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The Age-Graded Consequences of Victimization

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The Age-Graded Consequences of Victimization The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S. Department of Justice and prepared the following final report: Document Title: The Age-Graded Consequences of Victimization Author(s): Jillian Juliet Turanovic Document No.: 249103 Date Received: August 2015 Award Number: 2014-IJ-CX-0006 This report has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice. To provide better customer service, NCJRS has made this federally funded grant report available electronically. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. The Age-Graded Consequences of Victimization by Jillian Juliet Turanovic A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved April 2015 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Michael D. Reisig, Chair Kevin A. Wright Kristy Holtfreter ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2015 This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. ABSTRACT A large body of research links victimization to various harms. Yet it remains unclear how the effects of victimization vary over the life course, or why some victims are more likely to experience negative outcomes than others. Accordingly, this study seeks to advance the literature and inform victim service interventions by examining the effects of violent victimization and social ties on multiple behavioral, psychological, and health-related outcomes across three distinct stages of the life course: adolescence, early adulthood, and adulthood. Specifically, I ask two primary questions: 1) are the consequences of victimization age-graded? And 2) are the effects of social ties in mitigating the consequences of victimization age-graded? Existing data from Waves I (1994-1995), III (2001-2002), and IV (2008-2009) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) are used. The Add Health is a nationally-representative sample of over 20,000 American adolescents enrolled in middle and high school during the 1994-1995 school year. On average, respondents are 15 years of age at Wave I (11-18 years), 22 years of age at Wave III (ranging from 18 to 26 years), and 29 years of age at Wave IV (ranging from 24 to 32 years). Multivariate regression models (e.g., ordinary least-squares, logistic, and negative binomial models) are used to assess the effects of violent victimization on the various behavioral, social, psychological, and health-related outcomes at each wave of data. Two- stage sample selection models are estimated to examine whether social ties explain variation in these outcomes among a subsample of victims at each stage of the life course. i This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. The results indicate that the negative consequences of victimization vary considerably across different stages of the life course, and that the spectrum of negative outcomes linked to victimization narrows into adulthood. The effects of social ties appear to be age-graded as well, where ties are more protective for victims of violence in adolescence and adulthood than they are in early adulthood. These patterns of findings are discussed in light of their implications for continued theoretical development, future empirical research, and the creation of public policy concerning victimization. ii This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project would not have been possible without the support of many kind and talented people. First, thank you to my dissertation chair, Mike Reisig, for your time, comments, and attention to detail. I am fortunate to have benefited from your guidance throughout graduate school. To my committee members—Kevin Wright and Kristy Holtfreter—your support means so much. Kevin, thank you for all that you do for your students, and for always making time for me. I give special thanks to my mentor, Travis Pratt, who has given me tremendous support and encouragement throughout my graduate career. Thank you for all of your advice and guidance, for teaching me how to write articles, and for giving me the tools I need to ask important questions. I hope to one day be able to teach my own students as much as you have taught me over the years. Thank you for always being a phone call away. I am also grateful to Nancy Rodriguez for her remarkable energy, commitment to students, and for the invaluable advice and support she has given me. I appreciate of all the research opportunities you provided me with throughout graduate school. Lastly, I wish to thank my wonderful colleagues and fellow doctoral students— especially Melinda Tasca, Andrea Borrego, Laura Beckman, and Mario Cano—for their support, feedback, and friendship. This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01- HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and iii This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health Web site (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was received from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis. This dissertation research was supported by an award from the U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice Graduate Research Fellowship Program (Award No. 2014-IJ-CX-0006). Points of view expressed in this document do not necessarily express the views of the Department of Justice. iv This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Things We Know about Victimization.............................................................5 Remaining Questions in the Victimization Literature ....................................10 Victimization over the Life Course ....................................................11 Aging and the Consequences of Victimization ..................................12 Victims’ Lives and Social Ties ..........................................................14 Research Purpose ...........................................................................................16 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health........................................17 Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................21 2 VICTIMIZATION IN ADOLESCENCE ............................................................. 24 Social Ties in Adolescence ............................................................................27 Sample ...........................................................................................................30 Empirical Measures .......................................................................................31 Adolescent Violent Victimization ......................................................31 Adolescent Social Ties.......................................................................32 Adolescent Psychological Outcomes .................................................34 Adolescent Behavioral Outcomes ......................................................35 Adolescent Health Outcomes .............................................................37 Control Variables ...............................................................................38 v This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. CHAPTER Page Effects of Victimization on Adolescent Outcomes.........................................41 Models of Victimization and Adolescent Outcomes
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