Value and Symbolic Practices: Objects, Exchanges, and Associations in the Italian Courts (1450-1500) Leah Ruth Clark Department of Art History and Communication Studies McGill University, Montreal February 2009 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Copyright 2009 by Clark, Leah Ruth All rights reserved. Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract English 4 French 7 Acknowledgements 10 List of Figures 14 Introduction 23 I. The Court: The Prince, Communities, and Associations 27 II. Materiality: Subjects, Objects, Exchange, and Consumerism 51 Chapter 1. Carafa’s testa di cavallo: The Life of a Bronze Gifthorse 64 I. Introduction 64 II. The Literary Life of a Horse’s Head 68 Later Histories of the Horse’s Head 83 III. Lorenzo and Diomede: Arbitrators Between Florence 87 and Naples IV. The Significance of the Equine: Palii, Barberi, and Gift horses 105 V. The Horse’s Head and the Culture of Collecting 116 VI. The Agency of the Thing Given: Conclusion 121 Chapter 2. Bankers, Merchants, and Pawning: Practices 125 and Circulation I. Introduction 125 II. Circuits and Networks: Merchants, Clients, and the Courts 130 Banchieri a Napoli: The Florentine Firms of the Strozzi, 132 the Medici, and the Gondi Clients and Consumers: The Neapolitan Court and Nobility 146 III. Material Things and Their Histories: Beds, Gems, and Books 149 The Florentine Lettuccio in Naples 150 Gems, Medallions, and Books: Circulation, Replication, 169 and Transmission IV. The Practices of Pawning: Objects and Contenders 178 V. Between Naples and Ferrara: The Bejewelled “Crocetta” 199 VI. Conclusion 207 Chapter 3. “An altarpiece that closes like a book”: Collection and 211 Intertextuality at the Court of Ferrara I. Introduction 211 II. Folding Images: A Genealogy of the Diptych Form 216 Engaging with the Diptych Form: Obverse, Reverse, 221 Frames, and Images Other Diptychs in Eleonora’s Collections 226 Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 3 III. The Painting and Scriptura Debate: Paragone, 229 Social Positioning, and the Status of Art in Ferrara IV. Word and Flesh: Caterina Vegri and the Corpo di Christo 238 V. Eleonora’s Collections 244 Fabula and Forms of Assembly 248 Paragone and the Intertext 251 VI. Other Forms of Citation in Eleonora’s Collections 265 VII. Conclusion 272 Chapter 4. The Order of the Ermine: Collars, Clothing, and 276 Representation I. Introduction 276 II. Della Giarreta e dell’Armellino: The History of the Order of 283 the Jar and the Order of the Ermine III. The Statutes of the Order of the Ermine 291 IV. Members and International Association 298 V. Representations of the Ermine: Architecture, Manuscripts, 307 and Painting VI. Ceremonial: Mantles, Collars, and Bodily Inscription 329 VII. Allegorical Representation of the Order of the Ermine: 348 Roberti’s Three Famous Women Panels VIII. Conclusion 357 Conclusion 360 Primary Archival Sources 368 Archives Consulted and Abbreviations 368 Libraries Abbreviations 369 Appendix I. Genealogies of the Aragonese, Sforza, and Este 370 Figures 376 Works Cited 434 Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 4 Abstract Arguing for a reconsideration of the object’s function in court life, this thesis investigates how the value of an object is tied to the role it plays in symbolic activities, which formed the basis of court relations at the end of the fifteenth century. This study thus examines the courts of Italy (particularly Ferrara and Naples) through the myriad of objects—statues, paintings, jewellery, furniture, and heraldry—that were valued for their subject matter, material forms, histories, and social functions. Such objects are considered not only as components of court life, but also as agents which activated the symbolic practices that became integral to relations within and between courts. These activities—the exchange of diplomatic gifts, the consumption of precious objects, the displaying of collectibles, and the bestowing of knightly orders—were all ways that objects acted as points of contact between individuals, giving rise to new associations and new interests. The end of the fifteenth century was a pivotal moment in the courts of Italy, fraught with alliances and counter-alliances involving not only the courts on the Italian peninsula but also abroad. The court was an important space where individuals sought to assert and legitimise their power, and this was often done through material and visual means. The court is thus examined from diverse angles, taking the object as a starting point, and tracing relationships and networks through visual, textual, material, and literary sources. Shifting the focus away from artistic intentions and patronage, this study examines how objects constitute relations, often in unpredictable ways, not only forging connections but also revealing instabilities and latent hostilities. The constant circulation of precious Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 5 objects in the late fifteenth century reveals a system of value which placed importance not only on ownership, but also on the replication, copying, and translation of those objects in an array of media. The quotation of both objects and texts in contemporary works of art, I argue, gave rise to new modes of viewing visual imagery that are most apparent in studiolo culture. This form of viewing requires decipherment; it asks viewers to piece together disparate parts and fragments thereby constructing meanings across space and media. Diverse material forms are thus brought together. A bronze fragmented horse’s head is examined as a gift that forged connections between two diplomats. Its fragmented equestrian form gives rise to narratives and discussion about its provenance and the object is connected to the lending, gifting, and racing of real horses. The circulation of jewels and gems between courts was facilitated by the practices of merchant-bankers through pawning and credit. Circulation gave these objects histories but also imbricated a wide range of individuals into complex webs of association, obligation, and dependencies. A small devotional diptych belonging to a larger collection is examined in relation to humanist, social, and religious debates at the court of Ferrara, revealing how its particular form is closely tied to how one engages with, and interprets, the object. The diptych referenced other texts and objects and was also the model for numerous copies, encouraging the viewer to piece together the visual and textual quotations to produce meaning. The Neapolitan Order of the Ermine is examined through the mantle, gold collar, representations of the emblem, and statutes of the Order to demonstrate how these material aspects constituted the rites of the Order. These material objects became crucial components of membership by linking members Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 6 across Italy and Europe into forms of obligation and indebtedness. The court at the end of the fifteenth century in Italy, I argue, can thus be found not only in the body of the prince, but also in the objects that constituted symbolic practices, initiated political dialogues, created memories, and formed associations. Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 7 En considérant la fonction de l’objet dans la vie à la cour princière, cette thèse examine comment la valeur d’un objet est liée au rôle qu’il joue dans les pratiques symboliques qui, à la fin du quinzième siècle, est à la base même des relations à la cour. Ce projet examine les cours d’Italie (en particulier celles de Ferrare et de Naples) à travers une multitude d’objet (statues, peintures, bijoux, meubles, et emblèmes héraldiques) qui étaient évalués pour leurs matériaux, leur forme, leur historique, et leurs fonctions sociales. Ces objets sont ici étudiés non seulement comme représentatifs de la vie à la cour, mais aussi comme des agents actifs des pratiques symboliques importantes aux relations entre les différents cours. Ces pratiques – l’échange de cadeaux diplomatiques, la consommation d’objets précieux, étalage d’objets de collection, et investitures dans des ordres chevaleresques – sont autant de manières par lesquelles les objets servent de point d’attache entre individus et génèrent, de la sorte, de nouvelles associations et de nouveaux intérêts. La fin du quinzième siècle était un moment clé pour les cours d’Italie, chargé des alliances et contre-alliances entre non seulement les cours de la péninsule italienne mais aussi celles de l’étranger. La cour est alors un espace important où les individus cherchent à revendiquer et à légitimer leur pouvoir par des moyens matériels et visuels. Ainsi, mon investigation, qui a pour point de départ l’objet, retrace les associations entre individus et entre cours à travers les sources visuelles, textuelles, matérielles, et littéraires. En plaçant l’objet au centre de l’investigation, ce projet, plutôt que de se préoccuper des intentions artistiques ou mécénales, redirige l’attention sur la fonction certaine, mais combien variable, des objets dans la formation de relations sociales et démontre comment elle peut Value and Symbolic Practices Leah R. Clark 8 révéler l’existence de tensions et d’hostilités latentes. La circulation continue d’objets précieux met en relief un système de valeurs qui est à l’œuvre à la fin du quinzième siècle et qui met l’accent sur la possession d’objets mais aussi sur leur réplication, leur reproduction et leur traduction vers d’autres médias. Je soutiens que la citation d’objets et de textes dans des œuvres d’art qui leur sont contemporaines a donné lieu à une nouvelle manière d’observer les images et qui est apparente, notamment, dans la tradition du studiolo. Cette nouvelle façon d’observer exigeait de l’observateur qu’il la déchiffre et qu’il en rapièce certains éléments disparates et autres fragments afin de donner un sens aux objets et d’ainsi établir des rapports sans bornes géographiques.