovery over completed neither the assigned lessons, nor pure discovery-based instructional any self-discovered tutorials. In more practices for all, as Vygotsky had earlier regulated schools, where compliance was suggested. required rather than merely invited, This critique has special relevance for virtually all students participated. More one group of students with multiple risk than 96% of all students who had minimal factors for failure: those already disengaged exposure to the assigned tutorials, whether learners who have been assigned to completely voluntary, or officially alternative schools of last resort. In too mandated, went on to pursue subjects of many cases, they are stranded in school individual interest. with their freedom, without the self- Students showed substantial and regulation, or decision-making abilities significant gains in GPA, from pre to post, needed to take good advantage of it. compared to control groups. In some cases, Similarly, many students who have been the lowest performing students completed mainstreamed into regular classrooms need more than 150% of assigned dosage, far more direction than a discovery method sometimes missing the assigned topics in of instruction would allow them (Kauffman, favor of their own discoveries. The mean, 1985). post intervention GPA gain for these was Usage and compliance data significantly higher than for control group from randomized controlled students who were exposed to instructor trials of Ripple Effects would led, life skill training during the same support Mayer’s conclusion. periods. In special education settings, there is no Some researchers have assembled data to support the belief that students will evidence that challenges the usefulness of initiate use of the Ripple Effects program context driven programs at all. The data is the first time, and discover what is relevant more convincing when applied to fluency for them, if it is simply available as a in reading, than to reading comprehension. resource, but not required or monitored. There is neither empirical data nor However, there is a growing body of neuroscientific research to support the qualitative research that supports the transfer of this conclusion to social conclusion that once students are assigned emotional learning. a topic as part of an IEP, if they are Quantitative data compiled for encouraged, they subsequently will seek more than 3600 students who out and discover information that can be used Ripple Effects in discipline personally useful to them, including settings to address behavior problems in information on teasing, being bullied, and the context of deeper issues they were beaten. This is true even for students who facing in their personal lives suggest the have shown little ability to work opposite is true. Such personal context- independently. driven use resulted in reductions in repeat Among students who have not been in-school suspension referrals ranging from identified as Special needs, but have been 30 to 50 percent (Patterson et al 2008). faltering in school, in chaotic school In addition, neuroimaging evidence situations when students were invited – but described earlier supports the contention not required or trained – to use Ripple that very personal contexts for Effects as a tool for reducing school failure

Page 5.48 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS understanding can create chemical thinking (“thinkers”), being thrown into a reactions that drive affective commitment mode of concrete experimentation without that reinforces learning. (Dasmasio et al., a frame of reference, or a model for how to 1994, 1995) systematically proceed, may provoke A final criticism of constructivism is needless anxiety and is inefficient. that, in its commitment to subjectivity, it encourages, even foments, normlessness. Process: supportive guidance This would be particularly problematic for youth who come from family settings If, as Dewey conceived, knowledge is a where discipline is inconsistent, and/or subjectively constructed thing and students neighborhoods where anti-social behavior are the principal agents of their own is the norm, and/or belong to subcultural learning, it follows that the role of groups where negative stereotypes are educators in this process must be a often reinforced in the media. These supportive one. While some pure cognitive students are in need of strengthened, not constructivists see individual teachers as weakened prosocial norms. having virtually no meaningful role to play Quantitative data on reductions in learner-centered, discovery-based in discipline referrals, as well as education, most argue that although qualitative data from student teachers are neither the fonts of all stories and teacher reports in schools that knowledge, nor the sole directors of have used Ripple Effects, indicate the predetermined learning procedures, their flexibility in the software is more likely to role as supportive guides is a key one. lead students to adopt norms that Vygotsky’s research showed measurable strengthen pro-social – not anti-social – differences in the reasoning ability between behavior, once students begin exploring on children who learned completely their own. independently and those who learned with This may not be a contradiction, for an adult guide. Those with the guide Ripple Effects is not a completely consistently showed an advantage. Lipsey’s unguided, normless program. Normative research shows that personal guidance in guidance is provided within the open counseling sessions is correlated with structure of personal exploration. The reduced anti-social and delinquent guidance is delivered by peer voices, but behavior (1998). the normative bias is toward pro-social A randomized controlled trial of behavior. A specific tutorial about norms is the impact of Ripple Effects part of the program. under two experimental Some theorists believe that conditions demonstrated better outcomes constructivist teaching too often elevates with completely private use, than with the the importance of any behavioral activity at addition of adult-facilitated group the expense of true cognitive engagement. discussion and role plays to the computer Data generated from use of Ripple program (Stern & Repa, 2000). Effects learning style profiles, suggest that At first glance these finding would seem this critique has some validity as well. For to contradict those of Vygotsky. However, students who rely on observation as their self-regulated use of the Ripple Effects entry point into learning (“watchers”), or program is far from an unguided those who are already adept at higher order experience. Both instructivist and constructivist forms of guidance are built

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into the content and structure of the Immediacy program, as described above. Beyond the proximal level of content, the emotional distance between the Instructional differentiation questioner and the learner affects the Zones of proximal development learner’s capacity to build new understanding from instructional cues. Vygotsky contributed the important Mehrabian (1969) was the first to describe concept of “zones of proximal specific communication behaviors that development” (ZPD) as key to the success promote “immediacy,” defined as physical of constructivist instruction. A zone of or psychological closeness and interaction proximal development is the difference between individual people. Although between the level of problem-solving a Mehrabian did not frame the concept in learner can engage in without help, and terms of pedagogy, immediacy behaviors what he or she can do with modeling and have since been found to result in positive guidance toward discovery. Teachers affect within classroom contexts (Gorham, provide cues or bridges that help connect 1988). one level of learning to another within Ripple Effects has designed the quality these zones of proximal development. If of immediacy into the content and there is too great a gap between the learner structure of its software through specific and the skill or behavior modeled, the choices about verbal and non-verbal learner is less likely to attempt to move to components of the system. The opening the next level (Vygotsky, 1978; Bandura, scenario for every lesson takes a position of 1986). Psychologists posit that there are solidarity with the learner. Verbal emotional as well as cognitive zones of components of immediacy include liberal proximal development. use of humor – even “attitude” – in the title Ripple Effects incorporates the concept bars that introduce each screen, and the of zones of proximal development by use of familiar, rather than formal breaking skill training down into many language, with second person direct hundreds of micro, one-step-at-a-time address for behavioral training. pieces. It narrows social and experiential Contemporary cultural imagery and distance between learner and guide in four peer voices taking the tone of a cousin or main ways: best friend sitting next to the listener further Using peer guides who are no more contribute a sense of immediacy, even than one developmental level ahead of intimacy. Non-verbal immediacy is the learner promoted through physical availability of Having students who are not the program to learners at their self-chosen professional actors model specific most teachable moments, through enabling behavior learners to choose the gender of their Using diverse peer voices, rather than guides, and through the use of adults, as the voices of authority contemporary cultural imagery in Providing for each lesson a set of illustrations. “related topic” links that could Training for staff addresses the potential predictably fit within the same ZPD. and limitations of using humor to promote closeness. It also provides training in how to intentionally direct non-verbal modes of

Page 5.50 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS immediacy, including physical proximity clues, verbal clues, text and sound effect and caring body language. clues, opportunities for rehearsal, transfer training assignments, both linear and non- Scaffolding linear sequencing structures, and concept- checking options. Building on Vygotsky’s concept of It is up to each learner to decide which Zones of Proximal Development, social aids s/he needs or wants, and which to do psychologists coined the term “scaffolding” without. Ripple Effects scaffolds reading for to evoke the image of the amount of English Language learners by utilizing instructional aid that is “just enough” precise combinations of basic vocabulary, guidance and direction to support the rather than more complex words, in an integrity of the knowledge edifice that is easily apprehended conversational style, being constructed by each learner. It allows with liberal use of analogy and a sprinkling a learner to move from a current level of of humor; by offering optional peer understanding and expertise, to the next narration matched to text; by providing a level, without fail (Rosenshine & Meister, colorful visual illustration for every point, 1992; Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). It can including metaphoric illustrations. It gradually be withdrawn as each new level scaffolds writing by providing an of learning is attained. organizational structure for critical thinking In this model, there is not one and writing; vocabulary suggestions and configuration of scaffolding that fits for all word prompts; as well as the open-ended learner-constructed knowledge edifices, option of writing in any language rather the scaffold is created for and recognized by the computer. matched to each learning endeavor, similar It is the student software that is the to the ways construction scaffolding is fit to primary scaffolding apparatus for teachers. the requirements of each building. This use It enables teachers to address students’ of scaffolding as a metaphor for teacher individual social-emotional learning needs support still assumes a linear “sky scraper” without requiring these first to master model of knowledge, rather than the whole new areas of expertise. It relieves construction of horizontal, or diagonal teachers of responsibility for content webs of understanding. It is likely that there expertise in areas of psychology and are more apt metaphors in the days of the prevention, for which they most often have worldwide web; nonetheless the concept is not been trained, by putting that expertise a useful one, and a key part of much in the box. Teachers are able to make as educational theory. much or as little use of the student software Ripple Effects software provides the as they choose. building pieces for personal scaffolding The professional development software through a Lego™-like content structure of offers all the same instructional methods as more than 50,000 media pieces that can be are available in the student software. In assembled in literally billions of addition, print and electronic resources, combinations, to support a positive, including preconfigured individual personal learning experience. To scaffold treatment plans, and scopes and the learning process for diverse learners sequences, make it easier for beginning Ripple Effects offers motivating, framing, teachers to direct students to potentially linking, directing, skill coaching, fruitful areas of learning. Live training and questioning, modeling, reinforcing, visual web-based implementation support provide

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additional scaffolding for implementers. was not completed by Anderson et al. until The staff training, whether live or 2001 and has been somewhat superceded electronic, provides step-by-step support by the CASEL model for social-emotional for using the student software with learners learning, described on page 5.27. across a wide range of settings. Ripple Effects addresses all six levels of Although the term “scaffolding” as an learning objectives and utilizes the whole instructional concept arose out of range of question/statement types that constructivist theory, the idea of having a Bloom identified. The proportion of variety of means of support to better enable questions or assignments that require student learning is applicable whether the factual recall is less than 20%, found in intended learning is objective knowledge, “got it” games; versus 80% devoted to or subjectively construed understanding, or meaningful comprehension (“info” and any step in between. The use of “how to” screen discussion questions); scaffolding, especially questioning to application (transfer training exercises, promote and provoke learning is not journal writing); analysis (case study, true unique to constructivist approaches. story, info and how to questions); and evaluation (“scenario,” “info,” “how to,” Questioning as scaffolding: “true story” questions, journal writing, “got Bloom’s taxonomy its”). This is the reverse proportion of that in many traditional settings, even for Bloom’s taxonomy can be considered a younger students. paradigm for the calibrated use of various Different structures and built-in forms of questions as scaffolding (1956). It processes in Ripple Effects software are lays out the instructional methods most designed to support different kinds of appropriate for achieving each of the six learning: levels of learning identified earlier (p. 530). To support memory of declarative These are in the form of specific question knowledge (facts, concepts, principles) types, recognizable by the kinds of Ripple Effects provides repetition in language, that they employ. “Who? What? different parts of the lesson, and with Where?” to elicit basic knowledge; “Retell . different media: text, illustrations, . . and Paraphrase . . . ” to facilitate narration, video, and basic level comprehension beyond factual recall; questions through interactive games. “How does this apply to . . .” to elicit To develop procedural knowledge, application of a concept; “What are the Ripple Effects provides peer modeling, signs of . . . ” “Why might . . . ” to further rehearsal, and transfer training analytical thinking; “How could she use opportunities. this to?” “What if you put this with this . . . To develop perspective taking ?” to promote synthesis; “How could you discussion, Ripple Effects offers decide . . . ?” Or “Do you agree with . . ?” questions that require them to take to elicit evaluation. This taxonomy was different points of view. designed to address cognitive processes, To develop higher order thinking skills, not affective or behavioral ones. Bloom Ripple Effects provides case studies that specifically identified affective and physical promote problem identification and learning as also important in education analysis prior to actual problem (Krathwohl, Bloom & Bertram, 1973); solving. Discussion questions for “info,” however, the taxonomy for those two areas “how to,” scenario and “true story”

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screens require reflective consideration where he or she is, and assisting in the of the how and why behind each learning process (Hall, 2009). situation and its potential solutions. A scalable approach to differentiated They cannot be answered by simple instruction in response to the many yes/no response, or even recollection of differences in how students select and the facts of the case. process information, their learning To impact critical thinking and writing, aptitudes, intelligences, special gifts and Ripple Effects “brain” (journal) special needs, and their readiness and exercises provide sentence structures willingness to learn is called universal and word prompts to facilitate analysis design for learning (UDL). It is built on the and expression of personal experience. same basic conceptual model as universal To facilitate generative, creation of design in architecture. That is, that the products, users generate capacity for instructional differentiation, content/meaning through journals, and must not be dependent upon any one contribution of true stories. instructor’s personal ability to make To impact motivation, Ripple Effects necessary accommodations, but should be provides lessons in goal-setting, built into the very structure of every motivation, and self-understanding. instructional setting, including the content, To provide cues and reinforcement to format and learning processes (CAST, guide answers to specific 2008). understandings, Ripple Effects rejects In terms of content, the UDL incorrect answers in games, and framework requires multiple means of reinforces correct ones with forward representation to provide various sensory movement in games. paths for acquiring information and to To further the links between past activate recognition networks for sorting understanding and new experiences knowledge. Within these representations Ripple Effects uses visual and verbal there need to be multiple levels of content metaphors, and includes a related – both breadth and depth – so that topics box of linked subjects in every instruction can be accelerated or slowed screen. based on each learner’s most efficient To strengthen neural involvement, pacing. In terms of process, the UDL Ripple Effects uses interactive games framework requires multiple means of and multi-sensory engagement in every engagement to maintain interest, to lesson. leverage learning preferences, and to Chapter 6 includes a screen-by-screen provide the appropriate kinds of mental description of how Ripple Effects Whole challenges for different groups of learners. Spectrum Learning Platform provides these Most UDL proponents would argue that ten forms of scaffolding, beginning on page UDL has implications for assessment 6.21. (“acceptable products of learning”) as well. A growing number of educators believe Structure: that the capacity for universal, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) differentiated instruction implicit in the concept of UDL cannot be achieved The intent of differentiating instruction without thoughtful, strategic, structural use is to maximize each student’s growth and of technology. individual success by meeting each student

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How Ripple Effects’ Whole Spectrum the WSIS: The first is compelling first Learning Platform leverages the potential of person, true videos, found by clicking the technology to individualize instruction “true story” button along on the bottom of through incorporating principles of the interface window. These are modern universal design for learning (UDL) is morality tales or “hero journeys” (Joseph covered more fully in the next chapter on Campbell, 1968), in which peer learners technology. describe an important, true life challenge, However, one of the most powerful, how they faced it, and what they learned universally accessible instructional from it, all in under one minute. In many methods at teacher’s disposal is not cases, the learning comes from a mistake, dependent on technology at all, although rather than an instant success. technology, especially television and The goal of these true stories is increasingly the Internet, has had a huge threefold: First, it is to mirror back to impact on how it is experienced. That learners, especially adolescents, a picture method is storytelling. of their collectively held wisdom and capacity for change. This challenges and The role of story corrects distorted images of themselves that they see every day, whether through Story is an ancient instructional popular media, through the eyes of a method. It has preceded every other mode biased teacher, or through the responses of of instruction, and has endured an emotionally abusive or neglectful contemporaneously with all of them across parent. time, space and culture. Story has a Secondly, the use of stories is intended powerful cultural role in transmitting to viscerally engage learners and prompt information and values, prompting them to want to know more of what the emotional reactions, provoking analysis, person in the story has learned. This motivating action, and supporting motivates them to take advantage of the community identity. It blurs borders other learning modes available for that between classical and constructivist lesson. instructional methods. It combines A third purpose for using stories is to instructional content, process and structure redistribute “earned wisdom” so that in myriad ways, for myriad settings, with novice learners, whether students facing a myriad audiences. Yet there is little social situation for the first time, or objective, quantitative research on the role inexperienced teachers coming into a of story as a pedagogical method in culturally new situation, can have the schools, and only a small body of benefit of other people’s mistakes and qualitative research for any area except avoid making similar ones of their own. teaching reading itself. Discussion questions prompt learners to Despite the relative paucity of research take the protagonist’s point of view and try on the role of story in motivating to solve the problem from many directions. achievement or changing behavior, Ripple In addition to being included in the Effects relies heavily on story as an software, more than 50 True Video Stories instructional mode. It is too huge a part of by educators have been uploaded to cross-cultural legacy to ignore simply YouTube, under the name Earned Wisdom because it has not lent itself to RCTs. Tech, a 501(c) 3 organization that Ripple Ripple Effects includes two kinds of story in Effects has helped sponsor.

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The other kinds of stories used in the cop. “Motivating” evokes a cheerleader. program are hypothetical scenarios that are “Orchestrating” suggests a symphony the opening screen for every topic. They conductor. “Keeping students constantly have a different form and purpose from the working” evokes a road crew’s straw boss. “true story” screens. They present “Helping teams work together toward a hypothetical characters, settings and common goal” is the job of a coach. challenges that need to be met, but do not “Keeping many students occupied at the include a resolution of those challenges. same time with differentiated learning This scenario-based introduction is activities” requires a master juggler. common to many psycho-educational “Keeping attention streams constantly programs. The Ripple Effects scenarios are flowing – but not overflowing” – suggests deliberately ambiguous, using still the work of an ecologist. “Managing data” photographs that learners can project their suggests something closer to a clerical own interpretation onto, rather than more worker or lab technician. literal videos. The end has to be supplied by the learner, who first must take on the Classroom management as pedagogy perspective of the protagonist, and then engage in higher order thinking to predict For many years, instructional methods emotions, weigh options, suggests and classroom management have been solutions. As described above, this viewed as two completely separate things. experientially-based, case-study method is The latter has traditionally been about at the core of constructivist education. controlling the environment, especially Providing such a wide range of student behavior, but also group identity, content, process and structural instructional motivation, expectations, the physical options, including culturally relevant story learning space, cultural values, and how telling, in a single classroom, all at the problems get addressed. The former same time presents a mind-boggling describes various models for the processes mound of challenges on many levels. Not (at least partly adult-mediated) by which the least of them is the harmonic some body of knowledge makes its way orchestration of the participation of many into the minds of some learners. Both fall different learners, engaged in many under the heading of pedagogy. Although different kinds of learning in the shared they were long considered separate space of a single classroom. elements, they are increasingly intertwined. From the student perspective, they can’t be separated. ”Students have at least two CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT cognitive demands on them at all times: academic task demands (understanding Classroom orchestration and working with content) and social task demands (interacting with others Ask teachers to describe their role in concerning that content)” (Evertson & Neal, classroom orchestration and they describe 2006). This is true in the most conservative their responsibilities in competing environments as well the most progressive metaphors that suggest a multiplicity of ones. roles even more boggling than those In a best practice research report on associated with academic instruction. classroom management compiled for NEA, “Maintaining order” suggests the need for a Evertson and Neal (2006) propose a set of

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strategic benchmarks for classroom Integration of instructional and management in a learner-centered context. group management practices They identify community building, establishing norms and rules, practicing The consistently strong correlation classroom procedures, handling problems between low-income students’ learning and locating authority as key markers of and behavioral outcomes, and their more or less effective classrooms. As in teachers’ instructional and classroom many other areas described above, they management practices, argues for the re- distinguish between traditional (“moving integration of instructional process with from”) and progressive (“moving toward”) classroom management functions. There approaches, with explicit recommendation are other reasons to link them as well. The of the latter (2006). mainstreaming of special needs students and accompanying requirements to Ripple Effects Staff for Coach, software differentiate instructional styles to meet provides coaching from both “moving their individual needs; growing social and toward” and “moving from” perspectives, cultural diversity in the classroom with its in each of these areas, through tutorials heightened potential for sparking social entitled “connectedness,” “empathy- conflict; growing incidence of limitations in showing,” “problem-solving,” “rules,” individual student capacity to pay attention “authority” and “classroom management.” for extended periods of time; and the In another research synthesis, the same ubiquitous pressure to keep students researchers identified evidence-based constantly working so that they can pass classroom management strategies that standardized tests, have all forced changes positively impact academic outcomes for in classroom organization and low achieving students whose life management practices, even in traditional circumstance, especially poverty, increase schools. Recent, equal and opposite, their risk of failing in school. Their findings school reform trends toward project-based, provide evidence that supports the use of team learning and self-regulated, individual both “old” and “new” classroom models: learning, complicate things even more. cognitively-oriented instruction (old); Over all of these factors is layered the heterogeneous grouping (new); adult persistent and pernicious influence of class, tutoring (old); peer tutoring (new); and ethnicity and gender-based stereotyping computer-assisted instruction (new) about cognition and behavior, that find (Evertson & Neal, 2006). Ironically, expression in disproportionate discipline behavioral management models referrals and academic failure discussed traditionally associated with classroom earlier. Thus it has become nearly management are strikingly absent from this impossible to separate learning, cultural, list. In a similar paradox, discussions of behavioral and classroom management effective discipline practices increasingly issues. stress the role of cognitive engagement and It is because these forces are so closely academic instructional models in braided together and yet also need to be maintaining a classroom environment carefully teased apart that Ripple Effects conducive to good behavior (Kounin, Coach for Staff professional development 2003; Osher 2003). software addresses the three subjects of behavior management, differentiated instruction and cultural competence in a

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single unit, entitled “Managing Diverse and Behavioral Challenges. Cultural Learners.” The unit includes 29 tutorials competence training is woven into every divided into three sections: Learning unit and all 29 lessons of the lessons listed Orientation, Learning-related Challenges below:

RE Managing Diverse Learners Unit

Managing Diverse learners Learning styles-students Learning orientation Feeler-doer learners Cultural background Feeler-watcher learners Socio-economic status Thinker-doer learners Thinker-watcher learners Balanced learners Bimodal learners Learning styles-students Intelligences Feeler-doer learners Learning-related challenges Feeler-watcher learners Academic disorders Thinker-doer learners Attention disorders Thinker-watcher learners Giftedness Balanced learners Mental retardation Bimodal learners

Behavioral challenges Attention seeking Autism spectrum Defiance Disruptiveness in class Table 5.2: Tutorials in Managing Diverse Learners unit

self-regulated, electronic training for Earlier sections have described how teachers. Ripple Effects Staff Development and student training software work together to support a Orchestrating learning to safe orderly environment, set high prevent discipline problems expectations, create a code of conduct, Jacob Kounin is credited with coining the increase motivation, provide differentiated term “Ripple Effect” to describe how both pro instruction and enhance student participation and anti-social behavior spread through a in decision-making. What hasn’t yet been kind of social contagion, especially in described is how it implicitly addresses the circumstances conducive to transmittal. He issues of maintaining smooth flowing streams was the first to provide evidence that of attention and engagement within the self- individual discipline problems could largely regulated student training software, and how be prevented by teachers’ proactive it explicitly addresses both instructor-led and

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engagement in group-level strategies. He consciously uses awareness of what’s going identified four of those strategies as key: on in wider social-cultural contexts, in order “with-it-ness,” “overlapping”, “smoothing” to reduce students’ resistance to learning. and “momentum” (Kounin, J.,1970). Young people periodically review – and the company updates – the software for look, “With-it-ness” feel, language, and subject matter, to communicate awareness not only of students’ “With-it-ness” as Kounin used the term, behavior but also of the social context for refers to both a teacher’s constant that behavior. For example, synonyms of the mindfulness of what’s going on in the class words “marijuana” and clothing styles for the group – and to continuing communication of electronic peer guides have a relatively short that mindfulness to students, letting them life within which they are perceived as “with know that very little gets past the person in it.” These have been changed several times charge. in the decade since the program was first In the leadership training unit of the staff released. development software, Ripple Effects provides tutorials on the use of voice, eyes, ”Overlapping” (Multi-tasking) posture, proximity and message to communicate teacher awareness of student Overlapping, as Kounin used it, refers to behavior. With Ripple Effects, the primary physical monitoring of behavior concurrent training focus is toward expanding awareness with doing other teacher tasks, such as giving – and reinforcement – of what students do directions, introducing new content, or right. The secondary focus is on redirecting completing administrative paper work. This negative behavior, without interrupting class. meaning is closer to the current concept of Behavioral observation forms help hone that multi-tasking, than to transitions between awareness. “Eagle Eye” postcards that can be segments, which he separately identified as sent to parents further communicate an “all important. seeing presence” and are designed With Ripple Effects, the software itself specifically to call out pro-social behavior. multi-tasks: providing instruction, modeling The ability to direct students who are and storing records all at same time. Use of inattentive or disruptive to the Ripple Effects the student software as an instructional aid student program, reduces those students’ greatly increases teachers’ capacities to capacity to distract from the group learning provide individualized tutoring to any child, experience. The use of a video game-style while still attending to the needs of many point system to track student progress others, or even filling out paperwork. enables teachers to easily ascertain whether students are on task. Smoothness From the student perspective, the software itself is “with it,” constantly The third key characteristic of Kounin’s monitoring what they are doing. It has built model of preemptive and preventive, in sound, text and visual cues to help them effective classroom management is stay focused. “smoothness.” Smoothness is a quality of A different kind of “with-it-ness” is also sequencing, of graceful entrances and exits. built into the software programs. Although Ripple Effects software smoothes entry Kounin defined “with-it-ness” in into various content chunks simply by having interpersonal terms, Ripple Effects software each learner choose the door of entry and the

Page 5.58 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS timing of opening it. The software smoothes do not misdirect focus, checking for transitions by building in hyperlinked understanding through paraphrasing, keeping sequences that allow both linear and non- an eagle eye out for signs that a students is linear, associative progression. There is no losing contact with the group, and using disjuncture between the end of one lesson simple measures such as “the look” and element and the start of another, because physical proximity to bring students back into they follow each student’s natural interest. the group. The professional development software devotes a tutorial to the process of smoothly ASSESSMENT introducing Ripple Effects to students, with special cautions about avoiding over- Separate from group management describing, and reminders for implementers responsibilities, a growing part of every to direct students to view the three minute teacher’s non-instructional responsibilities, is intro (“?”) video so they can move smoothly assessment. Assessment – of students, through the program. teachers, programs, schools and administrators – is one of the hottest topics in Momentum education today. As with every other area of The fourth characteristic in Kounin’s education, philosophical differences about group instruction-focused model for effective education are mirrored in pronounced classroom management and reduced differences in how educators view the discipline problems is momentum, keeping assessment process. things going. Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum The student software is designed is to Intervention System includes software and maintain momentum at the group level, by web-based tools to enable diverse kinds of allowing pace to be controlled at the assessment to meet diverse needs in diverse individual level. In general, each part of a settings. These are practical, real world lesson segment is short, 60 seconds or less, measurement instruments, more like the and students proceed at whatever pace keeps ubiquitous Brannock™ foot size their interest. There is audio narration of text measurement device than sophisticated, for all screens except the journal. The text diagnostic medical tests. scrolls at whatever pace the reader chooses, but the spoken voice stays at a Pre-intervention assessment conversational pace. Very fast readers can turn off the audio; very slow readers can For decades, post-intervention testing of repeat it as many times as are needed. There academic proficiency was considered is no danger of students getting lost when a sufficient to measure student outcomes; now teacher veers off into an unexpected there is general consensus that pre- direction, because students themselves intervention assessment is needed as well. control the direction. This is true for math and reading; it is no less Ripple Effects Coach for Staff software true, though far less widely acknowledged, provides coaching in simple techniques for for social-emotional readiness to learn. In the maintaining momentum and maintaining the case of students with special needs, pre- flow of instruction, including bundling intervention assessment is required by law student comments or questions before (IDEA reauthorization, 2004). It is needed to responding to any, so that the first questions determine readiness to learn and the best

Chapter 5: Education Page 5.59 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

entry point for continued learning. It is students, and young adults) funded primarily needed to document baselines against which by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. individual and group level progress can be Ripple Effects Reading Self-efficacy Scale measured. for Adolescents (RERSSA) is adapted from the Wide variance in end of year scores for Academic Self- Efficacy Scale (Gresham et al. standardized tests and discipline referrals 1988), developed for use with college point inevitably to the conclusion that there students. In the case of each of these will be wide variances at the beginning of the instruments, the adaptation has involved following years as well. Thus students must taking a text- based, traditional survey format start at different points, even if they are in and putting it into a multi-cultural, peer standardized classes. To come anywhere narrated, developmentally appropriate, close to ensuring that “no child is left reading independent, multimedia, game behind,” there needs to be a way to enable format. To encourage an answer to every individualized intervention at the earliest question, each answer that is submitted possible point for struggling students to make results in forward movement in a game. No it to the same starting line as their peers. answer has any more weight than any other Ripple Effects offers seven, validated, answer. Students who complete all of the computerized surveys to assess individual questions are rewarded with an engaging attitudes and self-perception. Three are animated sequence. designed for elementary students, four for In addition to these pre-configured adolescents. The survey instruments are all measures, Ripple Effects offers the capacity to adapted from widely used, previously put any validated survey, for which rights are validated scales, now in the public domain. owned or legally arranged for by the school The Ripple Effects Resiliency Assessment client, into a multimedia game engine. Survey (RERA) is adapted for multimedia Ripple Effects also offers web-based, delivery from the Resilience & Youth group level, school climate profilers to Development module of the California quickly assess initial needs from both student Healthy Kid Survey, a widely validated self- and staff perspectives. The school climate report survey. It assesses four components of survey is based directly on criteria identified resiliency: autonomy, empathy, by the Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools connectedness and problem solving (Benard, (1998). In addition to providing direction for 2002). The Ripple Effects Self-Determination creating a safe school environment, the Scales (RESD) are adapted from the Multi- School Safety Profiler helps administrators dimensional Health Locus of Control scales meet needs assessment requirements for (MHLC), another widely validated set of school safety funds. scales. They measure attribution of control See www.rippleeffects.com/needs over life events to internal factors, and for the complete set of questions and external factors, with external factors their rationales. The Respect for including powerful others, social forces, and Persons Profiler, developed in collaboration fate. Ripple Effects' Drug Norms and with Partners Against Hate, uses a similar Perceptions (DNP) instrument is adapted for format to assess respect for persons. multimedia delivery from Monitoring the Future (MTF), an ongoing study of the Response to intervention (RTI) behaviors, attitudes, and values of American Response to intervention (RTI) is a secondary school students (as well as college specific, federally mandated policy (IDEA,

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2004) that is designed to help instructors support plan using function-based, bring more students to success, before they behavioral assessment (Horner and Crone experience academic failure, disciplinary 2005). actions, or assignment to Special Education. Ripple Effects Social Behavior It is a capacity-building approach for Observation Form (Stern, Ray, 1997) is a less instructors, built on early and often widely used, but still useful, observational assessment of learners. The intent of RTI is tool for measuring pro-social and anti-social “to increase instructional accountability and behavior in school settings. It screens for justification, improve the alignment between both positive and negative behaviors. Face assessment information and intervention validity was established through review by development, enhance use of limited graduate student observers. Content validity resources and time, increase capacity to was established through expert panel review make decisions with accurate and relevant and by matching each test item to theory- information, initiate important instructional based components of Ripple Effects lessons. decisions earlier and in a more timely Construct validity is established through manner, engage in regular and convergent validation with SSBS, and comprehensive screening for successful and through documenting strong trends in pre to- at-risk learners, provide effective and relevant post intervention changes on both pro-social support for students who do not respond to and anti-social behavior. It is norm- core curricula, and enhance fidelity of referenced for diverse, urban middle instructional implementation” (Sugai, 2007). schoolers, but not for other populations. Ripple Effects provides an RTI planning Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of inter-rater booklet, with electronic templates for reliability is .93. reproduction, to easily align specific configurations of Ripple Effects intervention Self-assessment with identified students goals. Response to Intervention (RTI) as a public policy, typically assumes that there is for Observational assessment every student a single, objective, entry point A variety of tools have been created and along a straight line of preset points that are are widely used for pre-intervention the metrics for academic and, increasingly, assessment of academic proficiency. A much behavioral proficiency. However, narrower set of resources are available to constructivists believe that to most deeply assess social and emotional proficiency. Most engage every learner and create the buy-in are built on adult observations of student that will enable learning to proceed with behavior. The School Social Behavior Scale greatest commitment and chance of success, (SSBS; Merrell, 1993; Merrell, Cedeno, and one often must look for entry points “outside Johnson, 1993; Worthen, Borg and White, the lines” of traditional measures of 1993; updated to include the Home and proficiency. Their model requires identifying Community Social Behavior Scale (HCSBS; a most teachable time and space within the Merrell, 2002) is the most widely used and whole circle of life experience for each has been norm-referenced with many learner. This is a much more difficult process populations. The most recent addition to this with SEL than ascertaining pre-intervention list is Functional Behavior Support Plan (F- levels of readiness for math. In many cases a BSP), a planning tool for use by school particular trauma is a major part of the base personnel who are building a behavior of personal experience. It can be both a

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starting point for learning, and a specific the tutorials on (specific offence) scroll down barrier to that learning (Cook et al. 2005; the list and see if you can find what you think Delaney-Black et al. 2002). might be causing you to act in this way.” For students who face trauma and Thus students can get the individualized help hardship in their personal lives, school is they need, without teachers needing to cross often the one environment where they can a protective, privacy boundary. experience an identity that is not In the course of the training, students are circumscribed by that pain. Probing to encouraged to talk to an adult they trust identify that personal trauma in a school about the challenges they are facing (and environment, however well intentioned, may adults are trained in how to handle that violate an implicit promise of emotional disclosure). Often, but by no means always, safety on school property and pressure students choose to share that information students into a level of self-revelation they with school personnel. Whether they choose would not freely choose. Not acknowledging to reveal their personal point of entry or not, that point of pain, however, may result in in every case, their identification of that point failing to address a major factor that is the only input needed for the software’s interferes with school success. expert system to automatically lead them to The Ripple Effects approach for pre- the skill training most relevant to coping with intervention assessment of “where the it. student is” may offer a way out of this In addition to the capacity to self-identify conundrum by encouraging students underlying barriers to learning, Ripple Effects themselves to privately identify whichever provides 37 interactive, self-profiles to factors may be impeding their school provide an immediate mirror of subjective performance. It provides an emotionally safe assessments of personal strengths and place for students to recognize and begin to opportunities for growth. Based on the deal with these sensitive issues without responses the learners have entered, the exposing themselves, or being stigmatized expert system then suggests a set of tutorials (often only in their own mind) as being to pursue that growth. These are thematic “carriers” of the problem. Within the directions for growth, not calibrated by grade program, they receive help identifying people level, month and year. Reports from these in the community, including school profiles can be printed and/or electronically counselors, who can help them address saved to share with a teacher or other trusted personal challenges. Ripple Effects adult. However, to protect student privacy, specifically directs them to report issues that the results are not saved within the program. present threats to their safety or that of other students. Pre-intervention assessment of In nurses and counselors office, the organizational readiness process is often as simple as inviting students Just as students are at different points of to “scroll down this list and see if you find readiness to learn, organizations have something that interests you.” In classroom different points of readiness for change. The settings, it might be “scroll down and see if number of situations in which social- you can find something that may be a clue to emotional learning programs fail to take why this (expected behavior, assignment, hold, or are initially adopted but fail to be part of school) isn’t working for you.” In sustained or implemented with fidelity, is discipline settings, the mandate (not evidence of the importance of pre- invitation) might be: “After you’ve completed

Page 5.62 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS intervention assessment and individualized tools utilize multiple choice, matching, and plans for schools, as well as students (Backer true false questions in the form of interactive et al. 1993; Fixsen et al. 2005). games, as a method of assessing concept Ripple Effects provides site-based mastery. The emphasis is on social-emotional planning guides that lead administrators and learning concepts and ability to apply the implementers through a step-by-step process concept being studied in situational contexts. of assessing opportunities and barriers to More than 700 such micro-assessments of successful use of Ripple Effects in their concept mastery are included in the series of localized context. Training within the programs. A video game-style scoring system professional development software expands awards and keeps track of successful on this process to include training in how completion of each such “Got it” interactive best to address all stages of the games. 100 percent correct responses are implementation process. required to complete the game/test and receive the points that signal progress. Post-Intervention assessment Assessment as means to content mastery Assessment as measure of concept mastery If, as constructivists believe, A principle of classical education is that experimentation – the process of trial and because reality is objective, fixed, divisible error – is a key mechanism for learning, then, and describable, the most valid and equitable with appropriate feedback, the process of tests for understanding of it are standardized testing itself can become the means for tests (Thorndyke, 1918). Multiple-choice mastery. tests, including those that can be graded by a Ripple Effects employs this practice computer, are the most common form of toward mastery approach to extensive use of standardized tests. They are not vulnerable to multiple choice testing throughout the charges of subjective interpretation of results. program. However, it is not a traditional Traditionally, standardized tests have been model for multiple choice testing. Besides used exclusively to test academic having game format, “Got it” assessment proficiency. To the degree that teachers, tools differ from traditional multiple choice rather than students, are the active agent in tests in three ways. the learning process, student test scores may Because they are peer narrated, they are validly be considered a measure of teacher not dependent upon, or a proxy measure effectiveness, as well as of student of, reading ability. achievement. To the degree that social- Their goal is not to separate students into emotional competency includes a knowledge pass or fail, but to bring all students base that is grounded in science, toward mastery. Spitting out wrong standardized tests are a valid measure of answers is part of the game; it is not memory, comprehension, and mental ability finished until content is correct. The peer to logically apply a basic principle to a narrated questions are standardized, but concrete situation in these areas as well. the process is a physically engaging, Ripple Effects includes direct, objective, playful one in which the system refuses standardized assessment of the particular to accept wrong answers, and students content for each lesson in each lesson and receive points only when all answers are identifies these built-in evaluations as core correct. components of the intervention. The set of

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For students who have keen kinesthetic documented, social-emotional mediators of intelligence, the physical process of behavior and achievement. The pre- engaging in the game may lead to intervention survey tools described above learning more easily than exposure to can be used as repeated measuring didactic instruction in other parts of the instruments to make pre- to post- program. For this reason, Ripple Effects comparisons on internal factors, such as recommends making all interactive parts empathy and problem-solving, which of the program mandatory, and didactic research has confirmed are mediators of parts optional. social behavior. If as constructivists insist, there are no Assessment of performance knowledge possible universal understandings of subjectively known reality, rather there are Conceptual understanding is not the multiple realities, and multiple same as “felt, or performance, understandings of reality, it follows that there understanding,” (Caine & Caine, 2004). is no standardized test – even of social- Along most practical measures, from medical emotional competencies – that validly school to software engineering, scores on measures knowledge across all learners. Thus standardized tests fail to predict real world holders of this position argue that the best success or failure. This is true in academic measure of understanding is student areas; it is even truer in the highly nuanced presentation of what is known, preferably in area of social-emotional learning. Learners the form of a visible construction, or learning (adults as well as students) can often describe “product,” such as a portfolio. a best practice, social-emotional response, The major personalized product such as assertive posture or message, but universally generated through the Ripple often don’t demonstrate that understanding in Effects training software is an electronic their actions. Since the model of change for journal in which students have applied each most social-emotional learning programs concept, lesson by lesson, to their own lives. involves positively impacting these personal By using the “save” and “print” options for performance capacities as the means for each entry, students can create a step-by-step creating positive change in schools, it make record of what they have learned and how sense to measure the mediating they have applied that learning to their own competencies. lives. In addition, Ripple Effects offers Self-report is a notoriously unreliable opportunities for learners (adult and student) method for ascertaining competency in these to make sense of and present their personal areas. Nonetheless, when the goal is to assess understandings through submission of first gains in skill, as opposed to identify absolute person, true story videos that can be values, subjective data can be useful. To incorporated into the software program, or date, a nationally normed, fully validated set uploaded to Earned Wisdom Tech on of standardized test to assess performance YouTube. knowledge of the full range of core social- emotional competencies is not widely Assessment of external outcomes accessible, although such measure are being currently being developed. Impact on research-validated mediators Ripple Effects encourages clients to use of school outcomes is a proximal measure of any evidence-based tools they have available success. However, evidence of this to track impact of its interventions on well performance understanding, although

Page 5.64 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS helpful, still does not answer the question of alcohol and drugs is more difficult to whether an intervention has achieved its measure, not only because it relies on self- goals. A compelling portfolio product cannot report, but because many school districts guarantee good behavior or school success. prohibit questioning students about Some experts insist the only valid measure of involvement in illegal activity. all knowledge is real-world outcomes. Ripple Effects recognizes real world, Some schools use the teacher perception group-level outcomes as valid tests of of deportment/social-responsibility/behavior program effectiveness. Academic to assess student proficiency in social- achievement, absenteeism and behavioral emotional areas, and assign grades based on referrals are standard measures for those perceptions. Others use “more effectiveness in real world evaluations of the objective” observational forms, such as SBSS, program. A summary of Ripple Effects impact as described above. Despite such on school outcomes across 11 studies is observational measures having high scores summarized in Chapter 6. for reliability within some groups of graduate See the complete summary of students and educators, data on outcome data from eleven different disproportionality suggest that some teachers’ studies, involving more than 4500 students, perceptions of students’ behavior may be Evidence of Effectiveness, Vols. I, II, III, IV, V. even more biased than students’ self-report. When deportment grades are made Assessment of implementation process available, Ripple Effects relies on The key to understanding how successful third party evaluators to correlate research can be translated into successful those outcomes with dosed exposure to the practice lies in understanding how programs software. In the one randomized, controlled and policies can be implemented so that trial where this information was available, quality is maintained and the programmatic students in the Ripple Effects group received objectives intended by the program significantly higher grades for personal and developers are achieved. (Dusenbury, social responsibility than those in the control Brannigan, Falco & Hansen, 2001). group, even though the adult facilitators were Historically, the implementation process non-professionals, including a school janitor has been largely overlooked in evaluation and cafeteria worker, and keep the classroom studies. In the last decade there has been an teachers, not these lay workers, assigned the explosion in interest in this area (Fixsen et al. deportment grades (Bass et al. 2008). 2005). The reason is simple: meta-analyses When pre-to post observational data is reveal that the implementation process may available, it can provide useful indices of have more impact on objective outcomes change. Not surprisingly, both self-report and than designed program quality (Lipsey & subjective judgments by teachers are Wilson, 1998). vulnerable to charges of bias. Thus Ripple This is explained by the fact that gaps Effects recommends that all clients evaluate between the original design of “model” this objective and all programs for success in programs” and the actual delivery of those impacting external factors that have been programs are often deep and wide. Dane & identified in advance. Schneider (1998) identified four primary Truancy, grades and discipline referrals characteristics to examine when assessing are key behavioral outcomes to track in program fidelity: school settings, because they can be derived directly from administrative data. Use of

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Adherence to the original design in terms of Ripple Effects WSIS have been made at of protocols, training, techniques and primary, secondary and tertiary levels of materials intervention, and how those adaptations Exposure and dosage in terms of number correlate with student outcomes. and frequency of sessions Quantitative and qualitative analysis of Instructional skill level, including compliance data across seven experimental enthusiasm, preparedness and attitude studies examined the questions: to what Participant responsiveness, the extent to degree did participants comply with the which participants are engaged by and protocol? What factors most contributed to involved in the activities and content of compliance rates? the program. Summary results from those studies Ripple Effects provides an automated and a more thorough analysis of the system for measuring three of the four implementation process can be found in implementation process components, and Chapter 7. fidelity to the fourth measure, instructional quality, is built-in. Data analysis Because training protocols are hard wired into the software, the main adherence factor Federal state and local policies is simply ensuring that students get in front of increasingly mandate data management and the computer, successfully sign in, and analysis as an integral part of program understand the three minute animated video implementation. A data management that describes how to use the program. The function, built into the Ripple Effects system measure of that is the presence of a student and described in detail in the next chapter, record created at sign in. enables implementers to track student Dosage, in terms of number of sessions, progress against assigned goals. It allows is automatically tracked. Time stamps on the researchers to conduct dosage-correlated Journaling activities can be a marker for evaluations, and enables administrators to frequency of use. Completion by educators of make data driven decisions to meet high the interactive “got its,” for eight specific standards of accountability. tutorials of the 136 available in the Professional Development software are a Interpretation of assessment results measure of their understanding of the Meaningful interpretation of assessment concepts of recommended best practice for results is always contextual. It must take into presenting the program, but not actual account the particular characteristics of performance. learners, teachers, and school setting, as well The degree of participant responsiveness, as national trends that may be consistent or for both students and teachers, is measured inconsistent with data from each particular by completion of the interactive parts of the case. program, the journal, assessment games, and For an additional fee that can be interactive self-profiles. It is those scores that included in the original purchase price, become the basis for dosage calculations that Ripple Effects will provide a narrative can then be correlated with outcomes. interpretation of implications for practice of Nine experimental studies (seven aggregated school data, in terms of identified randomized controlled trials, two needs and recommended corrective quasi-experimental) have examined strategies. In most cases, this analysis and how various real-world content adaptations

Page 5.66 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS interpretation of outcome results is prepared Within traditional models of education, by a credible third party evaluator. Ripple demographic trends within a district have a Effects has special agreements with three major impact on whether educators and highly credible research organizations, one parents view cultural competence as a which specializes in large scale projects, one necessity for both teachers and students, to which specialized in smaller scale projects, ensure school success; an enhancement to, and one which specializes in analysis of but not requirement of teacher proficiency; innovative practices. Clients’ in house or an irrelevant matter of “political researchers can also analyze and interpret correctness.” In general, urban schools with correlations between dosage data and large minority populations consider it more student outcomes. important than do rural or suburban schools. As the demographics rapidly shift toward Cultural competence greater and greater cultural diversity, all schools will eventually have to deal with this Many students pass standardized tests; issue. many complete impressive portfolios; many score well on behavioral assessments; Effective cross-cultural capabilities however, by most measures whole groups of Cultural competence can roughly be students don’t measure up to expected defined as “effective cross-cultural competency levels, including behavioral capabilities” (Cross, Bazron, Dennis & Isaacs, competency. African American, Latino and 1989). While many people think of it as a Native American students are personal characteristic, the practical ability to overrepresented in those left behind. In some tune into and respond appropriately to urban areas these students are far more than people from different cultural groups than a significant minority; they are the majority. one’s own is increasingly recognized as an In an effort to intervene with this thorny and institutional characteristic as well. pernicious dynamic, educators have King, Sims and Osher (2008) describe borrowed from the field of public health the five elements of a culturally competent concept of cultural competence. educational system. “The system should (1) Within the constructivist model, cultural value diversity, (2) have the capacity for competence is equally important, whether cultural self–assessment, (3) be conscious of the model of how knowledge is constructed the dynamics inherent when cultures is personal or social. The purely interact, (4) institutionalize cultural individualistic interpretation of the knowledge, and (5) develop adaptations to constructivist position that any common service delivery reflecting an understanding understanding of reality is impossible, argues of diversity between and within cultures. for mastery of perspective taking and Frequently cultural competence training diversity appreciation as the most necessary programs focus on individuals, and personal capabilities simply to communicate differentiate between awareness, attitudes, in a diverse and democratic society. The knowledge, and skills, but fail to look at social constructivist model explicitly policy implications. As with safety issues, recognizes that conscious and unconscious Ripple Effects addresses cultural competence social-cultural agreement and disagreement from the perspectives of schools, students, about the meaning of things impacts all and teachers. learning.

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Similar to the School Safety Profiler, expectation, perceptions and feelings, Ripple Effects’ Respect for Persons Profiler, without blame or shame. Implementers developed in collaboration with the national receive positive, supportive training in how collaborative Partners Against Hate, enables to assess their own unconscious responses, schools to assess aggregated perception of and deconstruct internalized stereotypes. In cross-cultural dynamics from teacher and addition to specific PD tutorials on “culture,” student perspectives. “ethnicity” and “social class,” Ripple Effects promotes cultural competence within Promoting cultural competence in students. tutorials on topics such as, “expectations,” “effort,” and “learning orientation.” As with Ripple Effects explicitly raises students the student program, every part of the PD awareness of cultural differences about software uses diverse voices, and counter- appropriate non-verbal behavior, such as stereotypical images to continuously promote “eye contact,” “body language,” proximity, positive, culturally competent and responsive and casual touch, as well as word choice, consciousness and practice. “message” and appropriateness of sharing Cultural competence is one of the most personal information. Through the inclusion critically needed, and sorely lacking of specific training tutorials on issues such as capacities today, not only in education, but “appreciating diversity,” “social justice,” in health services and juvenile justice as “racism,” “discrimination,” “poverty,” well. However, in this area, as in many “ethnic pride,” “hate crimes” and others, throwing money and workshop hours “confronting injustice”, students from diverse at the problem, does not solve it. Effective ethnic and social backgrounds experience solutions to the problem of cultural Ripple Effects as relevant to and respectful of ignorance and insensitivity, as well as the their experience. many other learning related issues raised in At the same time, through tutorials such this chapter, require a whole new way of as “respect for authority,” “teacher conflict,” looking at the whole process of professional and “courtesy,” students receive training in development. how to take responsibility for their part in negative social dynamics and how to bring their personal behavior to accepted PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT standards. By using diverse peer images, stories, and voices, including 30% Latino and As described above, today’s teachers are African American youth in tutorials about increasingly required to meet a whole “success,” “smarts,” “effort,” “achievement,” spectrum of competing criteria. All teachers and all seven core social-emotional are asked to maintain a safe, well-managed competencies, Ripple Effects directly classroom, know their subject content; counters stereotypes that can contribute to document what they are doing, how they are self-sabotage, and/or inter-ethnic conflict. doing it, and what the results are, both in terms of their own judgment (grades) and as Promoting cultural competence in teachers. measured by standardized tests. In addition, many teachers are asked to take on a much On the other side of the equation, as more sophisticated set of responsibilities: to described more fully on page 5.75, the identify individual learner needs, including professional development program provides those of students who have been identified as teachers with a way to privately and honestly having “special needs” or are English examine ethnicity-based attitudes,

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Language learners; implement the best leadership, abilities to manage diverse matched set of practices for each learner learners, and capacities to effectively from the wide array of what has been shown implement and sustain any evidence-based to work; continually assess learner outcomes SEL program, not just Ripple Effects. The as outlined in local, state, and national entire program is designed to enable those educational standards; and to do all of it in educators to personalize and deepen their ways that are culturally competent and individual and collective learning process as responsive. professional learners. In the most reform minded schools, teachers are asked to do even more: to Major report on effective practices ensure that for each student individual learning is personally meaningful and fully In a groundbreaking report entitled, engaging; to initiate and maintain authentic, Professional Learning in the Learning mutually respectful, culturally competent and Profession: A Status Report on Teacher responsive personal relationships with Development in the U.S. and Abroad (2009), dozens, even hundreds of very diverse Wei, Hammond, Andree, Richardson and students who bring to those personal Orphanos provide an extensive analysis of encounters a wide spectrum of attitudes, what works, what doesn’t, and what are the aptitudes and levels of readiness to learn; and remaining big questions in professional to deepen their own distinctly personal development. Drawing directly from the learning processes at every step along the databases from two recent major teacher way. Increasingly, research suggest that the surveys, as well as from both qualitative and most leveraged way to improve educational quantitative data from their own prior work outcomes, especially for underperforming and that of dozens of other researchers and students, is to dramatically increase the hundreds of studies, they have identified key effectiveness of their teachers. elements of effective practice in terms of This is a huge order. It easily explains content, context, process and frequency. why professional development, or as it is Their report is very well referenced. The more accurately described in terms of remainder of this chapter will examine how intended objectives, “professional learning,” Ripple Effects is consistent with and manifests has become a top priority not only for the key findings presented in that report. Unless school reform movement, but for education expressly otherwise noted, the effective in general as well. practices discussed below were identified Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum and extensively referenced in the Wei- Intervention System is designed to expand Hammond summary report. The page teachers’ capacity and lighten teachers’ numbers cited are from the Status Report, not loads. The student program, as has been the original sources, which are cited at the described in several places earlier, extends end of the Wei et al. report. teachers’ capacities to address student motivation, behavior and underlying risk Effective Content factors, without requiring extensive, off-site training, or major disruptions in classroom Grounded in the concrete focus and flow. The Coach for Staff program In terms of content, research indicates includes eight tutorials on how to use the that effective professional development is student program; 128 more are intended to directly develop educators’ personal

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more effective when it is grounded in the The electronic teacher guides in the concrete, not in abstract theory (pp 11, 13). Ripple Effects software – a pair of male and This concept is central to the design of all female characters who appear on the screen Ripple Effects software and a major reason – provide direct instruction in proven best why this long and involved theory piece is practices, for concrete pedagogical separate from the training software, rather challenges. All content has been checked for than woven directly into it. Ripple Effects’ consistency with best practices in professional development – both live, implementing social-emotional learning instructor-led sessions and software-delivered programs as described in various CASEL- – grounds every tutorial in a concrete, real- sponsored publications. Classroom teachers, world challenge faced by a specific educator. district level trainers and administrators, A case study approach is used to prompt learning specialists, and special education reflective inquiry on each case. An indexed resource providers have vetted the content. list of the 136 concrete challenges in Ripple In 2007, an expert panel of reviewers for the Effects professional development software Software Industry Information Association can be found at the end of the next chapter. nominated Ripple Effects for a CODIE award (Software industry’s Oscar) for best Focused on student learning processes professional development software. and assessment The most influential expert in the Ripple Effects program is the expert system that Less effective professional development is operates behind the scenes to deliver the focused on the teacher’s role; more effective most relevant set of best practices to each professional development is focused on professional learner, based on their selections students’ learning processes and assessment within the program. A comprehensive (p 11). description and diagram of how that expert Ripple Effects staff training software system works can be found in the next includes tutorials on student “learning chapter. orientations,” “learning styles,” “learning disorders”, and “giftedness.” It provides best Relevant/useful practice guidance on use of Ripple Effects software-based surveys and interactive A challenge intrinsic to all standardized profiles, as useful supplements to help with training programs is that what is useful and student assessment. Within the staff relevant to one person at any given point in development software there is specific time, may well have much less utility for a training in how to use the student software colleague. Fewer than half of teachers for individual, indicated student surveyed found the professional development interventions, following RTI assessment they received in areas that were outside their procedures. primary content area, such as classroom management, to be of much value (p 34). Includes expert presentations of best This was despite the fact that they said they practices for specific challenges want more support in this area, as well as training in practical ways to provide best More effective professional development opportunities to learners with special needs. includes modeling best practices and Ripple Effects allows individual, felt providing opportunities for educator-learners perception of need to guide each educator’s to try them (p 16). entrance into the training software. One

Page 5.70 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS teacher may look up “disruptive student,” often report that they do not need or want another look up “defiant student,” both will more diversity appreciation training. A get immediate help and links to related topics common reason is that their prior in the “Managing Diverse Learners” unit, as experiences with diversity appreciation well as links to less obviously related topics, training have been negative, even traumatic such as “managing (their own) feelings.” (Ray, personal interviews, 1988-2009). If Having different starting points does not content is not either a) delivered in a preclude participating in themed group supportive community context, using discussions. It may enrich that discussion. methods that raise people up, rather than tear According to Wei et al., “Teachers are them down, and/or b) provided in a private not getting adequate training in teaching setting, where people can explore their own special education or limited English experiences, attitudes and feelings, with no proficient (LEP) students. More than two- possibility of blame and shame, then, thirds of teachers nationally had not had regardless of how theoretically useful it is, it even one day of training in supporting the may have little positive practical value, and learning of special education or LEP students even create negative value. during the previous three years, and only Ripple Effects addresses this by providing one-third agreed that they had been given the its training privately, enabling a “no blame, support they needed to teach students with no shame” approach to addressing sensitive special needs ” (page 33). issues. As described earlier, Ripple Effects software provides 29 multi-component Context tutorials related to managing diverse learners, including students with limited English Situated in community proficiency and those with special needs. It is The most effective context for designed to help educators tease out learning professional development is an ongoing issues from behavioral issues, from cultural community of learning (pp 13, 15). A de issues, and to recognize the ways in which facto group of collected individuals does not those issues are braided together. It combines constitute community. Strong sense of shared classroom management and cultural purpose and shared responsibility for student competence training. In addition, the student learning are two markers of successful software scaffolds teacher learning by also communities of professional learners (p 10). addressing issues such as English Language learners and special education directly with As with the student software, Ripple students. By directing students to topics in Effects professional development software the student software, teachers are able to use includes “connecting in community” as one the student program to bridge immediate of seven, key, social emotional capacities for gaps in their own expertise. teachers. The staff development software explicitly builds skills to strengthen teachers’ As described on (page 67), outcome data community identity and participation. The on the achievement gap and identified learning community includes disproportionality in special education and students, parents, and administrators, as well discipline referrals points to the fact that as other teachers. teachers need intensive training in cultural Ripple Effects Coach for Staff training competence. However, unlike with program is comprised of a set of 136 classroom management strategies, teachers tutorials, any configuration of which can be

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used as a curriculum, or supplement, for learning community. The same planning shared investigation by a community of adult template can be used for configuring learners. As with the student program, it implementation of both the student and the lends itself well to independent exploration staff training programs. followed by short sharing sessions. National Professional development is also more trainer training and online implementer useful when it is aligned with assessment support resources connect users of Ripple structures. The slogan “what gets assessed, Effects across time and space, strengthening gets addressed,” has become a cliché; but in the sense of membership in a distinctive fact, the context of teachers’ professional community of learners. Like the student development too often is isolated from software, the staff software includes true assessment structures. stories from educators nationwide, which Whether the assessment that “counts” is strengthens the sense of sharing in the earned teachers’ rate of discipline referrals, or wisdom of a whole community of educators. students’ progress on standardized tests, Ripple Effects’ scope and sequence can be Job-embedded configured to meet those goals, and to do so quite quickly. The most effective professional In various settings, use of Ripple development is continuously embedded in Effects student software has had teachers’ everyday jobs (page 15), not found positive impacts on student in one day (page 3), or isolated (page 5) aspirations (Ripple Effects client data, 1998- seminars. 2009), assertiveness (Ray, 1998), empathy Ripple Effects software is specifically and problem solving (De Long-Cotty, 2008), designed for job-embedded, practical attitudes about alcohol, absenteeism, training. An individual teacher, group of tardiness, grade point averages, (Bass et al. teachers, or instructional coach can find 2008) discipline (Bass et al. 2008) and ISS tutorials directly relevant to what they are referrals (Ray et al. 2008), depression scores experiencing as they are experiencing it, in (Koffman et al. 2008), teacher-student real time. School districts have an option to relationships (Ripple Effects, client case receive the software on a flash drive, studies) and students seeking help in how to enabling teachers to easily carry it to and address personal risk factors (Ray et al. from home, where many teachers’ jobs 2008). These outcomes were not all achieved extend after the school doors close. at the same time in the same place. They were achieved in diverse settings, using Integrated into larger goals diverse configurations of the program; and assessment structures however, all of them were achieved within Professional development is more no more than a ten-week time frame, and in effective when it is aligned with larger group many cases with just a few hours student goals, whether the reference group is grade exposure. level, school, district, or community (page 6). There is a rather simple, most likely Ripple Effects provides a template for explanation: in each case, before the scope site-based planning that enables teachers to and sequence was configured, each site choose a particular scope and sequence for chose what it would assess, and the student their use of the software, based on a shared training program was matched to that. sense of their goals and constraints as a Although there have not yet been comparable trials of the professional

Page 5.72 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS development program, there is no a priori need. This lack of sensory access to earned reason not to believe that a similar process wisdom of peers, more than almost anything would not result in similar assessment- else, is what separates professional matched outcomes. development in the United States from that in countries that have stronger student Learning Process outcomes. In Japan, Singapore, and England, use of video-taped models of experienced Active engagement in teachers, in conjunction with personal students’ learning cycle coaching, is linked to positive student outcomes (pp. 23-25). The technology is not Student outcomes are higher when what makes the modeling effective, but it is teachers are actively engaged in the “learning what allows much wider distribution of a cycle” that students would complete in their proven training practice. classes (p. 10). Ripple Effects professional development In Ripple Effects’ instructor-led, in-person software includes expert video modeling of at training sessions, teachers are given various least one skill component for every tutorial in student identities and assignments, based on the program. The experts are peers acting out their school settings. Teachers first use the scripts that demonstrate the skills. The software from the student point of view, software also distributes earned wisdom of before developing their plans to help students other teachers, in unscripted, true stories. In maximize value of that experience in each case, the modeling is linked to particular context, and before experimenting instructive, electronic coaching in specific with their own training software. Because the skills. training software for staff uses the same informational and navigation structure as that Includes learner-generated for students, and because, as with the student and peer-generated content software it includes both a sequenced curriculum to build core social-emotional Video true stories in Ripple Effects are competencies, and the personalized first person narratives about personal opportunity to address specific challenges, all experience of teachers across the country. teachers who engage in the electronic staff They are posted on YouTube, as well as training automatically are exposed to the being included in the software. Professional same learning cycle as students. learners are encouraged to share their own true stories and invited to submit them for Includes modeling inclusion in future versions of the software. Specifications for True Story production are One of the clearest findings of meta- included in the implementer resources analyses of professional development section of Ripple Effect web site. programs is that professional learning is most As with the student program, adult effective when teachers have a continuing learners also have an ongoing opportunity to opportunity to draw from the experience, and create content through a set of five, witness the modeling, of master teachers structured journal entries for every topic they (page 14). For a variety of reasons, teachers explore. The entries are password protected, in the United States don’t often get these but can be printed or saved outside the opportunities, and when they do, there is no program. guarantee that what they will see is what they

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Finally, when the program is used as part Shared reflection of teacher preparation or continuing Ongoing opportunities for shared education accredited programs, Ripple Effect reflection on experience is yet another key strongly recommends that professional component of effective professional learners be required to complete and report development (p. 10). It need not preempt on a real-world, research project that self-regulated learning, but can build on it, involves its use. providing an authentic way to come to the shared understanding that Vygotsky Self-regulated described as the social base of knowledge. Self-regulation is an important construct With Ripple Effects, questions that in social-cognitive theory, and is linked both prompt deep sharing are built into the to motivational beliefs (Wolters, 2003) and to scenario screens with every situation high levels of cognitive learning strategies. including questions along the lines of “how These in turn are linked to self-efficacy do you think (the protagonist) feels in this (Bandura, 1987). Self-efficacy among situation”, and “how does this compare to teachers is linked to better student outcomes your experience?” A handful of topics have (Pajares, 1996) and lower rates of referrals to interactive, self-assessment exercises, which Special Education for discipline related teachers can complete to come to a deeper problems (Meijer & Foster, 1988; Podell & understanding of themselves, and which can Soodak, 1993; Soodak & Podell, 1993, as provide a catalyst for further shared cited in Henson, 2001, p. 5). Although not reflection. Teachers need only choose a topic explicitly a part of the Wei & Hammond for the week or month, explore the topic report, a substantial amount of research in privately at their convenience during that the last three years has been focused on self- period, then dedicate 15 minutes of a staff regulation in learning, especially with adult meeting to share their reflections with peers. learners. The findings consistently show that As of March 2010, there will also an option learners who take a purposeful role in their for participation in a Ripple Effects own learning have better outcomes (Pintrich, moderated, online, reflective space for 2000; Chunk, 2001; Zimmerman, 2000). teachers as learners. Research also shows that self-regulation, like other proven effective methods, is part of the truth of what works, but not the whole. Participatory planning and Ripple Effects offers the capacity for (but shared decision-making need not be limited to) an entirely self- Another research-identified component regulated program. The comprehensive of effective professional development is knowledge base, multimodal learning participation in collaborative planning platform, and sophisticated inference engine processes and collaborative decision-making combine in an expert system to maximize (page 26). Just as students have greater buy-in opportunities for adult learners (as well as to policies that they help create, teachers also younger students) to choose what they learn, have better outcomes when they can and when and how they learn it. participate in planning and decision-making about what they teach, learn, model and enforce.

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As described above, Ripple Effects provides training in how to identify sources streamlines renewable, collaborative of support and ask for it. It provides specific planning, through use of a structured training for dealing with feelings of planning template in a collaborative process. frustration, anger and accompanying burn Plans can be developed around site-specific out (including with a tutorial by that name). goals, human and technology resource Perhaps most importantly, the student capacities, and fixed constraints, without loss software provides a structural support that of fidelity to evidence-based content. can remove the emotional charge from “School governance structures that potentially problematic, teacher-student support the involvement of teachers in interaction. decisions regarding curriculum and Qualitative evidence from dozens instructional practice” are correlated with of sites suggest that the student better professional development outcomes software reduces teacher-student (p18). conflict, provides teachers with a bridge to Ripple Effects training software includes better communication and problem solving specific tutorials to promote shared decision- with students, and strengthens teacher- making, not only about instructional practice, student relationships (Ripple Effects client but also about institutional policies about records, 1998-2009). expected conduct and discipline practices. Non-blaming

Emotionally supportive A non-blaming approach to sub-optimal For novice teachers, burn out is major performance, which maintains the dignity of reason for leaving the profession. While the the learner, is more effective than a stereotype for burn out is the aging “battle judgmental one (Curwin & Mendler, 1988). ax” of a teacher, beginning teachers drop out Unfortunately some of the very same at much higher rates, with about 50% of educators who are convinced that blame and teachers leaving within the first five years of shame will never work to bring under- teaching. That number is heavily weighted achieving students up to standards, also toward teachers in urban areas. Lack of believe those strategies can somehow be support, especially in dealing with behavioral highly beneficial in professional development problems, is a commonly cited source of sessions, especially when it comes to burn-out. sensitive social issues, including cultural When interviewed, burnt out teachers competence. Many white teachers report that talk about lack of connection with their they have been traumatized by diversity students and lack of support from their appreciation and cultural competency administrators in dealing with student training that has devolved into rites of public problems (Haberman & Post, 1998). Not all shaming, where the only correct answer burnt out teachers leave the profession. seems to be “I am guilty.” Many teachers of Those who stay, with decreased sensitivity, color in the same trainings wonder how their engagement and hope for their students, may colleagues can be so tone deaf to alternate ultimately do the most harm. cultural experiences. The perspective of some diversity appreciation trainers is that Ripple Effects Coach for Staff provides resistance to understanding personal three levels of emotional support for complicity in cultural imperialism is teachers. The training software takes their pervasive among white teachers, and must be point of view in every case-study scenario. It

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broken through “by whatever means HeartMath™ program provides some necessary” for real change to occur. evidence to substantiate the connection All of these perspectives have some between providing supportive training in validity. Cultural competence must become a emotional regulation through use of non-negotiable requirement in a multi- biofeedback techniques and technology and cultural society and middle class, white improved student and teacher outcomes. teachers have a right to be protected from (Bradley, McCraty, Atkinson, Arguelles, Rees what they experience as emotional abuse. & Tomasino, 2007). The question isn’t whether change must As with the student program, a key part occur, but how. of Ripple Effects’ professional development Ripple Effects’ perspective is that whether program is getting teachers to notice, reflect the topic is ethnic bias, emotional bullying or upon and express their own emotional abuse of students, or any other potentially experience. It includes effective strategies for “shameful” attitude or behavior, the most developing emotional regulation, including effective path to change is to assume positive internal mindfulness, to match the training in intent. Ripple Effects approaches every external awareness that is promoted by problem from the “unenlightened” learner’s classroom management experts, such as point of view. It then leads learners through a Kounin. supportive, rather than judging process of self-examination as a step toward change. Frequency and amount Most of the opening case stories in the software revolve around a situation that is at Sustained, not episodic the least uncomfortable, and often embarrassing and potentially shameful for the One time training workshops have protagonist. In every case, probing questions consistently been shown to be ineffective as invite learners to take the perspective of the tools for long-term changes in practice. In learner and move from there. fact teachers complain about “workshop overload” from a barrage of “flavor of the month” trainings page ). Personalizes and supports Upon request, Ripple Effects offers short each teacher’s own SEL process (3.5 hour), one-time training sessions, to orient teachers to the software, walk them Recent research in the field of social- through their site specific plan, make sure emotional learning has focused on the need they know how to track data, and familiarize for professional development opportunities to them with supplemental learning resources. directly address the social-emotional needs Those sessions can be in-person, provided by of teachers. Preliminary research suggests regional trainers who have been certified by that inclusion of techniques such as Ripple Effects, or can be completed entirely mindfulness in teacher training, reduces within the staff development software. perceived stress and burn out, and may lead However, these first sessions are merely an to better student outcomes (Simon, Harnett, introduction. The additional training within Nagler & Thomas, 2009). This is consistent the software, with its wide breadth of content with research from other care giving and diverse learning options, is designed to professions, especially medicine, and from be sustained and continue over time. In studies about adult caretakers of parents with addition, Ripple Effects provides sustained diminished mental capacities. The implementation and technical support free of

Page 5.76 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS charge for the first year and for a minimal they find useful, such as peer modeling of maintenance fee after that. specific skills.

Sufficient dosage Tiered intervention for staff

Wei et al. point out that although 1400 Education has borrowed from public studies have attempted to measure the health the tiered model of intervention. It impact of professional development dosage recognizes three levels of service delivery: on student outcomes, fewer than one percent “universal” (also called primary), “selected” of them meet criteria for well designed, (secondary), and “indicated” (tertiary). objective studies (p. 9). The nine that do In schools, this model most often comprise a bi-modal group: “six involved assumes that the proper focus of intervention substantial contact (30-100 hours over 6-12 is school policy and/or student services, months), and three involved limited contact rather than supportive interventions with (5-14 hours).” The former resulted in teachers. However high rates of young significant student gains; the latter did not. teacher burn out, and discipline and special ”Across the nine studies, the levels of education referrals that not only professional development offered — an disproportionately affect students of color average of 49 hours in a year — boosted from low income families; but are also student achievement by approximately 21 disproportionately initiated by teachers who percentile points.” share certain group level and personal Unfortunately, with this body of studies, characteristics, suggest that tiered there is too little comparable data to draw intervention is the most appropriate model any firm conclusion about what is an ideal for delivering professional development to amount of training, much less about how that staff as well. That professional development amount might fluctuate according to how is needed not just to train them in program closely each element of the training matches delivery, but also, in some cases to keep each professional learner’s needs. them from becoming one more risk factor for Nonetheless, the trend is clear; in general, vulnerable students in their care. longer term, sustained training is more Ripple Effects system offers three levels of effective than short-term courses. One shot computer-based professional development courses that are less than five hours may for staff, designed to build their capacity to have little long term impact on students at facilitate, reinforce, sustain and expand all. More than half of all US teachers student learning. currently receive no more than 16 hours of training in their subject area (p. 8). RE Universal intervention for staff Within the software, Ripple Effects Primary prevention for staff promotes the professional development program provides social-emotional abilities that comprise 45 direct contact hours of content in 136 effective leadership. Personal leadership, tutorials. Approximately 68 hours of especially principals, but to some degree for additional, extension activities (one half hour all teachers, is the single factor that most per lesson) include directed opportunities for affects school climate and students' skill rehearsal, transfer training to academic behavioral outcomes (Devaney et al, 2006). instructional situations, and participation in reflective inquiry with peers. Teachers can repeatedly access lesson components that

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RE targeted intervention for staff For a full description of this training, see the Ripple Effects Coach Secondary prevention for staff may target for Staff User Guide. first and second year teachers, who are least likely to have developed the skills needed for Time and resource distribution effective behavior management in the classroom. It may target staff whose social- In most countries with high achieving cultural background is very unlike that of students as measured by standardized tests, their students. The training modules most about 15 to 20 hours per week is spent on useful for these educators, as well as for their non-instructional tasks related to teaching, paraprofessionals would be in the second such as preparing lessons, meeting with module, “Managing Diverse Learners.” students and parents, and working with Among the groups of teacher identified colleagues. By contrast, U.S. teachers by their peers as sharing group level risk are generally have from 3 to 5 hours a week for those who: teach across a cultural divide, independent lesson planning (p. 49), and have different social-economic background almost no time for working with colleagues. and status from their students; have religious The biggest barrier to new learning of all and value differences, have a wide kinds, for almost all teachers, but especially generational gap (Data from Ripple Effects in the US, is time. There aren’t enough hours training workshops, 2009). in the day to cram in all the academic In collaboration with teachers and instruction, assessment, behavioral instructional directors, Ripple Effects is management and documentation that currently developing recommended scopes educators are currently required to do, let and sequences for secondary interventions alone to learn and incorporate into their with each of these groups. repertoire whole new bodies of understanding and skills in emerging areas of RE individualized intervention for staff social-emotional learning. Much less is there Tertiary prevention for staff consists of time to master mounds of new knowledge providing "just in time, just for you" about the hundreds of social issues that come embedded coaching to help teachers respond up on a short-term basis. Much less than that to problems as they come up. is there time to develop the multi-domain Ripple Effects supports teachers ability to expertise needed to deliver informed, effectively respond to student behavior appropriate, nuanced responses and training problems through tutorials such as to effectively impact the many dozens of risk “insubordination,” “defiance,” “disruption,” factors that impact students’ everyday lives. and “attention-seeking” behavior. It also Even if their professional development provides a way for teachers to constructively time were increased seven times over and respond to accusations of discriminatory they could spend half of each week behavior or expectations. Individualized shadowing a master teacher, the chances that tutoring in the context of a personal they could receive in that time and carry development plan provides teachers positive, back and deliver with fidelity the exact dose differentiated, behavior-changing support in of earned wisdom, about the exact issue that a private, non-judging environment. is most interfering with each student’s learning in their class, is about as likely that they could find for each of the diverse students under their care an exact bone

Page 5.78 Chapter 5: Education The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS marrow match, simply by soliciting the small community of experienced teachers to whom they have direct, live access. If education of the whole child is to become more than an extension of privilege of the educationally, emotionally and/or economically well off, it must somehow leverage the use of technology to provide broader access to new understanding as it is unfolding, and to more equitably and efficiently scale and sustain delivery of best practices to students who most need them. How Ripple Effects integrates the use of technology and what it can – and can’t reasonably be expected to add to the process of scaling social-emotional learning for students and teachers is the subject of the next chapter.

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APPENDIX B: PRECONFIGURED SCOPES AND SEQUENCES

Ripple Effects provides preconfigured Scopes and Sequences for universal, targeted and indicated interventions and therapeutic sanctions in the following topic areas:

Universal Promotion Defiant (28 lessons) Academic achievement (41 lessons) Disrespectful (14 lessons) Doin’ democracy curriculum Disruptive in class (14 lessons) (28 lessons) Disruptive on playground (12 lessons) Promoting respect curriculum Hyperactive (11 lessons) (42 lessons) Impulsive (33 lessons) Health promotion (19 lessons) Isolated/loners (17 lessons) Service learning (24 lessons) Poor judgment (30 lessons) Service learning (18 lessons in Rejected by peers (25 lessons) JJ manual) Sexually harassing (30 lessons) Career preparation (45 in JJ manual) Spaced out/inattentive (10 lessons) Stalking (28 lessons) Targeted Prevention Traumatized (32 lessons) Child abuse: physical, emotional, Truant (39 lessons) sexual (20 lessons) Bias offenses (30 lessons) Therapeutic Sanctions Bullying (34 lessons) Shoplifting/theft (37 lessons) Sexual harassment (30 lessons) Property destruction: vandalism & Youth violence (61 lessons) graffiti (34 lessons) Dating abuse (63 lessons) Fire setting (22 lessons) Online exploitation ((10 lessons) Assault and battery (34 lessons) Tobacco prevention (31 lessons) Bias crimes (33 lessons) Alcohol & drug abuse prevention Domestic violence (61 lessons) (35 lessons) Sexual offenses (26 lessons) Eating disorders and obesity Prostitution (30 lessons) (23 lessons) Drug possession and use (36 lessons) Depression and suicide (43 lessons) Drug dealing (26 lessons) Post traumatic stress (27 lessons) Truancy (39 lessons) STDs/Pregnancy/HIV-AIDS Weapons violations (27 lessons) (45 lessons) Alcohol-related offenses (36 lessons) Academic failure (53 lessons) Gang activity (41 lessons) Legal rights (19 lessons) Indicated Interventions Academic success (56 lessons) Angry – cold and predatory Language Arts supplement (40 lessons) (29 lessons) Angry – reactive (47 lessons) Social studies (54 lessons) Attention seeking/needy (11 lessons)

Bias Activity/hate crimes (30 lessons) Bullying (21 lessons) Communicative disorders (16 lessons) Cultural alienation (16 lessons)

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Backer, T. (1993) “Assessing and Enhancing REFERENCES Readiness for Change: Implications for Technology Transfer.” In Backer, T., David, S., Saucy, G, Eds. Reviewing the Ada, W. (2009). Computer supported Collaborative Learning and Higher Order Behavioral Science Knowledge Base on Technology Transfer. NIDA Research Thinking Skills. Interdisciplinary Journal of Monograph 155 E-Learning and Learning Objects. Volume 5, 2009 Retrieved Sept 7, 2009 Battistich, V. and Horn, A. (1997). The relationship between students’ sense of http://ijello.org/Volume5/IJELLOv5p145- their school as a community and their 167MA657.pdf Albert, L. (1996, 2003). Cooperative Discipline. involvement in problem behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 87(12): New York. AGS. 1997-2001. Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M. & Simon, H. A. (1997). Situative versus cognitive Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive perspectives: Form versus substance. theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Educational Researcher, 26(1), 18-21. Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching Barley, Lauer, Arens, Apthorp, Englert, Snow, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives: Akiba (2002) Helping At-Risk Students Meet Standards; A Synthesis of Evidence- Complete edition, New York : Longman. Based Classroom Practices; Regional Askildson, Lance. Effects of Humor in the Language Classroom: Humor as a Educational Laboratory, Office of Educational Research and Improvement; Pedagogical Tool In Theory and Practice. U.S. Department of Education, University of Arizona. downloaded, June 15, 2009. Washington, D.C. Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). www.Arizonaw3.coh.arizona.edu/AWP/A Impact of a Computer-Based, Social- WP12/AWP12[Askildson].pdf Atkinson, R. & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human Emotional Intervention on Outcomes Among Latino Students When Adult memory: A proposed system and its control Monitors of the Student Training Are Non- processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The Psychology of Learning and professionals: A Randomized Controlled Trial. San Francisco: Rockman et al. Motivation: Advances in Research and Bass, K., Perry, S., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). Theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press. Impact of a Self-Regulated, Computerized, Social-Emotional Learning Intervention on Azar, B. (2002, January). At the Frontier of Disengaged and Delinquent Students at a Science: Social Cognitive Neuroscience Merges Three Distinct Disciplines in Hopes Continuation High School. San Francisco: Rockman et al. of Deciphering the Process Behind Social Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and Nature: A Behavior. APA Monitor, 33(1), 40-43. Backer, T., David, S., Saucy, G. (1993) Eds. Necessary Unity. Great Britain: Fontana, Collins. “Reviewing the Behavioral Science Battistich, V. & Horn, A. (1997). “The Knowledge Base on Technology Transfer.” NIDA Research Monograph 155 Relationship Between Students' Sense of

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Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. suspensions. Ripple Effects. San Francisco, New York: Basic Books. CA. Piaget, J. (1976). To Understand is to Invent: Ray, A. Relate for Kids, training software, The Future of Education. New York: Version 1.0, 1.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Penguin. Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. Pinker, S. How the Mind Works. New York, Ray, A. Relate for Teens, training software, N.Y.: W.W. Norton and Co. 1997. Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Pintruck, Rachal, J. R. (1994). Andragogical and Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. pedagogical methods compared: A review Ray, A. Respect for Persons Profiler. Ripple of the experimental literature (Report). Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2005 - Hattisburg: University of Southern 2009. Mississippi. (ERIC Document Reproduction Ray, A. Ripple Effects Bring It On, training Service No. ED 380 566). software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., Pintrich, P. (2000). The role of goal orientation San Francisco, CA. 2003 – 2004. in self-regulated learning. In M. Broekaerts, Ray, A. Ripple Effects Coach for Staff P. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook (Implementers). Ripple Effects, Inc., San of Self-regulation (pp 452-502). San Diego, Francisco, CA. 2005 – 2009. CA. Academic. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Kids, training software, Podell, D. M. & Soodak, L. C. (1993). Teacher Version 2.0, 3.0, 3.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., efficiency and bias in special education San Francisco, CA. 2005 – 2009. referrals. Journal of Educational Research, Ray, A. Ripple Effects Respect for Persons, 86(4), 247-253. training software, Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Ray, A., (1999). Personal notes from 1998 Pilot Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2000 – Study , San Francisco, CA. 2009. Ray, A., Berg, S. (1999 -2009). Personal Ray, A. Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler. inteveiews with educators and researchers Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. either using or evaluating Ripple Effects 1999 – 2009. programs. San Francisco, CA. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Staff, training Ray, A. (1999). Impact on passivity- software, Version 1.1, 2.0. Ripple Effects, assertiveness-aggression of short term, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006 – 2009. computer-based, skill building in Ray, A. Ripple Effects Survey Engine, Version assertiveness: A pilot study. San Francisco: 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, Ripple Effects. (First presented as peer CA. 2003 – 2009. reviewed poster session at Division of Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Targeted Prevention: Adolescent School Health Annual Risk Reduction. Ripple Effects, Inc., San conference. 1999. Francisco, CA. 2007 Ray, A., (2002-2007). Data collected from Ray, A. Ripple Effects Teaching Coach, training school district use of Ripple Effects web- software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., based School Safety Profiler. Ripple Effects, San Francisco, CA. 2004 - 2006. Inc., San Francisco, CA. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Teens, training Ray, A., Patterson, V., & Berg, S. (2008) Impact software, Version 2.1, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2. Ripple of a district-wide individualized, Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2004 – computerized, positive behavioral 2009. intervention on discipline referrals, in- Raywid, M.A. (1999). Alternative Schools: The school suspensions and out of school State of the Art. Educational Leadership, 52(1): 26-31

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Chapter 6: Technology What it can and cannot offer social-emotional learning

The Challenge………………………………………………………………….. 1 Too much competing knowledge…………………………………………… 1 Complexity of SEL….………………………………………………………… 1 The possibilities………………………………………………………………… 1 Differentiation………………………………………………………………… 1 Domain expertise………………………………………………………….… 1 Scaling personalized guidance……………………………………………… 2 Solution to thorny political problems………………………………………. 2 What technology can’t do…………………………………………………….. 2 Can’t make up for ineffective school policies……………………………. 2 Can’t undo socialization and structural injustice………………………… 2 Can’t unilaterally undo gross media distortions…………………………… 3 Can’t replace human interaction……………………………………………. 3 Shift in paradigm……………………………………………………………….. 4 What does the research say? …………………………………………………. 4 Platforms and formats not the issue………………………………………… 4 Information transfer………………………………………………………….. 4 Assessment…………………………………………………………………… 4 Direct intervention to change behavior…………………………………… 5 Psycho-social interventions in general………………………………. 5 Outcome research on Ripple Effects………………………………… 6 Summary of research designs………………………………………….. 6 Process evaluations……………………………………………………... 7 Outcome evaluations…………………………………………………… 7 Summary of significant positive findings for Ripple Effects WSIS…… 7 Ripple Effects technology……………………………………………………… 8 Expert systems: simulated good judgment……………………………… 8 Not artificial intelligence…………………………………………… 8

Chapter 6: Technology From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Expert system for SEL - necessarily “fuzzy” ………………………… 9 Ripple Effects’ knowledge base…………………………………………… 10 Factual information………………………………………………… 10 Practices and procedures…………………………………………… 11 Media formats………………………………………………………. 11 RE heuristics: rules of thumb……………………………………….. 11 Getting a good “shoe fit” …………………………………………….. 11 RE inference engines……………………………………………………….. 12 Enforce and execute the rules……………………………………… 12 Hundreds of concurrent logic models……………………………… 13 Main engine………………………………………………………… 13 Subsidiary engines…………………………………………………. 13 Journal writing engine…………………………………………………. 13 Engines to assess content mastery…………………………………… 16 Self-profile engine……………………………………………………… 16 Content customization engine…………………………………………16 Data tracking engine…………………………………………………... 16 External assessment engines……………………………………….. 16 Group level (external) school survey engine………………………… 16 Individual survey engines…………………………………………….. 16 Data output…………………………………………………………….. 17 RE interface design…………………………………………………………. 17 The Ripple Effects look……………………………………………… 17 The Ripple Effects feel……………………………………………… 17 Usability universal design for learning (UDL) ……………………. 18 Ease of use……………………………………………………………… 18 Instructional design – embedded pedagogy………………………… 19 Whole Spectrum Learning Platform………….………………………………. 20 Appendix C index of topics in Ripple Effects for teens (grades 6-11)………44 Appendix D index of topics in Ripple Effects for kids (grades 2-5)………... 53 Appendix E index of topics in Ripple Effects for staff ……………………… 56 References……………………………………………………………………... 58

Chapter 6: Technology

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

THE CHALLENGE burden and extend better services to students. Too much competing knowledge THE POSSIBILITIES As evidenced in the previous four chapters, the problem isn’t that there isn’t Technology offers the possibility of good data about students’ or teachers’ needs, greatly expanding the capacity of schools to or about what works to meet those needs in meet social-emotional learning needs of both terms of psycho-social practices, pedagogical students and teachers. It can be a way to methods, educational systems, or social integrate theory and research that has been policy. The problem is that what collectively widely dispersed. Proven strategies that have is known presents a huge mound of been scattered in different academic or competing ideas, information and expertise. treatment settings can be brought together That ever-expanding mound of knowledge is under one virtual roof. This includes both comprised of several major domains, each of psycho-social and pedagogical strategies. which is beyond the scope of most The computer has no intellectual loyalties so individuals to master in fewer than ten years intellectual turf issues can be overridden. (Gardner, 2006). Differentiation Complexity of SEL Technology offers a greater capacity to Social-emotional learning is, by itself a differentiate instruction and appeal to domain within a domain, and a domain that multiple senses than most teachers do. To do straddles domains. It is one in which the so for multiple students in multiple ways, at collective knowledge base is rapidly the same time, is beyond the capacity of expanding, where nuance can and does even the best live instructor. make the difference between an effective, evidence-based response, and an ineffective Domain expertise one. Despite this complexity, it is a domain that all teachers are expected to have fully Technology has the potential to relieve mastered, often with little or no training, teachers of the burden of needing to become before the first day of school. It is one from domain experts in social-emotional learning which all teachers are expected to quickly in order to teach effectively. It potentially can extract the precise set of proven strategies separate content expertise - within the that can most closely meet their own needs, computer - from the role of program the needs of each of their diverse students, facilitation – outside the computer. and the group of those students as a whole, Theoretically, through the use of technology, in their first classrooms and in every class not only teachers but also paraprofessionals thereafter. The challenge can be, and often with very limited training, could deliver best- is, overwhelming. It calls out for the practice interventions to students (Bass, application of technology to lighten teachers’ Perry, et al, 2008). In addition, teachers

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.1 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions could move toward domain expertise in the are skeptical about applying technological order of their greatest felt practical need. solutions to “wicked1” social and emotional challenges and problems, and not without Scaling personalized guidance good reason. Common sense requires tempering hope with practicality and Technology has the potential to scale accepting some a priori limitations of the personal guidance and indicated, skill-based, potential of technology. personalized interventions – for both students and teachers - without loss of fidelity. Until Can’t make up for very recently, individual, social-emotional ineffective school policies interventions have been passed down like secret oral traditions, from professional As discussed on page 5.13, school therapist, behavior specialist, or school culture and policies strongly impact student counselor to student-client. That process is outcomes. Technology can support vulnerable to uneven quality and more suited organization-wide commitment to a fair, to a tiny, homogenous society, than to a large nurturing environment; it can’t replace that industrial one marked by mass environment. The most enlightened communication. As more and more students computer-based program in the world cannot are identified as having special needs that be effective if it is introduced into a chaotic, require specialized interventions, it is hard to undisciplined or uncaring environment. imagine how such a constantly growing How Ripple Effects software supports, but requirement can be met without the use of does not supplant enlightened school technology to expand capacity. policies is discussed on page 5.13.

Solution to thorny political problems Can’t undo socialization and structural injustice Technology, in particular, database structure as a delivery platform, could help Social influences outside the school, from solve the thorny political problem of how to gender socialization, to neighborhood be responsive to diverse local opinions about violence, to structural injustice, penetrate the appropriateness of social content without either losing fidelity to best practice, or offending whole groups of clients. Local 1 "Wicked problem" is a phrase used in social administrators could delete what they don't planning to describe a problem that is difficult or like, without limiting choices for other users. impossible to solve because of incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements that are WHAT TECHNOLOGY CAN’T DO often difficult to recognize. Moreover, because of complex interdependencies, the effort to solve one aspect of a wicked problem may reveal or Despite these potential advantages, just create other problems” (Wikipedia, downloaded because technology theoretically could do 7/2/09) This is not far from the dilemma schools these things, does not mean that in practical face in trying to deliver best practices in social- terms it can, and certainly not that it usually emotional learning in a school environment, does. Nor can it be assumed that what works where there is incomplete information about each child, constantly changing legal requirements, to transfer hard information can be effective moving accountability targets and potentially in developing soft skills. Despite the potential competing interests between individual and group advantages described above, many people needs.

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school walls and affect each student’s cultural work than to breathe greater honesty capacity to learn and change. Technology into this process. can’t single-handedly counteract the Ripple Effects is contributing to this cumulative impact of socialization and collective effort to re-present people and structural injustice even on one student, let experience in more honest ways through alone on whole groups of them, although in continually soliciting, encouraging, the age of Twitter, it can spread social- producing and distributing - both inside its consciousness in remarkable ways. It may software and out - true stories, from young also be effective in building social-emotional people and their teachers. It presents a richly abilities that individuals need in order to diverse universe of real young people in the effectively press on institutions to make them voices, faces, peer models, and hand drawn more just and humane. illustrations that convey its content. Ripple Effects software identifies active justice-making as a key “life skill” in a Can’t replace human interaction democratic society. It also gives learners skills for managing their feelings and actions Personal relations with a trusted adult are in the face of social injustice, thus reducing a key factor in reducing risk of delinquency, the chances that it will defeat them. school failure, substance abuse and mental health problems (VanderVen, 2008; and Can’t unilaterally undo Beier et al, 2000). These relationships cannot gross media distortions be packaged in a box. The jury is still out on whether, for some people, online Technology – through television, film, communities can serve the same positive video, music, games, and social networking functions as offline, intentional communities sites - is the vehicle for mass-market of purpose. What isn’t up for debate is that distribution of commercially created images school communities are comprised of real of young people. Taken as a whole, those time, social relationships. If the impact of a images have resulted in massive distortions computer-based, SEL program is to convince that cause many young people to question users that they no longer need to relate to every part of their existence, from their given other live people, it has horribly failed its body type, to their ability to speak a sentence primary mission. The goal of computer-based at a party without the help of a drug or drink, SEL must be not to replace human to their ability to interpret the danger posed interaction, but to strengthen it. by a red bandana instead of a blue one. The capacity to provide access to a wide A software program can’t undo that range of evidence-based practices under a cultural programming. However, technology single electronic roof does not suggest that has enabled the democratization of media in the nuanced judgment of professional mental unprecedented ways. Today young people – health professionals in live settings can be and increasingly older people as well – are replaced and is no longer needed. In a time creating a massive mosaic of self-impressions of rapid social and economic upheaval, and impressions of each other. That professional mental health services may be collective endeavor both challenges and more needed than ever. Technology-based reinforces media distortions that are already interventions should augment their work, in place. There may be no more important providing a bridge to more productive communication, not attempt to supersede it.

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.3 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Some student learners say that the Ripple Effects), and mixing of media formats within Effects program is like a friend to them. The single applications. A plethora of new adults who have monitored their experience, research about these formats can be describe these students as more positively summarized in the simple statement that engaged with their peers and their teachers there is no one platform or delivery format after using the program, not less. that works to achieve every objective, and no platform that can summarily be excluded as ineffective for any objective. SHIFT IN PARADIGM Information transfer Despite – and within – the a priori constraints outlined above, the last decade Evidence to date suggests computer- has seen a major paradigm shift in based delivery is a very effective method to envisioned uses of emerging technologies to transfer information. The explosion of address social-emotional awareness, information transfer through the Internet is motivation and behavior. The question has unparalleled in human history. It has broken steadily been shifting from whether to use open the lock on knowledge previously technology to how to use it. One reason for controlled by closed circles of professionals. this shift is consistent evidence that people of Two out of three teens have used the Internet all ages are more comfortable seeking help to find information about physical, mental from a computer than from a live interviewer and emotional health issues. Unfortunately, a (Karabenick & Knapp, 1988; Turner et al, substantial amount of the information they 1998; Weisband et. al., 1996). But does the can get on the Internet is not accurate. Most technology they trust actually work? often, they cannot evaluate the accuracy of the information, and usually do not evaluate WHAT DOES THE RESEARCH SAY? the credibility of its source (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2001). Over the past two decades, new fields of By containing a large, scientifically research have grown up around efforts to accurate knowledge base within closed evaluate the potential and limitations of parameters Ripple Effects addresses this technology for social-emotional and challenge. behavioral learning. Assessment Platforms and formats not the issue Computer technology offers a very fast Much recent research has centered on and cost effective method to deliver surveys Internet-based applications, but increasingly and other standardized tests, with greater games, mobile devices and multimedia protections for confidentiality and less software are also the subjects of scientific chance of distorted results due to the study. In many cases, the lines between influence of the test mediator. Research platforms have so blurred as to make them consistently has shown that learners are more impossible to definitively separate. Now likely to respond honestly to survey questions there are phones with email, games that can on the computer than with a live interviewer involve thousands of players simultaneously, (Karabenick & Knapp, 1988; Turner et al, disk delivered programs that have Internet 1998; Weisband et. al., 1996). Computerized connections within them (such as Ripple testing is becoming the norm, rather than the

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exception, for many screening purposes. include that kind of experience, it is omitted Many, if not most, clinically validated here. assessment surveys are available via the Internet. Most of that group of tests are text- Psycho-social interventions in general based, and thus require at least middle- Most of the effectiveness studies on school level, reading ability. This limits technology-based, SEL interventions have accessibility and reduces reliability of results been published within the last five years. for participants with low reading skills and/or Several studies show that computerized visual impairment. However, with today’s delivery of mental health interventions for technology, the technical requirements for adults works in some circumstances. The best adding audio to survey engines is negligible. evidence is for internet-delivered, cognitive Lack of widespread appreciation of the value behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders added from a non-reading dependent (Carlbring et. al.; 2005; Farvolden, et. al. environment, rather than lack of technical 2005) and substance abuse treatment capacity, has kept this practice from yet (Carroll, Ball, Martino, et al., 2008; becoming ubiquitous. Brendryen & Kraft, 2008), as well as internet- delivered cognitive behavior therapy and Direct intervention to change behavior psycho-education for depression (Clark et. al. 2005; Christensen et. al., 2004). These There remains the issue that, in most studies examined standardized, not cases, neither accurate assessment, nor individually customized protocols. Other science-based information, is sufficient to studies show promising positive outcomes for change behavior, especially if it involves disorders such as uncontrollable anxiety, learning complex new social skills, or anorexia, and social-cognitive deficits related changing patterns that are deeply to autism (Andersson, et al., 2005; Bernard- entrenched. As described in the previous Opitz et al , 2001; Pull, 2006; Whalen et al, chapters, a large body of evidence points to 2006; Ybarra et al, 2005; Zabinski et al, the fact that behavior needs to be not only 2003). rationalized and intended, but also witnessed Children have been participants in a and rehearsed in real world settings with real much smaller body of studies. Of those people, to take hold. In most cases, studies that do not involve Ripple Effects, technology-enabled programs do not provide research shows that computerized delivery of an environment for physical rehearsal of new science-based, health information is effective skills. On the other hand, they may provide in transferring accurate understanding about an ideal environment for visualizing new substance abuse to adolescents (Marsch et. behavior, a process that has been associated al., 2006; Schinke 2006). Computerized with higher performance. With video-based delivery of social skill training is also peer modeling on the computer, learners effective in promoting self-reported can see behavior modeled with 100% assertiveness and decision-making skills in fidelity, 100% of the time. There is also an children, the former at a level of a widely emerging body of literature on the potential validated instructor delivered program and limitations of immersion in three (Marsch et. al., 2006). One earlier study dimensional, electronic realities to change showed that a school-based health behavior, but since Ripple Effects does not promotion/behavior change CD-ROM-based program (BARN) resulted in reductions in

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.5 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions risk-taking behavior in adolescents 4700 students from 51 (Bosworth, et. al., 1994). elementary, middle, and high In 1998 the first of a series of studies of schools, in urban, rural, and effectiveness of Ripple Effects were suburban settings, in three regions of the undertaken. United States participated in the evaluative studies. These students represented all Outcome research on Ripple Effects ethnic/racial groups, and included special education students. The demographics were Over a period of 10 years (1998-2008), skewed toward low income, African eight randomized, controlled trials, and three American and Latino adolescents. quasi-experimental, school-based evaluations Two quasi-experimental studies examined the impact of Ripple Effects expert tested the impact of Ripple Effects system on internal and external outcomes for as a tertiary intervention. The first more than 4,700 students. The studies also measured impact on depression scores examined implementation process outcomes. among youth involved in, or at risk of, gang Government agencies and private activity, using the Beck Depression Inventory foundations funded the studies done by third (Koffman et al., 2009). The second measured party researchers. Participants in these impact on disciplinary referrals and in-school studies were heavily weighted toward suspension rates, using school administrative students who had a history of behavior data (Ray et al., 2008). That study also used problems, or who had multiple risk factors computer generated usage data to measure for behavior problems and academic failure. voluntary use of Ripple Effects to access See Evidence of Effectiveness, guidance on personal issues. Both used time Volumes I, II, III, IV, V for complete periods as comparison conditions. write-ups of all of these studies. Seven longitudinal, randomized Summary of research designs controlled trials (RCTs) examined the use of Ripple Effects for Each study examined effectiveness of secondary prevention among students with different, culturally competent configurations multiple risk factors, negative mental health of Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum outcomes, delinquent behavior and school Intervention System (WSIS), which were failure (Bass et al, 2008). Six, two-armed adapted – without loss of fidelity – to specific studies used the Monitoring the Future survey cultural contexts and physical, social and data to assess attitudes about alcohol and educational constraints. Each was conducted drug use, and the Multi-Dimensional Health in “real-world” circumstances. With the Locus of Control (MHLC) scale to measure exception of the first pilot, Ripple Effects was perceived locus of control (Perry et al, 2008). not directly involved in any aspect of the They also used district administrative data to implementation of the program, and did not assess outcomes related to school behavior mediate any data collection. Teachers, and academic performance. The seventh, a social workers, and nonprofessional school three-armed study, analyzed data collected staff, with no more than three hours of by blind observers with high inter-rater training, delivered the intervention in some reliability, to measure social behavior, and of the most challenged schools in the United administrative data on remedial summer States. school referrals to measure academic impact (Stern & Repa, 2000).

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One quasi-experimental, study, Outcome evaluations and one RCT, measured impact of Ripple Effects for primary Statistically significant positive impacts prevention, as a self-regulated, group- on grades, behavior, and social-emotional assigned tool for universal promotion of core capacities are documented in the table social emotional competencies. The first, a below. All findings have significance levels pilot evaluation, measured impact on short- between <.05 and <.001. (Koffman, S., Ray, term assertiveness scores on the Children’s A., Berg, S., Albarran, N., & Vasquez, M., Assertiveness Behavior Scale, after a one- 2009; Bass, K., Perry, S. M., Ray, A. & Berg, hour intervention (Ray, 1998). The second S., 2008; De Long-Cotty, B., 2008; Perry, S. examined impact on resilience assets, before M., Bass, K., Ray, A. & Berg, S., 2008; Ray, and after a seven week intervention, and A., 2008; Ray, A., Patterson, V., & Berg, S., again at five months, using the California 2008; Ray, A., Patterson, V., & Berg, S., Health Kids Survey as a measure (De Long- 2008; Ray, A., & Berg, S., 2008; Stern, R. & Cotty, 2008). Repa, J. T., 2000; Ray, A.,1999.) See eighteen manuscripts in Evidence Process evaluations of Effectiveness Volumes I, II, III, IV, V, with descriptions of the theory, research One meta-analysis evaluated process design, conditions of use, participants, factors, using data from eight studies that methods of data collection and analysis, and included calibrated quantitative measures of primary, secondary, and tertiary outcomes, attrition, compliance and dosage and three summary findings across multiple studies, studies that included only qualitative process and implementation process evaluations. A measures (Ray & Berg, 2008). Outcomes of summary of the research methods and process analyses are summarized in Chapter results, by study, is also available. 7, Implementation Science. Summary of significant positive findings for Ripple Effects WSIS

Primary Intervention: Secondary Intervention: Tertiary Intervention: PBIS Universal strength-building Targeted, group-level Greater assertiveness Fewer out-of-school Reduced depression suspensions Reduced aggressiveness Reduced absenteeism Fewer in-school suspensions Greater empathy Less tardiness High rates of voluntary use for personal guidance Improved problem solving Greater retention in school at 1-year follow-up (after previous failure) Higher grades Stronger attitudes against alcohol Table 6.1

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.7 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

It generally includes three parts: RIPPLE EFFECTS TECHNOLOGY A knowledge base containing information and accumulated experience Ripple Effects has used a wide spectrum in a particular domain, along with a set of technology-enabled systems to get these of set of heuristics for applying the results: from automation of simple pre- knowledge base to each particular intervention surveys, to use of 3rd party, off- situation that is described to the program the-shelf software programs to provide real An inference engine, the processing time, technical support direct to clients’ algorithms that derives conclusions from desktops, to data management systems to the facts and rules contained in the manage content and support customers. The knowledge base using a programmed technology tools are supplemented by a logic comprehensive set of print resources and Interface design, the combination of limited live training, more fully described in information structure and “look and feel” the volume, Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum that is the learner’s door into the Intervention System. However, the core knowledge base technology that defines the Ripple Effects approach is the Whole Spectrum Learning Depending on the intended end use, the System, the learning platform and the intended end user, and the kinds of database management system. It is an Expert knowledge that are being manipulated, any Problem Solving System that powers the of the three parts can have more or less delivery of primary, secondary and tertiary, importance. individualized, evidence-based, social- emotional learning interventions for children, Not artificial intelligence adolescents and adults. Although involving a potentially massive Expert systems: knowledge base, expert systems are not Simulated good judgment primarily knowledge retrieval systems; they are problem-solving mechanisms. As such, The idea that machines could teach they are designed to “imitate human people to feel, control thoughts, and change decision-making, using detailed behavior is counterintuitive on its face. understanding of a particular knowledge Machines themselves are unfeeling, not self- domain and rules for applying facts to aware, often lack nuance, and miss non- specific scenarios, which are programmed in, verbal cues. Facts may be easy to program and then suggesting a solution” (Feigenbaum, into a computer, but wisdom is not. E., 1990, 1992, 2003; Wagman, M. 1993). Nonetheless, the growing mandate to match Depending on the domain, the decision- best-practice training in SEL to individual making process is more, or less, predictable. student need is driving development of In the early development of expert “expert systems” to accelerate scaling that systems, there was an assumption that true process without loss of fidelity. An expert artificial intelligence could be programmed system is a computer program that rivals the in to solve almost any human problem and judgment and behavior of the best human every solution could be presented in some experts in a given domain (Feigenbaum, E. alphanumeric form. The belief was that if 1990, 1992, 2003; Wagman, M., 1993). one could identify all the rules that govern

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each decision, and every node at which a to processes for dealing with a wide range of decision was made, a computer-program imprecise unknowns, including such things could be “content agnostic” and apply the as balancing unequal objects placed upon minutely calibrated rules to any situation. In each other, the imprecise unknowns in the that case, the particular database of content human heart cannot be forced into perfectly would be less important than the precise logic statements, no matter how sophistication of the inference engine. This numerous the nested and branching levels of model holds true for systems that are logic. This combination constrains the characterized by hard data, including those theoretical models for expert systems to for solving very sophisticated financial match best SEL practices to each learner’s problems, making auto parts, or even need. The “key, and indeed central, repairing a telescope in space. It does not component of such an intelligent system is its hold true for social-emotional learning. large knowledge base” (Feigenbaum, E. 1992), rather than an inference engine, even Expert system for SEL - necessarily “fuzzy” one of “12 million rules” (Lenat, 1989). Artificial intelligence has been largely Since all expert systems are judgment- disappointing in many contexts because of based systems, they can only be “guaranteed what has been called the “common sense right” for things about which there is no problem” or “what everyone knows.” An possibility of valid disagreement. The area of individualized SEL program inherently social-emotional learning and teaching is not includes not only the common sense such an area. It is one in which subjectivity is problem that has short circuited most valued. Practitioners have a wide range of attempts to program artificial intelligence, but opinions, based on researchers’ varying also the difficult notions of “common interpretations of results from testing many decency” (character) and cultural different practices under many different competence. When programmers try to conditions. Learners’ own feelings, attitudes, encode all the variants that make up “what motivation and background are important everyone knows” they inevitably fail. variables. Thus, there is never a single right Common sense, may be common, but answer to be extracted from it. Rather, at like the Buddha’s “great emptiness,” when a best an expert system for SEL can present a programmer tries to nail it down, it also set of plausible suggestions, within a range of appears to be vast and fathomless. Common which each learner’s personal solution is decency may be universally prized, but it is likely to lie, similar to set of solutions for a far from universally defined. Cultural quadratic equation, or a confidence interval competence – recognition of and response to in statistics. cultural differences without resorting to For these reasons an expert system for stereotype – is a matter of thousands of comprehensive social emotional learning is subjective judgments, not of rigid necessarily a "fuzzy" system (Zadeh, L.A. applications of cultural rules. In addition, 1999, 2001, 2002). This doesn’t mean that it idiosyncratic learning differences, ambiguous lacks rigor, only that the system must allow learner feelings, intractable social problems, for fuzzy concepts – concepts that cannot be and cultural “air” – all factors in social- expressed as "true" or "false," but rather as emotional learning – don’t have tractable "partially true”, and, in the case of SEL, algorithmic solutions. “sometimes true.” Although fuzzy systems have been designed to bring great precision

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.9 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

To add to the complexity, SEL is a Factual information domain in which the knowledge base about how people learn – what they see, feel, hear The most straightforward part of the and do - directly affects what they learn. expert system knowledge base is verifiable, Thus to reach all learners, a full range of factual information about topics that some proven-effective, pedagogical practices for subgroup of intended software users - adults, delivery of SEL need to be directly teens, children - have identified as important programmed into the system. to them, or some arbiters of “best practice” For these reasons, in an expert system for have decided should be included. For SEL, the knowledge base has to take second graders, it may be bullying or precedence over the inference engine. Much divorce; for adolescents it may be gangs or expert judgment has to be built into the acne; for teachers it may be demographic singular data units, rather than being trends in urban, suburban, or rural areas. dependent upon programmed rules for Ripple Effects content developers drew extracting it. almost all of this information from Adding more complication, whereas government web sites operated by some once programmable data was restricted to agency of the Departments of Health, Human alphanumeric symbols, the widespread Services, Education, and/or Juvenile Justice, adoption of object-oriented programming has as described in Chapter 1. made it possible to include pictures, sounds, Ongoing development of the Ripple movies, and whole subsidiary inference Effects knowledge base has involved engines as data elements to be manipulated incorporation of written content provided by by the main inference engine, and displayed educators and mental health professionals, through an interface design. This has been a expert panel review prior to three externally crucial development for the relevance of funded research projects, incorporation of computer programming to social-emotional critiques that have led to many hundreds of learning, where behavioral modeling is a small content changes; and vetting by requirement, and non-verbal language individual child psychiatrists, psychologists, development is part of the curriculum. It counselors, social workers, nurses, partly explains why, in the domain of social- administrators, teachers, trainers, prevention emotional learning, the three parts of the coordinators, probation officers, parents and, expert system often overlap. most importantly, student users of the Despite these sometimes overlapping program who all are experts on their own functions it is useful to describe an expert lives. system, including Ripple Effects Whole Under the direction of Alice Ray, the Spectrum Learning System, in terms of these “synthesizer in chief,” a team of young separate main functions, beginning with the writers has translated that professional knowledge base. expertise into more user-friendly language. Peer expertise widens and deepens the expert Ripple Effects’ knowledge base instruction. It is found in the true stories, and movie models. The complete lists of which The key component of RE expert system specific, factual content areas are included in for SEL is a knowledge base, which combines each software program is indexed at the end a database of facts, practices and procedures of this chapter. in multimedia formats, as well as heuristic logic to govern their use in the program.

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Practices and procedures the data that require all written content to be simple and maintain a stance of respect The more complex part of the Ripple toward the learner. The specifications of Effects knowledge database is that which is these kinds of rules of thumb are explicit. The summarized in chapter four of this book: a execution of many of those specs is written large body of psycho-educational practices directly into the knowledge base. Quite a few and procedures that have been successfully others are coded into the interface design. applied to solve problems and build skills in The rest are programmed into the inference the realm of social-emotional experience. engine, see below. These have been derived not from studying a single expert’s performance, but from culling Getting a good “shoe fit” hundreds of experts’ published work and hundreds of practitioners’ practical The most important rule set is that which experiences. These are the cognitive, governs how to match each learner’s interest behavioral, affective, social skill, and with a particular set of most relevant, political organizing strategies that can be effective practices. It defines each set of applied to a multitude of topic areas. meaningful links between elements from the first category of factual content, elements Media formats from the second category of best practice, and elements from learner preferences The body of included practices has been expressed through concrete actions. translated into user friendly, age appropriate The metaphor of a bone marrow language. In addition, it has been transferred matching system to describe the desired fit from simple text to a variety of media between student need and expert solution is formats: photos, illustrations, audio files, an attractive one, but it is unrealistic. A videos, graphic text, charts, graphs and better one is more pedestrian. Picture it as interactive games. No fewer than three media the good “shoe fit” than can be made when a formats – sound, text and graphic image - very wide range of styles and brands and operate simultaneously on every content colors and sizes are equally available to delivery screen in the system. anyone who walks in the door, and without any cost differential for accessing them. The RE heuristics: rules of thumb smart clerk, the “inferer” (see below) brings out the shoes in the size that has been In addition to specific information about volunteered or measured, and in the colors what works with SEL, how it works, when, and styles that have been stated as and why – the knowledge base includes rules preferences. The client chooses between that apply to that information. In the Ripple them, based on a whole host of factors that Effects expert system, many of these rules are may or may not be obvious to the sales clerk. written directly into the content data. For Personal interest and pressing events may instance, the rule that “anytime the topic make a less than perfect fit even more directly bears on personal safety, students attractive or useful than an exact one. Once will receive guidance on who and how to ask a client has tried one model, it may become for help” is written into the data for each of immediately apparent that his or her real those safety topics. The rule of thumb that need or interest is something entirely “users should always end up feeling stronger different. and smarter” is codified in specifications for

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.11 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

The “good shoe fit” metaphor suits Ripple combinations or sequences of screens. Effects” expert system. It stores in attractive Approximately 10,000 screens (5,000 in the little, well marked boxes all manner of best teen program alone) are included in the SEL practices, in a wide variety of styles: software programs. Theoretically, they are all affective, cognitive, behavioral, social skill. It available to be mixed and matched in provides an electronic clerk to instantly find literally billions of sequences and the set that fits each learner’s unique criteria configurations, based on user actions. and it delivers that set up for her or him to In many “exact match” systems, finding try. the most relevant set of materials requires the Heuristics written into the knowledge learner to first answer a long set of questions. base enable Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum In the Ripple Effects “good shoe fit” system, Learning System to addresses individual the user simply scrolls down the cell phone learners’ diverse, social-emotional goals, and selects a first topic. This one choice challenges and personal risk factors, using a narrows the practical range of the next set of relevant set of evidence-based practices that choices to as few as five and no more than are accessible through an array of ten directly related screens accessible from instructional techniques, from which each that first click. At least three screens provide learner can choose the subset of learning direct “what to do” suggestions to solve the modes that work best for her or him. particular challenge: one direct behavioral These if/then links (If this is the problem, instruction, one interactive writing with word then do this) bundle sets of possible solutions prompts as suggestions, and one multiple that all have been shown to work with some choice, learn-by-doing game. Learners can students, some of the times, for display in explore them in any order, or go “off track” groups of three to five. and explore something completely different. For instance, these rules of thumb set the The available subsequent choices increase content links between “tobacco” and with each click of the mouse. “relaxation” in the teens program, or between “disruptive” behavior and RE inference engines “assertiveness” in the teacher training. These solution sets are frequently drawn across Enforce and execute the rules boundaries between cognitive, behavioral and social skill approaches. The links An inference engine is the link between sometimes reflect logical sequences, the knowledge base and what the learner sometimes they express simple cultural sees. In technical sciences it is often associations. Sometimes, they are a “top described as the brain of the expert system. three” approach to an issue that has dozens Ripple Effects inference engine actually of proven potential solutions. The first three executes the links established by rules in the suggestions then have more embedded links knowledge base, as well as its own set of to go farther up or down the tree. This is the heuristics. It is where the algorithms lie, the most judgment-ridden part of the knowledge specific directions for specific actions under base. Because the decision of what to specific circumstances. With the “fuzzier include or exclude is as much art as science, science of SEL, it acts less like a brain, than a each case must be written into the data, role somewhere between a cop and a rather than generated by a completely rule- delivery agent. It is the enforcer of the whole bound inference engine. The embedded links body of rules that are extrinsic to the data, represent only a small portion of the possible but that govern its organization, calculation

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and graphic presentation. This engine input, including initial topic selection, actually delivers the knowledge data executes the matches that are written into the elements to the screen for the user. data, allows for global commands, such as audio on or off, privacy screen on or off, web Hundreds of concurrent logic models access on or off. It displays categories of screens as those commands are triggered by The Ripple Effects nested and branching user selections, and tells which content intervention is comprised of more than elements to show up where and when. 10,000 screens. Hundreds of logic models Because so much exercise of judgment is operate concurrently and change based on written into the data and so many user decisions. For instance, the tobacco pedagogical decisions are embedded in the intervention tutorial may encourage students design of the interface, there are relatively to identify motivation and triggers for few decision-making rules left for the main smoking, from at least 50 that are in the inference engine to enforce. Thus it is small – programs. These will differ by student. just 32 MB – in comparison with more than 2 Whichever choices each student makes will gigs of memory needed for the knowledge lead to a skill-based topic that addresses it, base for the teen program alone. This smaller such as managing feelings. These in turn may processing requirement translates into very prompt selections to address the sources of fast, near instantaneous display. intense feelings – personal risk factors that The subsidiary engines include one for may range from body weight, to attention journal writing, several for assessment of deficit, to family violence. concept mastery, and one each for A diagram of the content paths that four interactive profiles, content customization, different users might take, after each and progress tracking. beginning at the same point is found on the page 14. The conceptual map of the possible Subsidiary engines choice points for one topic, “self-awareness,” reached from four different starting places, is Journal writing engine found on page 15. The description of all the screens available after making each of those The Journal writing engine (“Brain” icon) content choices is found in the screen-by- retrieves options from the knowledge base screen walk through that begins on page 23. and displays them, accepts input in any In terms of mechanics, Ripple Effects language recognized by the computer, writes inference engine is comprised of a main it to a user file, time stamps the file, provides engine and seven smaller engines. Five are a way to save it outside the system and/or to integrated into the main engine; two operate print it, and encrypts it to protect user completely outside it. confidentiality, then saves it at a pre- designated location. It unlocks encryption Main engine when learners who have signed in with the correct password choose to see their The main engine holds and executes the personal, written entries. logic of Ripple Effects’ client-server architecture. It maintains the shell of the interface, creates user files, password protects them to ensure learner confidentiality, provides the structures that invite learner

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Defiance page here (remember to add FOUR USER’S EXPERIENCE OF EXPERT SYSTEM title to TOC

Figure 6.1

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SAMPLE CONCEPT MAPPING FOR ONE TOPIC

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for each user, awards 100 points for Engines to assess content mastery completion of each interactive exercise The content mastery assessment engines (journal, profile, “got it” games described above), displays a list of which interactive (“Got it” icon) present multiple choice exercises have been completed, calculates questions in game formats, using text, audio, and displays the point total for each learner. and animation; accept learner input; provide When an administrative password is used, sound and visual feedback; spit out incorrect upon a click command, it displays answers; and continue the game until all completion records for all students by name. answers are correct. Upon completion of each game, this inference engine awards 100 External Assessment engines points. The external engines power survey tools Self-Profile engine to enable repeated measures/pre and post The Self-profile engine (“Profile” icon) data collection at the group and individual presents survey questions in text and audio levels. They can be used with Intranet or formats, provides a structure for dragging Internet configurations. Because they are markers to indicate an answer, calculates simple calculations, unlike the main engine scores for answers, utilizes a simple for the training software, these inference algorithm to display the calculated scores as engines are truly content agnostic and can be points in a quadrant, selects from a group of easily customized to include content prerecorded, interpretive summaries, presents supplied by clients. the one that matches the range of values Group level (external) school survey engine within which each learner’s score fits, provides a method to print both the graphical The group level survey engine sets up an and narrative versions of the personal report, overall school file for each school based on and adds 100 points to the learner’s score administrator input, separates that into files when completed. It saves the scores but for staff and those for students, displays does not save the user answer files within the programmed survey questions, calculates program. Instead, it creates a new profile values for responses, aggregates values to the each time learners engage in the exercise. group level, saves scores to the school file and displays them in graph form. In some Content customization engine versions, it plays an audio track so The content customization engine participants do not need to be able to read to (“Customize content” icon on admin screen) participate. executes decisions that enable administrators Individual survey engines to delete any topics that they choose. It removes access to all data elements for the The individual survey engines (desktop identified topics (13-17 screens per topic) by and Internet versions) combine survey and removing the topic names on the cell phone game functions. They set up records for each display and/or the “keys” (TOC) display. learner, display programmed survey questions and makes audio available through Data tracking engine a mouse click, start a game that moves The data tracking engine (“Progress forward with the answer of each question, tracking” icon on admin screen) creates a file calculate scale values for responses, and save

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them to the proper files. When all questions feel. That look comes from the use of graffiti have answers, they instigate an animated style lettering, a streetscape home page, reward sequence. darker colors, and at-the-edge-of-mainstream clothing, hair style, and body art choices for Data output the electronic guides. The authentic, yet finished look of the interface was achieved Data output from Ripple Effects takes by having graffiti artists from San Francisco’s various forms: text, numeric and graphic. All Mission district create backgrounds and text files are student information format (SIF) illustrations, and then a world class, formally compatible and can be cross-correlated with educated, graphic designer show them how school or district administrative data to assess to use technology-based tools to bring those objective outcomes. Some data sets, such as first renderings to commercial quality. group level data from the web-based surveys, Equally important to the hip hop “feel” is the are automatically aggregated at the school text narration throughout the program, by level and can be viewed instantly, displayed diverse voices, with an urban flavor, using in simple bar charts. Data from the personal informal language. surveys can be exported and aggregated at Hip hop as a layer of style is restricted to multiple group levels, as well the individual the teen program; the younger children’s level, with appropriate protections for student software, and the staff training versions look confidentiality. Student scorecards include and feel different from the teen program and dosage levels by topic, for each student. different from each other. The kids’ program These files can be exported to any uses brighter colors, and more animation spreadsheet program, and then analyzed. style characters. The adult program has a Depending on whether installation is at the more sophisticated New Yorker cartoon style network or desktop level, it is a more - or less for the electronic guides. – labor intensive process. Clients can contract with Ripple Effects to do all or part The Ripple Effects feel of the data formatting and analysis. Despite these differences in visual style, RE Interface design the programs have many more similarities than differences. They share design features Interface design refers to how information that evoke a sense of friendliness, comfort, and navigation structures are displayed for even intimacy. All three versions of the the user. The three most commonly software incorporate multi-ethnic figures as recognized quality factors in interface design electronic guides, so that all learners have at are “look and feel,” engagement and least some visual elements through which usability. Look and feel are widely associated they can see themselves when opening the with graphic design, and indeed they are program. All three programs take the side of closely connected, but audio choices as well the learner in every situation. All three have as visual ones can profoundly affect how a privacy screens that can be invoked with a program feels. click. In all three, human voices (always diverse peer voices, never outside authority The Ripple Effects look figures) in conversational, direct address style (as opposed to authoritative, broadcast voice) Ripple Effects’ flagship program, the teen use what they say and how they say it to software, has a decidedly hip hop look and

Chapter 6: Technology Page 6.17 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions reduce social distance between learners and process information, their learning aptitudes, guide. In all of the programs, the size of the intelligences, special gifts and special needs; picture window is much larger relative to the and their readiness and willingness to learn, whole screen than was thought necessary, or all of which are discussed more fully in even possible by most technologists 12 years Chapter 5. It is built on the same basic ago, when the program was first developed. conceptual model as universal design in This design choice was based on field architecture. That is, the capacity for observations, which suggested that this is the instructional differentiation, is not dependent smallest size at which the facial image upon any one educator’s capacity to make displayed in the space would feel almost like necessary accommodations, but is built into a mirror, prompting greater identification the very structure of every instructional between the learner and the person in the setting, so that instruction is more universally window. The use of humor in title bars, accessible to widely diverse learners (CASE, illustrations and sound cues – silliness for 2008). These structural adaptations to allow young students, “attitude” for adolescents, a built in capacity for instructional sardonic, but never sarcastic edge for adults – differentiation often require the use of contribute to the learner’s sense of being “in technology. the know.” This structural adaptation approach has Of course, the sense of emotional implications for content, as well as comfort, friendliness, even intimacy is not instructional processes for helping students to derived from the design alone. It is also engage with that content. Most UDL conveyed in the knowledge base, with its proponents would argue, it also has compelling true stories and topics that reach implications for “acceptable products of into sensitive areas. It is further developed learning” as forms of assessment. In terms of through the logic executed by the interactive content, instruction within the UDL profile inference engine, through which framework should include multiple means of learners come to believe the software representation to provide various sensory program doesn’t just talk, it listens to them, paths for acquiring information and and respects who they are. The protections knowledge, multiple levels of content, in for confidentiality, encryption and terms of both breadth and depth. In terms of passwords, programmed into the inference process, it requires multiple means of engine reinforce a feeling of emotional safety engagement “to tap into learners' interests, within the program. challenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn.” It also requires the capacity Usability to accelerate or slow instruction, based on Universal Design for Learning (UDL) each learner’s most efficient pacing (CAST, 2008). Besides ensuring emotional comfort, software should be practically usable as well. Ease of use Usability in software refers both to ease of use and utility. They are interrelated concepts Except for the first time sign in, which that are both included in the umbrella term, can be challenging for some learners, and Universal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL is may require implementers’ assistance, Ripple a broad, integrated approach to differentiated Effects is extremely easy to use. Students with instruction in response to the many special needs who have failed with every differences in how students select and other school-based assignment, have been

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able to succeed with it. Because of the peer These are all ease-of-use elements, but narration, the program is mostly reading they are surface ones. They don’t address the independent and every screen has visual usability of the software as a learning cues to make the content more accessible. experience. Every content selection by every learner is an acceptable one. The first time they enter the Instructional design – embedded pedagogy home screen learners are presented with a The true usability of the interface comes simple direction on how to use the program: from the pedagogical theory that is “Pick a topic from the cell phone, then use embedded in the elements of the interface any lit up button on the bottom to explore it design. however you like.” An always-available The Ripple Effects interface design as a “questions” button (“?” icon) leads to an whole exemplifies universal design for animated movie that gives more detail about learning (UDL), meeting the CAST criteria of how to move easily through the program, “multiple means of representation, multiple turn off the sound, etc. means of expression, and multiple means of engagement”.

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WHOLE SPECTRUM LEARNING PLATFORM

The following overview diagram and screen-by-screen descriptions demonstrate how Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Learning Platform integrates the three elements of knowledge base, inference engine and interface in a multi-award winning, pedagogically sound, design for social- emotional learning.

This overview diagram introduces the learning system elements. Following the diagram is a screen-by-screen walk through of the system, from the student learner’s point of view, beginning with the first step: signing into the program. The staff and younger children’s program uses the same structure for information delivery and navigation, but has a different look and feel.

Figure 6.3

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A. Student POV Screen-by-screen walkthrough

Signing in

Choosing a password begins the process of self regulated learning. It puts students in charge, lets them save their work, and protects confidentiality. Choosing the gender of a guide determines whether the male or the female guide image and audio narration will play on the home screen and model screen, as well as the end of info and how to screens. On all other screens, gender voices and images alternate. Figure 6.4: Sign in screen

Introductory animation

A short animation introduces the two electronic mentors and briefly describes what the program is and how to use it.

Figure 6.5: Ripple Effects for Teens intro animation screen

Guides–electronic mentors

Two guides, one male and one female, appear intermittently to help users reinforce key points. They are designed to look like adventurous peers of the learner, whether

child, teen or adult, and are purposely ethnically ambiguous. They encourage identification with the material. At left are guides from the software for adults, and Figure 6.6: Staff and elementary electronic guides elementary grade students.

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INDEX TOC HIDE HOME HELP 1. Home Screen

The home screen is the jumping off point for all content. There are two modes to approach the content: an index of topics, and a table of contents.

Students can set the sound level and begin program exploration.

Figure 6.7: Sound level adjustment INDEX 2. Topics: A-Z index for non-linear sequencing

The “Topics” button in the upper left corner leads users to a comprehensive, hyperlinked alphabetical index, with topics listed in ways that students, and experts separately refer to them (i.e. resilience and bouncing back). This mode supports constructivist learning, enabling users to approach the material from a concrete, personal interest, point of view and to explore via non-linear sequencing. This Figure 6.8: Topic index on cellphone mode also enables facilitators to assign specific lessons to individualize and

differentiate instruction.

The index is displayed in a cell phone. Users can scroll through the list, or click on the keypad to go directly to the letter a topic begins with. In the children’s version, keypad letters and topics are read aloud as users click on them.

Clicking on any topic takes users to the opening screen of that topic, a scenario-

based case study. See the end of this chapter

for an A to Z list of all topics. Figure 6.9: Alpha key pad

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KEYS OR TABLE OF CONTENTS 3. Keys: Table of contents for sequenced learning

A second way to approach the content is through categories of topics, table of contents style, via the “Keys” button. This approach enables systematic, sequenced learning.

In the student versions, the major categories are “Strengths,” “Problems,” and “Reasons.” Each category is further subdivided. Reasons, for example, are Figure 6.10: divided into “inside me” and “outside me” Keys/Strengths (internal or external risk factors). “Strengths” provides a scope and sequence for universal SEL, starting with “Knowing Who You Are,” shown at left.

See a list of available, preconfigured scopes and sequences on page 5.80.

Figure 6.11: Knowing yourself TOC HIDE 4. Hide: Privacy protection

When the “Hide” button is activated, a graffiti screen covers the entire window and turns off the sound. The “Show” button then becomes active, and when it's clicked, the screen returns users to where they were in the program.

Figure 6.12: Privacy screen

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QUESTIONS 5. Question: program orientation

The “? questions” button launches a 3 minute animated help movie that describes what the program is, and how to use it.

Figure 6.13: Questions button TOPICS From either the “Topics or Keys” screens, clicking on any topic takes a user to the first learning mode: a mini case study. For explanatory purposes here, the sample user is an adolescent, who clicks on the topic “bouncing back,” (also listed as “resilience”).

Figure 6.14: Bouncing back topic

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Case study: Concrete experience as starting point

This concrete, experiential starting point begins the learning process. This is the standard format for much constructivist instruction. It allows and requires learners, both young students and adults, to then add their own base of experience to understand the experience of others.

CASE STUDY Figure 6.15: Opening Topic Screen Sample text from resiliency screen

“David's family has had a horrible year. His dad lost his job, his mom started drinking again and his big brother was killed. So far, he and his little sister seem to be pulling through OK, but his two other brothers have fallen apart and are in trouble. David wonders why some people seem to be able to handle hard knocks and bounce back easier than others, and whether he will be able to make it over the long haul.”

Figure 6.16: Narrative text display Reflective inquiry Open-ended discussion questions prompt reflective inquiry. From here, users can choose any other mode, in any order.

What are some reasons some people bounce back quicker than others? What do you think of when you hear the term “resiliency?”

Figure 6.17: Discussion questions display

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Info: Direct instruction: cognitive framework

This screen uses an instructivist approach to transmit science-based information: Who? What? When? and theories of Why. Often this is included as “background concept” in a teacher’s guide. Including it in student materials enhances learning for those students who are analytical learners, and enhances the credibility of the program for most others. Student learners report feeling respected by having it included. Screen- INFO specific discussion questions help scaffold Figure 6.18: “Info” screen with female guide the learning, and support reflective inquiry.

The electronic mentor, in the gender the learner chose at sign-in, appears on screen at the end of the “Info” screen slide show, to reinforce key concepts.

Figure 6.19: “Info” screen with male guide

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How To: Direct instruction step-by-step skill training

Students are given multi-part instructions in slide show format, what may involve cognitive (“use an if/then sentence,“ ”avoid weak words” like ‘kind of’ or ‘sort of,’”) behavioral (“hold your head up, make brief eye contact), affective (“recognize that feelings change, like the weather”), attention (“notice the tape that is playing in your head”); and/or social skill (“ask a question that can’t be answered with yes or no”) strategies. All of these have been shown to HOW TO be effective in addressing risk factors Figure 6.20: “How to” screen with male guide associated with delinquency, substance abuse and/or school failure. The electronic mentor appears at the end of the “How To” slide show, in the gender chosen at sign in, to reinforce the main point. Embedded Links: Scaffolding and sequencing

Embedded links from the “Info” and “How To” screens, indicated via underlined words, create linear sequences between related points. This “expert guidance” ensures that learners are led to the most relevant strategies related to the topic they are exploring. Clicking on an underlined word takes users to the “How To” screen for that topic. Figure 6.21: Close up of “how to” screen showing links

Figure 6.22: Link from how to screen Figure 6.23: Link from how to screen

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True Story: First person videos: engagement and analysis

First person videos feature true stories of young people who have faced real problems. They provide motivation and modeling, and deepen affective involvement in the learning. Each includes a formal story arc, with setting, character, plot, resolution. Discussion questions precipitate empathic identification with protagonist and analysis of his or her character choices and consequences, using one’s own experience as a point of comparison. TRUE STORY Figure 6.24: True story screen Model: Peer modeling videos

Social-emotional learning theory underscores the importance of imitative behavior. Consistent with the theory of zones of proximal development, these videos feature non-actors, one developmental level above the learner, to reduce the experience gap and increase identification between models and learners. Each video focuses on a single, specific skill component. Electronic Guides appear on the “Model” screen, in the gender chosen at log-in, to introduce the key points. MODEL Figure 6.25: Video model screen

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Apply It: Transfer training

Learning is “fixed” when it is transferred. Evidence from brain science indicates that when students learn a procedure in an intensely personal situation, where many parts of the brain are involved simultaneously, they are more likely to remember it and transfer it to an academic context, than the other way around. Out-of- session activities for transfer training with family and friends, and in sports settings are included, along with media analysis and APPLY IT role-plays. Figure 6.26: Bridge screen to transfer training Apply It: 1st extension activity Friends & family

These exercises offer a way to apply each topic to the learner’s family or friends. Peers are the primary emotional focus for many adolescents. Parents have the greatest life long influence, for better or for worse. Both groups are subjects for these exercises. These exercises promote social communication aimed at shared meaning, a learning standard for language arts in most states. APPLY IT: FAMILY & FRIENDS

Figure 6.27: Friends and family transfer screen Apply It: 2nd extension activity Media analysis

These exercises prompt critical thinking, and encourage critical analysis of television programming, video games, music lyrics and other media. Students analyze how the media model glamorizes and reinforces certain social-behavior, how social conflict is a “required ingredient” in successful drama, and how dysfunctional behavior is necessary to the joke in sitcoms. APPLY IT: MEDIA Figure 6.28: Media analysis screen

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Apply It: 3rd extension activity Sports

These exercises apply key lessons in every tutorial to a sports setting. All learning is physically embodied at the cellular level, but for many learners, especially those who learn kinesthetically, it needs to be embodied in a more tangible way. Some students, especially boys, can more easily access “touchy-feely" material when it is in the context of sports settings.

APPLY IT: SPORTS Figure 6.29: Sports transfer screen Apply It: 4th extension activity Skill rehearsal - Role-play

These rehearsal scripts can be used with a partner, or in front of mirror. They are intended to be practice, not performance. Rehearsal of social-emotional and language skills in real world contexts is important to creating “performance knowledge”. However, the value of public performance, as a method for building SEL skills has not been universally established.

APPLY IT: ROLE PLAY Figure 6.30: Rehearsal assignment screen Brain: Structured journaling

Vygotsky was among the first to identify journaling as an instructional method that facilitates the process of internalizing dialogue to shape understanding. Other researchers have demonstrated how journaling can be an independent tool for self understanding, as well as reinforce the skill of reflecting upon what is being discussed with others.

Figure 6.31: Brain/Journal overview screen BRAIN

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The Ripple Effects interactive, journal writing exercises utilize a structured and assisted process of reflective inquiry, which has as its subject, one’s own life. In addition to drilling in the classical critical thinking process of identifying problems, clarifying options and choosing alternatives, it adds two components, which are important with social-emotional issues: identifying feelings related to each experience, and identifying who in the community a student can turn to for help solving this problem. It gives students a means to name their experience, Figure 6.32: Structures a critical thinking process the first step in having power over it.

Clicking on any brain section opens it, to reveal a brain/journal entry screen. An animated sequence gives users the sensation of going “inside their mind.”

Figure 6.33: Animated sequence of brain opening “Drag and Drop” word prompts provide a bridge to communication for ELL students and those with low language skills, helping to scaffold language development. Password protection and encryption protect student privacy, an important element in promoting openness. “Type here” is an open-ended text entry box, that provides room for more proficient communicators to express themselves in any language read by the computer.

Figure 6.34: Brain journal entry screen–Experience section

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Memories Screen

The journal writing process results in a tangible product: an experience-driven, goal oriented, autobiographical set of sketches that are printable, but also password protected and encrypted to safeguard student confidentiality. Students can choose to save their memories electronically, or paste them

into email.

In districts that require adult supervision

of all student writing, students can be

required to print their entries, but teachers Figure 6.35: Memories screen cannot break into students’ encrypted files without their permission.

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Profile: Interactive self-assessment

These self-assessments are the 180˚ balance to the objectivist instruction offered in the “Info” and “How To” screens. Thirty-seven different interactive profiles promote intrapersonal “intelligence,” based on greater understanding of personal strengths and weaknesses. The learning styles profile promotes meta-cognition, (understanding the working of one’s own mind). Other profiles help students identify risk and protective factors, and PROFILE core social-emotional competencies Figure 6.36: Profile questions such as empathy, assertiveness, problem-solving, connecting in community, and impulse control. The profiles are not medical diagnostic tools. They are science- based, engaging exercises that can promote self-understanding, provide first-pass screening for disorders such as ADD, dyslexia, and PTSD, and provide individualized guidance based on students’ presentation of experience.

After ranking six sets of four statements, learners get an immediate, customized response, including a graphic profile, and a description in text and audio, of what their answers mean for them. Results direct users to further skill training in the program, based on their responses. The “profiler” mimics proven counseling approaches, in that participant input is mirrored back to them, and framed in ways that point them towards help.

Figure 6.37: One of five possible results Profile results can be printed, but are not saved. for “resilience” profile

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Got It: Assessment of concept mastery

The “Got Its” are multiple choice tests, disguised as interactive games. There is at least one for every lesson. They are like traditional multiple choice tests in that they query for understanding of facts, thinking processes and procedures, as well as providing “word problems” through which learners must demonstrate deeper understanding. They differ from those conventional tests in that they are GOT IT designed not to sort students into Figure 6.38: Learners click on speakers to hear audio categories, but to bring every student to mastery. They throw out wrong

answers, enabling a trial and error approach to learning. The strong kinesthetic component makes them a good tool for students who learn by doing, or who are bored by passive listening.

There are several different types of “Got It” games. All have audio narration and playful sound cues. Most also have animation components. A. Multiple choice “Cat & Mouse” game

Each correct answer moves the mouse closer to getting the cheese.

Figure 6.39: Cat and mouse content assessment game screen

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B. Multiple choice Matching game Learners match pairs of cards to reveal a graffiti-style mystery message related to the topic, such as “Doing the If-Then Thing”

Figure 6.40: Screen for matching C. Multiple choice UFO game Learners drag the boat under the UFO beam of the answer they think is correct.

Figure 6.41: Screen for UFO game to assess content mastery Scorecard: Reinforcement and SCORECARD feedback on performance

The system tracks learner progress in completing interactive learning modes (“Brain,” “Profiles,” “Got Its”). Learners get 100 points for each. Learners can check their score to get immediate and ongoing reinforcement for behavior, a key factor in shaping, changing and maintaining behavior.

Figure 6.42: Learner scorecard screen

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WEB Web: User input feedback to developer

Clicking on the web button leads learners to the related Ripple Effects program web page, where they can provide feedback, request topics, and contribute their own true stories.

Figure 6.43: Screenshot of link to Ripple Effects website

B. Administrative tools

Overview

Through an administrator’s password, implementers can track student progress, customize content and choose to allow or disallow web access

Figure 6.44: Administrative functions gateway screen

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Data management and reporting

Implementers can click on any student name and monitor that student’s progress in completing interactive elements of assigned tutorials. Data can be exported for evaluation. This feature enables accurate measurement of dosage and implementation fidelity.

Figure 6.45: Student progress report screen Customizing content

Implementers can block any topic they decide is either inappropriate, or outside the focus they have chosen for their setting.

Figure 6.46: Content customization screen

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Blocking web access

Ripple Effects includes a link to the program website where learners can provide feedback and access additional resources. Some school districts do not want students to have access to the Internet except in controlled settings. A click of the mouse can activate or deactivate the web connection.

Figure 6.47: Web access control screen C. Safeguards for cultural competence and social equity

Cultural competence is a criterion for inclusion of every element at every level of the Whole Spectrum Intervention System. It is not a stand-alone component of the system; it is a standard to which all elements of the system must adhere. Some examples of how that is expressed in Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Intervention System are described here.

Assessment of school climate

Web-based survey tools assess school climate and respect for persons to help schools identify areas where lack of cultural sensitivity, and even outright racism, may be a problem.

Figure 6.48: Report screen from Respect for Persons survey

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Professional development

The staff software provides training for teachers on managing diverse learners, including respecting ethnic, religious, class, gender and learning differences. It deconstructs race-based attitudes and expectations without blame or shame.

Figure 6.49: Sample screen from “culture” tutorial

Student tutorials on diversity

The student software provides concrete lessons for kids and teens on appreciating diversity: physical, ethnic, religious, gender, class, and sexual orientation.

Content also includes issues that may have particular relevance to specific groups and subgroups. For instance, the tutorial on English as second language (ELL) has special relevance to the immigrant community; the tutorial on “wheelchairs” is of special interest to the disabled community; the tutorials on “special education” and “dyslexia” are of special interest to students with learning challenges.

Specific lessons have been designed to address ethnic conflict and intervene with both targets and perpetrators of bias activity.

Figure 6.50: Some diversity related topics on cell phone

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Diverse multimedia content

Diverse young people appear in the software, with representation closely monitored to reflect the following targets: 50% Caucasian, 15% each Africa American, Latino and Asian, and 5% Native American children and adults, with people with visible physical limitations included in every group. Gender and ethnicity of images are balanced through the program as a whole, and across individual topics so that, for instance, if a “True Story” features a Latina, the (“Case Study scenario”) photo for that topic features a male from another ethnic group. Specific visual imagery is described, with examples, below.

Photographic imagery

There are nearly 550 photographs across the two student programs, with another 140 in the staff program. Subjects are peers of the learner, photographed in real education settings. In addition to balancing the gender, ethnic, and visible disabilities, images are often chosen to counteract stereotype or expectation, and are framed close up to give a sense of intimacy and immediacy.

Figure 6.52: African American boy Figure 6.51: Disabled girl

Figure 6.53: Asian boy and girl Figure 6.54: Latin girl

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Videos

More than 80 true story videos present the authentic life experiences of diverse young people. Some were directed by youth, others by award-winning independent filmmakers.

Figure 6.55: True story screen Figure 6.56: True story screen

Hundreds of peer modeling videos feature ordinary youth from diverse backgrounds, rather than professional actors.

Figure 6.57: Movie model screen Figure 6.58: Movie model screen

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Hand-drawn illustrations

Thousands of hand-drawn illustrations featuring diverse young people, create rich, imaginative visual images to illustrate key points on the “Info” and “How To” screens.

Figure 6.59: Sample of diverse images Figure 6.60: Sample of diverse Figure 6.61: Sample diverse images illustration

Figure 6.62: Sample diverse Figure 6.63: Sample diverse Figure 6.64: Sample diverse illustration illustration illustration

Activity artwork and animations

Supplemental artwork and animations used on activities have a hip-hop look and feel, and provide small rewards for completion of activities.

Figure 6.65: Help is out there (“help” Figure 6.66: Judgment call (“decision- Figure 6.67: Doing the if/then thing tutorial screen) making” tutorial screen) (“consequences” tutorial screen)

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II. Assessment Tools

Group-level assessment tools

Web-based, group-level, school climate profilers can quickly assess initial needs and measure group change, from student and staff perspectives.

Figure 6.68: School safety survey screen

Instant reports allow immediate evaluation of results at summary and individual item levels.

Figure 6.69: School safety survey results screen Individual self-report assessment tools

Validated, computerized surveys about attitudes and self-perception, enable pre- and post testing for evaluation of internal, self-reported, intervention outcomes at both individual and group levels.

Figure 6.70: Self-report survey screen

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APPENDIX C

INDEX OF TOPICS IN RIPPLE EFFECTS FOR TEENS (GRADES 6-11)

A anorexia bad grades absent anti-depressants bad words absent minded anxiety barbiturates abstinence anxiety attacks bashing gays abuse-boy/girlfriend apologies beat up-victim abuse-child appearance beaten abuse-domestic appreciating diversity beauty abuse-drugs arrest beer abuse-emotional arson behavior-confronting abuse-physical artsy being connected abuse-sex offender ashamed beliefs-standing up for abuse-sexual asking for help believing accepting responsibility asking questions belonging accepting yourself asking someone out bias acid assault bias crimes-target acne assertive eyes bigotry acquaintance rape- assertive message binge eating victim assertive posture bi-racial active listening assertive reasons birth control activism assertive voice birth order addicted assertiveness blabber mouth addicted parent asthma blankie ADHD athletic style blind ADHD-drugs attachment objects blinking adopted attendance blocked adult who cares attention blow afraid Attention Deficit blunt agency Disorder blurting out aggression authority-dealing with body AIDS authority-defying body clues alcohol avoiding triggers body image alcoholic parent aware body language alcoholic-you body odor all 'dat B body weight alone baby-yours body-ashamed alone at home background-community body-posture alternatives-evaluating background-family booze angel dust backlash target bored anger back-talk bouncing back animals-hurting bad decisions boundaries

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boy/girlfriend cigarettes crazy feelings boy/girlfriend-abuse cigars creativity bra citizenship criticism-dealing with bragging clique cruel brainstorming clothes-rules crush breaking rules club drugs crying breaking up cocaine crystal meth breathing deeply codeine cultural differences broke coke curfew broken heart cold-hearted cursing broken home college cussing brothers commanding respect cutting class buddies commitments cutting yourself bugging someone communicating feelings cyberspace bulimia communication skills bullied community bullying community history D bully-offender community resources date rape drug bully-target competition-losing date rape-offender bummed out competition-winning date rape-victim busted complaints-making dating bystander compliments-giving dating abuse compliments-receiving deaf C compulsive dealing with authority calling something conceited death calming down condoms decisions cappin' conflict-resolving defiance car theft conflict-with teacher democracy-doing cards you're dealt confronting behavior dependability care-for yourself confronting injustice depression care-showing it connecting with others developmental delay cause and effect consequences-predicting diabetes celibacy considerate diet chair contact lenses dieting chalk contraception differences change-normal controlling impulses disability-hearing change-unplanned control-taking disability-learning changing feelings conversations disability-mental character coping disability-physical Charlie cops disability-visual cheating-in school copying disappointment chew counselors-using discipline child abuse courtesy discouraged choices crack discrimination choosing friends cramps discussions-having chronic illness crank disputes

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dispute-with teacher drugs-painkillers failure-wanting disrespect drugs-prescription fairness disrespected drugs-Ritalin faith dissent-supporting drugs-stimulants falling asleep dissin' drunk driving (DUI) falling down diversity-appreciating drunkie families-blended diversity-cultural dumped family background diversity-disability dying family violence diversity-ethnic dyslexia family-embarrassing diversity-gender fat diversity-physical E fatal attraction diversity-preferences eating disorder fear diversity-religious economics fear of failing divorce ecstasy fear of success do not assert yourself education-higher feel powerless do not connect effort feeling for others do not feel for others ELL feeling frustrated do not know yourself embarrassment feelings do not manage feelings emotional abuse feelings-changing do not persevere emotional intelligence feelings-communicating do not problem-solve emotional maturity feelings-confusing do not try emotional style feelings-depressed domestic violence emotions-yours feelings-expressing dope empathy feelings-handling down English language learner feelings-mixed down for someone envy feelings-names for downers errors feelings-not dress code ethnic diversity feelings-owning them drinking ethnic slurs feelings-predicting drinking too much ethnicity female roles driving evaluating alternatives fibbing driving drunk excluded fighting dropping exercise fighting with parents dropping out exercise type fingernails drug dealing exercising rights fire druggie expectations fire setting drugs expelled fitness drugs-antidepressants experimenting fitting in drugs-body building express yourself online Five-0 drugs-date rape expressing feelings following instructions drugs-depressants expressing sympathy fondling yourself drugs-designer expressing thanks foreplay drugs-friend using foster home drugs-hallucinogens F freezing out drugs-inhalants failing French kissing drugs-marijuana failure friend-drinking

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friend-helping group-discussions hormones friendly groups-joining hospitalization friends guilt how it is friends-choice of guilt-survivor huffing friends-fighting guns humor friends-making hung-over friends-none H hurting animals friends-suicidal habits-nervous hurting yourself friends-turning in habits-quitting friends-using drugs hallucinogens I frustration hanging out I statements funny happiness-practicing ice future not there harassment online ideas-finding harassment-perp identifying with others G harassment-target identity gambling hard things ignoring game freak hard thing-surviving illness gangs hate image-your body ganja hate crime perp immaturity gay hate crime-target immigrant gay bashing hate online impulsive gender differences hate school incest-perp generosity hating yourself incest-victim genes have to do it individuality getting even having a mentor in-group getting help having conversations inhalants getting support hazing injustice-confronting girl/boyfriend hearing impaired in-school suspension girlfriend/boyfriend- heavy insecure abuse helpers-adult insomnia girlie cycle help-getting it institutional injustice giving helping others instructions-following giving compliments heritage integrity giving help heroin intelligences giving up hiding-wanting to intercourse glasses hitting internal triggers gloves HIV internet safety goals home alone internet-courtesy goals-none homeless internet-expressing good sport homework yourself gossip homophobia internet-harassment grades honesty internet-hate graffiti hood internet-info sharing grief hooker internet-meet up group home hooking up internet-reading people group skills hopeless

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internet-sexual lesbian mental illness exploitation let-down mentally retarded internet-threats letting go mentors intolerance liar message introducing yourself liking someone meth introvert liking yourself middle child inviting someone limits-setting mindfulness irresponsible lip locking mistakes irritating someone listening to others mixed feelings loneliness mixed race J loner molested jacking looks molester jail loser mom & dad jealousy losing money jerking off losing someone money-not enough job love morphine joining a group loyalty motivation joints loyalty to country motives-understanding jumped LSD moving justice luck muggin' justice-restoring lying multi-racial juvey murder-threats M muscles K macking musty karma mad mutilation-self keeping faith making apologies keeping going making complaints N killing yourself making decisions nail biting kindness making excuses name-calling kissing making friends naming problems klepto making out narcotics knives making space narcs knocked-up making things right needs-stating knowing who you are making up negative criticism male roles neighborhood L managing change neighborhood-new labeling managing feelings nervous lack of effort manners nervous habits latchkey marijuana networking late Mary J new kid laughing masturbation nice laughing gas MDMA no goals learning disability mean no to sex learning style meeting people norms left out menstruation not athletic legal rights mental disability not creative

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not good-looking pals possibilities not happy panic attacks posture not invited paraphrasing pot not liking yourself parent-alcoholic poverty not motivated parent-embarrassed by power not popular parent-fighting with practicing happiness not smart parent-hits you predicting consequences not thin parenting-teen predicting feelings not worthy parents preferences numbness parents-break up pregnancy-avoiding O parent-talking to pregnant obesity passed away prejudice observers passions premenstrual syndrome obsessing patriotism prescription drugs obsession-offender paying attention pressure obsession-victim PCP pressure to succeed OC's peer pressure pressure-resisting odds-defying people smarts pride-national oldest child perfect-having to be prison on the rag performance probation online clues period problem-naming online expression perseverance problem-solving online harassment personal history procrastination online hate personality promises online info sharing perspective taking props-giving online sexual pet dying prostitution exploitation peyote Prozac online threats physical abuse PTSD oops physical differences puberty open physical disability punishment open-ended questions physical sensations pushing opinions picked on put-downs opium picking on people putting off options-coming up with pimples options-evaluating pissed off Q outbursts playing with yourself questions-asking outside triggers PMS quiet outsider point of view quitting overeating police quitting habits overweight politics-being part of quitting-school owning up politics-unpopular OxyContin poor R poor sport race P popoe race-mixed p.o. poppers racial conflict painkillers popular racial diversity

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racial slurs risky behavior set you off racism Ritalin setting goals rape drug rivalry-sibling setting limits rape-offender rock sex abuse-offender rape-victim roofie (rohypnal) sex abuse-target ratting out room for others sex-forced rave drugs rubbers sex-forcing reactions-stopping rules sexism reading problems rumors sex-not doing it reasons-giving running away sex-postponing rebellion rural sex-refusing receiving compliments sex-restraint recklessness S sex-safe reflecting on sadness sexual diseases performance safer sex sexual exploitation refugee sarcasm online refusal skills saying no sexual harasser refusing sex saying what you need sexual orientation rejected scared sexuality relapse school failure sexually abused relating school-dropping out sexually harassed relationship school-grades shagging relaxing school-habits shame reliability school-hate it sharing religion school-kicked out shootings religious attack school-skipping shoplifting religious diversity school-unsafe shoving repeating back second language-English showing care resilience secrets shrooms resisting pressure security blanket shut up-can't resisting stereotypes sedatives shyness resolving conflict seeing-can't sibling rivalry resources self-acceptance sick-a lot respect online self-aware sideshow respectful to authority self-care sisters respect-getting it self-centered skinny respect-showing self-confidence skipping class responding to others self-control skipping school responsibility self-esteem skunk responsibility-for feelings self-injury sleepy restitution self-talk slow restless self-worth slurs revenge selling drugs smack ride or die sensations-physical smarts rights-exercising separating smelly-you risk and protection Sept. 11 smirk

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smoking stuttering thoughts sniffing substance abuse thoughts-of suicide snitch success-phobia threats- internet snow success-pressure threats-to kill snuff suicidal throwing up social skills suicidal friend ticked off social values support-getting tics social-emotional skills supporting dissent time management solidarity-showing surviving hard times tobacco-chewing solutions-evaluating survivor guilt tolerance solutions-trying suspended torturing animals solvents swearing touch solving problems sweat touching yourself sore loser sympathy-expressing tranquilizers sorry-you are transitions space-making T trashing things spacing out tagging trauma spanking taking care triggers-inside speaking up taking chances triggers-outside special ed taking control truancy speech impediment talents trustworthiness speed talking truthfulness sports & exercise type talking back trying sportsmanship talking-in a group trying solutions stalked talking-too much trying things out stalker tantrums turf standing up for yourself tardy turning someone in stank target TV staring target-for bully twitches starving yourself taste staying connected teacher U STD teams ugly stealing teams-joining understanding motives stepfamilies teasing undressing stepping in their shoes teen parent unfairness stereotypes television unhappy steroids telling uniforms sticking to it telling a secret unlucky stimulants temper unmotivated stopping reactions temperament untruthful strength-inner temptation unworthy strengths terrorism using counselors stress tests using resources study habits thanking someone study hall theft stupid thoughtfulness

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V yourself-standing up for Valium yourself-starving values yourself-touching values-social vandalism Z Vicodin zits victim Zoloft video games violence violence-guns visual impairment voice-using yours

W want other people's stuff wanting revenge weaknesses weakness-picking on weapons weed weight weight-losing what you love wheelchair whippets whistle-blower why they do it winning withdrawn witness work working out worry-wart

Y youngest child your strengths your word-keep yourself-accepting yourself-aware of yourself-caring for yourself-cutting yourself-feelings toward yourself-killing yourself-knowing yourself-not liking

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APPENDIX D

INDEX OF TOPICS IN RIPPLE EFFECTS FOR KIDS (GRADES 2-5)

A note about these lists: There are 140 unique lessons in the Kids version, 390 in the Teens version, and 136 in the Staff version, but in each case, many more topics appear in each index. This is because topics are listed under multiple names, to help ensure that learners will find their topic by the name they commonly use. For example, “smoking” and “cigarettes” both lead to the same lesson. A C diversity-appreciating absent calming down divorce afraid can't bounce back don't assert yourself alcohol caring-show it don't connect with alcoholic parent character others angry cheating don't control impulses apologies cigarettes don't feel for others ashamed citizenship don't know yourself asking questions clingy don't problem-solve assertive body communicating feelings don't set goals assertive message complaint don't try assertive voice compliments drugs assertiveness conceited asthma conflict E attachment objects connecting with others effort attention problems consequences-predict embarrassed aware of yourself controlling impulses empathy conversations envious B courtesy exercise background crush experimenting bad grades cultural differences expressing feelings beaten cursing bed wetting F beliefs D failure-school blankie death fairness blurting out decisions family problems body type diabetes fat bouncing back diet feeling-for others brainstorming options different feelings control you breaking rules disabilities feelings-changing bullied disappointed feelings-communicating bully-you do it discipline feelings-dealing with bystander discouraged feelings-expressing discrimination feelings-knowing yours

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feelings-mixed learning success relaxing feelings-predicting left out resilience feelings-understanding letting go resolving conflict fighting listening respect forgiving lying responsibility friend problems Ritalin friends-making M rules frustrated making a complaint managing feelings S G marijuana sad gangs mistakes safety goals molested school failure gossiping motives-understanding secrets grades N security blanket group-joining name-calling self-awareness neighborhood problems self-control H nervous self-esteem hands and feet self-talk hard things O shame help-getting it obese sharing help-giving it options-brainstorming shy hitting options-weighing them sick a lot honesty others sickness hormones skipping school P smarts I parent-talking to smoking ideas parents' substance use snatched-afraid of identifying with others peer pressure solutions-brainstorming ignoring permission-getting solutions-testing illness pet dying standing up impulse control physical differences standing up-message instructions-following picked on-by peers standing up-voice introducing picked on-by teacher standing up-your body inviting point of view stealing predicting consequences stereotypes-resisting J problem-naming strengths jealous problem-solving study habits puberty success K pushing and shoving success at learning keep trying knowing yourself Q T questions-asking talking back L tardy late R teacher problems learning problems reactions-controlling teased learning style refusing teasing

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telling tests thoughts-controlling threats tobacco touch triggers-catching trust trying

U understanding feelings unfair

W weed wetting bed

Y yourself-aware of yourself-strengths yourself-talking to yourself-understanding

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APPENDIX E

INDEX OF TOPICS IN RIPPLE EFFECTS FOR STAFF

Ripple Effects for Staff presents 138 lessons in three areas: Strengthening your leadership, Managing diverse Learners, and Making programs work.

STRENGTHENING balanced learners YOUR LEADERSHIP control impulses bimodal learners hold a vision stop reactions transform yourself predict consequences intelligences emotional intelligence learning-related make decisions challenges know who you are problem solve academic disorders learning style-yours name the problem attention disorders strengths identify options giftedness goals weigh alternatives mental retardation feelings test solutions social background-yours behavioral challenges resilience connect in community attention seeking model social values autism spectrum have empathy honesty defiance take perspective courtesy disruptiveness in class show care fairness disruptive on playground respect hyperactive (assertiveness) humor impulsive eyes kindness oppositional disorder message trust posture get support MAKING YOUR reasons involve parents PROGRAM WORK voice involve students prepare the way work with administrators engage stakeholders establish authority parents set expectations MANAGING DIVERSE students set rules LEARNERS administrators have consequences learning orientation get buy-in confront behavior cultural background hold a vision socio-economic status set the climate manage feelings provide training anger learning styles-students create a plan fear feeler-doer learners match to other programs hopelessness feeler-watcher learners adapt with fidelity self-talk thinker-doer learners use in context physical sensations thinker-watcher learners discipline

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counseling advisory period academic achievement after school testing corrections infuse into curriculum language arts social studies health decide dosage customize scope & sequence individualize create IEP

implement effectively introduce use teachable moments orient lead discussion model direct rehearsal reinforce ensure compliance persevere handle disclosure

measure results collect data profiles content assessment surveys

scale and sustain leverage technology ripple effects software learning system research base screen layout privacy issues administrative functions monitoring progress customizing content using web resources solving tech problems

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M., Watkins, K.E., Yang, H. & McGlynn, Andersson, G., Bergström, J., Carlbring, P., & E.A. (2001) Health information on the Lindefors, N. (2005). The use of the Internet Internet: Accessibility, quality, and in the treatment of anxiety disorders. readability in English and Spanish. Journal Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18, 73-77. of the American Medical Association; 285: Bandura, A. (2005). The primary of self- 2612-21. regulation in health promotion. Applied Bernard-Opitz, V., Sriram, N. & Nakhoda- Psychology: an International Review, 54, Sapuan, S. (2001). Enhancing social 245-254. problem solving in children with autism Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). Impact of a Computer-Based, Social- and normal children through computer- Journal of Autism and Emotional Intervention on Outcomes assisted instruction. Developmental Disorders, 31, 4, 377- Among Latino Students When Adult 384(8). Monitors of the Student Training Are Non- Bosworth, K., Gustafson, D. H., & Hawkins, R. professionals: A Randomized Controlled P. (BARN Research Group). (1994). The Trial. San Francisco: Rockman et al. BARN system: Use and impact of Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). adolescent health promotion via computer. Impact of a Self-Regulated, Computerized, Computers in Human Behavior, 10, 467- Social-Emotional Learning Intervention on 482. Disengaged and Delinquent Students at a Brendryen, H., & Kraft, P. (2008). Happy Continuation High School. San Francisco: ending: A randomized controlled trial of a Rockman et al. digital multi-media smoking cessation Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). intervention. Addiction, 103, 478-486. Impact Of Self-Regulated Use Of Budman, H. S., Portnoy, D., & Villapiano, J. A. Computer-Based Social-Emotional Learning (2003). How to get technological On Rural Adolescents At Risk For Alcohol innovation used in behavioral health care: Abuse. San Francisco: Rockman et al. Build it and they still might not come. Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Impact of Social-Emotional Learning Training, 40, 45-54. Software on Attitudes About Marijuana and Carlbring P, Nilsson-Ihrfelt E, Waara J, et al. Alcohol Among Urban and Rural (2005). Treatment of panic disorder: live Adolescents. San Francisco: Rockman et al. therapy vs. self-help via the Internet. Beier, Sharon R. MD; Walter D. Rosenfeld, MD; Behavioral Research and Therapy; Kenneth C. Spitalny, MD; Shelley M. 43:1321–1333. Zansky, PhD; Alexandra N. Bontempo, MS, CAST. 2009. Universal Design for Learning (2000). “The Potential Role of an Adult Guidelines. Retreived March 15, 2009. Mentor in Influencing High-Risk Behaviors http://cast.org/publications/UDLguidelines/ in Adolescents,” Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. version1.html 2000;154:327-331 Charlop-Christy, M.H., Danshvar, S. (2003). Berg, S. , Cluver, S., Brentano, L. and Ray, A. Using video modeling to teach perspective Ripple Effects Technology Guide. Ripple taking to children with autism. Journal of Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006. Positive Behavior Interventions. 5, 12.

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Marsch, L.A., Bickel, W.K., Badger, G.J. (2006). Pull, C.B. (2006). Self-help Internet Applying computer technology to interventions for mental disorders. Current substance abuse prevention science: Opinion in Psychiatry. 19, 50-53. Results of a preliminary examination. Ray, A. (1999). Impact on passivity- Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance assertiveness-aggression of short term, Abuse, 16(2): 69-94. computer-based, skill building in McDermott, R. (1999a). Knowledge assertiveness: A pilot study. San Francisco: Management – Why Information Ripple Effects. (First presented as peer Technology Inspired But Cannot Deliver reviewed poster session at Division of Knowledge Management. California Adolescent School Health Annual Management Review, 41(4), 103-117. conference. McCraty, R., M. Atkinson, et al. (2006). The Ray, A. (2008). Unexpected findings on the coherent heart: Heart-brain interactions, impact of computerized social-emotional psychophysiological coherence, and the learning: Implications for research and emergence of system-wide order. Boulder practice. Paper presented at the 2008 Creek, CA, HeartMath Research Center, Annual Meeting of the American Institute of HeartMath, Publication No. 06- Educational Research Association. 022. Ray, A., Berg, S. (2008). Adaptation - Fidelity Perry, S.M., Bass, K, Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008) with a computerized SEL training program Impact of a computer-based social- for primary, secondary and tertiary emotional learning intervention on interventions across 50 real world settings. objective school outcomes among diverse Ripple Effects, Inc. adolescents: A summary analyses of six Ray, A., & Berg, S. (2010). Factors in randomized controlled trials. Expanded compliance rates with self-regulated use of from poster presentation at the 2007 Ripple Effects computer-based intervention Annual Meeting of the Society for for social-emotional learning. Accepted by Prevention Research. the 2010 Annual Meeting of the American Perry, S.M., Bass, K, Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). Educational Research Association (AERA). Impact of a Computerized Social-Emotional Ray, A., Patterson, V., & Berg, S. (2008) Impact Learning Intervention on African American of a district-wide individualized, and Latino Students When Implemented In computerized, positive behavioral Lieu Of Academic Instruction: A intervention on discipline referrals, in- Randomized Controlled Trial. Manuscript school suspensions and out of school in preparation. suspensions. Ripple Effects. San Francisco. Perry, S.M., Bass, K, Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008) Ray, A. Patterson, V., & Berg, S. (2008) What Potential and Limitations of Ripple Effects are they looking for? Risk factors students Self-Regulated, Computerized, Social- privately address on the computer in Emotional Training to Improve Outcomes discipline settings. Manuscript in Among Students Behind Grade Level in an preparation. Unsafe and Chaotic School. Ray, A., Perry, S., Bass, K., & Berg, S. (2008) Perry, S.M., Bass, K, Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008) Computer-based training to promote self- Potential and Limitations of Ripple Effects efficacy: Ethnicity, urban/rural status and Self-Regulated, Computerized, Social- impacts on locus of control. Ripple Effects. Emotional Training to Improve Outcomes San Francisco. Among Students Behind Grade Level in an Unsafe and Chaotic School.

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Ray, A. Relate for Kids, training software, Educational Computing Research, 20, 329- Version 1.0, 1.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., San 343. Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. Schinke, S.P., Schwinn, T.M., Ozanian, A.J. Ray, A. Relate for Teens, training software, (2005). Alcohol abuse prevention among Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San high-risk youth: computer-based Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. intervention. Journal of Prevention and Ray, A. Respect for Persons Profiler. Ripple Intervention in the Community, 29:1-2, Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2005 - 117-130. 2009. Stern, R. & Repa, J. T. (2000). A study of the Ray, A. Ripple Effects Bring It On, training efficacy of computerized skill building for software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., adolescents: Reducing aggression and San Francisco, CA. 2003 – 2004. increasing pro-social behavior. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Kids, training software, Unpublished manuscript. Version 2.0, 3.0, 3.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., Stjernswärd, S., & Östman, M. (2006). Potential San Francisco, CA. 2005 – 2009. of e-health in relation to depression: Short Ray, A. Ripple Effects Respect for Persons, survey of previous research. Journal of training software, Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 13, Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2000 – 698-703. 2009. Tantam, D. (2006). The machine as Ray, A. Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler. psychotherapist: impersonal Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. communication with a machine. Advances 1999 – 2009. in Psychiatric Treatment. 12, 416-426. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Staff, training Thomas, R. Cahill, J. (1997) Using an software, Version 1.1, 2.0. Ripple Effects, interactive computer game to increase skill Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006 – 2009. and self-efficacy regarding safer sex Ray, A. Ripple Effects Survey Engine, Version negotiation: Field test results. Health 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, Education & Behavior, 24, 1, 71-86. CA. 2003 – 2009. Turner, C.F., Ku, L., Rogers, S.M., Lindberg, Ray, A. Ripple Effects Teaching Coach, training L.D., Pleck, J.H., & Sonenstein, F.L. (1998). software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., Adolescent sexual behavior, drug use, and San Francisco, CA. 2004 - 2006. violence: Increased reporting with Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Teens, training computer survey technology. Science, 280, software, Version 2.1, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2. Ripple 867-873. Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2004 – VaderVen, (2008) . “Promoting Positive 2009. Development in Early Childhood: Building Ritterband, L. M., Cox, D. J., Gordon, T. L., Blocks for a Successful start,”, from The Borowitz, S. M., Kovatchev, B. P., Walker, Search Institute Series on Developmentally L. S., & Sutphen, J. L. (2006). Examining the Attentive Community and Society, added value of audio, graphics, and 10.1007/978-0-387-79922-3_1 interactivity in an Internet intervention for Wagman. M. Cognitive Psychology and pediatric encopresis. Children's Health Artificial Intelligence: Theory and Research Care, 35:1, 47-59. in Cognitive Science. Praeger 1993. Schacter, J., & Fagnano, C. (1999). Does Whalen, C., Liden, L., Ingersoll, B., Dallaire, E., computer technology improve student and Liden, S. (2006). Positive behavioral learning and achievement? How, when, changes associated with the use of and under what conditions? Journal of computer-assisted instruction for young

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children. Journal of Speech and Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis, 1:1. Weisband, S., & Kiesler, S. (1996). Self- Disclosure on computer forms: Meta- analysis and implications. In M.J Tauber, V. Bellotti, R. Jeffries, J.D. Mackinlay, J. Nielsen, (Eds.), Proceedings of the ACM CHI 96 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference. Vancouver, Canada. p.3-10. Ybarra, M. L., Eaton, W. W., & Bickman, L. (2005). Internet-based mental health interventions. Mental Health Services Research, 7:2, 75-87. Zabinski, M.F., Celio, A.A., Wiffley, D.E., Taylor, C.B. (2003). Prevention of eating disorders and obesity via the internet. Cognitive Behaviour Theory. 32:3, 137- 150. Zadeh, L. A . 2002. Toward a Perception-Based Theory of Probabilistic Reasoning with Imprecise Probabilities. Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference 105(1):233–264. Zadeh, L. A. 2001. A New Direction in AI— Toward a Computational Theory of Perceptions. AI Magazine 22(1): 73–84. Zadeh, L. A. 1999. From Computing with Numbers to Computing with Words—From Manipulation of Measurements to Manipulation of Perceptions. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems 45(1): 105–119.

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Chapter 7: Implementation Science Moving from ivory tower efficacy to real world effectiveness

Major implementation challenges...... 4 Process challenges ...... 4 Program related challenges ...... 4 Challenges at intersection of process and program...... 4 Technology not the whole answer...... 3 Technology introduces new barriers to implementation...... 3 Models of Implementation...... 3 Implementation process components...... 4 Source...... 4 Destination ...... 4 Purveyors ...... 4 Feedback mechanisms...... 4 Feedback loop of program evaluation and development...... 5 Sphere of influence...... 5 The role of leadership...... 5 Components negatively correlated with success...... 7 Information dissemination alone ...... 7 One time workshops ...... 7 Implementation process stages ...... 8 Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum Model of Staged Implementation ...... 9 Preparing the way ...... 9 Planning & program implementation ...... 9 Documentation and data management...... 9 Program evaluation – data analysis ...... 9 Sustaining a program over time...... 10 Ripple Effects resources to support successful implementation...... 11 RE resources for direct implementation support...... 11 RE resources to support evaluation...... 12 RE resources to support sustainability...... 12

Chapter 7: Implementation Science From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Technology based support ...... 12 Non-technology based support ...... 12 Implementation process characteristics ...... 12 Program attrition - non-participation...... 13 External factors linked to attrition:...... 13 Insufficient training...... 13 Competition with academic areas ...... 13 Time constraints ...... 13 Lack of cultural relevance...... 13 Discipline problems ...... 13 Natural – and unnatural disasters ...... 13 Internal factors linked to attrition: ...... 13 Frustration with inflexibility of program...... 13 Discouragement ...... 13 Lack of motivation...... 13 Teacher boredom ...... 13 Balance between fidelity and adaptation ...... 14 Categories of lack of fidelity...... 14 Incorrect content ...... 14 Incorrect instructional methods...... 14 Ad hoc adaptations...... 14 Lack of supplemental materials ...... 14 Cultural incompetence ...... 14 SAMHSA guidelines for balancing program fidelity and adaptation... 15 Learner behavior – the missing core process component ...... 15 Summary of Ripple Effects core content and process components...... 18 Levels of implementation: tiered intervention...... 20 Primary – universal promotion ...... 20 Secondary – targeted prevention ...... 22 RTI ...... 23 Tertiary – individualized, indicated positive behavioral intervention ..... 24 Key characteristics of successful tertiary interventions ...... 24

Chapter 7: Implementation Science

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

Juvenile justice applications...... 25 Three levels for staff as well...... 25 Intensity/dosage ...... 25 Speed of implementation ...... 26 Relevance...... 27 Affordability...... 27 Initial investment ...... 27 Level of investment risk ...... 28 Net cost after short term return on investment...... 29 Costs of sustainability ...... 29 Long term return on investment...... 30 Role of program design elements in implementation success...... 30 Differentiation of learning ...... 30 Data management ...... 31 Learning from ineffective programs...... 31 Lightening the load ...... 32 Ease of use...... 32 Avoiding boredom ...... 33 “Customer is right” focus...... 34 References ...... 36

Chapter 7: Implementation Science From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Chapter 7: Implementation Science

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

As researchers have attempted to (Domitrovich & Greenberg, 2000, p. transfer science to practice, the stark 197). contrast between research-based program A study of Hispanic students in eight models and diverse, real world efforts at urban schools in the Boston area, applying those models has become reported that the amount of the evident. Ineffective programs have been exemplary Life Skills Training program implemented well (e.g., the DARE material covered by teachers ranged from program, Elliott, 1997; Ennett, Tobler, 44% to 83%, with positive results found Ringwalt, & Flewelling, 1994). Effective only in the high implementation group, programs have been implemented poorly who had mean completion rate of 78% (Fixsen & Blase, 1993; Fixsen, Blase, (Botvin, 1989). In poor schools serving Timbers, & Wolf, 2001). In their meta minority students the mean fidelity rates analysis of effectiveness of delinquency were even lower, 48% over all sessions prevention programs, Lipsey et al arrived (Botvin et al, 2001). One study showed at the broad conclusion that even the that among the top ten prevention best programs, delivered poorly, had no programs identified in the literature, only more and, in some cases, fewer positive one was implemented by classroom effects than theoretically weaker teachers, and that intervention was not programs that were delivered as scalable because it involved designed. Consistently positive outcomes extraordinary amounts of training and are achieved only when effective consultative support for teachers (Tobler, programs are implemented with fidelity 1992). (Fixsen et al., 2001; Leschied & For all these reasons, in recent years Cunningham, 2002; Washington State the focus of inquiry with both live Institute for Public Policy, 2002). instruction and technology-enabled Unfortunately, this is the exception more programs has been steadily moving from often than the norm. finding practices that work in ideal A metaanalysis of data on settings, to identifying those which implementation of prevention programs enable the successful transfer of proven in 104 school districts, indicated that science to real world service, with only 19% of the schools were special attention to reaching those implementing research-based prevention populations that have historically been programs with fidelity (Hallfors & left behind. Godette, 2002). Setting level variations The emerging field of Implementation account for some, but not all, of those Science has developed out of the need to differences. One meta analysis estimated address the persistent gap between theory that as many as 68% of all prevention and practice in prevention science, in programs were described too broadly to education and in technology adoption. be replicated and very few included Public health research, technology measurements of treatment fidelity” adoption studies, marketing research, business management research and

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organizational development theory, Program related challenges especially theories of change that straddle the boundaries between social Among the program related challenges, psychology and business management, are to: have all contributed to this emerging Provide timely access to evidence- field. based information and practices in a context where the knowledge base is MAJOR IMPLEMENTATION expanding rapidly and training time CHALLENGES for individual issues is shrinking, even while overall training time is Ripple Effects was specifically expanding founded to address implementation Differentiate delivery of interventions challenges that have hampered the to accommodate individual needs, transition from science to service. Some address learning differences, leverage are intrinsic to the implementation personal wisdom, reduce individual process, some relate to program risk factors and build needed elements, and many relate to the personal strengths – without losing intersection of those two things. standardization required for fidelity Provide content comprehensive Process challenges enough to include a constantly shifting set of timely issues, while still Among the process-related challenges allowing focused exploration of a identified by Ripple Effects are to: targeted few issues Shorten and streamline the adoption Allow local communities control over process to realistically allow for sensitive social content, without continuing turnover in administrative losing fidelity to science staff and changes in school district Keep the supplemental materials from level policies getting lost Reduce attrition by annually updating site-based plans to increase and Challenges at intersection renew implementer buy-in of process and program Find affordable, timely methods to collect and analyze objective data to Among the challenges at the enable program evaluation in terms intersection of program and process are of implementation process, content, to: and outcomes Reduce the risk of instructor-based Embed implementation training so loss of quality and fidelity that implementers get what they Reconcile the diverse and sometimes need, when they need it, and new conflicting needs of learners, implementers each year can quickly administrators and policy makers become proficient Economically bring programs to scale Sustain programs when trained practitioners move on

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Build in cultural competence to allow implementation failure. Many site-specific constraints and technology-based, academic programs opportunities, without either losing have about the same fidelity rates as fidelity to EBP, or forfeiting cultural prevention programs described above. responsiveness Technology brings its own impediments Reduce the costs of customization to the implementation process and may add as many barriers as it removes, Reduce redundancy of “silo” including the critical issue of sometimes programs that address specific moving control further away from the academic, behavior, and health actual implementers. In most cases, it factors that are linked to each other must be installed by - and in some cases and to common external factors even approved by - technologists, who Keep it from being boring – to may see the richness of the program as a students and/or implementers weakness, because of its memory requirements. Even when the technology Technology not the whole answer is in place and working, and technologists are supportive rather than As described in earlier chapters, controlling, implementation can falter. technology can offer a partial solution to Various implementation failures in some of these challenges. Specifically, it the early years of use of Ripple Effects potentially can make up for loss of student software have driven the supplemental materials, incorrect expansion of the program to include not information, incorrect instructional only technology-based learning software, methods, cultural irrelevance, lack of but a comprehensive set of live, flexibility and, boredom related to lack of electronic and print resources to support interactivity. successful implementation. Ripple Effects software includes all audio-visuals, plus printable “handouts,” role play instructions, interactive games MODELS OF IMPLEMENTATION assessment exercises, and electronic copies of all manuals right in the Several theoretical models for computer-based program, so these vital understanding and evaluating the materials can’t get lost. Expert content is implementation process have been put scripted into the student program and forth. Two major ones alternately delivered with audio-visual media. This describe it in terms of process removes from facilitators the burden of components (nouns) (Fixen et al, 2006) needing to be content experts. By and process stages (verbs) (Backer, changing their role from “sage on the 2002). Another model defines stage” to “guide on the side,” content implementation in terms of process purity is maintained while facilitators stay characteristics (adjectives). Obviously, involved. these are not mutually excusive terms. Taken together they provide a Technology introduces new comprehensive description of the barriers to implementation implementation process and the challenges inherent in it. However, technology-based programs are not immune to

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IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS increasingly, Supplemental Education COMPONENTS Services (SES). There is also a version available for students to use at home. In their 2006 Synthesis of Implementation Research, Fixen et al Purveyors analyze implementation in terms of basic This refers to the “feet on the components of the implementation ground,” program implementers. process. They note that these elements exist in all situations and are independent The program implementers for Ripple of the quality of the program being Effects are most often teachers who need implemented. Although they can be to provide RTI for underperforming independently identified as drivers of the students, class advisors, Special implementation process, they interact Education teachers and coordinators, with each other to create a combined counselors, nurses, and disciplinarians, effect. In some cases the strength of one including vice-principals and in-school component may outweigh weakness in suspension supervisors. Teachers are another area. These implementation encouraged to use the professional process components are something development software at home, or different from core components, even wherever they feel most comfortable. In process ones, of a particular program. SES programs in Texas, students use the Across programs, regardless of individual program in their homes, with parents as core components, Fixen et al look for: monitors.

Source Feedback mechanisms

This is a best example of These are the variety of means implementation of an intervention. It may through which information gained by any be sponsored by program developers. of these three parties is shared between Ripple Effects provides not just one, them. but a list of exemplary reference sites of Ripple Effects provides an embedded effective implementation in a variety of link to a feedback page for use by settings. students and a separate page for feedback from clients, whether administrators, Destination implementers or direct influencers. On the day this paragraph was written, an This is the place that houses, educator in Mississippi (unsolicited) supports and funds the implementation, wrote: “Hello, your software has been often a school or school district. very helpful to me and my students. I The intended destinations for Ripple think it's awesome. I would like to see Effects’ student and staff software are some information on ‘resentment.’ schools, juvenile justice settings and Thanks.” “Resentment was then added to community-based organizations. Within the to-do list for topic additions for a school districts the most common future release. institutional homes are Student Services, Ripple Effects also calls clients at least Special Education and Professional twice during the year to solicit feedback Development departments, and and check on implementation success.

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The Company participates in research Sphere of influence projects that include collection and This is context writ large; the socio- publication of objective implementation economic and political factors that affect process data. The built-in data system implementation outcomes. It is an allows all four parties - learners, extension of the context for learning implementers, developers and addressed in Chapter 5. researchers - to see exactly what lessons have been covered, which students have Ripple Effects addresses spheres of completed core components and how influence through: various amounts of exposure under A data system that allows various conditions of use, correlate with implementers to tailor the Ripple specific outcomes. Effect library of content to fit the social and political environment that Feedback loop of program evaluation is its context and development Direct professional development – both live and electronic on getting For the last decade, both formative buy-in in the community; and summative evaluations have been Direct skill-building for both teachers conducted on various configurations of and students on how to address the Ripple Effects program with various socio-economic issues that impact communities, in many dozens of settings. their lives; and an occasional Through a feedback loop that includes column, “ both scientific and informal clients Timely from the Top” an occasional evaluations, including evaluation by online column, through which student users, design has been tweaked, Program Creator, Alice Ray, content revised, and hundreds of new comments on the relationship of tutorials added. items in the news to program use and The program has morphed from a implementation. single software program for teens, to a comprehensive, integrated set of The role of leadership electronic training tools, print materials Strikingly absent from the model of and supplementary implementation “key components” of implementation services for teens, younger children, and (though included in Fixen’s wider notion the adults who work with them. of “context”) is what many researchers The process of continuous feedback and practitioners, including the CASEL has informed not only development of group, consider the single most important the software, but the shape of the component of successful implementation: Company itself. It has prompted Ripple leadership. This includes both personal Effects to shift direction from a product- leadership of the principal or other oriented, software company, to a client- advocate leading the effort and a shared centered facilitator of students’ and leadership process that engages the teachers’ success. whole staff and can continue when key leadership positions turn over. (Devaney, et al, 2006; Elias, & Kamarinos Galiotos, 2004; Kam, Greenberg and Walls, 2003).

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Closely related to the role of leadership personal transformation. 53 tutorials in general and leadership in develop the same core social-emotional implementation of SEL programs in competencies that are addressed in the particular, is the primacy of social- student program, including all six emotional competencies within a leader identified in the CASEL model, as seen on in predicting success in school and other page 5.27. Two additional units include organizational settings (Lambert, 2003, dozens of areas of application of each of Patti and Tobin, 2003; Goleman, D. those core competencies to the processes 1998). of managing diverse learners, and Ripple Effects Professional successfully implementing psycho-social Development software includes a whole (SEL) interventions. unit on leadership development through Ripple Effects Leadership Unit

Paradigm based on transformation Honesty Leadership Courtesy Holding a vision Fairness Social-emotional intelligence Respect 1 Know Who You Are Humor Learning style (yours) Kindness Strengths Trust Goals Get support Feelings Involve parents Social background (yours) Involve students Resilience Work with administrators 2 Be Assertive 5 Manage Feelings Face Anger Voice Fear Message Hopelessness Body Self-talk Establish authority Physical sensations Set expectations 6 Control Impulses Set rules Stop reactions Have consequences Predict consequences Confront behavior 7 Make Decisions 3 Have Empathy Problem solve Take perspective Name the problem Show care Identify options 4 Connect in Community Weigh alternatives Model social values Test solution

will always mediate, and be at the center An implicit assumption in all of these of interventions with children. None of approaches is that adult implementers the major models in operation today address the emerging role of student learners themselves as key drivers in the

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implementation process. Nor do they district departments may send out a half account for the role of specific program dozen or more email briefings a day to elements in the implementation process. the people charged with implementing Ripple Effects recognizes the role of the policies and programs they have adults as major drivers of implementation adopted. success. However, the organization also Ripple Effects provides substantial, recognizes self-regulated, learner supplemental print information to support behavior as a key implementation driver, the implementation process, but the directly correlated with program success primary implementation support (Ray & Berg, 2008). Indeed, Ripple materials are for hands-on planning of Effects would argue that regardless of the application of Ripple Effects to implementer adherence to program particular students in particular guidelines, if even a sizable minority, situations. They are available in print and much less the majority of students, fail to electronic form when and where the comply with their roles as participants in implements themselves decide they the intervention, then either the program would be most useful. design is flawed, or its is not being implemented successfully. Ripple Effects One time workshops recognizes the important role of program One time training sessions, no matter design and specific program content how well done, have not been proven components in fostering student effective in leading to successful participation in the implementation implementation (Fixen et al, 2005; process. Duvaney et al, 2006). Nonetheless they have continued to be the training Components negatively mainstay of even “model” programs correlated with success throughout the United States, partly because many school districts will not While the core components for adopt a program without them. A meta- implementation success are still being analysis of research on training and refined, early evidence has identified two coaching in the public schools by Joyce key factors that are NOT associated with and Showers (2002) clearly showed that implementation success, yet are still “training that only consisted of widely used toward that end: workshop-based theory and discussion Information dissemination alone produced a modest gain in knowledge about the topic in questions, and small Despite preponderant evidence that increases in the ability of teachers to general information distribution is more demonstrate the new skills in the likely to overwhelm than to empower, protected training environment, but the wide scale distribution of research skills did not transfer successfully to the literature and practice guidelines, classroom. More substantial immediate increasingly through the use of email, gains were made when demonstration, continues to be a major focus, not only practice, and feedback were added to by program developers, but by theory and discussion in training organizations that are charged with workshops, but still there was little use of implementation success. Some school the new skills in the classroom. Only

Chapter 7: Implementation Science Page 7.7 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

when on-the-job coaching was added CASEL divides the SEL were large gains seen in knowledge and implementation cycle into just three actual use of the new skills in the stages: readiness, planning and classroom with students“ (Joyce & implementation, then breaks those stages Showers 2002). These findings are down into 10 discrete steps. consistent with theory and research about In the readiness phase, the principal education in general and professional commits to a school wide initiative and development in particular as described at engages key stakeholders, including a greater length earlier, in Chapter 5. steering committee. Ripple Effects, directly and through a In the planning phase the steering cadre of certified trainers across the committee develops and articulates a country, provides a limited number of shared vision, conducts a school wide live workshops for implementers. They needs and resources assessment, and include some discussion, calibrated creates a site-based plan based on that modeling, extensive practice and real assessment. time feedback. RE Trainer Training In the implementation phase, trainers workshops includes presentation of the conduct professional development. theory base, as a complement to Classroom instruction is launched in a experiential learning. However, the bulk pilot mode, then expanded school wide. of Ripple Effects implementer training is Formative evaluation results in now embedded coaching that is adjustments for continuous improvement delivered through the staff training (Devaney et al, 2006). software for use when and where Fixen et al (2006) identify adoption teachers most need it. as the first stage in the process, but break that stage down further, into aspects of organizational readiness, need IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS identification and social marketing, with STAGES social marketing referring to the consumer oriented approach to change Another model for implementation, that public health has adopted from formally developed for SAMHSA as an commercial business. These researchers outcome of the meta analysis by Thomas insert the processes of installation and Backer (2002), but also cited extensively training as a single discrete stage in by Fixen and used by CASEL (Devaney et implementation, prior to actual program al, 2006) focuses on different stages, delivery. rather than components, of the With technology-based programs this implementation process. Backer’s model order is particularly important, but the identifies the stages of: two elements of technology installation 1) Program adoption and implementer training are necessarily 2) Needs and strengths assessment separate. This model also divides the 3) Program implementation program delivery phase into an “initial 4) Program evaluation try,” often called a pilot, and full (with results fed back into the operation, frequently described as going process, and modifications made to scale. They then insert a stage of to ensure . . . innovation and adaptation prior to 5) Sustainability over time. sustainable implementation, and list

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sustainability prior to evaluations, Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum whereas in Backer’s model the last two Model of Staged Implementation steps are reversed. CASEL handles sustainability as a Preparing the way separate issue and separately identifies Assessing organizational six sustainability factors: ongoing readiness for (and resistance to) professional development, ongoing change at district and site levels evaluation for continuous improvement, infrastructure development to support Assessing strengths and needs of ongoing programming, integration of SEL individuals and the organization programming with school wide practices, Social marketing aligned with nurturing partnerships with families and organizational and personal self- communities, and communicating with interest the entire school community about SEL Formal program adoption programming (Devaney et al, 2006). In both Backer (2002) and Fixen Planning & program implementation (2006) models, there are feedback loops between stages. In both models, Technology installation evaluation includes a core components Orientation to data system analysis and an outcomes analysis. All of Site-based planning aligned with these models assume the initial level of school goals intervention is a classroom group. Training of implementers For all, “going to scale” means Orientation training for individual school-wide implementation, not scaling learners to the larger units of district, county, state or country. Pretest - collection of baseline None of these models addresses what data has increasingly become a major factor Pilot program delivery, including in successful long-term implementation, monitoring progress data management, the ongoing Adjusting for improvement documentation and analysis of both Widening and deepening to scale process and outcomes. Integrating these three approaches, Documentation and data management incorporating the special conditions and constraints that are part of technology- Continuous assessment dependent programs, recognizing that Progress tracking going to scale ultimately must include at Generating reports least district level coordination, and taking into account that data collection, Program evaluation – data analysis management and evaluation, are increasingly important parts of the Formative – from both learner process that often can’t happen at all if and implementer perspectives they are not built into the beginning of Process – dosage and core this implementation process, yields this components analysis five stage model: Proximal (mediating) outcomes

Chapter 7: Implementation Science Page 7.9 From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

Distal outcomes, based on goals continuous coaching, provides direct training to support staged implementation Sustaining a program over time success. The unit on Making Programs Work is Adaptation with fidelity comprised of 55 tutorials, divided into Ensuring affordability four stages: Prepare the Way, Implement Updates and renewal Effectively, Measure Results, and Scale Ripple Effects Coach for Staff and Sustain, as seen in the scope and software, designed for job-embedded, sequence below.

Tutorials in “Making Your Program Work” Unit of RE Coach for Staff training software I. Prepare The Way II. Implement effectively Engage stakeholders Introduce * Parents Use teachable moments Administrators Orient * Get buy-in Lead discussion * Hold a vision Model * Set the climate Direct rehearsal Create a plan Reinforce * Match to other programs Ensure compliance * Adapt with fidelity Persevere Use in context Handle disclosure Discipline III. Measure results Counseling Collect data Advisory period Profiles Academic achievement Content assessment After school Surveys Testing IV. Scale and sustain Corrections Leverage technology Provide training Ripple Effects software Infuse into curriculum Learning system Language arts Research base Social studies Screen layout Health Privacy issues Decide dosage Administrative functions * Customize scope & sequence Monitoring progress * Individualize Customizing content Create IEP Using Web resources Solving tech problems

* Indicates core components for Ripple Effects implementers

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Every step in the implementation process formats: district, school site, is covered in both the Professional individual teacher, individual student Development software and the three-day, Theory and logic model matched to live, trainer-training workshop. Although existing national (and some state) the organization of the Making Programs standards and frameworks for Work unit follows the general academic and non-academic implementation stages described above, curricula, including SEL learners are not forced into a single Built-in way to maintain local control sequence, and all learners do not need to over content (unacceptable content complete all parts of it. Rather can be deleted, scope and sequences implementers are able to access whatever can be customized) lesson they need, exactly when they need Positioning as a supplement to, not it. substitute for, other initiatives As CASEL has pointed out (2006 Matched to funding streams and Implementation Guide, p 126), although requirements (Title I, Title IV, IDEA) basic steps remain the same, the exact Optional, customized district level nature and sequence of these steps will planning services differ depending on situational factors. Outcomes guarantee as part of From the Ripple Effects perspective, the purchase agreement exception to this rule is that implementers must complete the eight RE resources for (minimum) core implementer training direct implementation support components (marked with asterisks after Check list for technology installation, the topic) through either live or electronic prior to training training, before beginning delivery of the Site-based planning manuals; intervention. (customizing a scope and sequence In addition to the live training and the to the site and/or individual level) is staff development software that provides integral part of the training) a multi-part, multimedia tutorial on each Software-based, ongoing, embedded of the topics listed above, Ripple Effects implementer training offers a range of print and electronic Validated, electronic tools for resources, as well as consumer-oriented individual progress tracking organizational policies, to support the Pricing incentives to go from piloting implementation process. They include to scale the following: Automated data collection Ripple Effects resources Ongoing free, live and electronic to support successful implementation technical support, An easy and economical way to scale RE resources for preparing the way program delivery Survey tools for needs assessment (School Safety Profiler, Respect for Persons on-line group Profilers) Four levels of streamlined planning guides in print and fillable pdf

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RE resources to support evaluation for use as primary, secondary and tertiary interventions A structure for receiving feedback Enables annual renewal of site plans from both learners themselves and as goals and constraints change implementers Facilitates continual integration into Automatic tracking of compliance existing frameworks school wide* and dosage Integrates implementation with Valid electronic tools for measuring student services* proximal outcomes Seeks program placement in an Standard conventions for student institutional home that will “win” interoperability formats (SIF), so that with sustained implementation* dosage data can be integrated with Ties the intervention to traditional school district administrative data school outcomes* Referrals to reputable 3rd party Involves families and communities* organizations for statistical analysis (* Denotes factors identified by CASEL as key to long term sustainability RE resources to support sustainability

Technology based support IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS Embeds and renews professional development through anytime, Separate from both components and anywhere software, with option for stages of the implementation process are potable flash drive delivery* qualitative characteristics that can make Makes data collection easy* the differences between long-term, Provides a way to use evaluative data organization-wide, implementation for continual improvement* success and failure (Paulson et al, 2002). Has secured university-based, Commonly cited key characteristics graduate credit certification for include attrition, fidelity/adaptability completion of software course balance, affordability, reach/scale, and Incorporates content of users from the speed. Some models, such as that community (true stories) promoted by Russell Glasgow (2002) Updates software as operating with the acronym RE-AIM also include systems change efficacy and “maintenance.” Ripple Is platform independent, can move Effects subscribes to the notion that quickly to new platforms as they arise proven efficacy is an important measure Offers low cost, maintenance of implementation success, and addresses contracts that guarantee continued efficacy issues in a separate set of technical support for up to five years. monographs. Non-technology based support See Evidence of Effectiveness, Provides print and electronic copies Volumes I, II, III, IV, V, VI). It of a comprehensive set of manuals addresses maintenance as part of the with recommended best practices sustaining stage of implementation and suggested scopes and sequences addressed above.

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Ripple Effects identifies four Discipline problems additional characteristics as important factors in long term implementation Discipline problems interrupt success: personalization/ learning delivery, reduce available instructional differentiation, ease of use, and avoiding time, in some settings by as much as the boredom factor. 80%! Natural – and unnatural disasters Program attrition - non-participation. From snow storms, to pandemic The biggest single reason that health threats, to hurricanes, to school evidence-based prevention programs fail shootings, to forest fires, to the terrorist to deliver promised results is that they are attacks of 9/11, unplanned crises preempt simply not used. Deliverers drop out due planned routines and interfere with to both internal and external factors. program delivery.

External factors linked to attrition: Internal factors linked to attrition:

Insufficient training Frustration with inflexibility of program

Insufficient training results in Instructors have 45 minute periods, unfamiliarity with the program due to and the lesson is designed to last 50, or teacher turnover, or lack of initial they have been allotted 20 open class training. periods, and the curriculum requires 35.

Competition with academic areas Discouragement

There is growing pressure on There is not enough ongoing support teachers to deliver higher student scores or help in solving problems as they arise. on standardized tests in academic areas. “Social issue” and/or health training is Lack of motivation often seen as time taken away from real There is no tangible payoff for effort. studies. Teacher boredom Time constraints Even committed teachers get bored Insufficient prep time; class periods with presenting the same rigid program being unexpectedly cut short and sick year after year. As one teacher said, days for teachers and students, all cut “After five years, I just couldn’t hold up into available instruction time. those same pictures, and ask the same Lack of cultural relevance questions again” (Private conversations, A. Ray, 1998). This ranges from lack of diversity in None of these problems individually program images and examples, to are insurmountable, but in combination insensitive language, stereotyping, and they are formidable. Unless there is a failure to include the real life settings of multi-pronged approach to addressing many students’ lives. them, it’s virtually assured that delivery of prevention programs as designed, will continue to be the exception not the rule.

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Balance between fidelity supplemental materials and cultural and adaptation incompetence.

Both fidelity and adaptation have Incorrect content been consistently identified as key factors Messages are not science-based; in implementation success. By definition incorrect information is imparted; proven there is a tension between the need to effective strategies for skill training are ensure the purity of a scientifically not used. This may be due shortcomings derived method, and the need to enable in the curriculum itself, or to loss of local adaptation that is consonant with fidelity when teachers interpret and diverse community and cultural values misrepresent of content. and changing organizational priorities. The current assumption that some Incorrect instructional methods adaptation is needed for implementation success is in stark contrast to that of just Rehearsal, interaction, inclusive two decades ago, when implementation participation, reinforcement of key fidelity meant complete standardization concepts and/ or transfer training do not to criteria that were most often happen, or are being used ineffectively. established in controlled settings that Ad hoc adaptations could rarely be duplicated in real world practice. On the other hand, the Many practitioners do what they recognition that free-wheeling adaptation sense will get a response from their can sink even the best-designed program population, even when it threatens the has never been higher. integrity of the program. They believe adaptation is necessary to reach diverse Categories of lack of fidelity populations, in diverse settings. They believe the problem is in the rigidity of a Lack of fidelity is not a homogenous particular design, not in their customized problem. Teachers “dirty the design” implementation of it. intentionally and unintentionally. Based on directly providing training Lack of supplemental materials to more than 2000 teachers and community activists, and overseeing Videos, teachers guides, posters, project personnel who have provided markers are frequently lost. Teacher training to more than 3000 participants in guides are separated from the products 200 school and community-based they accompany, often by the second organizations across the country, as well year. Although this may not seem serious, as drawing on information gained from a teachers cite it as a major source of their customer base that includes frustration in program delivery. These implementers and administrators from materials are often supplemental to the more than 500 school districts, Ripple Teacher’s guide, but essential to a Effects has identified these five major successful class. categories of lack of fidelity to program: Cultural incompetence incorrect content, incorrect instructional methods, ad hoc adaptations, lack of Even when materials are culturally sensitive and inclusive, teacher

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expectations and behavior may not be, base of the program. In addition, the staff thus undercutting core messages. development software includes in every To help resolve the continuing tutorial the names of thought leaders for conundrum of how to resolve the need to major concepts covered in that tutorial. preserve program integrity, while still The content located through the “Info” allowing implementation flexibility, and “How to” buttons mirrors that SAMHSA has identified a set of practical traditionally located in the preface to a guidelines for “Balancing Program lesson plan, under a heading like Fidelity and Adaptation” (Backer, 2002). “Background Concepts.” Ripple Effects can be measured against Typically this background is available these guidelines. in materials for instructors but not for students. Ripple Effects makes these SAMHSA Guidelines for Balancing background concepts available to even Program Fidelity and Adaptation the youngest learners through the “Info” button, one of 13 options available for 1 – Identify and understand the every lesson. However, in the rest of the theory base behind the program. software, the broad and wide theory base Published literature on the program is mostly implicit, rather than implicit. should provide a description of its This is in response to RE market research theoretical underpinnings. The theory that indicates users are often distracted, and logic model are not in themselves intimidated, or put off by having to wade core components of a program, but they through theory before they can access can help identify what the core resources for their practical needs. components are, and how to measure 2 – Locate or conduct a core them. This step also identifies core values components analysis of the program. This or assumptions about the program that will provide implementers with a roster of can be used to help persuade community the main “program ingredients,” and at stakeholders of the program’s fit and least some sense of which components importance for their environment. are essential to likely success and which This monograph (From are more amenable to modification, given Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia local conditions. In essence, core SEL Interventions: The Conceptual components analysis represents a bridge Underpinnings of Ripple Effects Whole between developer and implementer, Spectrum Intervention System) directly and between fidelity and adaptation. responds to this requirement. It includes verbal and visual descriptions of the logic Learner behavior – model (page 11-12), as well as an The missing core process component extensive, documented description of the theory base from the separate Efforts to identify core perspectives of prevention science, “implementation drivers” have almost education and technology. It is available exclusively focused on adult-oriented from Ripple Effects in print and electronic process components. Fixen et al identify forms. staff selection, pre-service and in-service Use of the search engine on Ripple training, ongoing consultation and Effects web site will lead to coaching, staff and program evaluation, documentation of much of the research facilitative administrative support, and

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systems interventions as all important modes was any more effective than (2005). This overlooks the obvious fact requiring them to complete just the that learners themselves are the most interactive exercises. Thus only the three important drivers of much interactive exercises (“got it”, journal and implementation success. Their behavior profile) and the opening case study, were is included in Ripple Effects core identified as core process components, components analysis. all other learning activities are now Ripple Effects core content and optional. process components differ by level of This is consistent with research on the intervention. Both adult facilitators and emerging role of implementers in student learners have clearly identified defining core components (Arthur & responsibilities. Ripple Effects is designed Blitz, 2000; Gallagher, 2001; Harachi, et for tiered implementation to address al 1999; Winter & Szulanski, 2001; Wolf, primary, secondary and tertiary et al, 1995). prevention needs. Recommended core Dosage data from Ripple components are based on the intended Effects evaluation studies has level and setting of use. Specific Core revealed that what students process and content components to reach explored had less impact on outcomes targeted goals, with individuals and or than that they used the software. Students groups in a variety of settings are who completed the “wrong” topics had described at length in the series of similar outcomes to students who implementation manuals listed on page focused on assigned work. In addition, 7.18. almost all students who had minimal In general, for universal promotion exposure to the program explored group interaction is more important; for additional topics of personal concern, if indicated interventions, student privacy is they could do so privately (Ray, Berg more important. The relative importance &Patterson, 2008). of student privacy over adult modeling Being able to choose among the did not become clear until implementers buttons, not being regimented into left to had used the program in a different right sequence of learning activities, is a settings with a number of different core process component. Self-chosen populations. content also is linked to implementation In response to a combination success for both students and teachers. of outcome and market On the other hand, if students are left research, core process completely free to discover the program components for student learners have or not, many opt out. So requiring, rather been narrowed down from those than inviting, students to have the originally proposed by Ripple Effects minimum exposure to the software, has (which included all 13 learning activities become a core process component, as for every lesson). Outcome research has providing private time for students to indicated that group level role plays were explore self-selected topics. To ensure not adding value, so they were shifted that students get that minimum exposure, from “required” to optional activities. In implementer monitoring of the student addition, there was no evidence that score card is essential and thus a core requiring all students to expose process component for implementers. In themselves to every available learning

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terms of implementer success, completion of eight key exercises, whether through live training or software- based training, has been identified as an important factor in implementer success, so those lessons are identified as core process components as seen on p 7.10. Beyond these process factors, implementers have asked RE to specify core content components by tutorial name, in terms aligned with frameworks for various drug and alcohol prevention curricula, for character educations programs, and for specific use in discipline settings. See Ripple Effects recommendations – and rationales - for core content components for 6 universal, positive youth development curricula, 12 targeted intervention programs and 18 individual treatment plans are included in a set of three implementation manuals, which are also available electronically. Core components of subject matter (assigned lessons) vary by use. Because this is a self-directed intervention, students play a key role in delivery of core components. The table below outlines core content, learning process, and data management components for both students and adult implementers.

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Summary of Ripple Effects Core Content and Process Components

Figure 11

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3 – Assess fidelity/adaptation trainers are available and recommended concerns for the particular for on-the-ground consultation and implementation site. . . determining embedded coaching about what adaptations may be necessary, implementation issues. Dozens of given the target population, community reference sites have agreed to be environment, political and funding contacted by peers who are beginning or circumstances, etc. struggling with implementation. The design of Ripple Effects assumes Sharepoint templates for district level that every implementation plan will be user groups promote sharing among adapted to site-specific constraints, implementers across sites. Ripple Effects opportunities and circumstance. The Site- User groups Recognizing that many Planning Guide explicitly identifies implementation issues do not arise until strengths and barriers to success of well after a training workshop has been implementers (as well as students,) as completed, RE staff training software is well as site-based goals, policies, and designed to provide ongoing, embedded technology/funding constraints that the coaching about what people want, when implementation must be aligned with. they want it. The staff training software Political circumstances may require includes true stories of other deleting certain topics, especially implementers’ challenges, success and regarding sexuality, that evidence would mistakes. otherwise support including, and 5 – Consult with the organization adapting the duration and frequency of and/or community in which the lesson sessions to fit into existing implementation will take place. schedules. A live, user-centered phone 4 – Consult as needed with the consultation is part of the software program developer to review the above purchase process for every client. As both steps and how they have shaped a plan a philosophical position and a business for implementing the program in a practice, Ripple Effects puts the client – particular setting. This may also include not theory, practice, or product – at the actual technical assistance from the center of every implementation planning developer or referral to peers who have process. Familiarity with the implemented the program in somewhat demographics, policies, goals and key similar settings. players in the organization is a Ripple Effects calls every client at prerequisite to making a least once a year to check on recommendation for how, when and implementation progress. Clients can where to stage implementation of Ripple choose to file their site-based Effects. implementation plans with Ripple Effects Rural, urban and suburban to facilitate easier monitoring. In communities, and schools within those addition, the company provides free communities with diverse populations, online and phone implementation socio-economic environments, local support, including technology support. It policy mandates, funding capacities and also provides fee-based comprehensive styles of leadership form thousands of planning and evaluation services. A ecological contexts for the effective use cadre of regionally based, certified of Ripple Effects. Ripple Effects’ goal is to find ways to support, rather than

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undermine, what may be fragile dosage data as described above, and ecological balance in each situation. client interviews. Upon request, Ripple Effects can provide a written proposal specifically matched LEVELS OF IMPLEMENTATION: to district wide goals, policies and TIERED INTERVENTION resources. 6 – Develop an overall Both logic and sheer economics implementation plan based on these argue for variegated levels of services, inputs. By addressing all of the complex based on student/teacher need and stages of implementation, such a plan resource constraints. Effective preventive can increase the opportunities for making SEL interventions borrow from public choices that shape a program, while health the triage model of service maintaining good fidelity delivery; that is, a three tiered system of Ripple Effects offers templates for different levels of service, based on need. three levels of implementation plans: “Primary” refers to universal strategies District, or large organization level, site aimed at promoting public safety, health, or school level, and individual (both and school success, population-wide. student and teacher) level. The district “Secondary” refers to risk reduction level, EXCEL-based planning template strategies, aimed at subgroups sharing sets up a time line and work plan for certain risks. “Tertiary” refers to large scale implementation addressing indicated, intensive interventions to limit each of the stages described above. The or reduce harm. site based plan focuses on assessing staff, The specific adaptation of this model student and organizational strengths and to address problematic behavior in barriers, and developing a customized schools is sometimes referred to as the scope and sequence to address site- “Oregon Model”, reflecting the affiliation based goals. The RTI planning guide of a prominent set of researchers who takes that same strengths and constraints- have articulated its relevance for dealing based planning focus down to the level with behavior problems in schools, of individual students. A parallel guide (Walker, Horner, Sugai, Bullis, Sprague, provides for site and individual specific Bricker, and Kaufman, 1996). continuous development for teachers. 7- Include a strategy for achieving Primary – Universal Promotion and measuring fidelity/adaptation balance for the program to be Primary SEL prevention focuses implemented, both at the initial on universally building core social- implementation and over time. emotional abilities, including attentional Ripple Effects overall strategy for capacities, as well as pro-social values achieving fidelity/adaptation balance is to that are positively correlated with safe create a very strong, insulated container and supportive school environments, and (the training software) within which that lead to school and life success. Also pieces can be mixed or matched called "asset building," "universal strategically toward meeting particular promotion," "positive youth individual, group and organizational development," and "character education," goals. The strategy for measuring both is this approach is designed to reach every collection of two kinds of formative data:

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student/parent/teacher in a community connection module is developmentally appropriate way. comprised of personal communication Universal SEL interventions usually take and group participation skills. As well as the form of well-enforced school training in the value needed for a diverse discipline codes, as well as character and democratic society to flourish: education, social skill training and honesty, fairness, responsibility, respect, positive youth development programs for etc. students. For teachers, increasingly it These abilities are protective for all takes the form of addressing social- students. In fact, they are protective for emotional and cultural learning in all people of all ages. Though culturally Teacher’s Colleges and Induction mediated, they are important across Programs. cultures. They can often preempt and These programs are the SEL protect against negative behavior before equivalent of a healthy diet or exercise it arises. They enable a resilient response regime. They have value for everyone, when unexpected trauma occurs. They may keep students who are on the are also positively correlated with margins of risk from falling to a higher success in the classroom – for teachers as risk category (the way a healthy diet is well as students. protective to a young man with a family Use of Ripple Effects as a primary history of diabetes) and can reinforce and prevention program promotes pro-social normalize lessons learned in intensive values, strengths-based resilience, intervention. Sugai et al. estimate that 80 positive social relations, academic to 90 percent of all students will respond achievement, civic participation, health successfully to a well-implemented and wellness. This is the first step in universal intervention (2002). This may preventing anti-social behavior and be a “best case” analysis that assumes negative health and school outcomes. low levels of personal risk factors, across Ripple Effects has designed the the board cultural relevance, and aligned Whole Spectrum Intervention System to school policies, factors that do not be easily configured for use in a variety generally mark urban middle schools and of universal promotion programs. They high schools. Even when these added include: complexities reduce the number of Character education, with scope and students who respond successfully to sequence matched to Character universal interventions, research has Education Partnership principles. repeatedly shown that they can reduce Asset building, with scope and aggression and improve academic sequence matched to the Search performance among students who are Institute’s internal assets list. responsive, at high enough levels to Social emotional competence, with significantly impact the group mean in a scope and sequence matched to the positive direction (Gottfredson, 2002). Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Ripple Effects’ universal promotion Emotional Learning (CASEL)’s model for program promotes seven core personal competency and Ripple Effects model of characteristics: self-understanding, “Seven Keys” (core abilities). assertiveness, empathy, management of Academic achievement, with scope emotions, problem solving, impulse and sequence designed to address non- control, and connect to community. The academic, school-related factors, like

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attitudes (including attitudes toward Sugai et al (2002) hold that, if the efforts and success), efficiencies (like general norm for behavior is positive and learning style, attention problems, pro-social, then students who need more learning disorders, study habits and targeted interventions will become more connectedness (including resolving peer visible, self-selecting for the level of and teacher conflict). secondary intervention. The goal with Civic engagement, with scope and these students is to decrease the sequence matched to national frequency or intensity of problem frameworks for social studies, and behaviors, instill appropriate behaviors, focused on building youth activists who and help them to be more responsive to know, appreciate, exercise and protect universal interventions. This is the group their rights. of students for whom the term “Response Diversity appreciation, with scope to Intervention” (RTI) was coined. and sequence developed in collaboration To continue the physical analogy, with the Leadership Conference on Civil these are the high blood sugar, pre- Rights Education Fund and Partners diabetic kids, who can benefit from a Against Hate, to prepare students for the structured regime of training in good accelerated inter-group contact that will eating habits and exercise. Many be a hallmark of the 21st century. students (and teachers!) who have Health, safety and wellness, with exhibited behavior problems start scope and sequences matched to behaving better after being involved in National Health Education Framework. universal and selected interventions; but That framework identifies 19 subjects for only if those interventions are a comprehensive health course; all are implemented with fidelity. included. Substance abuse prevention programs may target all children who share a For a full description of the developmental point that makes them background and suggested scope vulnerable to peer pressure and/or the and sequence for each of these primary temptation to experiment with alcohol or prevention uses, see the manual: Positive drugs, and/or those who live in Youth Development: Sample Scope and neighborhoods where drugs or weapons Sequences for Universal Promotion. are easily available, and/or those who share a history of parental addiction or Secondary – Targeted Prevention alcoholism. Bully prevention programs may target special education students Secondary prevention is comprised of who have higher risks of being bullied targeted efforts to ward off anti-social than other students. Both violence and behavior, illness, injury, or school failure. PTSD prevention programs may It is aimed at people who have group especially target youth who live in level factors that put them at risk for neighborhoods with high levels of behavioral and academic failure. Those domestic or gang violence. risks may be internal psychological This level of prevention focuses on factors, or may come from exposure to developing specific attitudes and skills environmental factors in multiple that have been shown to reduce the risk domains, as documented in Chapters 2 of becoming either perpetrator or victim and 3. of specific unsafe, unhealthy or unlawful

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behavior. For example, perspective “STDs/Pregnancy,” “HIV& AIDS,” taking is a specific ability linked to “Academic failure,” “Testing,” “Truancy.” appreciating diversity, a prerequisite to preventing hate crimes. Identifying with For a full description of the others is the basis for moving bystanders' background and suggested scope to a position of solidarity with the victim and sequence for each of these uses for in bullying situations. Assertiveness is secondary intervention, see the guide, what enables them to act on those Ripple Effects Targeted Prevention: Risk feelings. It is also the key factor in Reduction. effective resistance skills. The ability to There is no single factor that is as put together an "if/then" sentence is predictive of impact on academic essential to predicting consequences, achievement and/or social behavior which in turn is needed as part of a and/or mental health as poverty. Title I behavior management program for funding is specifically designed to students who tend toward impulsivity. mitigate the impact poverty has on Targeted prevention programs also children’s life trajectory, yet few provide the capacity to address specific prevention programs directly target attitudes and behavior that experience, feelings and reactions disproportionately affect social and directly related to economic status. culture groups who share risk factors. For instance, ambivalence about academic Ripple Effects includes a tutorial that success is more often an issue for African addresses poverty directly (“poor” in American, urban boys than Asian student version, “class” in staff version, American, suburban girls. So the and one that focuses on the often taboo "success-phobia" tutorial might be in topic of “money”), as well as related order for the first group and the “pressure tutorials to address internal reactions to to succeed” lesson more appropriate for poverty (“shame,” “disappointment,” the second group. "Discrimination" is “hopelessness”), interpersonal challenges more likely to be a real world experience (embarrassed about family,” “envy,” for children of color, than for Anglo temptations toward “stealing)” and children. Thus, that tutorial, with societal aspects of economic inequality practical strategies for dealing with (“social justice”). discrimination, will have more relevance to the former group. Ripple Effects has developed RTI background information and scopes and sequences for use of the program in the Response to Intervention (RTI) is an following areas of secondary prevention: approach that provides differentiated, Injury prevention: “Child abuse,” “Bias preventive interventions for students offenses,” “Bullying,” “Sexual whose life circumstance and/or behavior harassment,” “Youth violence,” “Dating indicate that they are at elevated risk of abuse,” “Online exploitation,” “Illness being assigned to disciplinary action/and prevention,” “Tobacco prevention,” or being designated as needing remedial “Drug abuse prevention,” “Eating Special Education. It is the bridge disorders and obesity”, “Depression & suicide”, “Post traumatic stress,”

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between secondary and tertiary settings. However, civil rights legislation interventions. requires students who have behavioral Ripple Effects has developed planning disorders, like students with other guides that enable implementers to disabilities, to be placed in the least quickly personalize a preventive restrictive environment possible, usually intervention for each of these students their own classrooms. See (Planning for RTI) available Some researchers who have to clients as fillable PDF files, intensively studied teacher practices, from which information can be exported believe that extremely disruptive to a data base. behavior can have roots in teacher practices (Kounin, 2003) and cultural insensitivity (Cross et al, 1989). Not all Tertiary – Individualized, Indicated/ student misbehavior requires intensive Positive Behavioral Intervention intervention with students. In some case, targeted intervention with their teachers Tertiary, intensive intervention is can be effective. indicated for individuals who have Ripple Effects provides a turn key already been involved in anti-social solution to skill-based tertiary behavior, or health-related, reckless interventions for both students and the behavior, or have experienced school adults who work with them. failure. It is most often in the form of an individualized intervention. It may also Key characteristics of successful be called PBIS (Positive Behavioral tertiary interventions Interventions and Supports) and EIS (Early For a tertiary intervention to be Intervening Services). This differentiated successful, it needs to be personalized. It intervention is designed for students needs to be matched to the learning whose behavior has brought them into needs of each student, address the discipline settings or required their underlying reason behind the unsafe or labeling as having "special needs.” It disrespectful behavior, and teach comes into play after something has (including model) effective, positive brought that student to the attention of alternatives that can also meet underlying authorities: failing grades, truancy, an act needs. of defiance, a racially-charged taunt, bullying a weaker classmate, or being Ripple Effects integrates all these chronically bullied. This training is also elements. The most common first use of an efficient way to get quality training, Ripple Effects in a school setting is as a aligned with an Individual Education positive, therapeutic, tertiary intervention Plan (IEP) to students with special needs. for behavior problems, regardless of their Sugai and Walker point out that origin. Ripple Effects provides a students who need indicated intervention suggested protocol and individual are often the most troubled children from treatment plans for a wide range of the most chaotic homes. These students behavior-related challenges, including: require extremely intensive, “Predatory behavior,” “Angry acting out,” individualized, interventions, often “Attention seeking/needy,” involving segregated special placement, “Communicative disorders,” “Cultural including some alternative school alienation,” “Defiant,” “Disrespectful,”

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“Disruptive,” “Hyperactive,” “Impulsive,” “Isolated/loners,” “Poor judgment,” “Rejected by peers,” “Spaced For a full description of this out/inattentive,” “Traumatized, Truant.” training, see the Ripple Effects Parallel lessons for teachers to Coach for Implementer User Guide. explore their role in this behavior are found in the Coach for Staff training Intensity/Dosage software. Another defining characteristic of For a full description of the many intervention programs is the background and suggested scope intensity of service provided. and sequence for each of these treatment Interventions can range from a single plans, see Ripple Effects’ Individual school assembly to years of systematic, Treatment Intervention Guide, and the sustained programming Managing Diverse Learners unit of the Because the Ripple Effects system is staff training software. used to address a wide range of goals, in a wide range of settings, dosage Juvenile Justice applications requirements also vary widely. Each lesson takes roughly 15-20 minutes. Ripple Effects WSIS includes a Depending on context and goals, users separate manual with intervention plans have seen results with dosage levels that for therapeutic sanctions for illegal range from a single 15 minute session to behavior that has caused adolescents 12 contact hours over as many weeks. In (and in a small percentage of cases, general, dosage levels should be matched younger children) to become involved to the scope of the goal for the with the juvenile justice system. Ripple intervention, and individual student risk Effects offers therapeutic treatment plans and protective factors, and should always for 14 criminal offenses, in the categories include time for individual learners to of Crimes against persons, Property privately explore topics of their choice. offenses, Drug-related offenses and Status As a tertiary intervention to offenses. The list of offenses covered is address specific behavior described in Chapter 2. Each of these problems in discipline and plans also includes lessons on building guidance settings, graduated dosage skills, strengthening pro-social norms, levels from 15 minutes (roughly one and understanding and exercising legal tutorial), to several hours are common. rights. One study of 3,685 students found that repeat referrals to ISS dropped by 28% Three levels for staff as well after an average of two contact hours In addition to direct services to with the software. students, Ripple Effects system offers For targeted secondary three levels of computer-based prevention, four studies showed professional development for staff, improved GPA with an average designed to build their capacity to of 10 contact hours, or roughly 34 facilitate, reinforce, sustain and expand mandated tutorials, supplemented with student learning. one or more self-selected tutorials.

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For universal promotion of Part of the problem is that “quick” resiliency assets, one study adoption has often meant “dirty” as well. demonstrated that dosage of 12 That is, it has been insensitive to the hours resulted in significant increases in dynamics of personal and organizational scores for empathy and problem-solving. change and/or without a means to ensure quality at scale. However, strong Speed of implementation research also supports the assertion that rapid organizational change can be Speed of implementation matters, positive, and in many cases, less because the real lives of real students are traumatic, and provoke less resistance at stake. Every year that psycho-social than change that is dragged out. Some of interventions are not implemented widely the most successful superintendents of and effectively, more students are large districts are masters of accelerated injured, injure others, drop out of school, change. Partly this is because it is difficult fail to thrive. If social-emotional for stakeholders who are transients readiness to learn and to interact themselves, to see program benefits that constructively with others is recognized are diluted over a lengthy period. as essential to school and life success, Some SEL experts insist that the kind then it is hard to make the case that of inner transformation that SEL programs access to social-emotional competency is target, is a long term process that cannot anything less than a civil right. Thus the be expected to produce short term results speed at which effective psycho-social (Devaney et al, 2006). On the other interventions can be and are hand, Arthur & Blitz (2000) contend “the implemented, is not only a key quality speed and effectiveness of marker, it is a matter of justice. implementation may depend upon Regardless of the fiercely urgent knowing exactly what has to be in place need for wide scale implementation of to achieve the desired results for evidence-based, SEL programs, consumers and stakeholders: no more, substantial research shows that quick and no less.” adoption and implementation simply Ripple Effects position is that doesn’t work. CASEL maintains that adoption can happen much more quickly effective program adoption takes at least than many academicians believe if three 3-5 years (Greenberg et al, 2001). This things are present: has historically been true for top down 1. A method to scale implementer programs. It cannot be disconnected from training to a “critical mass” within 18 the reality that urban administrators stay months in place an average of just two and a half 2. Clear evidence of success about years. As much as fifty percent of the something that matters to the teaching staff in these areas turns over implementers and their bosses, within each year. Thus the dynamics of district six months, preferably less administration, at least in urban areas 3. As positions change, a fast, where they are most needed, mitigates inexpensive way to bring new against slowly staged implementation. implementers on line Model program after model program is Ripple Effects accepts the premise retired to the shelf before it ever gets that any program that is dependent on strong enough to thrive. high quality, live implementer coaching

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and instruction simply can’t be scaled in case, positive effects have been a compressed time period, without loss of demonstrated. To help clients ensure they quality. Thus the primary means of initial get the academic outcomes they are instruction and ongoing coaching for seeking, Ripple Effects has developed a Implementers in the Ripple Effects scope and sequence for academic program is software-based training (RE achievement, which includes such topics Coach for Staff). Ripple Effects does not as “study habits” and “taking tests,” as accept as indisputable the belief that well as “learning style”, “teacher inner transformation is intrinsically a conflict,” “effort,” “goals,” and long, slow process. Many insight “successphobia.” traditions across world religions, point to the possibility of “abrupt awakening” that Affordability can be transformative. Ripple Effects outcome data In all but the most affluent schools, from 11 studies, involving need constantly outpaces resources. almost five thousand students, Every decision to allocate resources provides strong support for the fact that impacts all other options. Thus the cost of change can happen quickly (Bass et al, interventions needs to be evaluated not 2008; Ray, 1999. Ray et al 2008). Myriad only in terms of absolute level of initial client case studies support this same investment, but also comparatively, in conclusion. An important key seems to terms of investment risk, net cost after be identifying the discrete goal that has short term return on investment, cost of meaning for administrators, and sustaining, and long term return on implementers and students, and targeting investment these goals through adaptations of the program that make the most site specific Initial investment sense. The most comprehensive SEL Relevance programs, - those that address individual, family, community and structural factors Realistically, for intervention concurrently - are considered by many programs to find a permanent place in experts to be the most effective, although already overcrowded school schedules, Lispey and Hawkins (2007), found such they need to be tied explicitly to schools’ wide spectrum programs to be less primary mission of promoting academic effective than more targeted approaches. excellence, and creating a safe, (In any case, truly comprehensive supportive environment for all students as programs are often prohibitively noted in chapter 5. CASEL has provided expensive for almost all school budgets. effective leadership in analyzing impact For instance, the exemplary FAST of SEL interventions on academic and program costs about $1 million per site. other school outcomes and promoting On the other hand, exemplary prevention SEL training as a means toward academic programs that focus on skill building with achievement for all, not a substitute for it. individual students can often be From the very first year, Ripple Effects purchased for one to ten percent of that has evaluated its interventions for impact cost. These less expensive programs can on academic factors. In almost every be successful, but only if delivered as

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designed. (Lipsey, 1992, Botvin et al, Restricting options to whatever is on the 1990, 2000). Training teachers and list necessarily means failing to take providing on-going implementation advantage of new research and support is most often the key to ensuring innovative methods as they arise. As a that programs will be delivered as practical matter, it also most often means designed in those settings. investing only in programs that come out Ripple Effects costs $10K for the of university settings, which is where the largest, unlimited site license for the level of research needed to prove student program, with an average life of 4 effectiveness is most often funded. years for the software, a prorated cost of Unfortunately these university-based, $2500 per year. Approximately twice that fully funded programs can be insulated initial investment is required to purchase from the real world economic, physical individual copies of the professional and policy constraints that many public development software for all staff in a schools face. medium sized school, delivered on a Well-designed innovative programs portable flash drive. An initial investment have the potential to dramatically change of $30,000 per school for software and student lives, increase their chances of $5,000 for training, including travel life long professional success, reduce expenses, is the most any school would their chances of becoming dependent on pay for Ripple Effects. That is just three welfare, or involved in family violence, and half percent of the cost of several delinquency, or other crime. With so programs that have been federally funded many students failing, dropping out, and for piloting or dissemination. Schools filling the “school to prison pipeline” who start with just one computer as a failing to explore innovative options that pilot (not recommended, but allowed) might reverse these trends also presents pay only $549 to get the program started. (what should be) an unacceptable level Because the program has been proven of risk for school districts. The question is effective, even when implemented by how to hedge the risk on innovative non-professionals with less than three programs, without ruling them out hours training, there is also a altogether. considerable cost advantage over live Ripple Effects reduces the level of instruction programs that require more investment risk for clients in two ways. intensive up-front training. First, as an innovative program, it offers an unconditional money back guarantee Level of investment risk of measurable, positive outcomes, when used as directed with a site-based plan. Educational systems are large Secondly, Ripple Effects is listed as a bureaucracies. Almost by definition they Model Program by the National Drop are risk averse. One big hedge against Out Prevention Center, having received risk is limiting investment to programs the highest rating (strong evidence of listed on “model programs” lists. effectiveness) for all three levels of Evaluation research for these programs implementation. It meets guidelines for has been vetted by research scientists, so inclusion on several lists that have been they cannot be said to be risky ventures. closed, and is currently under review by The downside of this approach is that several others. some of these lists are decades old.

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Net cost after short term unfamiliar with the program (National return on investment Education Association Communications Fact Sheet 2002). Ripple Effects software has an average As described earlier in this chapter life of four years. That means the (page 7.12) Ripple Effects has a number licensing cost described above, can be of organizational policies and divided by four, to get a per/year cost that supplemental resources to increase the can range from $150 per year for a single sustainability of its programs. Here, the computer license for a small purchase, to focus is on the economics of less than $2 per student, per year, when sustainability. prorated over five years, for a district- Although some costs of sustaining a wide license. Because many students can program are connected with the need to each get individualized intervention, all continually replace lost or broken at the same time and/or when each needs materials, specifically supplemental it, it represents a realistic way to triage materials, the largest cost of sustaining counseling services and stretch scarce programs is mostly located with the resources further. continual need for training new teachers Consistent evidence of reduced each year, and providing booster sessions truancy and lower summer school for already trained teachers. There are referrals among students who used Ripple three parts to this cost: the program Effects, relative to control or comparison developers’ fee to provide the live groups, also has a potentially important training, the salary costs incurred by short term economic impact on schools. teachers who are at the training, and Schools receive revenue based on payment for their substitutes if training is average daily attendance figures. In conducted during a regular school day. some urban areas, for large high schools The cost of the latter is often prohibitive. the program could pay for itself in the Even all of this investment does not first year, simply by reducing the truancy address the fact that the preponderance rate by 10% (less than the average of evidence points to the fact that reduction seen in evaluation data so far). ongoing, embedded, personalized coaching is the best way to get sustained Costs of Sustainability implementation of a program. Four things make it possible to sustain Sustainability is both a characteristic Ripple Effects intervention at lower costs and the last stage of the implementation than other programs: process. To sustain a program over time, A software license through which lost there needs to be affordable ways to software can be replaced maintain training levels as staff turns Annual maintenance/update costs of over, and ways for implementers to only 15% per year “reinvent” programs to secure buy-in Site-based plans that are easily each year, without heavy investment of renewable each year time and money. Teacher and Continuously available embedded community-based organization staff implementer coaching (software turnover is so high that within two years based) a majority of teachers, even in a school that has sponsored training, may again be

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Long term return on investment dollar spent on preventive interventions can result in savings of many multiples There are two important metrics for over the life of each student who is measuring Ripple Effects’ long-term supported toward success instead of return on investment. The first is how failure. A large Pennsylvania study much Ripple Effects can add to the return showed an average return on preventive on prior investments in other intervention interventions of $1 – $25 per dollar programs that are not yet delivering the invested, but noted that not all popular results that had been envisioned. interventions are cost-effective, citing a Ripple Effects Whole Spectrum negative cost-effectiveness value of Intervention System is not intended to Scared Straight (Aos et al., 2004; replace existing, evidence-based Greenwood, 2005) created mostly by programs, which represent many millions reverse effects of increased involvement of dollars in already incurred financial of juveniles with the justice system, and human resource investments. Rather following exposure to the program it is designed to increase the return on (Jones et al, 2008). earlier investments by providing capacity to supplement, strengthen, scale and ROLE OF PROGRAM DESIGN sustain what is already in place. Ripple ELEMENTS IN IMPLEMENTATION Effects can be a lesson-to-lesson SUCCESS supplement for the following programs already in large numbers of schools: The conceptual distinction between Social Decision Making/Social Problem program content and implementation Solving (Research Press), Second Step process elements has been an important (Committee for Children), Positive Action one in moving the field of (Positive Action), Botvin LifeSkills implementation science forward. Training (National Health Promotion Nonetheless, this model fails to take into Associates), PATHS (Channing Bede), account the role of program design in Overcoming Obstacles (Overcoming implementation success or failure. Two Obstacles), Why Try (Why Try), Olweus key program elements that are emerging Bully Prevention (Hazelden). It can and as important factors in both the adoption does increase the return on those prior and implementation processes are investments, through reducing the need differentiation of learning and data for expensive remedial programs to reach management. students who need more intensive support than is offered in the group level Differentiation of learning interventions using these curricula. The second set of metrics has to do The significance to implementation with the long term, economic costs of science of the mounting evidence of the underemployment, poor health positive effect of personalized, outcomes, welfare payments, and differentiated learning cannot be involvement in the criminal justice overstated. Compelling brain imaging system, too often eventually including research as well as a growing body of incarceration. Scientists at the American outcome data described in Chapter 5 Institutes of Research (AIR) and others point to the fact that this is a key factor in have extensively documented that every initial and continuing engagement with

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all kinds of learning for both adults and Many teacher, administrators and students. Yet most preventive program implementers find it almost interventions, including model programs, impossible to meet the necessary still do not treat differentiation of learning requirements, much less to actually use as an important metric of either program implementation process data in real time design or the implementation process. As to make program adjustments that can overall educational reform begins to increase program effectiveness. Even penetrate the prevention programs, when they are capable of collecting the differentiation (versus standardization) of requested data, many teachers consider it learning will become increasingly a betrayal of their commitment to important to consider, document and teaching, to use scarce preparation and measure as a factor in implementation instructional time to fulfill paperwork success. requirements. As noted in the previous chapter, all Ripple Effects data management Ripple Effects software is designed system is well described in the previous around the concept of universal design chapter. The usefulness of this system in for learning. A strong case can be made terms of implementation success is for the fact that relatively low, group fourfold: level effect sizes for “successful” live It enables program officers to tie interventions is linked to the fact that group and individual needs some students elect not to participate in, assessment to program adaptation. or receive little or no benefit from the It enables implementers to track standardized, group level instructional student progress against assigned methods that are the norm. There is an goals. urgent need for well-designed research to It allows researchers to conduct measure the impact of this variable on dosage-correlated evaluations implementation success. It enables administrators to meet high standards of accountability. Data management LEARNING FROM INEFFECTIVE Data driven decision-making has PROGRAMS become a mantra for education in general, and for preventive interventions “It is commonly recognized that in particular. It is the place where ineffective programs can and have been education becomes more science than implemented fully and well, and that art. Ongoing data management is effective programs have been increasingly a requirement of implemented ineffectively, or not at. It federal entitlement programs, including has been clearly established that setting IDEA and Title 1, as well as foundation level differences, account for some of that funders. These are often the funding discrepancy. However, little attention has source for secondary and tertiary been given to identifying what are the intervention programs. strengths of those “ineffective” programs While requirements for collecting, that make them more likely to be widely analyzing and reporting data have grown, and sustainably implemented, than more capacity has not grown proportionately, theoretically rounded programs. Nor has even with the addition of new resources.

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there been careful study of why some Programs that provide outside programs are implemented well and presenters to deliver an intervention in a others poorly among the same staff, in regular class period, have higher the same settings” (Fixen, 2005). implementation rates than those that A look at a range of programs that require classroom teachers to deliver the have been implemented persistently and intervention. DARE is a perfect example extensively, despite research that shows of a program that is much more widely they don’t work, as well as recognition implemented than effectiveness research that even the most effective programs, suggests it should be. From an even when implemented with full implementation perspective it is a great fidelity, fail to change outcomes for a program. It lightens a teacher’s load, and substantial minority of students, leads to serves the secondary goal of developing the conclusion that some elements of positive relationships with the police program content or design must matter in force, by bringing police into the the implementation process. classroom to deliver information and skill Ripple Effects’ program designer training (including training in skills they (Alice Ray) has been studying this issue may not have mastered themselves). By for more than 30 years. Without having comparison, Botvin’s well-researched, the benefit of formal metaanalyses, which model, substance abuse Social Skill still remain to be done, drawing instead training program requires teachers to take on extensive field experience with on additional responsibilities to prepare, several preventive interventions, she has adapt and present the material. identified four program design Ripple Effects lightens teacher’s load characteristics as being key to successful by removing the burden of becoming SEL implementation of ineffective programs. domain experts from their shoulders and Those programs are characterized by one providing them with an instantly or more of the following: They available support for dealing with Lighten implementer’s load behavior problem that interrupt the flow Are easy to use of instruction. Avoid the boredom factor Have a “customer is right” Ease of use focus Programs that have easy to use Lightening the load teaching prompts, such as large illustrations or photos with teacher scripts All teachers have too little time for on back, among which Second Step was extensive preparation in order to deliver one of the first, while not as easily even one lesson outside of their area of embraced as DARE’s turnkey approach, domain expertise, much less two dozen are implemented at higher rates, and with or more such lessons in an area they may greater fidelity, than those that provide never have been formally trained in. Thus teachers with a well referenced it is not surprising that program instructional “cookbooks” and expect interventions are more successful when teachers to then cook up a class – or they lighten a teacher’s burden, rather dozens of them. than make it heavier. Ripple Effects makes things easy for teachers. It brings outside experts into

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the classroom to deliver evidence based physical engagement with the program practices. Those experts’ presentations available to each student. Physical are made using peer voices of the interactivity with a computer program is learners, whether those learners are one well documented way of doing that. children, adolescents, or adults. Another way to reduce the boredom Although teachers have the option of effect is to increase the emotional planning and preparing each lesson, they engagement available to each student, by can also just give a student a starting widening the content and “spicing it up.” point and trust the expert system to guide Separate from content is the issue of them through a useful sequence. boring – and bored – teachers. In film, its axiomatic that a bad actor can ruin the Avoiding Boredom best script, but even the best acting cannot rescue a bad script. There is a A common characteristic of the most parallel phenomenon among teachers, popular, ineffective programs, whether including presenters of SEL programs. school assemblies, puppet shows, cop The appeal of inherently interesting presentations, or computer games is that topics can be completely lost if it is they are not boring. “Scared Straight” presented in a boring, didactic way. which brings delinquent youth into jails Ripple Effects provides both physical and prisons to talk with inmates may be and emotional engagement to keep ineffective from a research perspective, students and teachers from becoming but it is popular because it is exciting and bored. In terms of emotional creates a short-term emotional reaction. engagement, with 390 tutorials in the A too frequent assumption among many teen software alone, Ripple Effects offers program developers, researchers (and a range of content that is both wider and implementers as well), is that they often more emotionally compelling than any must choose between programs that other SEL intervention. Most of the topics work, but are boring, or programs that beyond the standard, skill building don’t work, but are engaging. This is not tutorials to address bullying, violence, an unreasonable belief. tobacco, drugs and alcohol were Of necessity, print and video recommended for inclusion by learners programs on sensitive topics often must themselves. Many of these tutorials start be reduced to a “boiled potatoes” with the word not: “not included,” “not approach. They are scientifically athletic”, “not good looking” etc. Experts “nutritious” (evidence-based), but in may recommend strengths-based order to be acceptable to every training, but students – like most humans community, from Biloxi to San Francisco, – are more concerned with first dealing they must often be reduced to a lowest with their place of personal pain. Ripple common denominator. The result is often Effects tutorials for some fairly common bland, if not downright boring. There traumatic experiences, such as “pet needs to be a way to avoid being boring, dying” (obvious after the fact, but not without being offensive and without generally part of SEL curricula) fit in this requiring extraordinary effort from group. Less common, and even more already overburdened teachers. traumatic experiences, such as being the One major way to reduce the victim of sexual abuse or the target of a boredom factor is to increase the level of hate crime, are also included. In every

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case, the local administrator can delete to a fundamental issue of respect or what they don’t want. disrespect for clients’ everyday experience. “Customer is right” focus Ripple Effects believes the customer is always right. The challenge is simply to Wide scale commitment to find how they are right, and then use that implementation of SEL intervention has new knowledge to strengthen the been hampered by a mismatch between program. When implementers tell us they practitioner experience and research need manuals with individual treatment findings. The institutional bias at every plans, even though thousands of such level of government is in favor of the plans are already built into the expert researcher, at the expense of system, we create and distribute those practitioners. And there is virtually no plans, because if clients think they need recognition at any level, that the student- them, then they do, whether or not a learner’s direct experience has validity technical case can be made for the other equal to, and perhaps greater than, any side. When students tell us that their other evaluator. major concerns are not drug or alcohol A large body of marketing research use, or even violence, and certainly not points to the fact that a “customer is empathy, but appearance issues and peer right” focus pays off in increased relations, we listen and find ways to customer commitment. Nordstrom’s was leverage those interests to build the key the first national retailer to make this a skills that research shows they also need. differentiating source of competitive When a customer tell us they have tried strength. Their huge success has led to the program and it doesn’t produce policy changes in almost every major positive outcomes (something that has retail chain in the country, especially happened only once in a dozen years) regarding returns and refunds, we refund their money. If a training has There has not been a corresponding fallen short of agreed upon standards, we change in understanding of the role of repeat it without charge. customer focus in best practices for This is about more than placating implementing SEL programs. people who pay for a program. It is about Unfortunately in terms of implementation recognizing, respecting and leveraging science, when outcomes don’t match the whole body of earned wisdom that is predictions, the customer is usually offered to us, regardless of where it considered “wrong.” He or she or they comes from. It is about refusing to didn’t do what they were told, didn’t accept that implementation, or any other learn the right information, didn’t follow part of intervention success, is an the right order, etc, etc, etc. either/or proposition: either stages or It is Ripple Effects’ position that this components; either practitioner oriented, bias against the consumer, often or theory based; either implementer expressed in vastly discounting focused, or learner centered. “anecdotal” evidence that doesn’t agree What makes Ripple Effects truly a with outcomes in controlled settings, is a Whole Spectrum Implementation System major factor in implementation failure. is the same thing that defines other parts The issue goes beyond finding a balance of the Whole Spectrum Intervention between fidelity and adaptation. It goes System: it refuses to arbitrarily pick and

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choose where parts of the truth deserve to be recognized and where the source of that truth may lie.

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REFERENCES Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. (2008). Impact of a Computer-Based, Aarons, G. A. (2004). Mental Health Provider Social-Emotional Intervention on Attitudes Toward Adoption of Evidence- Outcomes Among Latino Students When Based Practice: The Evidence-Based Adult Monitors of the Student Training Practice Attitude Scale (EBPAS). Mental Are Non-professionals: A Randomized Health Services Research, 6(2), 61-74. Controlled Trial. San Francisco: Rockman Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2003). On et al. sustainability of project innovations as Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. systemic change. Journal of Educational (2008). Impact of a Self-Regulated, and Psychological Consultation, 14(1), 1- Computerized, Social-Emotional Learning 25. Intervention on Disengaged and Alavi, M., & Joachimsthaler, E. A. (1992). Delinquent Students at a Continuation Revisiting DSS Implementation Research: High School. San Francisco: Rockman et A Meta-Analysis of the Literature and al. Suggestions for Researchers. MIS Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. Quarterly, 16(1), 95-116. (2008). Impact Of Self-Regulated Use Of Anderson, J., & Narasimhan, R. (1979). Computer-Based Social-Emotional Assessing Project Implementation Risk: A Learning On Rural Adolescents At Risk Methodological Approach. Management For Alcohol Abuse. San Francisco: Science, 25(6), 512-521. Rockman et al. Aos, S., R. Lieb, R., Mayfield, J., Miller, M. & Bass, K, Perry, S.M., Ray, A. & Berg, S. Pennucci, A. (2004). Benefits and costs of (2008). Impact of Social-Emotional prevention and early intervention Learning Software on Attitudes About programs for youth (Document No. 04- Marijuana and Alcohol Among Urban 07-3901). Olympia: Washington State and Rural Adolescents. San Francisco: Institute for Public Policy. Rockman et al. Arthur, M. W., & Blitz, C. (2000). Bridging Bauman, L. J., Stein, R.E. K., & Ireys, H. T. the gap between science and practice in (1991). Reinventing fidelity: The transfer drug abuse prevention through needs of social technology among settings. assessment and strategic community American Journal of Community planning. Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 619-639. Psychology, 28(3), 241-255. Berg, S. , Cluver, S., Brentano, L. and Ray, A. Backer, T.E. (2002) Finding the Balance: Ripple Effects Technology Guide. Ripple Program Fidelity and Adaptation in Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006. Substance Abuse Prevention. A state of Bero, L., Grilli, R., Grimshaw, J., Harvey, E., the Art Review. DHHS/SAMHSA/CSAP Oxman, A., & Thomson, M.A. (1998). 2002 Conference Edition. Downloaded Closing The Gap Between Research and fromwww.nrepp.samhsa.gov/pdfs/ Practice – An Overview of Systematic FindingBalance1.pdf March 15, 2009. Reviews of Interventions to Promote Backer, T. E., Liberman, R. P., & Kuehnel, T. Implementation of Research Findings by G. (1986). Dissemination and adoption of Health Professionals. In A. Haines & A. innovative psychosocial interventions. Donald (Eds.), Getting Research Findings Journal of Consulting and Clinical into Practice. (pp. 27-35). London: British Psychology, 54, 111-118. Medical Journal Books.

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Bierman, K. L., Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., Chilvers, R. (2002). Evidence into practice – Greenberg, M. T., Lochman, J. E., Application of psychological models of McMahon, R. J., et al. (2002). The change in evidence-based implementation of the Fast Track implementation. British Journal of Program: An example of a large-scale Psychiatry, 181, 99-101. prevention science efficacy trial. Journal Crosby, B. L. (1991). Stakeholder Analysis: A of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(1), 1- Vital Tool for Strategic Managers. 17. Implementing Policy Change: Technical Blase, K. A., & Fixsen, D. L. (2003). Evidence- Notes(2), 1-6. Based Programs and Cultural Dane, A. V., & Schneider, B. H. (1998). Competence. Tampa, FL: National Program integrity in primary and early Implementation Research Network, Louis secondary prevention: Are de la Parte Florida Mental Health implementation effects out of control? Institute, University of South Florida. Clinical Psychology Review, 18(1), 23-45. Botvin, G., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Tortu, S., Dansereau, D. F., & Dees, S. M. (2002). & Botvin, E. (1990). Preventing Mapping training: The transfer of a adolescent drug abuse through a cognitive technology for improving multimodal cognitive-behavioral counseling, Journal of Substance Abuse approach: Results of a 3-year study. Treatment, 22, 219-230. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Devaney, E., O’Brien, M. U., Resnik, H., Psychology, 58(4), 437-446. Keister, S., & Weissberg, R. P. (2006). Botvin, G. J. (2000). Preventing drug abuse in Sustainable schoolwide social and schools: Social and competence emotional earning (SEL): Implementation enhancement approaches targeting guide and toolkit. Chicago, IL: CASEL.n individual-level etiological factors. Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. Addictive Behaviors, 25, 887-897 (2005,August). A major meta-analysis of Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K. W., Diaz, T., & Ifill- positive youth development programs. Williams, M. (2001a). Drug abuse Invited presentation at the Annual prevention among minority adolescents: Meeting of the American Psychological One-year follow-up of a school-based Association.Washington, DC. preventive intervention. Prevention Domitrovich, C. E., & Greenberg, M. T. Science, 2, 1–13. (2000). The study of implementation: Botvin, G. & Griffin, K.,(2005). Prevention Current findings from effective programs science, drug abuse prevention, and Life that prevent mental disorders in school- Skills Training: Comments on the state of aged children. Journal of Educational and the science. Journal of Experimental Psychological Consultation, 11(2), 193- Criminology (2005) 1: 63–78 221. Buston, K., Wight, D., Hart, G., & Scott, S. Dusenbury, L., Brannigan, R., Falco, M., & (2002). Implementation of a teacher- Hansen, W. B. (2003). A review of delivered sex education programme: research on fidelity of implementation: obstacles and facilitating factors. Health implications for drug abuse prevention in Education Research, 17(1), 59-72. school settings. Health Education Chen, H. T., & Rossi, P. H. (1983). Evaluating Research, 18(2), 237-256. with sense the theory driven approach. Elias, M. J., & Kamarinos Galiotos, P. (2004). Evaluation Review, 7(3), 283-302. Sustaining social-emotional learning programs: A study of the developmental

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course of model/flagship SEL sites. Replications of the Teaching- Family Unpublished manuscript, Rutgers Model. In G. A. Bernfeld, D. P. University, Piscataway, NJ Farrington, & A. W. Leschied Eds.), Elliott, D. S. (1997). Implementing and Offender rehabilitation in practice: evaluating crime prevention and control Implementing and evaluating effective programs and policies. Crime Law and programs, 149-166. London: Wiley. Social Change, 28(3-4), 287-310. Forgatch, M. S., Patterson, G. R., & Elliott, D. S., & Mihalic, S. (2004). Issues in DeGarmo, D. S. (in press). Evaluating Disseminating and Replicating Effective Fidelity: Predictive Validity for a Measure Prevention Programs. Prevention Science, of Competent Adherence to the Oregon 5(1), 47-52. Model of Parent Management Training. Ennett, S. T., Tobler, N. S., Ringwalt, C. L., & Behavior Therapy. Flewelling, R. L. (1994). How effective is Gallagher, K. (2001). Bringing Research to drug abuse resistance education? A meta- Scale: The Nurse-Family Partnership analysis of Project D.A.R.E. outcome Program. Denver, CO: The evaluations. American Journal of Public ColoradoTrust. Health, 84, 1394–1401. Gingiss, P. L. (1992). Enhancing program Fagan, A. A., & Mihalic, S. (2003). Strategies implementation and maintenance for Enhancing the Adoption of School- through a multiphase approach to peer- Based Prevention Programs: Lessons based staff development. Journal of learned from the Blueprints for Violence School Health, 62(5), 161-166. Prevention Replications of the Life Skills Glasgow, R.E., Lichtenstein, E., Marcus, A. Training Program. Journal of Community (2002) Why don't we see more Psychology, 31(3), 235-253. translation of health promotion research Fairweather, G.W., Sanders, D. H. & to practice? Rethinking the efficacy to Tornatzky, L. G. (1974). The essential effectiveness transition. American Journal conditions for activating adoption. In of Public Health, 93(8):1261-1267. Creating change in mental health Goleman, D. (1998, Nov.-Dec.). What makes organizations (pp. 137-161). Elmsford, a leader? Harvard Business Review, 93- NY: Pergamon Press. 102. Fixsen, D. L., & Blase, K. A. (1993). Creating Goodman, R. M. (2000) Bridging the gap in new realities: Program development and effective program implementation: From dissemination. Journal of Applied concept to application. Journal of Behavior Analysis, 26, 597-615. Community Psychology, 28(3), 309-321. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Gottfredson, D. C., & Gottfredson, G. D. Friedman, R. M. & Wallace, F. (2005). (2002). Quality of school-based Implementation Research: A Synthesis of prevention programs: Results from a the Literature. Tampa, FL: University of national survey. Journal of Research in South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Crime and Delinquency, 39(1), 3-35. Mental Health Institute, The National Greenberg, M.T., Domitrovich, C.E., Implementation Research Network (FMHI Graczyk, P., & Zins, J. (January 2001 ). A Publication #231). Conceptual Model of Implementation for School-Based Preventive Interventions: Fixsen, D. L., Blase, K. A., Timbers, G. D., Implications for Research, Practice, and and Wolf, M. M. (2001). In Search of Policy. Report to the Center for Mental Program Implementation: 792 Health Services, Substance Abuse and

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Mental Health Services Administration, Kitson, A., Harvey, G., & McCormack, B. US Department of Health and Human (1998). Enabling the implementation of Services. evidence based practice: a conceptual Greenwood, P. (2005). Changing lives: framework. Quality in Health Care, 7(3), Delinquency prevention as crime control 149-158. policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Klem, A. M. (2000). You Can Get There From Press. Here: Using a Theory of Change Hahn, E. J., Noland, M. P., Rayens, M. K., & Approach to Plan Urban Education Christie, D. M. (2002). Efficacy of training Reform. Journal of Educational and and fidelity of implementation of the Life Psychological Consultation, 11(1), 93- Skills Training Program. Journal of School 120. Health, 72(7), 282-287. Korunka, C., Weiss, A., & Karetta, B. (1993). Hallfors, D., & Godette, D. (2002).Will the Effects of New Technologies with Special ‘Principles of Effectiveness’ improve Regard for the Implementation Process prevention practice? Early findings from a per se. Journal of Organizational diffusion study. Health Education Behavior, 14(4), 331-348. Research, 17, 461–470. Kounin, Jacob S. , (2003). The Kounin Model. Harachi, T. W., Abbott, R. D., Catalano, R. F., Approaches to Discipline, Haggerty, K. P., & Fleming, C. (1999). http://www.solwebs.net/sgfl/teaching/disc Opening the black box: Using process plan/koun1.htm. evaluation measures to assess Lambert, E. (2003). The impact of implementation and theory building. organizational justice on correctional American Journal of Community staff. Journal of Criminal Justice, 32, 155– Psychology, 27(5), 715-735. 168. Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., Brondino, Leschied & Cunningham, (2002.) Seeking M. J., Scherer, D. G., & Hanley, J. H. Effective Interventions for Serious Young (1997). Multisystemic therapy with Offenders Interim Results of a Four-Year violent and chronic juvenile offenders Randomized Study of Multisystemic and their families: The role of treatment Therapy in Ontario, Canada. Center for fidelity in successful dissemination. Children and Families in the Justice Journal of Consulting and Clinical System. Ontario, Canada Psychology, 65(5), 821-833. Linehan, M. (1991). Cognitive-Behavioral Jones, D., Bumarger, B., Greenberg, M., Treatment of Borderline Personality Greenwood, P., Kyler, S. The economic Disorder. New York: Guilford Press. Return on PCCD’s Investment in Lipsey, M. W. (1992b). The effect of Research-based Programs: A Cost-Benefit treatment of juvenile delinquents: Results Assessment of Delinquency Prevention in from meta-analysis. In F. Losel, D. Pennsylvania. Prevention Research Bender, & T. Bliesener (Eds.), Psychology Center. Pennsylvania State University, and law: International perspectives (pp. 2008. 131-143). New York: Walter de Gruyter. Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student Lipsey, M.W., Hawkins, D. (2007, May) Achievement Through Staff Development Prevention Of Antisocial Behavior: The (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Most Effective Interventions For Changing Supervision and Curriculum The Most Predictive Risk Factors. Development. Organized Paper Symposium, Society for

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Prevention Research Annual Meeting, and Deployment. (2001). Blueprint for Washington, D.C. change: Research on child and McCormick, L. K., Steckler, A. B., & McLeroy, adolescent mental health. Washington, K. R. (1995). Diffusion of innovations in DC: National Institute of Mental Health. schools: A study of adoption and Niazi, M., Wilson, D., & Zowghi, D. (2005). implementation of school-based tobacco A maturity model for the implementation prevention curricula. American Journal of of software process improvement: An Health Promotion, 9(3), 210-219. empirical study. Journal of Systems and McDermott, R. (1999a). Knowledge Software, 74(2), 155-172. Management – Why Information Nutt, P. C. (1986). Tactics of Implementation. Technology Inspired But Cannot Deliver Academy of Management Journal, 29(2), Knowledge Management. California 230-261. Management Review, 41(4), 103-117. Olds, D. L., Hill, P. L., O’Brien, R., Racine, Mihalic, S., Fagan, A., Irwin, K., Ballard, D., D., & Moritz, P. (2003). Taking & Elliott, D. (2004). Blueprints for preventive intervention to scale: The Violence Prevention. Washington, DC: nurse-family partnership. Cognitive and U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Behavioral Practice, 10, 278-290. Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Patti and Tobin (2003). Smart School Leaders: Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Leading with Emotional Intelligence. Mihalic, S., & Irwin, K. (2003). Blueprints for Dubuque: Kendall Hunt Publishing Co. Violence Prevention: From Research to Paulson, R. I., Post, R. L., Herinckx, H. A., & Real-World Settings-Factors Influencing Risser, P. (2002). Beyond components: the Successful Replication of Model Using fidelity scales to measure and Programs. Youth Violence and Juvenile assure choice in program implementation Justice, 1(4), 307-329. and quality assurance. Community Milojicic, D. S., Douglis, F., Paindaveine, Y., Mental Health Journal, 38(2), 119-128. Wheeler, R., & Zhou, S. N. (2000). Pentz, M. A., Trebow, E. A., Hansen, W. B., Process migration. Acm Computing & MacKinnon, D. P. (1990) Effects of Surveys, 32(3), 241-299. program implementation on adolescent Mittman, B. S., Tonesk, X., & Jacobson, P. D. drug use behavior: The Midwestern (1992). Implementing Clinical Practice Prevention Project (MPP). Evaluation Guidelines: Social Influence Strategies Review, 14(3), 264-289. and Practitioner Behavior Change. Racine, D. P. (1998). Replicating Programs in Quality Research Bulletin, 413-421. Social Markets. Philadelphia, PA: Moll, L. C. (1990). Introduction to Vygotsky Public/Private Ventures. and Education: Instructional implications Racine, D. P. (2000). Investing in What of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge: Works. Philadelphia, PA: Public/Private Cambridge University Press. Ventures. Morgan, M. J. (1992). Systems Ray, A. (2008). Unexpected findings on the Implementation Strategy: Behavioural impact of computerized social-emotional and Organizational Aspects. Industrial learning: Implications for research and Management and Data Systems, 92(8), practice. Paper presented at the 2008 88-98. Annual Meeting of the American National Advisory Mental Health Council Educational Research Association. Workgroup on Child and Adolescent Ray, A., Perry, S., Bass, K., & Berg, S. (2008) Mental Health Intervention Development Computer-based training to promote self-

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efficacy: Ethnicity, urban/rural status and Ray, A. Ripple Effects Teaching Coach, impacts on locus of control. Ripple training software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects. San Francisco. Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2004 - Ray, A. Creating a Plan for RTI and EIS: 2006. Individualized Behavior Interventions. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Teens, training Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. software, Version 2.1, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2. 2009 Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. Ray, A. Relate for Kids, training software, 2004 – 2009. Version 1.0, 1.1. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Ray, A. Ripple Effects Universal Promotion: Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. Sample Scope and Sequences. Ripple Ray, A. Relate for Teens, training software, Effects, Inc. San Francisco, CA. 2006 Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Salanova, M., Cifre, E., & Martin, P. (2004). Francisco, CA. 1999 – 2004. Information technology implementation Ray, A. Respect for Persons Profiler. Ripple styles and their relation with workers’ Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2005 - subjective well-being. International 2009. Journal of Operations & Production Ray, A. Ripple Effects Bring It On, training Management, 24(1-2), 42-54. software, Version 1.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., Schoenwald, S. K., & Hoagwood, K. (2001). San Francisco, CA. 2003 – 2004. Effectiveness, transportability, and Ray, A. Ripple Effects Coach for Staff dissemination of interventions: What (Implementers). Ripple Effects, Inc., San matters when? Psychiatric Services, 52, Francisco, CA. 2005 – 2009. 1190-1197. Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Kids, training Schofield, J. (2004). A Model of Learned software, Version 2.0, 3.0, 3.1. Ripple Implementation. Public Administration, Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2005 – 82(2), 283-308. 2009. Schorr, L. B. (1993). Effective strategies for Ray, A. Ripple Effects Positive Behavioral increasing social program Intervention guide: Sample Individual replication/adaptation. Seminar On Treatment Plans. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Effective Strategies For Increasing Social Francisco, CA. 2006 Program Replication/Adaptation. Ray, A. Ripple Effects Respect for Persons, Washington, DC: National Association of training software, Version 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Social Workers. Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2000 – Simpson, D. D. (2002). A conceptual 2009. framework for transferring research to Ray, A. Ripple Effects School Safety Profiler. practice. Journal of Substance Abuse Ripple Effects, Inc., San Francisco, CA. Treatment, 22(4), 171-182. 1999 – 2009. Startup, M., & Shapiro, D. A. (1993). Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Staff, training Therapist treatment fidelity in prescriptive software, Version 1.1, 2.0. Ripple Effects, vs. exploratory psychotherapy. British Inc., San Francisco, CA. 2006 – 2009. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 443- Ray, A. Ripple Effects Survey Engine, Version 456. 1.0, 2.0. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Stolz, S. B. (1981). Adoption of innovations Francisco, CA. 2003 – 2009. from applied behavioral research: “Does Ray, A. Ripple Effects for Targeted Prevention: anybody care?” Journal of Applied Risk Reduction. Ripple Effects, Inc., San Behavioral Analysis, 14, 491-505. Francisco, CA. 2007

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Sugai, G., Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., Webster-Stratton, C. (1996). Early Hieneman, M., Lewis, T.J., Nelson, C.M., intervention with videotape modeling. Scott, T., Liaupsin, C., Sailor, W., Programs for families of children with Turnbull, A.P., Turnbull, H.R., III, oppositional defiant disorder or conduct Wickham, D., Reuf, M., & Wilcox, B. disorder. In E. D. Hibbs & P. S. Jensen (2000). Applying positive behavioral (Eds.), Psychosocial treatments for child support and functional behavioral and adolescent disorders: Empirically assessment in schools. Journal of Positive based strategies for clinical practice (pp. Behavioral Interventions, 2, 131-143. 435-474). Washington DC: American Sugai, G., & Lewis, T. (2002). Social skills Psychological Association. instruction in the classroom. In E.J. Winter, S. G., & Szulanski, G. (2001) Kame'enui & C. Darch (Eds.). Replication as Strategy. Organization Instructional classroom management. Science, 12(6), 730-743. (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman. Wolf, M. M., Kirigin, K. A., Fixsen, D. L., Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Blase, K. A., & Braukmann, C. J. (1995). Administration. (n.d.). Connecting The Teaching-Family Model: A case science to service: SAMHSA model study in data-based program programs. Washington, DC: U.S. development and refinement (and dragon Department of Health and Human wrestling). Journal of Organizational Services Behavior Management, 15, 11-68. (http://modelprograms.samhsa.gov). Wolf, M. M., Kirigin, K. A., Fixsen, D. L., Taylor, L., Nelson, P., & Adelman, H. (1999). Blase, K. A., & Braukmann, C. J. (1995). Scaling-up Reforms across a School The Teaching-Family Model: A case District. Reading and Writing Quarterly, study in data-based program 15(4), 303-325. development and refinement (and dragon Tobler, N. (1992) “Drug Prevention Programs wrestling). Journal of Organizational Can Work: Research Findings.” Journal of Behavior Management, 15, 11-68. Addictive Diseases 11(3) 1992: 1-28. Zins, J. E., & Illback, R. J. (1995). Consulting Walker, Horner, Sugai, Bullis, Sprague, to facilitate planned organizational Bricker, and Kaufman, 1996 change in schools. Journal of Educational Walker, H.M., & Shinn, M.R. (2002). and Psychological Consultation, 6(3), Structuring school-based interventions to 237-245. achieve integrated primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention goals for safe and effective schools. In M.R. Shinn, G. Stoner, & H.M. Walker (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems: Preventive and remedial approaches. National Association of School Psychologists. Silver Spring, MD. Washington State Institute for Public Policy, (2002). Washington State's Implementation of Aggression Replacement Training for Juvenile Offenders: Preliminary Findings2002 June. Robert Barnoski. #02-06-1201.

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The theory and evidence for any might become pivot points for change. intervention has to stand on its own feet. After reviewing published studies (long Nonetheless, anyone who considers before they were available on the web) investing in a prevention program might and interviewing practitioners at well ask: Where does it come from? Who prevention and treatment clinics across is behind it and what motivated them? the country, I began to see a pattern. Both quantitative and qualitative ORIGINAL QUESTION FOR ALICE RAY evidence pointed in the same direction. After stripping off factors not under How to create a heart of justice? personal control, people who hurt others – and those who were their victims – The genesis of Ripple Effects was a were often missing one or more core series of studies I conducted in the early personal characteristics that could 1980s. I was the first Executive Director broadly be grouped into abilities that of what became a leading child abuse underpin a strong, efficacious sense of prevention organization, Committee for self, those that strengthen awareness of Children. In collaboration with other and connection to others, and those that professionals and leading community- enable resolution of the conflict when the based organizations across the country, interests of self and others inevitably we had accomplished the goal of getting collide. research-based, abuse prevention materials in more than 25% of the Meta-analyses confirmed risks country's school districts – something to be proud of. But it left prevention efforts Over the next two decades, powerful resting heavily on the shoulders of young new computer programs enabled victims and potential victims. Was this completion of much larger, more really the best we could do? I asked: systematic and rigorous meta-analyses of “What would it take for the next risk and protective factors for anti-social generation of young people not to behavior. Those statistical analyses of become perpetrators of violence? How thousands of studies confirmed – and could we create in young people a heart further honed – many of my original of justice?” insights. Injurious behavior to both self and others is indeed correlated with What is under personal control? certain personal characteristics (as well as with external factors). These I knew that ethnicity, socio-economic characteristics can be defined as status, family dynamics, and media individual risk factors. As importantly, influence all were factors in risk for systematic research was also victimization - from both directions - but demonstrating that the flip side of these those things are not under personal characteristics did more than protect control. I was looking for characteristics against anti-social or injurious behavior, that could be under personal control and

From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

they predicted and enhanced school and the print-based, violence prevention life success. curriculum called Second Step, now used in tens of thousands of schools. The Assets linked to life success name was based on Mahatma Gandhi’s belief that the first step of non-violence is If so much injury was connected to to refuse to be a victim (the goal of abuse the lack of specific abilities, much prevention programs). The “second step” suffering could be prevented through is to prevent others from becoming ensuring that each person possessed victimizers. Today, that program is them. If school and life success was among the most widely used, clinically- linked to their presence, developing these validated programs available. There are assets should be a collective priority. But now a whole group of effective models could they be taught? Many people developed along similar lines. believed they were innate. Effective… Could they be taught? but not universally

Yes, but . . . Some of these prevention programs, including Second Step, have been proven Important work emerging from effective and are partly credited with the universities and treatment centers in the overall downward trend of youth late 1970’s and early 1980’s, and violence. Yet they are far from fulfilling continuing through today, has shown that their potential to prevent suffering. What these abilities could be learned. Different works in the lab, doesn’t always work in strategies have been developed in the field. None is effective in every different academic and treatment settings, setting, nor with every child. And many and shown to be effective for different fall quickly out of use, often ending up abilities: cognitive-behavioral strategies on the shelf within three years. Through a from Harvard and Penn State, affective combination of personal interviews and research from Yale, decision-making surveys conducted by Mothers against models from the University of Illinois and Violence in America (MAVIA) as early as Rutgers. 1990, we realized that the “churn” of But too often treatment was coming prevention programs approached that of into play after the injury had occurred. magazine subscriptions, with as many as Why wait until so much pain and 70% of subscribers falling away within suffering had been caused to begin to two to three years. teach the skills that could prevent it? SECOND QUESTION Second Step an effort to teach them How to keep good programs off the shelf? In 1985, I initiated development of a curriculum to begin teaching these Seeing the gap between theoretical abilities in childhood, before the cycle of best practice and real world results led pain and punishment began. Under my me to a second question. “What would direction, Kathy Beland expertly authored need to be true to prevent programs that

The Conceptual Underpinnings of Ripple Effects WSIS

have been shown to work in the lab, of these challenges. I sought foundation from failing in practice, or ending up on funding to develop a next generation the shelf?” Again, I looked both to prototype, but the timing was premature. published research and to direct It was with this background and in conversations with practitioners from this context that in 1993 I met technology around the country for answers. There innovator, Sarah Berg. Sarah hired me as was not a simple answer. Several major a consultant on a complex project that themes emerged. To be successful in the Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen had real world, programs would need the funded: producing a traveling multimedia capacity to: exhibit to tour with the Lollapalooza Preserve fidelity to evidence-based concert festival (a group of alternative knowledge and practice, even as that bands targeting teenagers). Following scientific base was constantly that, Sarah initiated the idea of forming a expanding company that would use emerging Allow local communities control over technologies to realize the vision that I sensitive social content, without had begun to articulate. At the end of losing fidelity to science 1996, we co-founded Ripple Effects, Enable adaptation to site-specific, and where I would author and design and student specific circumstance, Sarah would produce a new skill-training without compromising that fidelity software application for youth, designed Offer an affordable method for to change behavior, solve problems, and scaling without losing quality control promote social-emotional abilities. Ensure sustainability in contexts with frequent staff turnover Accomplished professionals Build-in cultural competence at every team up with at-risk youth level Allow learning mode personalization We contracted with a few of the most to better accommodate diverse highly accomplished technologists in the learning styles, needs, abilities and country to provide the technical skills disabilities that we needed. We hired a cadre of Enable individualized guidance, to youth from opportunity programs to help address personal risk factors, as well build the software and give it the look as their underlying causes. and feel of the adolescents who would be Be directly tied to school (or other using it. Over the next ten years, various sponsoring organizations) outcomes versions of the software would go on to Find a way to not be boring! win 30 major national and international awards, from the education, health, THIRD STEP: software and communications industries. NEXT-GENERATION PREVENTION Evaluations enable feedback loop

Ripple Effects founded Starting in 1998, both formative and summative evaluations were conducted Beginning in the late 1980’s, I began on various configurations of the program to explore a third step: the use of with various communities, in various emerging technologies to address some settings. The results of those studies

From Multidisciplinary Theory to Multimedia SEL Interventions

became the basis for program changes, Administrators were charged with which then were the subject of further evaluating the evidence-base of the study. Through this feedback loop that program, but because the theory was included both scientific and informal implicit, rather than explicit, it was client evaluations (including evaluation hard to do. They wanted a clear by student users), we made hundred of summary of the evidence of refinements to content and we learned effectiveness and a readable summary two very important lessons: of the theory behind its use If it was used, the training software worked; in many cases positive BACK TO THE DRAWING BOARD results were quick and dramatic, BUT Sometimes it wasn’t used. It was back to the drawing board. To increase the chance of successful We had solved some critical implementation: implementation fidelity problems, but not We expanded the program from a all of them. In fact, some of the features single software application for teens, we had designed in to make to software-based training that implementation easier or more effective, included younger students and actually worked against us: comprehensive professional The program was so comprehensive, development as well. it could seem overwhelming. Users We created a comprehensive set of wanted more guidance in the form of supplemental print and web-based scope and sequences for primary, materials, including the set of 13 secondary and tertiary prevention, manuals listed on page 1.13. with the rationale for each clearly We expanded research efforts, spelled out. summarized findings and made results available to decision-makers. Providing children skill training was We developed a three-minute only addressing half of the equation. overview video about the Whole Teachers said they had never learned Spectrum Intervention System and much of what we were teaching make it available on the web, along students. These implementers were in with videos of client’s experiences, to needs of training and coaching on an make presenting the program easier ongoing basis, both in how to use the for sponsors and advocates, program and in how to develop their Finally, we took on the task of own social-emotional capacities and making explicit, the broad and deep technical skills. theory base that is hidden beneath Even when program sponsors were and underpins the program. It is that absolutely convinced of the effort which has filled these pages. program’s value, because it had never been done before, they had a hard Alice Ray time explaining it to others. They

wanted videos and other tools to make their job easier.

33 New Montgomery St., Suite 290, San Francisco, CA 94105 Phone: 415-227-1669 Fax: 415-227-4998 [email protected] www.rippleeffects.com