Mcmurdo Station, Antarctica NSF Large Facilities Presentation

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Mcmurdo Station, Antarctica NSF Large Facilities Presentation McMurdo Station, Antarctica NSF Large Facilities Presentation Page 1 Page 2 McM Station 1957- Navy (Early) Page 3 McM Station 1977- Navy (Late) Page 4 McM Station 2013 - Current Page 5 US Antarctic Program Science 0000 5/1/2017 6 NSF ANTARCTIC SCIENCES MISSION NSF funds 150-200 science events each year across broad range of disciplines and Antarctic locations Fundamental research and education: • to understand the Antarctic regions and linkages to global systems • to use polar regions as unique laboratories to understand the Earth, life, and the Universe Training the next generation of scientists Educating the public - why Antarctica matters to us and to the nation 0000 5/1/2017 7 NSF ANTARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAMS Ocean Earth Origins of the universe sciences Atmosphere Climate change Ocean level rise Origins of cosmic rays Organisms Subatomic neutrino Glaciology detection and Ozone hole measurements Ecosystems Integrated Meteorites from other planets Astronomy, System Expansion of the universe New dinosaurs Astrophysics, Science …and much more. and Geospace Instrumentation Facilities 0000 5/1/2017 8 ANTARCTIC SCIENCE LOCATIONS 0000 5/1/2017 9 McMurdo Local & Sea Ice Crary Laboratory ‒ Laboratories –Staging space –Sample storage Field Science Support –Berg Field Center (BFC) Provides Field equipment Provides Field training –Field Safety training –Mechanical Equipment Center (MEC) Provides Snowmobiles, Dive Locker Sea Ice 0000 5/1/2017 10 McMurdo Based: Dry Valleys • Unique highly sensitive environment, near field • Helicopter supported • Semi-permanent camp locations 0000 5/1/2017 11 McMurdo Based: Deep Field • Wide range of remote locations across the continent • Primarily supported by fixed wind aircraft (LC-130, Twin Otter) out of McMurdo • Secondarily supported by heavy equipment traverse • Broad range of science disciplines 0000 5/1/2017 12 South Pole • photo IceCube Neutrino detectors Observatory deep in the ice sheet • detect high- energy cosmic neutrinos from far space • search for Dark Matter Radio telescopes: SPT Cosmic Microwave Background BICEP • origin and early history DS of the Universe • theories of Dark SP L Energy T BICEP3 0000 5/1/2017 13 Palmer Station • Palmer Station is used year round • LTER has long term marine/Palmer ecological studies • Ongoing installed instruments for NOAA, CTBT and others • On-going bird and other wildlife projects • Supported by Research Vessels 0000 5/1/2017 14 Research Vessels • USAP Operates two research vessels: Laurence M Gould (LMG) and Nathaniel B Palmer (NBP) under charter to the ASC for the National Science Foundation (NSF) • The ships provide support to USAP in various regions of the Antarctic and the Southern Ocean • Primary functions include supporting variety of oceanographic research activities in the open ocean and in ice, as well as supporting land-based station and field programs 0000 5/1/2017 15 USAP Marine Supports oceanography in the Sothern Ocean as well as other oceans as needed. • Ocean floor coring • Remote vehicle operation • Field and camp support • Water column sampling • Mooring placement and recovery 0000 5/1/2017 16 McMurdo Station Page 17 Project Definition • Master Plan 1.0 built upon all previously completed McMurdo Station studies. Page 18 Project Definition • Master Plan 1.0 Final Build Out Page 19 Project Definition • Master Plans served to define design parameters Page 20 Operational Flow Development AIMS Conceptual Design Review, 31-Mar to 2-Apr, 2015 Page 21 Operational Flow Development AIMS Conceptual Design Review, 31-Mar to 2-Apr, 2015 Page 22 Programming Method • Field Science Support Evolution Page 23 AIMS and MPSM Completion Page 24 In Scope for AIMS Page 25 MCMURDO STATION FUTURE-STATE Fewer Buildings with Denser Occupancy • Less vehicle traffic, lower road RESULT: A condensed station maintenance footprint and better utilization of space • Lower total building surface area which within buildings requires less staffing equates to better energy efficiency and a smaller vehicle fleet to execute • Less snow maintenance around station operations Current-state Future-state >100 structures ~20 structures 26 Page 26 MCMURDO STATION FUTURE-STATE Consolidated Warehouses/Storage Locations • Minimizes number of touchpoints and RESULT: An efficient local supply reduces distance between touchpoints chain (inventory storage and • Reduces facilities costs/energy distribution) requiring less staffing, utilization computers, and material handling • Consolidates Pick, Pack, Ship equipment workflows Current-state Future-state >30 warehouses and storage sites 3 storage locations 27 Page 27 27 Grantee Movement Flow Page 28 AIMS Animation Page 29 McMurdo Test MP1 Page 30 McMurdo Test MP2 Page 31 McMurdo Exterior Test Page 32 McMurdo Exterior Test Page 33 McMurdo Exterior Test Page 34 McMurdo Exterior Test Page 35.
Recommended publications
  • North America Other Continents
    Arctic Ocean Europe North Asia America Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Africa Pacific Ocean South Indian America Ocean Oceania Southern Ocean Antarctica LAND & WATER • The surface of the Earth is covered by approximately 71% water and 29% land. • It contains 7 continents and 5 oceans. Land Water EARTH’S HEMISPHERES • The planet Earth can be divided into four different sections or hemispheres. The Equator is an imaginary horizontal line (latitude) that divides the earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres, while the Prime Meridian is the imaginary vertical line (longitude) that divides the earth into the Eastern and Western hemispheres. • North America, Earth’s 3rd largest continent, includes 23 countries. It contains Bermuda, Canada, Mexico, the United States of America, all Caribbean and Central America countries, as well as Greenland, which is the world’s largest island. North West East LOCATION South • The continent of North America is located in both the Northern and Western hemispheres. It is surrounded by the Arctic Ocean in the north, by the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and by the Pacific Ocean in the west. • It measures 24,256,000 sq. km and takes up a little more than 16% of the land on Earth. North America 16% Other Continents 84% • North America has an approximate population of almost 529 million people, which is about 8% of the World’s total population. 92% 8% North America Other Continents • The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of Earth’s Oceans. It covers about 15% of the Earth’s total surface area and approximately 21% of its water surface area.
    [Show full text]
  • The Antarctic Treaty System And
    The Antarctic Treaty System and Law During the first half of the 20th century a series of territorial claims were made to parts of Antarctica, including New Zealand's claim to the Ross Dependency in 1923. These claims created significant international political tension over Antarctica which was compounded by military activities in the region by several nations during the Second World War. These tensions were eased by the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58, the first substantial multi-national programme of scientific research in Antarctica. The IGY was pivotal not only in recognising the scientific value of Antarctica, but also in promoting co- operation among nations active in the region. The outstanding success of the IGY led to a series of negotiations to find a solution to the political disputes surrounding the continent. The outcome to these negotiations was the Antarctic Treaty. The Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve nations that had been active during the IGY (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States and USSR). It entered into force on 23 June 1961. The Treaty, which applies to all land and ice-shelves south of 60° South latitude, is remarkably short for an international agreement – just 14 articles long. The twelve nations that adopted the Treaty in 1959 recognised that "it is in the interests of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord".
    [Show full text]
  • Mcmurdo STATION MODERNIZATION STUDY Building Shell & Fenestration Study
    McMURDO STATION MODERNIZATION STUDY Building Shell & Fenestration Study April 29, 2016 Final Submittal MCMURDO STATION MODERNIZATION STUDY | APRIL 29, 2016 MCMURDO STATION MODERNIZATION STUDY | APRIL 29, 2016 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1: Overview PG. 7-51 Team Directory PG. 8 Project Description PG. 9 Methodology PG. 10-11 Design Criteria/Environmental Conditions PG. 12-20 (a) General Description (b) Environmental Conditions a. Wind b. Temp c. RH d. UV e. Duration of sunlight f. Air Contaminants (c) Graphic (d) Design Criteria a. Thermal b. Air Infiltration c. Moisture d. Structural e. Fire Safety f. Environmental Impact g. Corrosion/Degradation h. Durability i. Constructability j. Maintainability k. Aesthetics l. Mechanical System, Ventilation Performance and Indoor Air Quality implications m. Structural implications PG. 21-51 Benchmarking 3 Section 2: Technical Investigation and Research PG. 53-111 Envelope Components and Assemblies PG. 54-102 (a) Components a. Cladding b. Air Barrier c. Insulation d. Vapor Barrier e. Structural f. Interior Assembly (b) Assemblies a. Roofs b. Walls c. Floors Fenestration PG. 103-111 (a) Methodology (b) Window Components Research a. Window Frame b. Glazing c. Integration to skin (c) Door Components Research a. Door i. Types b. Glazing Section 3: Overall Recommendation PG. 113-141 Total Configured Assemblies PG. 114-141 (a) Roofs a. Good i. Description of priorities ii. Graphic b. Better i. Description of priorities ii. Graphic c. Best i. Description of priorities ii. Graphic 4 (b) Walls a. Good i. Description of priorities ii. Graphic b. Better i. Description of priorities ii. Graphic c. Best i. Description of priorities ii.
    [Show full text]
  • Polar Ice Coring and IGY 1957-58 in This Issue
    NEWSLETTER OF T H E N A T I O N A L I C E C O R E L ABORATORY — S CIE N C E M A N AGE M E N T O FFICE Vol. 3 Issue 1 • SPRING 2008 Polar Ice Coring and IGY 1957-58 In this issue . An Interview with Dr. Anthony J. “Tony” Gow Polar Ice Coring and IGY 1957-58 From the early 1950’s through the mid-1960’s, U.S. polar ice coring research was led by two U.S. Army An Interview with Dr. Tony Gow .... 1 Corps of Engineers research labs: the Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Research Establishment (SIPRE), and Upcoming Meetings ...................... 2 later, the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL). One of the high-priority research Greenland Science projects recommended by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences/National Committee for IGY 1957-58 and Education Week ..................... 3 was to deep core drill into polar ice sheets for scientific purposes. To this end, SIPRE was tasked with Ice Core Working Group developing and running the entire U.S. ice core drilling and research program. Following the successful Members ....................................... 3 pre-IGY pilot drilling trials at Site-2 NW Greenland in 1956 (305 m) and 1957 (411 m), the SIPRE WAIS Divide turned their attention to deep ice core drilling in Antarctica for IGY 1957-58. Dr. Anthony J. (Tony) Ice Core Update ............................ 5 Gow (CRREL, retired) was one of the scientists on the project. In March 2008, the NICL-SMO had Ice Cores and POLAR-PALOOZA the opportunity to sit down with Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Antarctic Primer
    Antarctic Primer By Nigel Sitwell, Tom Ritchie & Gary Miller By Nigel Sitwell, Tom Ritchie & Gary Miller Designed by: Olivia Young, Aurora Expeditions October 2018 Cover image © I.Tortosa Morgan Suite 12, Level 2 35 Buckingham Street Surry Hills, Sydney NSW 2010, Australia To anyone who goes to the Antarctic, there is a tremendous appeal, an unparalleled combination of grandeur, beauty, vastness, loneliness, and malevolence —all of which sound terribly melodramatic — but which truly convey the actual feeling of Antarctica. Where else in the world are all of these descriptions really true? —Captain T.L.M. Sunter, ‘The Antarctic Century Newsletter ANTARCTIC PRIMER 2018 | 3 CONTENTS I. CONSERVING ANTARCTICA Guidance for Visitors to the Antarctic Antarctica’s Historic Heritage South Georgia Biosecurity II. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Antarctica The Southern Ocean The Continent Climate Atmospheric Phenomena The Ozone Hole Climate Change Sea Ice The Antarctic Ice Cap Icebergs A Short Glossary of Ice Terms III. THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Life in Antarctica Adapting to the Cold The Kingdom of Krill IV. THE WILDLIFE Antarctic Squids Antarctic Fishes Antarctic Birds Antarctic Seals Antarctic Whales 4 AURORA EXPEDITIONS | Pioneering expedition travel to the heart of nature. CONTENTS V. EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS The Exploration of Antarctica The Antarctic Treaty VI. PLACES YOU MAY VISIT South Shetland Islands Antarctic Peninsula Weddell Sea South Orkney Islands South Georgia The Falkland Islands South Sandwich Islands The Historic Ross Sea Sector Commonwealth Bay VII. FURTHER READING VIII. WILDLIFE CHECKLISTS ANTARCTIC PRIMER 2018 | 5 Adélie penguins in the Antarctic Peninsula I. CONSERVING ANTARCTICA Antarctica is the largest wilderness area on earth, a place that must be preserved in its present, virtually pristine state.
    [Show full text]
  • Federal Register/Vol. 84, No. 78/Tuesday, April 23, 2019/Rules
    Federal Register / Vol. 84, No. 78 / Tuesday, April 23, 2019 / Rules and Regulations 16791 U.S.C. 3501 et seq., nor does it require Agricultural commodities, Pesticides SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The any special considerations under and pests, Reporting and recordkeeping Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as Executive Order 12898, entitled requirements. amended (‘‘ACA’’) (16 U.S.C. 2401, et ‘‘Federal Actions to Address Dated: April 12, 2019. seq.) implements the Protocol on Environmental Justice in Minority Environmental Protection to the Richard P. Keigwin, Jr., Populations and Low-Income Antarctic Treaty (‘‘the Protocol’’). Populations’’ (59 FR 7629, February 16, Director, Office of Pesticide Programs. Annex V contains provisions for the 1994). Therefore, 40 CFR chapter I is protection of specially designated areas Since tolerances and exemptions that amended as follows: specially managed areas and historic are established on the basis of a petition sites and monuments. Section 2405 of under FFDCA section 408(d), such as PART 180—[AMENDED] title 16 of the ACA directs the Director the tolerance exemption in this action, of the National Science Foundation to ■ do not require the issuance of a 1. The authority citation for part 180 issue such regulations as are necessary proposed rule, the requirements of the continues to read as follows: and appropriate to implement Annex V Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601 Authority: 21 U.S.C. 321(q), 346a and 371. to the Protocol. et seq.) do not apply. ■ 2. Add § 180.1365 to subpart D to read The Antarctic Treaty Parties, which This action directly regulates growers, as follows: includes the United States, periodically food processors, food handlers, and food adopt measures to establish, consolidate retailers, not States or tribes.
    [Show full text]
  • Climate Change and Southern Ocean Resilience
    No.No. 52 5 l l JuneMay 20202021 POLARKENNAN PERSPECTIVES CABLE Adélie penguins on top of an ice flow near the Antarctic Peninsula. © Jo Crebbin/Shutterstock Climate Change and Southern Ocean Resilience REPORT FROM AN INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENTIFIC WORKSHOP, MARCH 30, 2021 Andrea Capurroi, Florence Colleoniii, Rachel Downeyiii, Evgeny Pakhomoviv, Ricardo Rourav, Anne Christiansonvi i. Boston University Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future ii. Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition iii. Australian National University iv. University of British Columbia v. Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition vi. The Pew Charitable Trusts CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION BY EVAN T. BLOOM 3 II. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 III. CLIMATE CHANGE AND SOUTHERN OCEAN RESILIENCE 7 A. CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 7 B. CONNECTION OF REGIONAL SOUTHERN OCEAN PROCESS TO GLOBAL SYSTEMS 9 C. UNDERSTANDING PROCESS CHANGES IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 10 D. ANTARCTIC GOVERNANCE AND DECISION MAKING 15 E. CONCLUSION 18 F. REFERENCES 19 POLAR PERSPECTIVES 2 No. 5 l June 2021 I. INTRODUCTION BY EVAN T. BLOOM vii Fig 1: Southern Ocean regions proposed for protection A network of MPAs could allow for conservation of distinct areas, each representing unique ecosystems As the world prepares for the Glasgow Climate Change Conference in November 2021, there is considerable focus on the Southern Ocean. The international community has come to realize that the polar regions hold many of the keys to unlocking our understanding of climate-related phenomena - and thus polar science will influence policy decisions on which our collective futures depend.
    [Show full text]
  • Daily Program Friday, 24.02.2017 – Embarkation Ushuaia
    DAILY PROGRAM FRIDAY, 24.02.2017 – EMBARKATION USHUAIA RESTAURANT TIMINGS TEA,COFFEE & COOKIES 15:00 – 17:30 PANORAMA LOUNGE, DECK 7 BUFFET DINNER 18:00 – 21:00 RESTAURANT, DECK 4 15:00 Check-In 21:30 Captain’s Cocktails. Our Expedition Jackets and Check in is on deck 3 and 4. Captain Raymond Martinsen Rubber Boots will be available Suites can check in on deck 7. would like to welcome you on for collection over the coming board and present his officers days. 15:00-17:30 Medical Forms and the Expedition Team. At Please deliver your medical the same time we'll give some We may have the opportunity forms to the Doctor in the information regarding our to stamp your passport at an lobby on deck 4. voyage, in the Panorama Antarctic base during our Lounge, deck 7. voyage. If you would NOT like 15:00-17:30 If you would like a stamp, please see to learn more about our FRAM goes paperless! On Reception, Deck 4. voyage then why not come your first day you will receive and meet some of the the Daily program in printed Most of the time we will use Expedition Team members in version. From tomorrow on our PolarCirkle boats for the Panorama Lounge on deck you will find the daily landings. For organizational 7. information on your cabin’s TV purposes we are going to screen as well as in all public separate you into groups of Approx. 17:30 Mandatory spaces. By doing so we avoid approximately 30 passengers.
    [Show full text]
  • Living and Working at USAP Facilities
    Chapter 6: Living and Working at USAP Facilities CHAPTER 6: Living and Working at USAP Facilities McMurdo Station is the largest station in Antarctica and the southermost point to which a ship can sail. This photo faces south, with sea ice in front of the station, Observation Hill to the left (with White Island behind it), Minna Bluff and Black Island in the distance to the right, and the McMurdo Ice Shelf in between. Photo by Elaine Hood. USAP participants are required to put safety and environmental protection first while living and working in Antarctica. Extra individual responsibility for personal behavior is also expected. This chapter contains general information that applies to all Antarctic locations, as well as information specific to each station and research vessel. WORK REQUIREMENT At Antarctic stations and field camps, the work week is 54 hours (nine hours per day, Monday through Saturday). Aboard the research vessels, the work week is 84 hours (12 hours per day, Monday through Sunday). At times, everyone may be expected to work more hours, assist others in the performance of their duties, and/or assume community-related job responsibilities, such as washing dishes or cleaning the bathrooms. Due to the challenges of working in Antarctica, no guarantee can be made regarding the duties, location, or duration of work. The objective is to support science, maintain the station, and ensure the well-being of all station personnel. SAFETY The USAP is committed to safe work practices and safe work environments. There is no operation, activity, or research worth the loss of life or limb, no matter how important the future discovery may be, and all proactive safety measures shall be taken to ensure the protection of participants.
    [Show full text]
  • Mcmurdo Station Master Plan 2.1 December 16, 2015
    MCMURDO STATION MASTER PLAN 2.1 DECEMBER 16, 2015 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 4 GLOSSARY 14 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN GUIDING PRINCIPLES 18 FACILITY CONSIDERATIONS 22 FACILITIES PROGRAM 38 MCMURDO STATION MASTER PLAN 42 SOCIAL SPACES 70 MASTER PLAN FLOW DIAGRAMS 72 CIVIL SITE & UTILITY PLAN 78 ENERGY 84 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & TELECOMMUNICATIONS 98 FIRE PROTECTION STRATEGY 110 CONCLUSION 116 MCMURDO STATION MP 2.1 | DECEMBER 16, 2015 PG. 3 INTRODUCTION The McMurdo Master Plan 1.0 was completed in March of 2013. The purpose of that original plan was to provide an in-depth first look at the current layout of McMurdo, identify both constraints and opportunities for future redevelopment, and create a basic plan to serve as a guide for that development. That initial plan was intended to serve as a Master Plan “starting point” to generate substantive discussion. Not only did it generate that discussion, it also resulted in a great deal of excitement. Since Master Plans are meant to be updated in light of evolving technologies and new requirements, this version was created. The Master Plan 2.0 was published on December 26, 2014. This version, Master Plan 2.1, refelects continued refinement with respect to, among other inputs, modified strategies for Traverse Operations, the IT&C Facility, as well as snow deposition modeling. PG. 4 MCMURDO STATION MP 2.1 | DECEMBER 16, 2015 INTRODUCTION GOALS OF MASTER PLAN 2.1 MISSION STATEMENT The infrastructure modernization will ensure that McMurdo Station remains a viable platform for supporting Antarctic science for the next 35 to 50 years, whereby this modernization will: • Result in comprehensive redevelopment of McMurdo Station, Antarctica, into a more energy and operationally-efficient station, optimized for support of local and deep field science.
    [Show full text]
  • The Southern Ocean 118 Worldwide Review of Bottom Fisheries in the High Seas
    THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 118 Worldwide review of bottom fisheries in the high seas 30°W 15°W 0° 15°E 30°E °S °S 10 10 47 °S a n t i c °S A t l O c e a 20 n 20 t h o u 41 S Bouvet Prince Edward 51 Island Islands R i d i a g So t e ut S o hern Crozet °S c O o °S S South Georgia ce 30 Island an Islands u 30 t h 48 I n d Kerguelen e Islands g i id a McDonald R g Islands r n Weddell e Heard b Sea Island ss u O 5858 a -G en c el u e rg Bellingshausen e a K 87 n 87 Sea Davis Amundsen Sea n a Sea e c S O o n Ross r e u h S Sea t t outh u o h e 88 S rn O P c ea a n c i °S f °S i M 30 c 30 a O c c qu Macquarie e a a r Island 81 n ie R 57 i d g e °S °S 20 20 Tasman 77 Sea °S °S 10 150°W 165°W 180° 165°E 150°E 10 Antarctic Convergence FAO Fishing Areas 200 nautical miles arcs CCAMLR Regulatory Area Map Projection: Lambert Azimuthal equal area FAO, 2008 MAP 1 The Southern Ocean 119 Southern Ocean FAO Statistical Areas 48, 58 and 88 GEOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION The Southern Ocean surrounds the continent of Antarctica, and constitutes about 15 percent of the world’s total ocean surface (CCAMLR, 2000).
    [Show full text]
  • The Ice of the Southern Ocean
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by National Institute of Polar Research Repository The Ice of the Southern Ocean A. F. TRESHNIKOV The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, Leningrad, USSR Abstract: Regular sea ice observations off the coasts of Antarctica in the Mirny Station area have been made by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition since 1956. For eight years air ice reconnaissance over the Davis Sea has been made from Mirny Station during all the seasons of the year from the shore to the ice edge. During the voyages of the d/e ship OB special observations on sea ice and icebergs have been made in the coastal zone of Antarctica. Physical properties, formation and desintegration of sea ice have been studied. The data obtained on sea ice peculiarities may be spread over a vast water area of the Southern Ocean. For many years the author has studied sea ice in the Arctic Ocean. The paper deals with general features of sea ice existence in the Antarctic and with differ­ ences. The formation and growth of ice from sea water both in the Arctic and Ant­ arctic depend mainly upon air temperature and heat content in the sea. Disinte­ gration and melting of ice in the Antarctic occur differently. Solar radiation, a great amount of diatoms included in the ice thickness and currents carrying ice out to the north into more warm waters play most important part here. The amount of old ice remaining in the Antarctic waters after the summer season is considerably less than in the Arctic waters.
    [Show full text]