ISSN 0024-5623
Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016
A Journal of the All India Institute of Local Self-Government
Brought out by its International Academy of Urban Dynamics
Understanding Local Governance in the Context of Globalisation
Local Governance During Global Change- Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits
Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field
Role of Village Education Committee (VEC) in Achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland
Men and Women in PRI: a Comparative Study of Elected PRI Members of Upper Two Tiers of Rohtak District of Haryana in India
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar About All India Institute of Local Self-Government (AIILSG)
All India Institute of Local Self-Government (AIILSG), established in 1926 has been actively working in the field of urban development management and is a diligent partner in promoting the cause of local governance in India and overseas.
The Institute has been the steadfast friend, philosopher and guide to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across the Country. For more than eight decades it has contributed to the principles and practice of urban governance, education, research and capacity building. It has designed and developed a vast array of training literature and courses and trained more than 1.5 million stakeholders in diverse areas of urban governance and urban services delivery.
These activities of the AIILSG are practiced through 30 regional centres located in different regions of the Country. The Institute anchors the Regional Centre for Urban and Environmental Studies (RCUES) of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India for Western India region. This Centre is actively involved in building capabilities of municipal officials, staff and elected members from the States of Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and the Union Territories of Diu, Daman, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli by upgrading their knowledge and skills required for effective administration and implementation of various urban development programmes.
With a view to cater to the growing requirement of ULBs in regard to services, the AIILSG runs specialized capacity building institutions such as the National Fire Academy, the Nrupur Institute of Nursing Science and Research and the Centre for Environment & Disaster Management at Vadodara, PRUDA at Ahmedabad, National Resource Centre for Urban Poverty, International Centre of EQUI-T, the Disaster Management Cell and the Centre of GIS at Pune. It runs the Solid Waste Management Cell of the Government of Maharashtra. In recent years, AIILSG has ventured into rural and tribal capacity building and hand holding of rural institutions of self-governance.
In addition to the domestic activities, the Institute organises several tailor-made capacity building programmes for various countries in South Asia, viz, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and in other regions, including South Africa, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, etc. The Institute has linkages with renowned international organizations including UNCHS (Habitat), UNDP, UNICEF, UNFPA, WHO, DFID, CITYNET, CLGF, US-AEP and the Ford Foundation. It is the anchor institution for Urban Management Programme (UMP-UNCHS-Habitat) for South Asia.
About International Academy of Urban Dynamics (IAUD)
International Academy of Urban Dynamics (IAUD) has been conceptualized and set up at the AIILSG with a view to support countries and cities and their stakeholders in their decisions towards a bright urban future.
The Academy offers strategic contribution to urban vision, policy and planning across countries and cities through multi-level research, documentation, debate, advocacy and capacity-building. It aids the crafting of innovative solutions to urban challenges through sharing, networking, dissemination and advisory services.
The Organization has embraced certain values including a pervading quest for excellence, perpetual learning, and the sharing and interpretation of knowledge that is grounded in ethics and truth. IAUD would undertake non-partisan analysis and evaluation of situations, facts and figures and render advice that is non- adversarial in intent and positive in content with a view towards better alternatives. Vol : LXXXVI, No. 1 January-March, 2016
Editorial 3 Contents
Understanding Local Governance 6 in the context of Globalisation Sanhita Joshi
Local Governance During Global Change - 15 Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits Mahendra Sethi, Subhakanta Mohapatra
Problems Confronting Women Teachers 35 Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field Anita Nuna
Role of Village Education Committee (VEC) 46 in Achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education N. Nagarajan
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: 53 The Village Council, its Role and Published by the Function in Nagaland H. John Sema, Neizhanuo Golmei
Men and Women in PRI: a comparative study 67 of elected PRI members of upper two tiers of Rohtak district of Haryana in India Anupama Kaushik Local Government Quarterly All India Institute of Local Self-Government
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics 77 of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar Sarbjot Singh Behl, Rawal Singh Aulakh
Book Review 102
Our Contributors 109 All India Institute of Local Self-Government M. N. Roy Human Development Campus, Plot No.6, 'F' Block, TPS Road No.12, Bandra (E), Mumbai – 400051. Tel : +91-22-2657 17 13 / 2657 17 14 / 2657 17 15 Fax : +91-22-2657 21 15 E-mail : [email protected] Website : www.aiilsg.org
Ranjit S. Chavan Capt. Anant Modi President Director General
Local Government Quarterly
Editorial Board
Chief Editor Capt. Anant Modi
Members Sneha Palnitkar Mukesh Kanaskar V. Vijaykumar Vijay Kulkarni Shweta Gupta Shriniwas Indapurkar Khatibullah Sheikh Usha Verghese
The views expressed in the articles are the personal opinions of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the All India Institute of Local Self-Government. Articles, letters to the editor, views and reviews are welcome. They may be addressed to the Chief Editor, or sent by e-mail to [email protected]
Printed by Capt. Anant Modi, The Director General, All India Institute of Local Self- Government, at Copytronics, Bandra (E), Mumbai - 400 051 and published by him at the All India Institute of Local Self-Government, 11, Horniman Circle, Mumbai - 400 023. Editorial
Climate Change: Challenges and some hopes
In a surprising but welcome development in March, the International Energy Agency (IEA) reported that there has been virtually no increase in energy related CO2 emissions in 2015 compared to the previous year. Importantly this has happened for the second straight year. While sceptics would be tempted to dismiss this as natural in view of economic weakness, it is not really the case. During the two years 2014 and 2015, when emissions fell year on year, the world economy actually grew over 3% each year. In the words of IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol, “Coming just a few months after the landmark COP21 agreement in Paris, this is yet another boost to the global fight against climate change”.
This signifies possibly for the first time the decoupling of economic growth from increased Greenhouse Gas emissions. Previous instances of falling energy related greenhouse emissions were accompanied by economic weakness. The world has long been used to the argument that higher emissions and the resulting environmental degradation is the price we must pay for increased economic growth and prosperity. This seems to be no more the case. We can indeed choose an environmentally benign path towards greater economic activity.
There are a host of factors that have contributed to this salutary development. Most significant among them is the heightened focus on renewable energy all over the world. Rapid technological advances have enabled shatter cost barriers to adoption of renewable energy more notably wind and solar. A dramatic piece of statistic provided by the IEA states that ninety percent of all new energy generation in 2015 came from renewables. Half of this was from wind alone. With heightened awareness, more viable technologies and increasing peer pressure, it is no more an issue of the 'cost of adopting renewables', rather 'the cost of not adopting renewables' that is driving the change. Consumption of renewable energy in the top countries doubled between 2010 and 2014 to about 320 million tonnes of oil
3 equivalent. Of this, the maximum is in the USA at about 65 million tonnes, about 22% of the world total. China, known as an oil guzzler accounting for large amount of emissions comes right behind at 53 million. India has made good progress too with about 14 million tonnes of oil equivalent coming from renewables. With depleting natural resources like coal accompanied by increasing costs of extraction and environment concerns related to mining activity, renewables will gain further momentum in the coming years. Some concerns have been expressed that the current low oil prices may pose a threat to increasing use of gas and renewables. However, the thrust on renewable seems to have gained substantial traction to be threatened by low oil prices, which could be more transient than sustained in nature.
While the supply side of energy requirement is being defined by the rapid growth in renewables share of the total energy basket, the demand side is undergoing significant changes too. China, in 2015 produced nearly 23 million cars, trucks and buses; more than any other country in the world. It manufactures and ships out almost every smart phone sold anywhere on this planet. All this requires large factories humming with activity and presumably consuming loads of electricity. Yet as per some records, China's electricity consumption in 2015 grew at 0%. Some other reports put the growth at 0.5%, which is next to zero. This trend is note-worthy.
Developing countries around the world are rapidly rolling out electricity distribution networks to bring power to the poor and marginalized populations. Energy demand is expected to rise sharply as the governments' poverty alleviation programmes pull millions out of poverty and propel them upwards. Households particularly in the tier-II and tier-III cities, are seeing home appliances and gadgets multiply. Every family across all economic strata is seeing larger numbers of smart phones plugged into wall sockets. This coupled with increasing urbanization could result in higher energy demand because life in an urban setting is more energy- intensive than in the village.
Therefore it appears that in a scenario of rapid urbanisation, poverty alleviation, industrialization and access to power supply for the poor, developing countries are bound to witness higher demand for energy and the resulting environmental damage. However, policy interventions can make a big difference. Measures such as the choice of fuels (natural gas over diesel), encouragement for energy efficient equipment such as the subsidized distribution of LED lamps will
4 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 surely help. Some policy actions such as Direct Benefit Transfer may enable better targeting of subsidies and lead to more efficient use of electricity & fuels and result in precious savings in GHG emissions. DBT, if implemented in power supply for the farm sector, for example. This is currently an example of distortion arising out of flawed subsidy allocation. This also prevents use of solar powered agricultural pumps as there is no incentive for their use. DBT in the area of LPG supply currently under way can result in less burning of firewood as cooking fuel and prevent the particulate emissions leading to health and environmental hazards.
Another heartening fact is that as in the case of India, energy intensity of GDP tends to be negative. In other words, economies need less incremental energy to produce every additional unit of economic output. This results out of ever increasing efficiencies of equipment (like the air-conditioners in our homes) and processes in factories that use lower and lower amounts of energy. There might be temporary halts to this advance when the cost of the technology is greater than the benefit arising out of it, till such time that the cost of the technology falls further.
Cities which already house 50% of the global population, generate 80% of the economic output and account for 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions will naturally play a pivotal role in the move towards a greener yet more prosperous planet. Compact and efficient city structures which enable less commute limiting the burning of fossil fuels, substantially enhanced use of low-carbon public transport and green buildings will be among the foremost levers to bring about sustainable economic growth. Technological innovations which transform energy use and conservation are already playing out in our cities. Breakthrough advancements which enable us to 'do more with less' will visit our lives with increasing frequency.
The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate, another influential body, refutes the claim that we must choose between fighting climate change and growing the world economy. The Report of the Commission comprising 24 leaders from government, business and other spheres in 19 countries believes strongly that we can choose a low carbon footprint strategy to achieve industrial growth, create jobs and boost productivity in a way that is environmentally benign. Consistent government policies, technological innovations, appropriate financing models and the subtle force of entrepreneurship will all go towards building the framework of a new paradigm which can ensure steady economic growth with a safer climate.
Editorial 5 Understanding Local Governance in the context of Globalisation
Sanhita Joshi
Introduction decentralisation is also being promoted by international funding institutions, Globalisation and decentralisation academicians and non-profit are the twin ubiquitous ideas which have organizations. The reasons for promoting generated bewildering interest among decentralisation are multifarious. With people, academia, governments and the change in the philosophy of the state, policy makers during the last two objectives of the government, values and decades. On the one hand, globalisation, demands of the humankind especially in through global commerce is a rapidly globalising world, governance exacerbating income inequalities and is being considered a significant agent of trying to dictate terms on the developing change, not only from above but also nations. On the other it also gives progressively more from below. The immense opportunities to these conflict today is seen between the developing countries especially for archaic forms of public governance economic growth and development. It manifested in the form of bureaucratic has opened new vistas for change administration or commandist through information and technological administration (Manor, 1999) and the advancements. Yet another important modern day forms of democratic, phenomenon which is simultaneously flexible, efficient, transparent and taking shape across the globe is that, decentralized governance. Values like many countries in the developed west efficiency and economy today have and developing east representing gained accelerated momentum. Osborne different types of regimes are devolving and Gaibler's book “Reinventing powers to their units of local governance. Government” published in 1992 explains It is done with the objective of achieving well this critical importance of developmental goals in a swift and just decentralized governance in the context manner. Concurrently, the idea of of a market-oriented ecology.
6 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 The idea of governance has Understanding the theoretical undergone a complete overhaul because of framework rising public awareness, mounting people's expectations, Information India suffered the massive economic Technology revolution, better connectivity crisis of the early 1990s which eventually and rapid integration of the world co m pelled her to embark upon the path owing to globalising economies. of liberalization, privatization and Efficiency, economy, accountability and globalisation. The 'New Industrial Policy' responsibility are the paradigm indices to was introduced in India in 1991 which evaluate the performance of institutions significantly transformed the Indian of governance. The discourse on economy. It was obvious that it would development also demands that, have some impact on the polity as well. It governments must shed a commandist, is fascinating to note that in the following centralized approach and adopt a more year two historic constitutional democratic, decentralized disposition. It is amendments were passed by the Indian argued that efficient decision-making can parliament. The 73rd and 74th be facilitated by decentralization and constitutional amendments formally delegation of powers. Decentralization has created the third tier of governance. Its been looked at as a singularly useful mode significance lies in the fact that the Act of governance to deliver the public gave these local bodies a constitutional services from convenient local centers status. In a way, globalisation and close to the client's locality. Bringing decentralisation happened simultaneously governance to the doorstep of the citizens in India. Therefore it is very important to and forging a direct relationship between study these two events together and the client and the government have ex am ine whether one has any impact on been the driving force behind the th e other or not. There was a fear looming process of decentralization worldwide. large that as the state shrinks in size and Decentralization is expected to release withdraws itself from various social sector local energies and enlist local support for responsibilities, problems and concerns of carrying out development oriented the people will increasingly will go activities. The spread of democracy unheard and will be poorly represented. especially after World War II has created a However, studies have indicated that the sturdy foundation for decentralization. It is role of the state does not diminish with said that, “Democracy is fundamentally a globalisation, rather its criticality increases decentralized system.” A centralized (Sathe, 2009). The World Commission on administration however efficient it may be Social Dimension of Globalisation can never excel the basic idea of recognises the opportunities for a better democracy, i.e. government by the people life that globalisation presents. It is (M.P. Dubey and MunniPadalia, 2002). believed that people's hopes are realizable,
Understanding Local Governance in the context of Globalisation. 7 but only if globalization is subjected to playing “Intrusive politics”. This has led to better governance at all levels (World the “Problem of Exclusion”. Fruits of Commission on Social Dimension of development are being cornered by Globalization, 2006). The whole discourse selected few and not going unto the last. on development and governance has today Therefore it is a necessary responsibility come to encapsulate the significance of on the part of the Government to decentralisation. intervene. Welfare politics targets to achieve symmetrical development in The world is fast becoming a place which governments are responsible to without borders. Borders of ideas, provide and cater to the needs of the civilizations, cultures, economies are being people. For this they are also held eroded. The geo-political borders are also responsible at regular intervals through only to maintain fast diminishing national elections. But in a globalised world, this identities in an integrated world. There has responsibility is difficult to demand. This been a progressive international economic actually is accentuating the process of integration of the world since the 1950s. exclusion. Phenomenal growth has been reported in international trade, investment and In this context the role of the State finance. This has led to a greater economic (Government) becomes even more openness resulting in free flow of not only important in spite of the fact that trade, investment and finance but also globalization is intruding also into the service, technology, information and ideas political periphery of the State. Many across national boundaries (Nayyar, 2002). argue that globalization is rendering the Shrinking distances are forcing us to think Westphalian model of the State obsolete. about the world as a unit, which may lead However, looking at this from a different to nurturing a tendency to homogenize. perspective, it also suggests a transition in Many critics of globalization argue that the entire role, range and reach of the globalization is another form of State. The failure of the centralized State, international capitalism. However, the both in economic and political governance current wave of globalization offers each has swung the pendulum in favour of one a chance, an opportunity to dominate decentralized system across the globe in the international market due to the kind of recent years. (Rao Govinda, 2005) openness it provides. Nonetheless, it cannot be disputed that it has led to uneven An immediate effect of globalization development. Hegemonic circles are has been the impact of the world capital created in different parts of the world, market on centralised and decentralized creating an environment of “Loss of governance especially in respect of Choice” at the regional, domestic and local making vital decisions that affect the levels. Transnational companies are lives of the people (Kothari, 1989). As
8 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 globalization encroaches upon a nation- family, a society, a state or the world at state's economic sovereignty, it is large. So there are conflicting interests in compelled to create local democratic today's pluralist societies which creates structures to further its political many challenges to be faced especially by sovereignty and retain its legitimacy the governments which have to find (Tremblay, 2001). Today for a state with solutions to these challenges. Furthermore multiple level governments, the process of in this globalised and competitive world decentralization, which is the transfer of today, individual is at the centre of authority or responsibility to local discussion. It is important to develop his governments, is often seen as an important capacities to fight and counter the condition for economic development. ch al len ge s. T he ro le o f an y go ve rn m en t Decentralization, which is a countervailing would be to enhance the capability sets (a trend to globalization, ensures that the concept mooted by Amartya Sen) of growth process is pro-poor, pro-women, citizens being governed. This leads to pro-nature and pro-jobs. In a sense, there is enhancements of their personal security double movement- globalization on the and freedom to make choices for their one hand and devolution, decentralization welfare. Therefore there is a need to and localization on the other (Ash, 1994), identify a fundamental shift in the purpose which has been termed as Glocalisation. and methods of government (H. George, "Globalization is like a giant wave that can 2008). either capsize nations or carry them forward. Successful localization creates a Globalisation, in its primary sense, situation where local entities and other means expansion of economic groups in society 'the crew of the boat if transactions and the organization of you will' are free to exercise individual economic activities across the political autonomy but also have incentives to work boundaries of nation-states. So it is not together". only pertaining to market economy but also to political democracy (Nayyar, Globalization has created 2002). Globalization usually implies complexities of social, economic and even increase in trade, investment, technology political nature. When we think about a and labour flows between economies. It globalised world, every nation is a unit of was expected by some that as this entity and has to fight these globalization occurs, the state would complexities and find answers to erupting wither away. “… Many participants in questions of modern polities. The self- the globalization debate seem to agree regarding actions of an individual makes about the decreasing economic, political, him think about only profit maximization and cultural importance of (nation) state. which is the goal of everyone in this From above the central role of state is materialist world be it an individual, a being hollowed out by international
Understanding Local Governance in the context of Globalisation. 9 political organization and from below by the development agenda alongside the the growing phenomenon of local renewed global emphasis on governance government, which seems to have become and human-centered approaches to the example of what good governance development. Today both developed and should be about” (Schuurman, 2001). developing countries are pursing Similarly Lieten (2003) has argued that decentralisation policies. “The agenda of decentralization fits another agenda, namely the agenda of There is a world-wide effort now globalization and the rolling back of the going on, especially in the developing State. Globalization actually sucks the countries to craft institutions and local into a centralizing process of the free administrative processes that would market. Nation-States are somewhat successfully deliver developmental goals receding and ceding sovereign power to with people's own active engagement, market forces”. “The impact of ensuring authenticity, inclusiveness, globalisation will be felt at the grassroots transparency and social justice. The World and especially by the marginalized, Development Report focused on the weaker and the poor segments of the globalization and localization and saw society. It has to be to be mitigated l ocalization as revitalizing the local trough micro actions in the field and realm by raising levels of participation macro actions through policies and and involvement and providing people decisions.”(Palanithurai, 2008, as cited in with a greater ability to shape their Sathe, 2009). It is generally accepted that own lives. The world development report the State has a very crucial role to play in 1999 recognizes the importance of the the provision of basic, public services locals for raising levels of participation especially to the marginalized sections as and providing people with greater ability they cannot access the market for these to shape the context of their lives. It is services. In a village in India, it is the here that the vertical structure of power responsibility of the locally-elected ge t decentralized, horizontalised body, i.e. the Gram Panchayat to provide and democratized and is rooted locally these basic, public services. While in the political, social and economic decentralisation has undoubtedly gained organizations of the people and popularity within the last two decades, it is themselves. Any democratic polity, in not a new concept. The term attracted order to ensure good governance, should attention long ago when British and provide citizens with what Habermass French colonial administrations prepared describes as the public sphere. With colonies for independence by devolving Habitat II or the City Summit in 1996, the responsibilities for certain programmes to general assembly of the United Nations local authorities. In the 1980s officially recognized the vitality of local decentralization came to the forefront of politics and importance of local variations
10 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 in the era of globalization. Globalization is Entire bundle of literature available rendering the public sphere competitive on this topic today focuses on the nexus and people need to be provided with an between globalisation and Local enabling environment to fight inequalities Governance or Decentralisation. Various created by it. models and methods are being developed to counter the problems posed by Globalisation is also identified as globalisation. Local governance units are one of the reasons for the growth in the era also seen as a panacea for this of local governance. It is also called The phenomenon. In this context, panchayats Age of Local Governance (Dentres, as people's institutions of self-governance 2005). According to Dentres and have a critical role to play. One of the ill Lawrence following trends have led to effects of globalisation is believed to be decentralization. Their study is primarily erosion or dilution of the state authority. focused upon European and Western In the process, the state is devoid of countries. However some of the factors do its legitimacy or at least it becomes have resonance for developing nations as vulnerable. In the opinion of many well. scholars, decentralisation of powers and authority towards the grassroots units is Micro Trends: considered as a positive step to maintain this diminishing legitimacy 1) Modernization of the individual (Palanithurai,2008). The idea of an Indian citizen. rural area or a village is also changing fast. 2) Citizen orientation towards It is in a state of flux. However one cannot governments has changed. ignore the discourses on caste and gender Government's legitimacy is while looking at politics taking shape in dependent on its performance. rural India. The Indian government, immediately after independence, 3) Increase in skills of the citizens due embarked on the project of rural to the rise of new channels of development. The central government participation, increased education. created its own administrative hierarchy for rural development with a plethora Macro trends: of special programmes that all bypassed the so called Panchayati Raj 1) Urbanization, globalization (Social Institutions. In the next six decades after Exclusion & Environmental independence, India remained committed concerns) to strengthening the roots of decentralised governance. Many committees and 2) a) European Integration commissions were appointed which have a) Funds for Local governments b) Changed balance of power made recommendations that crystalise its
Understanding Local Governance in the context of Globalisation. 11 role and functions in the present setup. Panchayati Raj Institutions: Central Nevertheless the mere decentralisation of Processing Units of Democracy: powers is meaningleas and an empty idea in the absence of literate, aware, informed The Panchayati Raj Institutions are and skilled citizens, for they are the true to be seen as the Central Processing Unit bearers of power. This also needs be of Indian democracy. These grassroots contextualised in fast globalising India to level units are the schools of our understand the impact of both on each democracy. If they are fed with other. Those who are at the helm of affairs appropriate inputs then it will be easier to at the grassroots are to be trained in the earn outputs that will strengthen craft of governance to deal with changes democracy as a whole in our country. introduced by globalization. Leaders at the Hence, while focusing on Panchayati Raj grassroots level who manage the local Institutions in India researcher has affairs have to be made aware of the meticulously tried to look at issues of implications of globalisation and hence empowerment of people, delivery and they have to be sensitized (Palanithurai, availability of public services, issues 2008). Today the idea of decentralization pertaining to capacity building (Social is associated with 'good governance' Capital) and social audit. It is well (Lieten, 2003). There was an increasing recognized that local bodies have an feeling that “These people, however poor important role to play in the democratic and illiterate, however much repressed by process and in meeting the basic gender, caste and class, have a richness of requirements of the people. The old adage, thought that needs to be tapped much “for every citizen, most government is more than has been done so far” (Lieten, local government” still holds good. 2003). Why India is an important case of However ground level analysis of study is the fact that, she has been able to Panchayati Raj Institutions reveals that create a wide democratic base today. The they have not been honestly vested with expansion of the Panchayati Raj the powers, functions and financial Institutions in their new form is a very resources and necessary autonomy. In fact, significant movement as, earlier, Lok it still remains a rubber stamp 3rd tier of Sabha, Rajya Sabha and 25 State Indian federalism (Tremblay, 2001). assemblies and 2 Union Territories used to Financial constraint is the biggest problem elect only 4,963 members. Today every faced by Panchayati Raj Institutions. And five years, 30 lakh representatives are if, Panchayati Raj Institutions are to work elected out of which 10 lakh (i.e. 33 %) are as the prime mechanism of development, women and 22.5% seats are reserved for then they have to be given proper financial Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes resources especially in a global world. (Institute of Social Sciences, 2000: 10). Local governments throughout the world (Western Industrialized world) played a
12 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 major role in the delivery of fundamental 4. Institute of Social Sciences, Status of collective public and quasi-public goods. Panchayati Raj inthe States and Local governments have begun to develop Union Territories of India, New a leadership role in some of the broader Delhi: Concept Publishing Co., challenges of community governance 2000 especially in the current context of globalization. The present century has to 5. Jean Dreze & Sen Amartya, India: fight many global challenges with local Development and Participation, initiatives and local efforts. Some of the Oxford University Press, New common global challenges are poverty, Delhi, 2002 hunger, elementary education and empowerment of the weaker section of 6. Kothari Rajani, “Decentralization: society, “the Have-nots” as Marx called The Real Issue”,Seminar, 360, them. pp14-19, 1989
References: 7. Lieten G.K., Power, Politics and Rural Development: Essays on 1. Crook C. Richard and Manor James, India, New Delhi: Manohar, 2003 Democracy and Decentralisation in South Asia and West Africa: 8. Manor James, The Political Economy Participation, Accountability& of Democratic Decentralisation, Performance, the Press Syndicate of Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1999 University of Cambridge, 1998 9. Nayyar Deepak, 'Governing Denters Bas & Rose Lawrence E, Globalization: Issues and Institutions, Comparing LocalGovernance- Oxford University Press, 2002 Trends & Development, Palgrave MacMilan, 2005 10. Palanithurai G & Ramesh R, Globalisation: Issues at the 2. Dubey M.P. & Padalia Munni, Grassroots, Concept publishing Democratic Decentralization and company, 2008 Panchayati Raj Institutions, (Eds.), Anamika Publishers and 11. Rao Govinda M & Singh Nirvikar, Distributors, 2002 Political Economy of Federalism in India, Oxford University Press, 2005 3. Harriss, John, Antinomies of Empowerment: Observations on 12. S a t h e D h a n m a j i r i , D o e s Civil Society, Politics and Urban Governance Improve with Governance, Economic and Political Globalisation? A Case Study of Weekly, 42(26),pp2716- 2724, 2007 Village Level Institutionsin
Understanding Local Governance in the context of Globalisation. 13 Maharashtra, India, Institute of and Indian Federalism, IJPA, Vol: Management Bangalore, 2009 XLVII, No: 2, April-June, 2001
13. Schuurman Frans J (Eds.), 16. World Bank, Governance and Globalization and Development Development, Washington Studies: Challenges for the 21st D.C.:World Bank, 1992 Century, New Delhi, Vistaar Publications, 2001 17. World Commission on Social Dimension of Globalization, A 14. Sen Amartya, Development as Fair Globalization: Creating freedom, Oxford University Opportunities for All, New Delhi: Press, New Delhi, 2000 Academic Foundation, 2006 15. Tremblay Reeta C., Globalisation
The Local Government Quarterly invites contributions in the form of articles and research papers from its readers and well-wishers.
Contributions may be e-mailed to us in digital form as a Word file.
Articles could normally be between 3000 and 4000 words, though we do not wish to limit the size. As we print in black and white, tables, charts, graphs, images, etc. need to be compatible.
Contributors may mail their articles to the Chief Editor, Local Government Quarterly.
All India Institute of Local Self-Government M. N. Roy Human Development Campus, Plot No.6, 'F' Block, TPS Road No.12, Bandra (E), Mumbai – 400051, India. Tel : +91-22-2657 17 13 / 2657 17 14 / 2657 17 15 E-mail : [email protected] Fax : +91-22-2657 21 15
14 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits
Mahendra Sethi, Subhakanta Mohapatra
1. Introduction meet approximately 72 per cent of their total energy demand from coal, oil, Urban societies are facing rapid natural gas—the main contributors to global changes, be it degradation of air GHGs. People living in cities across the and water quality, depleting natural globe are expected to double by 2050, landcover and desertification, while the built-up area is expected to diminishing bio-diversity or the triple during the same period (Angel et onslaught of global warming. Cities al, 2005). Concurrently, over the last contribute to climate change (CC) and century, emissions from fossil fuel cities are affected by CC (IPCC, 2007; burning, that forms the biggest bunch UN-Habitat, 2011; IPCC, 2014). While of GHG basket, have mounted seven the discourse on the former focuses on folds from about 1000 mt CO2e in the study of greenhouse gas (GHG) 1920s to over 6500 mt CO2e in 2000. emissions and is integral to define As the United Nations points out, in mitigation strategies, the latter part of their review of linkages between CC the inter-relation attains greater and urbanization, the two pose to be the understanding in the realm of CC greatest challenges currently facing adaptation. A noteworthy research on humanity in the 21st Century, and the subject (World Bank, 2010), whose effects are converging in estimates the magnitude of this relation dangerous ways. (UN-Habitat,2011). by underscoring the urban stakes of anthropogenic consumption and Under such rapid global changes, emissions. It states that the 50 largest co-benefits approach helps us to world cities combined, rank 3rd in both align interventions that are at the population & GHG emissions, and 2nd crossroads of climate action, in GDP when compared with the development needs and improvement largest and wealthiest countries. Cities of local environment. The urban
15 climate co-benefits approach (refer an elaborate discussion on co-benefit Figure 1 for conceptual understanding) inclusive urban governance in section refers to the implementation of 5. Lastly, section 6 concludes with initiatives (policies, projects, etc.) that summarizing major findings, to steer simultaneously contribute to reducing future research and policy. the contribution to man-made global CC while solving local environmental 2. Rapid Changes in India: The case problems in cities, and in turn of urbanization and climate change potentially having other positive developmental impacts, such as Like many developing nations, improvements in citizen health, energy India too is experiencing rapid global security, income generation, etc. changes like urbanization and climate (UNU-IAS, 2013). change. For the first time since its independence in 1947, the absolute Possible Co‐benefits increase in population in urban areas is more than in rural areas (Census of Climate Change, Urban Societies India, 2011). With a total urban GHG / Carbon Emissions / Cities population of 377 million in India, urbanizati on increased from 27.81 per Figure 1: Conceptual diagram cent in 2001 to 31.16 per cent in 2011 showing research of co-benefits in the (MoUD, 2011). It took nearly 40 years inter-disciplines of Climate Change (1971-2011) for India's urban and Cities population to rise 270 million, but in future it may take half the time to add The aim of this paper is to pursue the same number. As per various theoretical and empirical understanding estimates, by 2030, India's urban in this inter-disciplinary area that could population will be 590 million have implications on local governance, (Mckinsey, 2010) to 600 million with India as the case in point. (MoUD, 2011), that is about 40 per cent Accordingly the paper posits the of the total and it would break-even research in the Indian context capturing with the rural population by 2039. rapid changes of urbanization and CC in Beyond this phenomenal increase of Section 2. This is followed by Section 3 urbanites, Indian population stands that reviews the normative role of urban against a huge risk of climate local bodies in India by reviewing the variability. The Government of India current state of the affairs. Section 4 has brought out CC impact assessment attempts to theoretically and report on India titled “Climate Change empirically determine the potential of Assessment and India: A 4x4 climate co-benefits while attaining Assessment” focusing on a sectoral and development objectives. This leads to
16 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 regional analysis for 2030. The key become two and half times from 1.5 t findings of the Report (MoEF, 2010a) CO2e (2007) to 5.6 t CO2e (2030-31). with regard to CC impact by 2030 in A superimposed time-series of urban India, among others are rise in annual population and GHG emissions, a mean surface air temperature from 1.7 scenario spanning over 80 years is to 2.0 degree centigrade, intensifying of plotted in Figure 2. It clearly indicates extreme daily maximum and minimum that akin to the globally evident temperatures, small increase in annual phenomenon, rapidly and dangerously precipitation, increase in diseases due to escalating economic growth and rise in temperature, extreme rainfall and urbanization point to an immediacy to flooding; rise in sea level along the limit global warming, a situation where Indian coast at the rate of about 1.3 mm cities play a pivotal role in dealing with per year on an average, reduction in CC. The above scientific evidence at forest vegetation and decrease in water the global level provides an essential availability. base- it is how cities choose to plan and manage their local development and Meanwhile the most recent environment will determine the pace of emission assessment of the Ministry of global warming. In this context, the Environment & Forests (MoEF), approach of generating and estimating Government of India, through its Indian climate co-benefit in urban India could Network of Climate Change be highly potential sum for its Assessment (INCCA) accounts India's sustainable and low-carbon future. GHG emissions at 1.72 bt CO2e in 2007 and ranks it 5th in the world, behind USA, China, EU and Russia (MoEF, 2010b). Recent assessments from CAIT 2.0 position India at fourth place with 2.35 bt CO2e (including landuse change and forestry) thus overtaking Figure 2: Scenarios of India's Russia. Interestingly, the amount of urbanization and GHG emissions emissions of USA and China are almost four times that of India. Another study Source: The time series analysis is supported by the Indian Government generated by the authors based on the (MoEF, 2009) predicts the emissions following data sources: over the next two decades, which on an average of 4 models presented, is bound 1. Urban Population data from to become three folds, from 1.72 bt TCPO (2012), 'Data Highlights CO2e (2007) to 5.22 bt CO2e (2030-31) (Urban) based on Census of while per capita emissions will also India', Town & Country Planning
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 17 Organisation, Government of of the provisions have a considerable India, New Delhi. Projections for influence on the mitigating capacities of a 2039 from MoUD 2011, 'India's city. But without actual functions, Urban Demographic Transition'. jurisdictions and so on devolved to them by line departments, parastatal 2. GHG emissions data (1994 & authorities, boards or trusts already 2007) from MoEF (2010b ): functioning in urban areas, the 74th CAA ' I n d i a : G re e n h o u s e G a s remains on paper, as only ten states have Emissions 2007', Indian Network transferred mandated functions (Jha and for Climate Change Assessment, Vaidya, 2011). The Act also provides for MoEF, India and forecasts for the constitution of the State Finance 2030/2031 averaged from five Commissions, every five years, to review models from MoEF (2009) :' financial administration by local India's GHG Emissions Profile' , governments and to suggest further Climate Modelling Forum, transfers. However, as observed by MoEF, India the 13th CFC, there are long delays in the constitution and delivery of final 3. The State of Urban Governance reports of the respective state finance in India commissions.
A sea change in local administration CC finds a narrow reference in occurred in 1993 when, in order to the national environmental policy decentralise power, the government framework (MoEF, 2006). Most of the conferred constitutional authority to the document clarifies India's position in ULBs through the 74th Constitutional the international CC debate rather than Amendment Act (CAA), making them to offering a nationwide integrated pillars for Tier-III governance, below the approach on the subject. This is tier of the centre and the states. As per the followed by the national-level climate the Central Finance Commission (CFC), plan adopted by central government, out of 7,935 census towns in India w h ich identifies eight missions: there are 3,842 ULBs in the form of National Solar Mission, National municipal corporations, municipalities, Mission for Enhanced Energy municipal councils, municipal boards, Efficiency, National Mission on nagar panchayats, town councils and Sustainable Habitat, National Water notified area councils exercising Mission, National Mission for authority, powers and functions delegated Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, by the state (CFC, 2010). The 74th CAA National Mission for a Green India, added Article 243 W (the 12th Schedule) National Mission for Sustainable defining 18 functions. As is evident, most Agriculture and National Mission on
18 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Strategic Knowledge for Climate and managerial capacities of ULBs. As Change (MoEF, 2008). Themes bearing noted by the Second Administrative strong potential to influence urban India Reforms Commission (SARC), are the national missions on sustainable capacity-building measures should not habitat, energy efficiency, solar be confined to the selected towns but mission, green India and strategic should be available for all cities/towns knowledge for CC. There are two (SARC, 2007). major concerns where the policy confines its outlook. First, it does not Most of the urban bodies are weak follow an integrated view but a squarely and encounter immense operation and sectoral approach to containing GHG management pressure, staff shortages, a emissions. Second, it is limited to the lack of sufficient capacities, equipment identification of the institutional and and technologies, and overlapping procedural mechanisms that will enable jurisdiction to deal with elementary the action plan to function, as such it is urban issues (Jha and Vaidya, 2011; virtually a vision paper. Siwach, 2011; Singh, 2011; Sethi, 2011). Expenditure on salaries and Meanwhile Jawaharlal Nehru wages accounts for 54.2 per cent of the National Urban Renewal Mission total municipal expenditure. In several (JNNURM), another major urban states, however, it is as high as 80.4 per initiative was introduced by national cent (India Infrastructure Report, government in 2005 to invest more than 2006). In addition, there are external Rs.1,00,000 crore in 65 cities for challenges such as the growing upgrading physical infrastructure, population, horizontal coordination, urban transport, housing for the po li tical allegiance and transparency, urban poor and good governance. The thus putting the mitigation of CC on the funding was based on a strategic backburner. Without any formidable planning document called 'The City financial powers of the ULBs, the Development Plan'. It is striking that current situation in India is bound to any aspect pertaining to CC mitigation remain unchanged. The problem is or adaptation was not a prerequisite for acute in states where octroi has been abolished with no significant this strategic vision. As in June 2012, initiatives taken to expand the 554 projects at a total cost of Rs 62,253 resource base (SARC, 2007; Thakur, crore have been sanctioned under 2011). This indicates limited leeway to the head of Urban Infrastructure push market-oriented mitigation and Governance (Press Information mechanisms. Along similar lines to Bureau, 2012). It is gradually being property tax reforms, the union understood that the mission has fallen government and the SFCs have short of building substantial technical
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 19 examined the issue of user charges also 4. Aligning Development and and recommended that appropriate Climate Co-benefits in Cities rates should be charged for the services provided by the municipal bodies. The CC is caused by complex union government has made it anthropogenic activities and requires mandatory for ULBs in the JNNURM multiple strategies for mitigation and to levy reasonable user charges with the adaptation. The co-benefits approach in objective that the full cost of operation CC has surfaced as a means to achieve and maintenance is collected within the more than one outcome with a single next five years (SARC, 2007). Thus any policy (IPCC, 2007; IPCC, 2014). additional user charges on account of Climate co-benefits have been pushing GHG-mitigating technology identified by various organizations as and practices within cities also need to win-win opportunities to tackle CC be levied directly on users. This with other positive outcomes (OECD, enforces the principle of 'polluter pays', 2003; MOEJ, 2008; Netherlands but for transparent management, any Environmental Assessment Agency, additional carbon tax, cess or levy 2009). The distinct feature about should be deposited in a separate generating co-benefits is that it 'escrow' account or a 'fund' and be used pro-actively envisages for positive to generate cobenefit projects or externalities in climate friendly capacity-building. projects, cutting through multi-sectoral and multi-level challenges. It is There is also a growing demand to generally accepted now that by use land banks, floor area ratio (FAR), linking policies in CC within various transferable development rights (TDR) development sectors like energy, and accommodation reservation as buildings, transportation, landuse and resources to make ULBs independent waste; coordinated efforts at the local (SARC, 2007; Chotani, 2011). There level can be fostered as an effective are voices emanating internationally intervention for pursuing co-benefits. and from within the country that seek At the same instance, these actions changes to the traditional role of ULBs are crucial to attain national and – from provider to facilitator (SARC, international goals of sustainable 2007; Mckinsey, 2010; Jain, 2011; development. As per the most widely Siwach, 2011). It is gradually being understood definition, urban climate realised that separation of the functions co-benefits approach refers to the of policy, regulation and operations is implementation of initiatives (policies, necessary, and policy and regulatory projects, etc.) that simultaneously functions can be with the government, contribute to reducing the contribution and the delivery functions can be to man-made global CC while solving assigned to the private sector. 20 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 local environmental problems in which is home to about one-third of cities, and in turn potentially na ti o na l population reportedly having other positive developmental contributed to about two-thirds of its impacts, such as improvements in GHG emissions (Sethi & Mohapatra citizen health, energy security, income 2013). Hence it could be argued with generation, etc. (UNU-IAS, 2013). little uncertainty that co-benefits Though many actions meant to approach is highly relevant to combat CC, inadvertently have other transforming societies burgeoning in local benefits, but the co-benefits th e developing countries, which approach seeks to purposefully have to address several challenges multiply and mainstream climate si mu lt an eously with limited technical co-benefits into the development know-how, financial resources and process. managerial capacities. Their cities particularly face an uphill task to The co-benefits theory is become sustainable. They are stressed constantly being tried and tested in with explosive population and the urban areas across the world. It has been growing need for basic services. This argued that if CC policies are to be natural increase in demand of resources implemented, they must match the local is simultaneous with degradation priorities of countries and cities of local environment, insanitary (Puppim de Oliveira, 2009). When it conditions, air, water and noise comes to cities in developing countries pollution and overlooking of best there is limited research and action, practices. whatever exists is dominated by adaptation paradigm (Adger et al., Environmental issues are least 2003; Revi, 2008), because those cities prioritized in cities of developing were polluting less and had less countries, where provision of basic capacity to adapt to climatic change. services, roads, shelter and jobs for the However, in recent years, cities in urban population takes centre stage. developing countries have increased These cities are engines of growth, their emissions enormously, through propelled by carbon spewing energy, growth in both urbanization and manufacturing sector or services sector income. For example consider the that thrive on high consumptive World's biggest urbanized nations – behavour. In both the cases, GHG China and India. In China, the largest footprints of urban settlements extend 35 cities contribute 40 per cent of the well beyond their administrative country's CO2 emissions, though they boundaries. On the top of this, these have only 18 per cent of the population cities have little resilience to impacts of (Dhakal, 2009). Similarly, urban India global warming, heat waves, floods,
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 21 storm surges, landslides, heat islands, One such detailed study of emissions etc. They also host large population of from India's urban sphere (Sethi & poor people living in the most Mohapatra 2013), reports potentially environmentally vulnerable locations huge contributions from sectors of (Satterthwaite, 2009). Responding to energy (59.26 per cent), iron & steel local environmental problems and the (9.66 per cent), cement (10.70 per cent) test of CC simultaneously, cities are in and transport (5.85 per cent), refer the right position to effectively Ta bl e 1. It further emphasizes that there assess multiple challenges and their is an urgent need to internalize climate trade-offs associated with rapid growth, strategies within the prevailing urban sustainable development, mitigating governance, which is only viable excessive emissions and adapting to through rational and systematic CC. The co-benefit approach tries to estimation of climate co-benefits in address this challenge, with integration urban areas. of mitigation and adaptation agendas, vertical and horizontal coordination 5. Co-benefits Incusive Urban between sectors and scales of Goverannce intervention. It attempts to internalize the global change policy within Co-benefits in a city is relevant to prevailing development, environmental many of activities and governance portfolios, policy instruments, research matters, such as public health, transport, discourse and governance mechanisms, land use, development controls, local through innovative strategies and taxes, waste management and public actions. It also helps accure benefits parks, which the local bodies are from possible locked in emissions. A already committed to. In order to well determined application of co- explore co-benefits inclusive urban benefit approach is still at an incipient governance, the most extensively stage in India. Though the Government mandated framework globally by UN duly acknowledges it within its national Habitat and the OECD is followed. This climate policy i.e. National Action Plan reviews different modes of governance for Climate Change, there seems – that is, through self-governance, limited understanding to analyze provision, regulation and enabling potential climate co-benefits in urban across various sectors, as discussed in area. detail below and recommends suitable policy mechanisms therein. Potential climate co-benefits across various sectors in an urban 5 .1 Electricity generation area could be assessed/gauged by Electricity generation from fossil disaggregation of actual emissions. fuels is largely under the control of the
22 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Table 1 : Estimation of potential urban contributions to national GHG emissions
GHG Sectoral Potential urban Urban India S.N Emissions component of total Sector Justifications contributions Mt sectoral o. Mt CO2e Urban India CO2e 2007 emission (%) 2007 emission (%)
1 Electricity 719.3 Predominantly urban 719.3 100 59.26 87% is road based, 57.44% of total motor vehicles in the country owned in urban 2 Transport 142 households 70.98 50.0 5.85 Urban households form 33.29% of the total indian 3 Residential * 137.8 households 45.88 33.3 3.78 Other Petroleum refining is a 4 Energy+ 100.9 peri-urban phenomenon. 33.85 33.6 2.79 5 Cement 129.9 Predominantly urban 129.92 100.0 10.70 6 Iron & Steel 117.3 Predominantly urban 117.32 100.0 9.66 Other Other metal and chemical 7 Industry^ 165.3 is urban 38.92 23.5 3.21 8 Agriculture 334.4 Non-urban 0 0.0 0.00 Urban emissions considered in the 9 Waste 57.73 assessment by INCAA 57.73 100.0 4.76 10 LULUCF -177 0 0.0 0.00 TOTAL 1728 1213.9 70.3 100.00 Source: Sethi & Mohapatra 2013 based on data from ‘India: Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007’, Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment, MoEF 2010b and similar frameworks in Cities & Climate (UN Habitat 2011) derived from Barker et al 2007 and Satterthwaite 2008 * Residential emissions also include Commercial sector +Other energy includes Petroleum Refining and Solid Fuel Manufacturing, Agriculture & Fisheries, Fugitive Emissions ^Other industries comprising of pulp/paper, leather, textiles, food processing , mining and quarrying, and non specific industries comprising of rubber, plastic, watches, clocks, transport equipment, furniture etc.
National Thermal Power Corporation, in the case of Delhi Jindal Plant (Down and transmitted and regulated to E arth, 2012). India has plans to through the Power Grid Corporation enhance its thermal power-plant and Central Electricity Agency, capacity significantly to produce respectively, all being centralised 75,785 MW in the base-case scenario public entities. The complete system is by 2017 (Government of India, 2012). subject to centre-state negotiations with Smart grids, power reforms to reduce minimal representation of the ULBs. generation, and transmission losses Other than limited mandate and can prove to be good governance finances on power, owing to direct mechanisms. A reduction in fossil-fuel carbon emissions and nuisance value, subsidies, taxes or carbon charges on municipal governments find it difficult fossil fuels, renewable energy to even secure lands to install WTE obligations and loans on renewable plants within their jurisdiction, as seen energy production are some
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 23 international best practices (World emissions by 2007 (SARC, 2007). B a n k , 2 0 0 9 ) . A n a d d i t i o n a l Many metropolitans, such as consideration of 18,500 MW kept in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, the base-case scenario for 2017 Mumbai, Kochi, Jaipur and Pimpri- through renewable sources will be a Chinchwad, are gradually shifting to major thrust to reduce emissions. m as s- transit metros, bus-rapid transit, The devolution of distribution functions light rail systems and so on. Further to ULBs or regulatory powers can emphasis is needed on mandatory fuel strengthen their position. The cap and economy, biofuel blending and CO2 trade mechanism between states where standards for road transport, taxes on ULBs also have a stake will trigger low- vehicle purchase, registration, motor carbon technologies and practices, and fuels or roads, parking pricing, and complete the demand and supply side of investment in public and land-use the sector. integrated transport (World Bank, 2009; Ahmed and Choi, 2010). Integrated 5.2 Transport land-use planning with transit corridors by assigning development hubs Urban local bodies play a and allocating incentive zoning as significant role in the mitigation of executed in Sau Paulo, Hong Kong and carbon emissions arising from motor Shanghai can result in a positive shift transport. In many Indian cities to w ard s public transport and, thereby, there are sector-specific parastatal reducing carbon emissions, as against agencies such as the transport indiscriminately permitting mixed corporation/undertaking to manage city land-use along the entire corridor as traffic and bus services. Analysis of proposed in the Master Plan of Delhi. selected Indian cities suggests that as The national guidelines on this issue the municipal area expands from 40 sq. recommend setting up Urban Transport km to 550 sq. km, the overall city Authorities/Unified Metropolitan emissions rise from 1 million tons of Transport Authorities in million-plus CO2 to over 7 million tons of CO2, cities in India (MoUD, 2006). At thereby, showing a strong correlation present, such authorities have been between city size and fuel emissions constituted in a couple of metropolitans (ICLEI, 2009). The case of the capital only, and their effectiveness has to be city has seen a reduction in direct CO2 critically reviewed vis-à-vis the cost of emissions from public transport after jeopardising the authority of the ULBs. the fuel switch to natural gas, and as the Central Road Research Institute study 5.3 Residential and commercial showed, Delhi Metro saved 16,60,000 vehicle km and 2275 tons of GHG Emissions in this sector are
24 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 representative of the built habitat an renewal programme, has hardly urban society lives in, and also how contributed to brownfield development. cities choose to plan and govern Allocating higher FAR and tradable themselves. Indian cities during 2001- development rights, and moderating 11 have grown by 44 per cent from property tax in inner areas can result in natural population growth, and 56 per counter sprawl. cent from rural–urban migration and changes in boundary definitions As reported recently, 10.73 per (TCPO, 2012). In the absence of any cent of houses in India are either vacant policy or regulatory mechanism to or locked, and most of this is under the permit or limit the movement of people fresh housing stock created in India across state or local jurisdictions, du ri ng the last decade (Ministry of the municipal bodies in India have H o u si ng & Urban Poverty Alleviation, no power to control migration. 20 1 2) . T he loc al authority needs As the density increases there is a invigorate schemes for rental housing, concentration of services, and people industrial housing, studio apartments use more public and non-motorised and transient housing across the forms of transport, reducing the socioeconomic spectrum. The urgent transportation energy use per capita. need to regulate the real-estate sector Good land-use policies can encourage has been recommended time and again this trend. European cities tend to (S A R C , 2 007; Revi, 2008) and will go a be more compact with greater reliance long way in achieving low-carbon on public transport (Dodman, 2009). habitations. International discourse The adjacency of residential and mandates appliance standards and commercial areas and mixed land-use labelling, building codes and development are central to this theme. certification, demand-side management Analysis of ICLEI data for 41 Indian programmes, public-sector leadership cities shows that as city density programmes including e-procurement, increases from 2,500 to 25,000 per sq. and incentives for energy service km, carbon emissions rise from 1 to 7.5 companies (World Bank, 2009). million tons of CO2 while per capita Further, municipal building bylaws carbon emissions decline from 1 to 0.75 should incorporate power-conservation tons of CO2, thus showing benefits on measures. In this regard, mandatory account of agglomeration and the application of the Energy Conservation sharing of infrastructure. Paradoxically, Building Code (ECBC) all over India density is hardly exercised as a planning is still pending. The Green Rating tool by authorities in India to shape for Integrated Habitat Assessment cohesive and compact habitations. (GRIHA), developed jointly by the Even JNNURM, essentially an urban Energy and Resources Institute and the
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 25 Ministry of New and Renewable with monitoring ambient air quality Energy of the Government of India, is a or carbon emissions, because green building 'design evaluation environmental functions are still with system' and is suitable for all kinds of the respective state pollution-control building in different climatic zones of boards. This reflects a limited and the country. According to GRIHA it is fragmented hold of the government, and estimated that the average green calls for complete devolution of building reduces energy use by more managerial powers upon ULBs. than 30 per cent, consumes less water and limits the waste sent to landfill sites Global best practices recommend (GRIHA, 2012). provision of benchmark information, performance standards, subsidies, tax 5.4 Industry credits, tradable permits and voluntary agreements (World Bank, 2009). The With the emergence of the tertiary first ever Emission Trading System (services) sector in the last few decades, was initiated in Tokyo in 2010 a reverse trend of disagglomeration of (PADECO report cited in UN Habitat, industries to the periphery or outside the 2011) with a target to reduce CO2 city limits has started. In the large emissions by 25 per cent below 2000 metropolitan cities, local government is levels by 2020. Like power generation, under constant pressure of judiciary, it is high time that industries in citizen groups, non-governmental urban areas are regulated by a cap organisations (NGOs) and so on to and trade market mechanism with provide a clean and green environment the government and citizen groups for the growing middle-income collectively acting as watchdogs. majority, which is educated, Measurement and monitoring by the environment conscious and earns from ULBs will be a fundamental step in this the service industries. As such, the direction. ground reality of the sector from a governance and policy perspective is 5.5 Waste quite complex and confusing. Many cities housing 'heavy industry', such as Urban local bodies worldwide and iron and steel plants, locomotives and in India have been constituted to cement, such as Bhilai, Tatanagar and provide basic services of sanitation. The Rourkela, are governed by the industrial very municipal act bestows the onus of authorities themselves. Lately, Special managing city sewers, water logging Economic Zones have also been and garbage on these authorities. In empowered for planning, provisioning India, this has been strengthened by the infrastructure and maintenance, but not Municipal Solid Waste Rules 2000
26 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 under the Environmental Protection Act management issues in local governance 1986, by which the responsibility to mandates that (i) in all towns and cities manage solid waste by scientific with a population above 0.1 million the planning and management, and the possibility of taking up public–private setting up of landfill sites and treatment partnership (PPP) projects for the plants, is delegated to the municipal collection and disposal of garbage may bodies. However, as far as capacities are be explored; after (ii) creating suitable concerned, the municipal authorities capacities to manage contracts; (iii) have limited human, material and municipal bylaws/rules should provide financial resources to scientifically for the segregation of waste into manage waste. It is surprising to note definite categories based on its manner that many local bodies lack the basic of final disposal; and (iv) special solid- knowledge and equipment to measure waste management charges should be and handle waste. Though the levied on units generating large generation of waste is increasing, it is amounts of solid waste. Thus a difficult to agree that mitigation balanced, enabling and regulatory capacities are developing at the same approach seems most appropriate for pace. the Indian case.
Global think tanks suggest 5.6 Land use, land-use change and financial incentives for improved waste forestry and waste-water management, renewable energy incentives or The sector has been understood obligations, and waste-management for urban forestry and agriculture, regulations (World Bank, 2009). though many cities have intermittent Effective waste management is yet significant open lands available. dependent on how well cities garner The local governance is generally alliances between diverse stakeholders not supportive to actually enhance who are active in the field, such as tree cover or promote rooftop private entrepreneurs, NGOs, citizen agriculture/gardening as seen in many groups and the municipal government European settlements. Yet vast potential itself. The carbon reclaimed in the WTE exists: as per the recent figures, green practices, though small, will give cover in Delhi has increased from 26 sq. fourfold benefits by halving the GHG km in 1997 to about 296.20 sq. km in emissions from waste while doubling 2009 (Forest Survey of India, 2011) as a energy production from the present result of an eco joint force being set up. levels, so this promises significant This again offers significant cobenefits opportunities in the future. The SARC as it enhances the mitigation capacities recommendations for solid waste of the urban system, reduces the heat-
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 27 island effect and thereby limits the a n d have let squatter settlements, slums use of air-conditioning in buildings and unplanned colonies to come up, and vehicles, and also diminishes with no local parks and gardens. ULBs transportation emissions resulting from already under acute urbanization the haulage of food into cities from pressure to save precious vacant plots villages. The augmentation of the for municipal and sociocultural assimilative capacities to local carbon functions find urban greenery a liability emissions creates additional benefits. rather than an opportunity. Recently, metropolitan cities like Delhi have Statutory bodies involved in plan shown the way and devolved municipal preparation have been indulgent in functions to maintain city parks to local acquiring cheaply available lands for wards and welfare associations. the long-term planning process and However, this is more to reduce the have thereby driven suburbanisation, responsibility of the government than to horizontal sprawls and change in land empower grassroots institutions. use and land cover. There is no Additionally, all such functions need to incentive to citizens to save their land be made financially sustainable by for environmental provisions and to go integrating them with taxes or market vertical, to reduce unnecessary travel mechanisms that are needed in the time and to enjoy a better lifestyle. As power and industry sectors. Thus there Indian cities grow from 100, 500, 1,000, is a far greater role to be played by 2,000 to 3,000 sq. km, the average trip ULBs in this sector through regulation length increases from 3, 6.5, 7, 10 to 12 and facilitation, specifically in active km, respectively (MoUD, 2008). land-use planning. Depending upon city size, the policy for any new planned development seeks 6. Conclusion 12–25 per cent under recreation (Urban Development Plan and Formulation The research underscores the fact Guidelines India, 1996), and many that in the light of economic planned cities do have sufficient development, growing urbanisation recreation areas with a multitier and GHG emissions, the relevance of hierarchy of open spaces. As such, cities and local governance cannot be there is much potential through green undermined. There are definite management to mitigate carbon drawbacks in prevailing governance emissions if tackled earnestly. mechanisms and ill-preparedness to mitigate CC. While urban areas Lower cobenefits exist in cities contribute to almost two-thirds of where the planning authorities were national GDP and 70.3 per cent of unable to meet the development pace, national GHG emissions, they have
28 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 limited resources – merely 1.59 per cent indicates that the steps to be taken of GDP as total expenditure on urban vary drastically across sectors. Most infrastructure. Further, the capacities of interventions need to be market ULBs are deeply imperilled on account oriented with trading systems, where of the inadequate devolution of powers. the government acts as the regulator While electricity generation from only, as in the case of industry, power thermal power plants is the chief and LULUCF. A mix of authoritative contributor of emissions (about 60 per and provision based measures (along cent), followed by the cement, and iron with the private sector and civil society and steel industries (about 10 per cent organisations), as in case of the each), the ULBs have no or restricted transport and waste sector, or a blend of mandate over these subjects. In spite restricting and enabling mechanisms of the clear directions of the 74th CAA are required to control indiscriminate and recommendations made by various urban sprawl. Yet one aspect is commissions, the states have done common; that all sectors require equally little to provide local autonomy to the strong communication, participation ULBs to deal with sources or activities and incentives to stakeholders to move that contribute to GHG emissions and forward on low-carbon pathways. The hence influence CC. The government's research, which is the first of its kind, policy on the subject lacks sectoral presents the baseline case for assessing integration, financing and market- potential climate co-beenfits in an based instruments to control GHG increasingly urbanising India, placing a emissions. Mitigation of CC was also strong emphasis on estimating and absent in the biggest government managing the GHG burden for investment and reforms scheme in a pp ropriate urban governance. The the urban sector – the JNNURM. future of urban GHG emissions in India Nonetheless, mitigation of CC provides depends hugely on how well various a good opportunity for cities to revisit levels of the federal system – centre, their energy needs, regulations, states and local bodies – respond to provisions and enabling mechanisms, the call on CC, and exercise powers and also to review waste-management and share collective responsibilities and land-use/land-cover management among themselves. It is an appropriate practices. It is also imperative to further time for the ULBs to stand up for research on urban-associated GHG innovative regulatory and market-based emissions from the perspective of the governance, while the states devolve consumption pattern. larger city-planning and management functions to these constitutional bodies, Application of co-benefit and the national-level government approach to urban governance in India responds to a sharpening of policy,
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 29 mustering international support and (eds) Climate Change 2007: financial commitments for local-level Mitigation, Contribution of action. Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the References Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,(Cambridge and 1. Adger, W.N., Huq, S., Brown, K., New York: Cambridge University Conway, D., Hulme, M., (2003). Press) 25–93, http://www.ipcc.ch/ Adaptation to climate change in pdf/assessmentreport/ar4/wg3/ar4 the developing world. Progress in _wg3_full_report.pdf, last Development Studies 3 (3), accessed October 7, 2012. 179e195. 5. Census of India (2011), 2. Ahmed, S. and Choi, M.J. (2010), Provisional Population Totals - Urban India and Climate Change 2011, Paper–II, Vol– II, (New Mitigation Strategies towards Delhi: Census of India), p.1 Inclusive Growth, Theoretical and Empirical Research in Urban 6. CFC (2010), Local Governance' management, 6, 15, 60–73 in Report of Thirteenth Central Finance Commission (New Delhi: 3. Angel, Shlomo et al (2005), The Government of India), pp. Dynamics of Global Urban 149–185. Expansion; World Bank, Washington D.C. 7. Chotani, M.L., (2011), Managing Urban Land: Legislative and 4. Barker T., I. Bashmakov, L. Planning Measures in Listed Bernstein, J. E. Bogner, P. R. papers of 59th National Town and Bosch, R. Dave, O. R. Davidson, Country Planning Congress, B. S. Fisher, S. Gupta, K. Halsnæs, Panchkula, Haryana on Land as G. J. Heij, S. Kahn Ribeiro, S. R e s o u r c e f o r U r b a n Kobayashi, M. D. Levine, D. L. Development, pp. 294–302. Martino, O. Masera, B. Metz, L. A. Meyer, G.-J. Nabuurs, A. Najam, 8. Dhakal, S., 2009. Urban energy N. Nakicenovic, H.-H. Rogner, J. use and carbon emissions from Roy, J. Sathaye, R. Schock, P. cities in China and policy Shukla, R. E. H. Sims, P. Smith, D. implications. Energy Policy 37 A. Tirpak, D. Urge-Vorsatz and D. (11), 4208e4219 Zhou (2007) 'Technical summary', in B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P. R. 9. Dodman, D (2009), Urban Form, Bosch, R. Dave and L. A. Meyer Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
30 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Climate Vulnerability in: Indian Development & Finance Population Dynamics and Corporation Climate Change, edited by J.M.Guzmán, G. Martine, G. 16. IPCC (2007), Climate Change: McGranahan, D. Schensul and C. Synthesis Report 4h Assessment Tacoli. New York: United Nations Report. Cambridge University Population Fund (UNFPA); Press, Cambridge, United London: IIED, Pp 64-79 Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 10. Down to Earth (2012) Homepage (New Delhi: Centre for Science 17. IPCC, 2014: Climate Change and Environment). 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working 11. Envision Tomorrow (2014); Group III to the Fifth Assessment doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2009.05.020 Report . Cambridge University · Forest Survey of India (2011) Press, Cambridge, United India Report (New Delhi: Kingdom and New York, NY, Ministry of Environment and USA. Forests), pp. 118–121 18. Jain, A.K. (2011), Urban 12. Government of India (2012) challenges for India and Report of The Working Group on Revisiting Urban Planning, Power for Twelfth Plan 2012–17 Nagarlok, XLIII, 3, 39–50. (New Delhi: Ministry of Power), p. 14. 19. Jha, G. and Vaidya, C. (2011) Role of Urban Local Bodies in Service 13. GRIHA (2012) Green Rating for Provision and Urban Economic Integrated Habitat Assessment, D e v e l o p m e n t : I s s u e s i n http://www.grihaindia.org/, date Strengthening their Institutional accessed on September 18, 2012. Capabilities, Nagarlok, XLIII, 3, 1–38. 14. ICLEI (2009) Energy and Carbon Emissions Profiles of 54 South 20. Mckinsey (2010) India's Urban Asian Cities (New Delhi: Awakening: Building Inclusive International Council for Local Cities Sustaining Economic Environmental Initiatives). Growth (New Delhi: Mckinsey Global Institute), 13-35 15. India Infrastructure Report (2006) 'Urban Infrastructure' in India 21. Ministry of Housing and Urban Infrastructure Report (New Delhi: Poverty Alleviation (2012) Report
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 31 of the Technical Group on Urban 28. MoUD (2008), Study on Traffic Housing Shortage (TG-12), and Transportation Policies and 2012–17 (New Delhi: Government Strategies in Urban Areas in India of India), p. 14. (New Delhi: Ministry of Urban Development), p. 67. 22. MoEF (2006) National Environment Policy (New Delhi: Ministry of 29. MoUD (2006), National Urban Environment and Forests, Transportation Policy (New Government of India), pp. 41–43. Delhi: Ministry of Urban Development) 23. MoEF (2008) National Action Plan for Climate Change (New 30. MoUD (2011) India's Urban Delhi: Ministry of Environment Demographic Transition : The 2011 and Forests, Government of Census Results-Provisional (New India), pp. 4–7 Delhi: JNNURM Directorate and National Institute of Urban Affairs), 24. MoEF (2009) India's GHG Emissions 2-4 Profile (New Delhi: Climate Modeling Forum), p. 9 31. Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, (2009). Co- 25. MoEF (2010a), Climate Change and benefits of Climate Policy. India: A 4X4 Assessment – A Bilthoven, Netherlands. Report. Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030s, (New Delhi: Indian Network 32. OECD, (2003). The Forgotten for Climate Change Assessment, Benefits of Climate Change Ministry of Environment & Mitigation: Innovation, Technological Forests), 129-140. Leapfrogging, Employment, and Sustainable Development. OECD, 26. MoEF (2010b), India: Greenhouse Paris Gas Emissions 2007 (New Delhi: Indian Network for Climate 33. Press Information Bureau (2012) Change Assessment, Ministry of 'JNNURM Triggers Investments Environment & Forests), 1-54 in Urban Infrastructure Sector', http://pib.nic.in released on 27. M O E J , M i n i s t r y o f t h e October 11, 2012, date accessed Environment, Japan, (2008). The on October 15, 2012. Co-benefits Approach for GHG Emission Reduction Projects. 34. Puppim de Oliveira, J.A., 2009. The MOEJ, Tokyo. implementation of climate change related policies at the subnational
32 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 level: an analysis of three countries. Compensation Issues, Indian Habitat International 33 (3), Valuer, XLIII, 4, 443–448. 253e259. 41. Singh, S. (2011) Urban Governance 35. Revi, A. (2008), Climate Change and the Role of Citizen Risk: An Adaptation and Mitigation Participation- A Case of Small and Agenda for Indian Cities, Medium Towns of India, Urban Environment and Urbanisation, 20, India, 31, 1, 138–153. 1, 207–229 42. Siwach, R. (2011) Capacity 36. SARC (2007) 6th Report: Local Building of Urban local Bodies Governance (New Delhi: for Urban Development: Some Government of India), pp. 198–309. Emerging Areas for NGO Intervention, Urban India, 31, 1, 37. Satterthwaite D (2008) Cities' 15–31 Contribution to Global Warming: Notes on the Allocation of 43. TCPO (2012) Data Highlights Greenhouse Gas Emissions, (Urban) based on Census of India, Environment & Urbanization. (New Delhi: Town & Country Vol 20 (2), 539-549. Planning Organisation), 1-19
38. Satterthwaite D., (2009) The 44. Thakur, S. (2011) Evaluating the implications of population growth Financial Performance of Indian and urbanization for climate change, Cities: A Diagnostic Report, Environment and Urbanization Urban India, 31, 2, 90–110. October 2009 Vol. 21(2), 545-567. 45. UNHabitat (2011), Cities and 39. Sethi M. and Mohapatra S., Climate Change: Global Report Governance framework to mitigate on Human Settlements, UNCHS climate change: challenges in Publication; Earthscan; London, urbanising India. in governance Washington D.C. approaches to mitigation of and adaptation to climate change in Asia 46. UNU-IAS (2013), Urban (ed. Huong, H. and Dhakal, T.N.), Development with Climate Co- Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, Benefits: Aligning Climate, UK, (2013), pp. 200-230. Environmental and Other Development Goals in Cities. 40. Sethi, M. (2011) Alternative Yokohama : United Nations Perspective for Land Planning in University Institute of Advanced Today's Context- Minimising Studies
Local Governance During Global Change - Aligning Development and Climate Co-benefits. 33 Reducing Vulnerabilities to 47. Urban Development Plan and Disasters (Washington D.C.: Formulation Guidelines India World Bank), p. 18. (1996) (New Delhi: Ministry of Urban Development & Poverty 49. World Bank (2010), Cities And Alleviation), p. 147. Climate Change: An Urgent Agenda, New York 48. World Bank (2009) Climate Resilient Cities – A Primer on
34 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field
Anita Nuna
Introduction present in schools. The chances of girls' dropping out of school decrease with It is generally agreed by policy women teachers' presence in school makers, planners and researchers that (Bista, 2008: 87). women teachers are instrumental not only in increasing enrolment of girl The lack of women teachers in students but also in leaving a positive schools, particularly in remote rural influence on their retention, performance locations has been a major issue of and personality development. Scholars concern for a long time before like Kirk are particularly enthusiastic educational planners and policy makers. about such views. Kirk believes that the Each national development plan presence of women teachers in schools is expressed concern about increasing increasingly important as they perform the number of women teachers in an instrumental role in facilitating girls' schools. Almost every committee and education. She further adds that commission set up by the government of availability of women teachers has India after Independence invariably particular relevance in the South Asian considered the recruitment of women context where the gender gap in school teachers as a powerful strategy for enrolment and retention remains improving girls' education. The National significant (Kirk, 2008:4). Some Committee on Women's Education literature tends to suggest that women (1959) while analyzing the problems in teachers are positive role models as well educational development of girls and as important motivating factors for women clearly noted a major obstacle in patriarchal communities and parents to the way of promoting girls' education is enroll girls in schools (Ashraf, 2008: 34). lack of women teachers. Hence, it Both parents and girls feel safe and strongly stressed on the need to initiate comfortable when women teachers are special measures that motivate women
35 from urban areas to accept posts of the presence of women teachers, teachers in rural schools. It aspired to especially in rural areas. These make provisions of special allowances, recommendations are invariably residential quarters for women teachers considered in the country's five year serving in rural areas near the school and development plans. In the First Five-Year reforming recruitment rules such as Plan (1951-56) improvements in relaxation in the upper age limit at t eachers' pay scale and conditions of least up to 40 or 45 years for women service were provided for. In the Second candidates for their entry as school Plan, states were given assistance to teachers. Another Committee set up by provide free accommodation for women the government of India in 1963 to look teachers in rural areas, stipends for into the causes of lack of public support training of women teachers, construction particularly in rural areas, for girl's of hostels in secondary schools for girls, education and to enlist public co- and stipends for high school students to operation, emphasized the need to take up teaching. The Sixth and the provide residential accommodation to Seventh Five-Year Plans particularly women teachers near the school stressed on appointment of women premises. The report of the Education teachers in rural areas to encourage girls' Commission (1964-66) emphasized that education. there should be a rule to have at least one woman teacher on the school staff and The 1980s marked the beginning of where the number of girls is large, at more positive efforts geared towards least one woman teacher for every 30 increasing the number of women girls. Further, it recommended that teachers in the country. Policy makers' opportunity be given to women teachers attention was drawn towards the need for part-time employment; residential to recruit more and more women accommodation be given particularly in teachers in schools for achieving the rural areas and special allowances for goal of Universal Elementary Education women teachers for working in rural (UEE). The National Policy on areas. It also suggested that the basis of Education (NPE) 1986, as revised in recruitment of women teachers needs to 1992 and its Programme of Action be widened and their working (POA) recommended that at least 50 conditions should be made more percent of seats be reserved for women attractive. Moreover, women teachers, candidates in the recruitment policy of as far as possible, should be posted in or school teachers. This belief is also near their own villages (GOI, 1966). reflected in other programmes launched to achieve the goal of UEE. For instance, Clearly, the entire discourse on Operation Blackboard scheme, launched girls' education is focused on increasing as a centrally sponsored scheme, laid
36 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 emphasis on the principle that every Survey, 2012 data with regard to women school must have at least two teachers teachers' strength in rural schools shows and one of them should be a woman. The that the percentage of women teachers to Lok Jumbish project in Rajasthan too total teachers in rural areas at the primary emphasized on ensuring greater stage, is as high as 83.34% in Goa; involvement of women teachers in rural 72.46% in Daman and Diu; 44.31% in schools by providing relaxation in G uja ra t; 44.38% in Dadra & Nagar the upper age limit and essential Haveli and as low as 29.39% in Madhya qualification required for women Pradesh and 28.13 % in Rajasthan. Their candidates, for entry into service as strength decreases at successive school school teachers. Despite all these stages across states in the region (Table initiatives, schools in the rural and 1). Analysis of data also indicates that remote locations continue to face acute there was only a marginal increase in the shortage of women teachers in many proportion of women teachers in rural states. For instance, the analysis of area schools during 2002-2009. Eighth All India School Education
Table 1: School category wise percentage of women teachers (including para-teachers) in rural area schools (All Communities) in September 2002 and September 2009
Upper Primary Secondary Higher Secondary India/States/UTs Primary Schools Schools Schools Schools 2002 2009 2002 2009 2002 2009 2002 2009 1 Goa 73.41 83.34 65.48 70.61 56.50 62.36 50.41 55.35 2 Gujarat 43.29 44.31 43.60 46.62 14.77 22.06 20.45 25.69 3 Madhya Pradesh 22.20 29.39 22.59 31.92 22.27 35.02 20.60 31.32 4 Maharashtra 32.27 34.99 31.55 37.04 16.05 20.71 16.03 18.92 5 Rajasthan 26.07 28.13 20.81 27.11 14.44 19.20 12.22 17.56 6 D. & N. Haveli 33.95 44.38 44.70 52.30 37.37 46.06 36.73 45.28 7 Daman & Diu 60.90 72.46 39.08 56.25 34.51 41.94 42.22 42.73
Source: Eighth All India School Education Survey, Flash Statistics, NCERT, New Delhi, 2012.
Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field. 37 Main Thrust of the Previous Studies of women teachers in most places. Transport facilities, security, lack of toilet Some scholars argued that teachers facilities are some of the other major working in rural areas have to work issues affecting the shortage of women under difficult and pitiable conditions teachers in rural areas. which de-motivates them. Kapoor (1983) studied provisions and utilization The Present Study of available facilities in primary schools of Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh. The presence of women teachers in He found that the basic facilities like schools is seen as one of the most crucial drinking water and sanitation were factors in promoting girls' education. It is inadequate in schools. Studies conducted equally important that women teachers by other scholars like Matto and Shekhar have a congenial environment and their (1992) and Mazumdar (1985) also problems, if any, receive due attention confirmed that primary schools lacked and resolution so that they can perform even minimum essential facilities. their roles effectively. With this Chalam (1992) also found that rural perspective in view, a study was schools have inadequate physical undertaken by the author. In this study, facilities as compared to urban schools. central focus was laid on analyzing the Lack of infrastructure facilities in schools problems confronted by women teachers de-motivates teachers and discourages while working in upper primary schools them from working in rural areas. Arora located in rural areas across the country and Chopra (1999) conducted a study on as perceived by them and on action working conditions of primary school points to be considered to address these teachers in Madhya Pradesh. They found problems. The findings of the study that a majority of teachers have to travel cannot be generalized to the general up to 3 km. and even more to reach their population of women teachers across schools due to lack of transport facility in levels and regions, but they do provide rural areas. A study on women teachers some insights into the problems faced by in rural India supported by INC, MHRD women teachers especially in rural areas and UNESCO (2001) reveals that there that require attention. are large inter – state variations in the share of women teachers in general and Research Questions in rural areas in particular. The The study focuses on two recruitment policy of states in terms of questions: (i) Whether women teachers qualifications required, reservation of confront any problem while working in seats for women candidates and the rural area schools? If yes, what are these selection criteria/process is one of the problems and how do they act as de- most critical factors affecting the number motivating factors for the women
38 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 teachers. (ii) What actions women as existing in states and union territories teachers perceive are required to be taken of the Western region; special incentives to address these problems? to work in rural areas; and discrimination / difficulties faced, if any, for being a Methodology woman teacher while working in rural areas. This paper is based on an analysis of quantitative as well as qualitative Sample of the Study empirical evidences collected under the research project entitled 'A Study of The study initially included 6700 Perceptions of Women Teachers randomly selected teachers which is Working in Rural Areas on Problems around 10 percent of the total women Confronting Them'. Data was collected teachers working in rural area upper mainly through a semi-structured primary schools in the entire Western questionnaire which was administered region as shown in the Seventh All on a sample of 6700 upper primary rural India School Education Survey (2005). school women teachers randomly Out of these teachers only 1070 selected from all the states and UTs returned the completed questionnaires. falling in the Western region of the As five questionnaires were incomplete country. Of these only 1070 teachers the final analysis has been done based responded. Later, qualitative responses on 1065 questionnaires which were were also collected through a face-to- received from Goa, Gujarat, Madhya face interaction with a group of 55 Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, women teachers selected out of those Dadra & Nagar Haveli & Daman and who had sent in their responses to the Diu. These women teachers were questionnaire, in a three day seminar working in government rural schools organized for this specific purpose. handling classes VI-VIII/V-VII. The study covered women teachers Variables Studied teaching upper primary classes based Through the questionnaire, the on the assumption that at the primary information was collected on such school stage the parents may not have parameters as distance to be traveled by very strong reservation to send their girl teachers; mode of transport used; money child to a school having no women spent in commuting; transport facilities; teachers, as at that stage children are residential accommodation; childcare considered to be kids. However, as the facilities; gender discrimination; girls grow up, parents become very infrastructure facilities in schools; apprehensive about sending their girl recruitment, posting, transfer and child to upper primary or higher level promotional policies for women teachers schools if the school has only male
Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field. 39 teachers. The women teachers involved Analysis and Discussion in this study were teaching in schools which were only for girls, only for boys The analysis begins with a brief and also co-educational. introduction to the basic information about the women teachers whose Collection of Data voices have been included in the analysis. Out of the total 1,065 teacher A structured questionnaire was respondents, majority (47%) were in developed and the copies of the the age group 40-50; followed by 33% questionnaire were sent to the in age group 30-40; and 20% in age Education Departments of all the states group 20-30. Similarly, a large in the Western region for distribution proportion of teachers (52%) were among women teachers working in holding senior secondary school rural areas handling classes VI-VIII. A certificate with teacher training total of 1,070 filled-in questionnaires certificate, followed by 30% who were were directly received from women graduates with B.Ed qualification. 18% teachers from states and union had post graduate qualification with territories in the western region. 1065 B.Ed. A total of 157 (14.7%) teachers of these filled up questionnaires were were working in schools only for girls; analyzed State-wise. After having 91(8.54%) in only boys schools; and received the responses from women 817 (76.7%) in co-education schools. teachers, a three-day seminar was Out of the total 1,065 respondents, 724 organized for face-to-face interaction (67.98%) reported that their head with 55 teachers selected on the basis of teachers were male and 341(32.02%) the scrutiny of responses. Selection of had female heads in their schools. teachers for participation in the seminar was done on the basis of the quality of Problems faced by Women Teachers their responses. During the three day Based on experiences of women seminar, further discussion took place teachers, the analysis found that lack on the identified problems and actions of transportation facilities except in the to be taken to tackle these problems. union territory of Daman & Diu; and Problems/difficulties confronting infrastructure facilities such as toilets, women teachers while working in rural staff rooms, drinking water, boundary areas are arranged according to their walls and security in schools are weightage (percentages). Data are common major problems confronting analyzed state wise, but findings are women teachers working in rural areas. interpreted and discussed collectively Women teachers working in rural areas for the entire region. confront transportation problems
40 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 mainly due to the fact that bus timings However, some states in the region for do not match with the school timings. instance, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have reserved 30% whereas Maharashtra The second set of problems that has reserved 33% quota for women emerged in the course of analysis is: candidates. With the exception of Goa, lack of incentives (e.g. rural allowance) none of the states in the Western region for working in rural areas; child care has made a policy of providing special and educational facilities for children; weight age either in terms of marks or and non-availability of residential quota for those girls having rural accommodation in rural areas; that de- academic background at the time of motivate women teachers from serving entry as a teacher in schools. Goa is the in rural areas. However, a small number only state in the region that has made of respondents mentioned that they provisions of 12½ % weight age in enjoy the facility of residential percentages of marks to the girls with accommodation in rural areas that have rural academic background. Similarly, been constructed by the Jan Sahyog, for none of the states in the region has made example in Panghar block of district a policy of relaxation in the upper age Dewas, Madhya Pradesh and by the limit for women candidates in the administration of Daman & Diu. It also general category with exception of emerged that none of the states in the Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, which region has made provisions of any have a provision of relaxation of 10 years special rural allowance for teachers and 5 years in age limit for employment, serving in rural areas. respectively. Gujarat has given 5 years of relaxation in the upper age limit only to Besides these problems, non- women in difficult circumstances implementation of 50% reservation / (widows, divorced, separated). quota policy for women candidates; absence of special weight age either in One of the most significant terms of quota or relaxation in problems perceived by women teachers percentages of marks to rural educational is related to posting and transfer policies background of girls during recruitment adopted by states in the region for school as teachers; no relaxation in the age limit; teachers. Respondents feel that posting and insensitive posting and transfer and transfer polices of teachers do not policies of teachers are also affecting favour women teachers in the region. adversely the availability of women Upper primary school teachers are teachers in rural areas. None of the states recruited district wise in all states of the in the region has reserved 50% quota for Western region except in Goa where women candidates in the recruitment teachers are recruited zone wise where policy of upper primary school teachers. the entire state is divided into 6 zones.
Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field. 41 The general policy in all states / union needed. Respondents were of the territories is that in the case of view that female heads are required district–wise recruitment system, no as they feel that they can handle transfer is given to teachers from one problems concerning girls and even revenue district to another except in the women teachers from a woman's union territory of Daman & Diu and perspective, which will help in Dadra & Nagar Haveli. Where girls developing more confidence enter into the teaching profession before among girls and women teachers. marriage, they cannot apply for inter–district transfers in case their • States need to initiate special husbands are living / posted in another efforts to ensure that the transport district. Teachers lose their seniority in department provides frequent case of inter-district transfers. This bus services during schools hours policy affects women teachers the most for rural areas from nearby as perceived by the respondents. towns/cities. There should be a reservation of 4-6 seats for women The policy of posting husband and teachers in buses that go to rural wife at the same place, though existing areas. Private transportation can be in all states with the exception of Goa explored by issuing licenses for and Maharashtra, is not followed light vehicles such as tempo and strictly. It is mandatory for every teacher auto-rickshaw to local people so to serve in a rural area school for a that they can help women teachers prescribed period except in Goa and in to reach to the main roads. the Union Territory of Daman & Diu. Findings of the analysis also But the duration varies from state to state indicate that women teachers wish in the region. For instance this duration that they be given interest free is 5 years in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh loans to buy two-wheelers. There and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and 3 years is also a need to sensitize the in Maharashtra. It has emerged from the community to arrange some analysis of data that women teachers conveyance for women teachers generally do not get chance to serve in upto the main road if the distance urban areas even after completing fixed between school and the main road tenure of service in rural areas. is more than 2 kms and there is no public transport available. Actions to be taken as identified by women teachers • The situation of infrastructure in rural schools is indeed alarming. • Appointment of more female heads The regulatory mechanisms, in co-educational institutions is developed to ensure quality, have
42 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 miserably failed. There is a strong • Special forums headed by women need to ensure availability of should be established at the separate toilet facilities with water block level to address the and separate staff rooms for complaints/grievances of women women teachers as well as teachers. Any complaint should be provision of proper boundary decided within a period of two walls and posting of a watchman in months. At least 50% of the all rural schools to ensure security members of this forum should be of women teachers. women. The state government should also organize orientation • Academic institutions must be run programmes to create awareness with academic zeal. The need is among women teachers about felt to appoint clerks in schools to their rights and also of existing look after all the non-academic provisions of safeguarding their work and to deliver official papers rights against any injustice and to the administration. This would harassment at work place. There is save women teachers from making a strong need to organize gender frequent visits to offices of the sensitization programmes for the education departments. This community in rural areas. would also help in preventing their harassment by office staff. • States should provide rural Otherwise, there should be a allowance to women teachers for provision of sending official working in rural areas. Additional papers through couriers. increment should be given to those women teachers who serve • Rural area schools need to be continuously for 10 years in equipped with child care facilities rural/remote areas. Provision of so that teachers can leave their special medical allowance should children in nearby schools with be made for women teachers such facility and handle emergency working in rural areas. situation immediately without any rush. • Policies of recruitment, posting and transfers of teachers need to be • Residential accommodation is revisited. The state governments required for women teachers at the should reserve at least 50 % seats sub district levels as many teachers for women candidates at all levels (38 %) desired to live in rural in the recruitment of school areas, if accommodation is teachers. There should be a provided by the government. relaxation in the upper age limit at
Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field. 43 entry level for women candidates significant causes of stress for women as school teachers (at least 45 teachers working in rural areas in the years). It is also suggested that states and UTs of the Western region. special weightage (upto 10%) The policies to promote presence of should be given either in terms of women teachers in rural areas are either quota or relaxation in percentages non-existent or have not been of marks to rural educational implemented at all. Where they have background of girls at the time of been implemented, it is in ways which recruitment of upper primary have done nothing to strengthen women school teachers. The state teachers' strategic position as potential government should also consider agents for gender equality in schools. the request of women teachers for inter-district transfers at least twice References in the entire service period without losing seniority. 1. Ashraf, Dilshad (2008). Schools are Like Our Homes: Women in • Policy of serving in rural areas for Teaching and School Leadership every teacher remains only on in Northern Pakistan in Kirk, paper. It has to be energized and Jackie (ed.) 2008, Women activated. It should be mandatory Teaching in South Asia. SAGE for every teacher to serve in rural Publications India Pvt. Ltd: New areas for a prescribed period of 3 Delhi. years and this policy should be followed in letter and spirit. 2. Bista, Min. Bhaadur (2008). Policies and Realities for Women Conclusion Teachers in Nepal in Kirk, Jackie (ed.) 2008, Women Teaching in From the foregoing discussion, it South Asia. SAGE Publications is clear that women teachers in upper India Pvt. Ltd: New Delhi. primary schools (the first level where parents would want their girl child to be 3. Chalam, K.S. (1992). Rural – taught by a woman teacher) in rural Urban Contrasts in Primary areas, face several problems, some Education: A Study of Selected which are faced on a day-to-day basis as Mandals in Visakhapatnam well as some which have a long term District of A.P.. Dissertation implication on their performance as DEPA, NIEPA, New Delhi. teachers, job satisfaction and career development. Among them, the issue of 4. Government of India (GOI) transportation is one of the most (1992). National Policy on Education and Programme of
44 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Action. Department of Education, 9. Kirk, Jackie (2008). Women Ministry of Human Resource Teaching in South Asia. SAGE Development: New Delhi. Publications India Pvt. Ltd: New Delhi. 5. GOI (1959). The National C o m m i t t e e o n Wo m e n ' s 10. Kapoor, R.C, (1983). A Study of Education. Ministry of Education: Precision and Utilization of New Delhi. Available Facilities in Primary Schools of District Gwalior, M.P. 6. GOI (1966). Education and Dissertation DEPA, NIEPA, New Development, Report of the Delhi. Education Commission (1964- 66). Ministry of Education: New 11. Mattoo, B.K. and Chand Shekhar Delhi. (1992). Identification of Problem of Teachers in Single – Teacher / 7. GOI (1974). Towards Equality, Two Teachers Primary Schools. Report of the Committee on the Independent Study (unpublished), Status of Women in India. NCERT. Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education and Social 12. NCERT, (2005). Seventh All India Welfare: New Delhi. School Education Survey: New Delhi. 8. Indian National Commission MHRD and UNESCO (2001). 13. NCERT. (2012). Eighth All India Women Teachers in Rural India: School Education Survey, Flash New Delhi. Statistics: New Delhi
Problems Confronting Women Teachers Working in Rural Areas: Voices from the Field. 45 Role of Village Education Committee (VEC) in Achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education.
N. Nagarajan
Introduction Bank, 1997). Equally, it is important for the effective functioning of democratic Education is a powerful tool for institutions, the malfunctioning of which reducing poverty and unemployment, impinge on virtually every economic and improving health and nutritional social outcome. Elementary education standards, and achieving a sustained covers the primary (6-11 years) and upper human development led growth (World primary (11-14years) age group. In most Bank, 2004). Within the purview of Indian states, this translates into the overall education, primary education is successful completion of prescribed recognized as a basic human right, vital educational requirements till Class VIII. both to the development of individuals The essence of the goal is for every 14- and societies (UNESCO, 2008). The year old to have acquired foundation skills Universal Declaration of Human Rights, such as the ability to read and write with adopted in 1948 by 58member states of fluency, numeracy, comprehension, the United Nations General Assembly, analysis, reasoning and social skills such recognizes basic education as a human as teamwork. Equally, elementary right and calls for primary education education should instil in children everywhere to be both compulsory and courage, confidence, curiosity, free (Article 26i). The gains from independence, resourcefulness, resilience, universal elementary education can hardly patience and understanding (Holt, 1967). be overstated. It has important advantages The story of India's educational for the individual and the nation. It achievements is one of mixed success. On expands the realm of choices available to the down side, India has 22per cent of the the individual in almost every instance. world's population but 46 per cent of The benefits in terms of key demographic theworld's illiterates, and is home to a high variables such as infant mortality rate and proportion of theworld's out of school fertility rate are substantial (The World children and youth. On the positive side, it
46 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 has made encouraging recent progress in institutionalized. The amendment has raising schooling participation. placed a very large responsibility of overall development of the villages in the People's participation has great hands of PRIs. This is one of the biggest importance for the successful democracies in the world where village implementation of Elementary level democratic structures are functioning Education. This involvement should be for their development. at the grass root level which will as a result bring about participation of local The SSA envisages a participatory bodies and social activities. and bottom-up approach to planning, right from the habitation/village level. Public Participation towards EFA Participation of the community is sought through a series of school-based A key strategy for accelerating activities. The RTE Act, 2009 envisages progress towards the goal of Education decentralized planning and management for All has been the planning and of elementary education programmes. implementation of elementary education, The Act, under Section 21, has mandated secondary education and literacy/adult formation of School Management education programmes in a mission Committee (SMC). These initiatives mode with specific goals/targets and have contributed to increased community time-bound implementation plans. The involvement in the planning and major programmes being implemented monitoring of school activities and in Missionmode include the Sarva participation of Panchayati Raj Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamic institutions (local self-government bodies Shiksha Abhiyan and Saakshar Bharat. in rural areas) and urban local bodies in The Mission mode has contributed to the planning and management of elementary acceleration of efforts towards EFA goals and adult education programmes. through the implementation of planned programmatic interventions in a time Village Education Committee is bound manner. visualized as part of the decentralized management structures envisaged under Facilitating community involvement SSA. Its role is to establish a link between in both elementary and adult education programmes has been an important the school and the community. The role strategy for accelerating progress towards of VEC has become very vital in Education for All goals. With the promoting enrolment, retention, enactment of the 73rd and74th achievement and school effectiveness. Constitutional Amendments, community Although VECs have been constituted in participation in planning and management almost all schools, their effectiveness is of education programmes has been to be ensured. Of course some VECs
Role of Village Education Committee (VEC) in Achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education. 47 have proved very effective and their role A major thrust under SSA is to in the promotion of UEE is noteworthy. mobilize the community to promote So the paper reviewed the studies carried education, to help in development of out in the area of the decentralization role educational facilities and to oversee the of VECs and their participation to functioning of schools in village/ward. achieve universalisation of elementary Community institutions /groups such as Village Education Committees/School education at the grassroot level. Management and Development Objectives of the Study Committees/Parent Teacher Associations were set up at village/school level in most • To explore the kind of research of the states. undertaken and available in the field of universalisation of elementary education. In Tamil Nadu, a study on the role and functions of Village Education • To highlight the gaps existing in the Committee pointed out that proficiency current programme and emphasize upon in English, better infrastructure and important and interesting areas of sufficient staffing were the attractions due to which VEC members sent their research herein. children to other schools. (Natarajan & Methodology Sasikala, 2003)
The study is conducted by using A study on capacity of VEC and secondary data listed in different SMC to manage SSA programs in databases – both print and online. Uttarakhandsuggested the need for intensive and wide publicity about the Review of Research Studies role of VEC/SMC through multi-media; selection of suitable members who can Research studies focusing attention devote time and take interest in on different aspects of the functioning of educational development; better and VEC may throw light on the ways and focused training programmes; and better means of its organising and functioning coordination among VEC, SMC and in schools effectively. The review of Mahila Samooh. It stressed the need of literature helps to know the research two way linkage between the VECs and the district authorities in respect of need studies done in that particular area and assessment and the strategies. Capacity these studies have been presented below. building in the area of micro-planning for The clear picture or the uncovered developing educational plan of the aspects of the area will pave better insight village and supervision of the into the problem to be investigated. construction activities need attention.
48 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 (J.P.S Associates, 2006) head-teachers and VEC; a few (15%) stated that it was utilized by the head- Kanwer, S. & Sarmah, J.S. (2009) teacher alone and around 18% members carried out a study on involvement of had no knowledge of it. Most VEC Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in members were not fully aware of the role school support system. The major of VEC. Its roles were described as findings of the study showed that the looking after cleanliness of the school involvement of PRIs in school support (36%), checking teachers' attendance system was low. The linkage between (13%), education of students (47%), community and school was weak. It is education of weak students (24%) and suggested that there is need for results of the school (15%). Nearly 13 % decentralized management and greater of the members did not respond. More investment on developing skills among than 81% members had not received any teachers and community leaders for training; the need for training about the effective management of schools. role and responsibilities of VEC was Adequate administrative and financial expressed by almost all (97%) members. guidelines should be developed by state A few VECs were found taking initiative governments for Panchyats to work on their own to generate resources from towards the cause of universalisation of the village community by way of elementary education. donations to meet demands of infrastructure e.g. class rooms, boundary Sharma, S.K. (2004) has conducted wall, etc. for the school. a study on the role of Village Education Committee (VEC) in Sarva Shiksha Director, Institution of Media Abhiyan in selected districts of Haryana Studies, Bhubaneswar, Orissa (2007) has state. The main findings showed that conducted a study on involvement of most of the VECs have been constituted VECs in the quality aspects of as per the norms set by the state elementary education. The findings government with adequate representation revealed that the VECs were constituted of various groups. Out of the total 217 in the year 2005 in all schools, with due members, 25% members were illiterate, representation to parents of students of 42% had education up to secondary level, different categories. BRCCs & CRCCs 10% members were graduates and 4% visited the schools. VEC meetings were were post graduates. More than two held regularly every month. VEC thirds (74%) members stated that they members stated that they participate in participated in the VEC meetings. Close preparation of plan of action (90%), to two thirds (63%) of VEC members resolution in VEC meetings (80%), were of the opinion that school planning for increasing the fund (80%), improvement grant was utilized by the getting approval of Income and
Role of Village Education Committee (VEC) in Achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education. 49 Expenditure Budget in PTA meetings attendance level of children. VECs (70%) in both the blocks. Supervising participated in the area of creating school officers (60%) also stated that VECs infrastructure and facilities, improving participate in preparation of Annual plan enrolment, retention and attendance level of action and Annual budget. of children, management of mid-day meal and ECCE and EGS centers, All VECs were involved in improving teaching-learning practices by children's enrolment, ensuring regular appointment of para-teachers and attendance of students and teachers in mobilizing resources for creation of school, facilitating smooth conduct of additional facilities. It is suggested that teaching, organizing co-curricular the VECs need further strengthening in activities, school development work and the area of micro planning, school mid-day meal. VECs supervised mapping and house hold survey. Specific construction of school building (70%), roles and responsibilities of Village toilets (40%-60%), organization of school Education Committees & School health programmes (30%-40%) and Management Committees should be supply of water (70%-90%).Nearly half defined. of the VECs were involved in organization of cultural activities, In summary, it is evident from the surveys, supply of textbooks & reading works refereed to above that VECs are materials, multi-grade teaching and important in the effective and efficient promotion of girls education and VECs functioning of elementary schools with interaction with Panchyat Raj Institutions. full enrolment and retention and in providing quality education. Vinayak, V. (2004) has studied the role of Village Education Committee in Conclusion school management in districts under DPEP in Uttaranchal. The major findings The role of VECs is very essential revealed that the VEC was functional in and important for the improvement of all villages and nearly three fourth (72%) primary education. The success stories of of them organized meetings every month. different VECs would certainly act as Members were aware of their roles and examples for the weaker VECs so as to responsibilities. Parents and the VEC improve their working style for members recognized the role of VEC in improvement of management system and organizing environment building effective participation. To achieve campaigns leading to considerable universalisation of elementary education, increase in demand for education, the role of the community is quite creation of school infrastructure, increase significant. Education is the primary need in enrolment, and retention and of human being. Each person has basic
50 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 fundamental rights to get compulsory education at primary level in primary education. To universalize the district Nuapada District Institute elementary education, the role of the of Education and Training community is proved to be effective in all Kalahandi, Bhawanipatna, Orissa. kinds of activities in the school in relation to care and management, enrolment, 3. Dei,G. (2002) Village Education Committee initiatives in primary teaching-learning process, organizing school management: A study in different cultural activities, maintaining Dhenkanal district DIET, a clean school environment, preparation Dhenkanal, Orissa. of teaching learning materials and sustenance of financial support to school. 4. Director, IMS (2007) Involvement of VECs in the quality aspects of There are enough portents to elementary education Institution suggest that PRI engagement in of Media Studies, Bhubaneswar, improving key development indicators Orissa. will become a reality. However in order to expedite the process and to make it 5. Hussain, T. A. & Hazarika, R. more effective, consideration of key ( 2 0 0 8 ) F u n c t i o n i n g a n d issues related to empowerment of effectiveness of involvement of panchayats through funds, human members of various Peoples resources and capacity are critical. PRI Committees in SSA activities engagement is perhaps the only existing North East Social Trust (NEST), Golaghat, Assam. mechanism to achieve large-scale community participation and reach 6. J .P.S Associates Pvt. Ltd. (2006) the most vulnerable sections of Assessing capacity of VEC and population,i.e., women, children, and the SMC to manage SSA programs poor. with special reference to ECCE, MDM and financial management References J.P.S Associates Pvt. Ltd , New Delhi. 1. Charchi, B. (2007) Mother Teacher Associations (MTA) for 7. Kackar, R. K. & Sharma, V. (2006) promotion of girls' education at Assessment of community primary level in Ganjam district mobilization interventions under DIET, Ganjam, Khallikote, DPEP Skill Development Institute, Orissa. Lucknow.
2. Das, M. (2007) Participation of 8. Kanwer, S. & Sarmah, J.S. (2009) Mother -Teacher Association Involvement of Panchayati Raj (MTA) for promotion of girls' Institutions (PRIs) in school
Role of Village Education Committee (VEC) in Achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education. 51 support system Deptt. of Political Abhiyan SIEMAT, Bhiwani Science, Gauhati University, Guwahati. 15. Singh, M. (2003) A study of the role and effect of School 9. Mahajan, A., Goyal, V. P. and Management Committee in civil Abhigyan, R. (2008) A study on constructions in the area of community motivation & Panchyat Samitti Chirawaunder mobilization strategies with DPEP District Project 0ffice, reference to their bearing upon the Jhunjhunu. active participation of the community in achieving the goals 16. UNESCO, (2007), www.unesco. of SSA Aide-et-Action, Jaipur. org/education/GMR/2007/Full_re port.Education for All Global 10. Mishra, G.S. (2003) Village Monitoring Report At UNESCO, Education Committee initiatives in primary school management: A 17. Vaijayanthi K, Aradhya, N. et al. status study in Kalahandi district (2004) A study to evaluate the DIET, Kalahandi, Orissa. f u n c t i o n i n g o f S c h o o l Development and Monitoring 11. Natrajan, K. and Sasikala, A. R. Committee in Karnataka Policy (2003) The role and functions of planning Unit, DSERT, Bangalore. Village Education Committee District Institute of Education and 18. Vanlalthlanga S. (2007) Role and Tr a i n i n g , K a n c h i p u r a m , effectiveness of community Kaliyampoondi, Tamilnadu. participation in the implementation of SSA Zoram Research 12. Patel, P. K. (2003) Village Foundation, Mizoram. Education Committee initiatives in primary school 0management: A 19. Vinayak, V. (2004) Evaluation of status study in Sambalpur district the role of Village Education DIET, Sambalpur Committee in school management in districts under DPEP in 13. Rath, A. (2002) Role of VEC and Uttaranchal Society forAction, community in infra structural Vision and Enterprise, Lucknow. development of school as a DPEP intervention in Kandhamala 20. World Bank, (1997) The World d i s t r i c t D I E T Ti k a b a l i , Bank annual report 1997 The Kandhamala. report is devoted to the role and effectiveness of the state. 14. Sharma , S. K. (2004) Study on the worldbank.org/.../01/695043/worl role of Village Education d-bank-annual-report-1997. Committee(VEC) in Sarva Shiksha
52 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland
H. John Sema, Neizhanuo Golmei
Introduction Tuensang, Mon, Dimapur, Peren, Longleng and Kiphire which are Nagaland is one of the eight sister inhabited by 17 major tribes along with states which constitute the North-East other sub-tribes. Region of India. It was carved out in 1957 from the Naga hill district of Nagas are distributed in the four Assam and unadministered areas of states of North-East India, namely Tuesang, part of the then North Eastern Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland Frontier Agency. In December 1963, it and Manipur. Ethnically they belong to was created as the sixteenth state of the the Mongoloid group and linguistically Indian Union with Kohima as the they come under the Tibeto-Burman capital. It is the third smallest state in family of languages. In Assam, there the country with an area of 16,579 sq are three Naga communities namely kms. It lies between 25ᵒ60◦ and 27ᵒ40ᵒ Zeme in North Cachar Hills district, latitude North of the equator and Kabui in Cachar district and Semas in between the longitudinal lines 93ᵒ20' E Dibrugarh district. There are two cognate groups of the Nagas namely and 95ᵒ15'E. The state is bordered by the Nocte and the Wancho in Arunachal Arunachal Pradesh in the North, Pradesh. Manipur is inhabited by the Myanmar in the East, Manipur in the seven major Naga groups such as south and Assam in the West. As per Tangkhul, Kabui including Puimei, 2011 census, the total population of Mao, Kacha, Anal, Maram and Nagaland is 19,80,602 of which males Monsang. The largest Naga population constitute 10,25,707 and females is found in Nagaland state. The state is 9,54,895. The state consists of eleven predominantly inhabited by the administrative districts; Kohima, Phek, indigenous tribal people who constitute Mokokchung, Wokha, Zunheboto, 90% of the population. These are Ao,
53 Angami, Chakhesang, Chang, Naga territory, the Nagas were head Khiamnuingam, Konyak, Lotha, hunters which made inter-tribe and Phom, Rengma, Sangtam, Pochury, inter-village warfare a common affair Sumi, Yimchunger, Zeliang, Rongmei, in the lives of the Nagas. Since every Kukis and Kacharis. Naga village aspired for strength and power, it became imperative to have a Nagaland in contrast to other leader or a chief in the village states in the Union, enjoys special bestowing on the village chief a very safeguards for the protection of the important role. religious practices, customary laws and the economic interest of its people. The chief is the head of the village The Constitution of India gave due administration and he summons as well recognition to the distinctive identity as presides over the meetings at the of the Nagas through the Constitution village level and also the council (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962. meetings. By tradition, the village The State of Nagaland Bill, 1962 states chief is the nominal owner of the that no Act of Parliament in respect of village territory, land and forests. But in practice, the land and forest belongs 1) Religious or social practices of to the whole village community. The the Nagas, different Naga tribes have their own 2) Naga customary law and village chiefs but with differences in procedure, their powers and functions. Among the 3) Administration of civil and Konyak Nagas, the powerful village criminal justice involving chief is called the Angh who is the final decisions according to Naga and the highest personification of customary law, political, economic and religious 4) Ownership and transfer of land authority. The chief is the richest man and its resources, in the village in terms of wealth and shall apply to the new state unless the property. For all purposes of policy, Legislative Assembly of Nagaland by a rule and administration of the village, it resolution so decides. is the chief who formulates the policies and decides the issues assisted by a Naga Village Polity council called “neingbos” who are the morung leaders in each ward. The chief Nagas are entirely woven to their can be overthrown or removed only in own land, village, khel, clan and their one instance; the commitment of families. The village system plays a incest, which is a taboo to all as he is the significant role in the Naga society. law maker, the adjudicator and Before the advent of the British in the religious head.
54 Local Government Quarterly October - December 2015 The hereditary chieftainship of the hereditary. As observed by Hutton, the Sumi tribe differentiates it from other chieftainship goes down from father to Naga tribes. In the traditional political the son, the elder sons becoming chiefs system like the Sumis, the chief in their own villages during the father's (Akukau) occupies the unique position lifetime, provided the sons are able to in the village. The chief is the guardian find separate villages. Where the elder of law and the owner of the village. sons are not able to find their own, the Many villages are named after the chief eldest son succeeds his father. Land in who founded them like Chishilimi, sumi villages gets divided and sub- Hebolimi, Sukhalu, and Vihokhu. divided if they are unable to make their Unlike the Konyak Nagas there is no own settlement/colony. ranking of the chiefs among the Sumis. Anybody who becomes a chief of a In case of the Aos, it is the rule of new village is not inferior to the old gerontocracy. The traditional system of chief irrespective of his clan. After rule and power in an Ao village is setting up the village and demarcating vested in the Putu Menden (Council of the boundaries, the chief reserves for elders). This council is responsible for himself the greater part of the land. He the village administration and other may allocate a certain amount of land matters of importance affecting the to prominent persons and warriors and whole village community. This system may also assign some lands to the poor. of rule among the Aos is described as There are no prescribed specific democratic as all the different clans are qualifications to become a chief. given representation and every man's However, it is expected that the chief voice and grievance is channeled to the should be capable, rich, intelligent and council through their representative. also a good orator, warrior and a Members of the council of elders are courageous person who should be able accorded a special respect and also to command respect and obedience certain special privileges. from his followers. Over and above that, he should also be conversant with The Angamis also have a chief the customary laws and practices of the but his authority is nominal merely tribe. He should also be generous and reflecting the general will and dictates ready to help the villagers in times of of the village population. The chief is need and difficulties. He should be appointed mainly on the basis of married so that the wife will also be bravery, martial power and oratory. able to share in the responsibility to The chief enjoys no extra privileges look after the welfare of the villagers. whatsoever, except a slight measure of The process of succession to the influence over warrior colleagues to chiefship among the Sumis is curry favours. An informal council of
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland 55 village elders, representing the various given a formal shape by the enactment khel and clans operate particularly for of the Nagaland Village and Area the adjudication over disputes and Councils Act, 1978. Every recognized offences. Thus in case of the Angamis, village in the state is required to have a it is direct democracy where all the Village Council (VC) with members male adults are members of the Village who are chosen by the villagers in Council. The oldest man in the village accordance with the prevailing initiates the discussion for the meeting customary practices and usages and as and the rest of the members participate approved by the State government. in the meeting, deliberating on issues Thus each village in the state has an and matters relating to the village administrative body called Village affairs. For the Angamis the leader is Council. The village councils are only in the warpath and once the war is reconstituted once every 5 years and over he becomes like any other the council meets once every three ordinary member in the community. months or more frequently if requisitioned by one-third of the Local Governance members.
Even before statehood was In regard to the membership of the granted to the Nagas, Nagas had village council, it comprises of village traditional institutions whose functions elders and representatives/Gaonburas were like that of the village panchayats. (GBs) from possibly all the clans in a The traditional institutions looked after village. These members are selected on the administration of the village and the basis of the nomination by the also the enforcement of the customary villagers and the village elders. laws. As per the special status granted However, every tribe has their own to the Nagas under article 371-A of the specifications and criteria in regard to Constitution of India, the Constitution the membership in the council. The 73rd Amendment Act is not applicable chairman of the council is then chosen in the state and so the village by the members from among administrative practices of the Nagas themselves. The members also appoint have been left untouched by this act. a secretary who may or may not be a member of the Council. In case the Village Council secretary is not a member of the Council then he does not enjoy any Instead of the typical three tier of voting rights. Each village council Panchayati Raj system, Nagas follow consists of two or more khels, which the age old Village Council system for are clusters of households having decentralized administration. This hereditary lineages. Each khel has a local self-governing institution was
56 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 khel council which administers the houses or encroachment on the village household under it. Hereditary village boundaries by other villages. While in chiefs, Anghs and Goanburas (GB) as theory, the chief has the authority to per usage and customary practices of settle the disputes but in actual practice the community are to be ex-officio it is the elders who settle the members with voting rights of the complicated cases. Necessary actions village councils. are taken against the person or party to the crime or dispute that does not Powers of the Council follow the decision of the council. Anyone who is guilty of breaking the The village council plays a very long time honoured law of the land is important role in the day to day lives of punished and in extreme cases the the people. It is responsible for guilty are banished from the village maintaining law and order in the once and for all. community. It also acts as a court of justice adjudicating on civil matters The village council also looks after such as dispute over land, marriage, the maintenance of village drinking divorce and other criminal cases as water and footpaths, construction of well like theft and physical harm bridges, sanitation and cleaning of according to customary practices jungles surrounding the village. The facilitating speedy justice without village councils are entrusted with the spending much money. In case of responsibility of formulation of village disputes between two villages or more, development schemes, supervision and the village councils of the concerned implementation of all such schemes on village or the parties involved can settle their own initiatives and also of those the dispute in a joint session. The sanctioned by the government. The council also decides disputes of two council also has the authority to stand as kinds: public and private. Private surety for any permanent resident of the disputes are those disputes that take village who is in need of financial place between two or more persons. assistance from the government or any For instance, issue regarding payment financial institution. of compensation to the injured or the settlement of boundary disputes Land Administration and the role of between two or more persons. Public the Village Council disputes are those wherein the whole village is involved, for instance, breach Land is considered the most of customs and taboos or gennas important asset among the Nagas. As which affects the whole community, per the constitutional provision damaging of trees in public places or enumerated in article 371A, land in
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland 57 Nagaland belongs to the people and not Khel land or group land the government. The state government owns only about 2% of the land, the A Naga village is divided into a rest is held by the villagers either number of khels (wards/sector/hamlets) individually or collectively. Since land according to the size of the village. Khel belongs to the people, almost every land is the common property of each individual in the village owns a piece khel and the rights towards the land rests only with the respective khel of land which is well defined and members. It usually consists of sites for demarcated. For those few landless assembly/platform hall for the khel families, they are provided with land people. It is also used for village gate, for cultivation by the well-to-do jhum land, meadow, terrace field, forest landlords in the village with nominal plantation, ritual ground and especially tax. This is done to ensure that the for the morungs or boys dormitory. ownership is retained by the landlord. Since the ownership is held in common,
it cannot be the subject of mortgage or Land within the Naga tribes is sale by an individual or group of usually put into the following individuals. categories: Common village land,; Khel land, Clan land, and Individual Clan land land. The village organisation in Common Village Land Nagaland is primarily based on the institution of clan. Most villages are The common village land formed by two or more clans (group of comprises of the land that is allotted for families). Clan land vests with the clan the village council, playing ground, members of the village in perpetuity. site for educational institutions or any The ownership of the land passes from common public body. These lands are generation to generation and the land is managed by the village authority or by held in common by the clan as a whole. the village council or elders. Here, This land includes jhum land as well as every bonafide household is free to use terrace field, forest land, meadows, etc. such land for agricultural purposes and Allotment is made by the clan leaders domestic consumption. They also have themselves after clearing the jungles the right to use and occupy the land on a cooperative basis. without paying any land revenue to the village authority. Land under the Individual land common ownership is not the subject All Nagas have their individual matter of mortgage or sale. land of various kinds irrespective of the
58 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 tribe they belong to. In a village, every However, land is not supposed to Naga, on an average owns a residential be sold to an outsider who may be from site with space for kitchen garden and another tribe or community. Anybody compound. Title to the individual land who goes against the customary law goes to the head of the family. He holds and sells off his land to an outsider is the right of possession in perpetuity. In fined by the village council. case of the Ao Nagas, in the event of death of the head/father, the eldest son In terms of disputes regarding inherits the parental house whereas in land, it is usually limited to disputes the case of the Angami's and the between families or individuals or Sema's, the youngest son inherits the between communities. In regard to parental house. But overall charge of dispute between families/individuals, the property especially the cultivable the village council is responsible to land is in the hands of the eldest son settle the dispute. The village council who takes charge in his capacity as functions like a court by examining the head of the family. matter thoroughly before taking a decision to solve the crisis. The The village council enjoys decision of the council is taken as the enormous powers in terms of land final decision and any individual or administration. Since land is the most family that fails to follow the decision important source of livelihood and is made to surrender the disputed land income for the Nagas, selling of land to the court. The land thus surrendered without the consent of the clan or is then reserved for the community. family is restricted. In the Naga Disputes between two communities society, while individual land are discussed between them by ownership is transferable from one presenting their respective historical individual to another, general land background of the disputed land. Here, ownership is not transferable as it is help from other community as the third inherited ownership. If due to some party is also taken to comment on the circumstances, one is compelled to sell dispute. The party that is held guilty is his inherited land, he is required to made to surrender the land. However in consult the other members of the most instances, efforts are made to family as well as the clan members to settle the matter by the clan elders see if there is anyone able to buy and themselves. Failing this, the matter is retain it within the agnatic kindred. referred to the village council. Only if there is no such capable person within the family or the clan, then the The village council therefore land can be sold off to people outside decides on disputes over land rights, the clan. hereditary transfer of land, ancestral
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland 59 property issues, common property fledged programme covering the and community resources. Any whole state during the early eighties. requirement of land by the state The VDB functions under the guidance government has to go through the of the village council and is ultimately village council. One cannot attempt to accountable to the village council sell, transfer land without the consent which audits the accounts of the VDBs of the village council. Thus the village every year. The village council acts as council becomes the final and the an advisory body to the VDB during supreme authority in matters of land in planning and implementation of the village. developmental projects. It is also involved in electing the VDB Village Development Board (VDB) secretaries and nominating VDB members. The Nagaland Village and Area Council Act 1978 also made the idea of In regard to the membership in the grassroots level planning and VDB, the Deputy Commissioner development a reality in the state. With functions as Chairman of the Village this act, Village Development Boards Development Boards in the district were constituted in all the recognized providing overall guidance and villages of the state. As per the control. There is a Management Nagaland Village and Area Council Committee of the Village Development Act, 1978 each village has to constitute Board in every village out of which a Village Development Board (VDB) twenty five percent of the members or 5 to undertake rural development members are to be women from the through resource mobilization and village. It is mandatory for the VDBs to decentralized planning with the have atleast one woman member. Even involvement of the local community in the youth in the village are given due preparation and execution of model representation in the committee. The schemes. VDB members are also nominated by the village council to be the members The origin of the institution of of the Village Education Committee VDB with the concept of decentralized and the Village Health Committee and grassroots level planning in Nagaland it oversees the functioning of the Public was first set up in December, 1976 in Health Centres (PHC) and the Ketsapomi village in Phek District on government educational institutions. experimental basis. The village development programme which began The VDB formulates plans for the as an experiment in one district in the socio-economic development of the late seventies, developed into a full- village and also includes beneficiaries
60 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 under various rural development voices are overshadowed by the programmes like IAY and SGSY majority menfolk members of the programmes and for preparing the council. BPL list. It is also directly involved in the implementation of all rural Communitisation development programmes, whether under the state sector or under centrally Communitisation is a unique sponsored schemes. They are also programme which was conceptualized empowered to withhold salaries of and implemented under the leadership personnel, ensure their attendance, of Mr. R.S Pandey during 2002-2004, provide infra structural facilities, etc. when he was the Chief Secretary to The board takes decision on the th e Government of Nagaland. The areas of development whereby the concept of communitisation was resolutions and proposals passed are introduced by the Government of sent to concerned department through Nagaland through an Act called the the district administration for funds. 'Nagaland Communitisation of Public VDBs are wholly dependent on the Institutions and Services Act 2002'. government for their financial This programme bagged a United resources without any mechanism for Nations Public Service Award for its internal resource mobilization. contribution towards improving the effectiveness, efficiency and quality of The insistence upon membership public service. of women in VDBs has not only helped in bringing development closer to the Communitisaton is a system where people but it has empowered Naga the community shares ownership and women in many ways. Women are responsibility of management with the being able to use the platform to spread government. It includes decentralization awareness among other women about of authority, delegation of responsibility, their rights as well as run government empowerment of the community and schemes. They have also been able to building of a synergistic relationship set up some Self Help Groups (SHGs) between the government and the for women in the villages. However community to spur growth and VDBs being a male dominated body, it development of institutions. The becomes difficult for women members purpose is to make the community to raise concerns or to put across their connected in matters of management of agendas. In most occasions, the local utilities, public services and in the concerns and objections of women functions of the state government like members are not given the kind of education, water supply, roads, power, importance they deserve and their sanitation, health and promotion of other
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland 61 welfare and development schemes. This Elementary Education in the village. It programme has brought about a is empowered with enormous significant improvement in the delivery responsibilities for the effective of basic services mainly in the area of implementation of the programme. The elementary education, public health and VEC has to manage, direct, supervise power utilities. The state at present has and control the school(s) ensuring started the process of communitisation administrative, academic and financial in the field of education, electricity discipline. It also has to ensure management, water supply, tourism and participation of the community and rural roads. create a sense of belongingness and ownership in the people. Education The VEC enjoys enormous Education was brought under the powers in regard to the management of Communitisation programme with the schools. Since it is responsible for aim of improving the quality of ensuring discipline and regular education. In a communitised school, attendance of teachers in the school, it the management of the school rests has the power to take appropriate action with the community. The community for misconduct of teachers. It can take gets directly involved in the educational any of the following action; withhold system management. The aim is to pay, apply the principle of “No work, ensure quality education through the No Pay”, or report to higher authorities participation and a sense of ownership recommending any disciplinary action. from the community. This programme In case of long term vacancy, it can ensures investments of community's select or recommend appointments social capital for the betterment of the of substitute teachers. It is also schools and improvement of education responsible for ensuring enrolment and at the grassroots level of education. It retention of all children upto the age of empowers the village community to 14 years. own and develop the Government Elementary School(s) in the village as VEC has been formulated in their own. The role of the government almost all the villages in the state for the under this programme is to supervise, effective implementation of the support and supplement the activities of program. In terms of its composition, it the community includes all sections of the village community- members from the Village Under Communitisation, the council, Village Development Board, Village Education Committee (VEC) is representatives from the parents, the legal local authority that manages women representatives, retired teachers
62 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 and one teacher representative from health centres. In districts where each school of the village. communitisation of health services has been fully implemented there has been Through this programme, the an improvement in attendance of VECs acting as the overseers and health care providers, better utilization owners of the schools have contributed of services, availability of essential immensely in improving the quality of medicines, regular submission of education in the state. Absenteeism health reports, timely disbursement of which had become a major impediment staff salaries and a renewed focus on in improving the education has been public health issues. Communitisation controlled through the efforts of the of health has given the communities a VECs. It has also brought an increase better understanding of health issues in terms of contribution in cash, kind or and the need for participation and labour from the community as a result collaborative efforts to promote health. of making them owners of the system. Participation of the community Electricity through Communitisation has been largely responsible for the success of Along with education and health, Universalisation of Elementary electricity has also been communitised Education (Sarva Shikha Abhiyan in the state. This was done as (SSA)) in the state. management of electricity and revenue collection especially in rural areas has Health been a challenge to the Department of Power. In order to solve the problem of Health institutions have also been poor billing and non-payment, the communitised in the state to provide Government introduced the idea of a quality health services to the Single Point Metering (SPM) at the community. Under Communitisation, Distribution Transformer point. This the village community sets up its own idea was also conceptualized Village Health Committee (VHC) to during 2002-03 under the Nagaland manage, coordinate and monitor the Communitisation of Public Institutions functioning of its health services. Like and Services Act 2002. the VEC, its membership also consists of members representing the main The main objective of the Single stakeholder groups such as the Village Point Metering (SPM) is to empower Council, the Village Development the villagers to wholly manage the Board and others. This has helped in revenue collections, and thereby, bringing an improvement in the mitigate their billing problems and at availability of medical supplies at the the same time improve the revenue
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland 63 collection of the department. With the However, though the Village positive outcome of the SPM Council plays a very important role in experiment initiated in 158 villages the village administration, it does not during 2002-03 and 2003-04, the enjoy financial independence. While programme has been extended to other the Village Council can apply for and villages as well. Under this scheme, the receive grant-in-aid, donations, Village Electricity Management Board subsidies from the government, all (VEMB) deducts 20% incentive from such monetary transactions are to be the collected amount and deposits the conducted through a scheduled bank or balance to the department's account as the Nagaland State Co-operative Bank. government revenue. Out of the 20% They are wholly dependent on the incentive, the VEMB can generate government for their financial self-employment for serving and resources and there is not much scope collection of bills and create amenities in terms of internal source mobilization like street lightings. which hampers their proper functioning. In order to make the Conclusion administration at the village level The traditional institutions of much more effective and efficient, the governance existing in the state have local bodies also need to be provided been recognized and protected under with technical knowledge. Along with the constitution. The state of Nagaland these, certain mechanisms should be has been exempted from the 73rd introduced to ensure sufficient Amendment of the Constitution due to representation to the women in the the existence of the local self villages to make it truly representative. government through the Village Since the village administration of the Councils and the VDBs. The Nagas, Nagas revolves around the Village thus, have their own unique system of Council, it has become important for local governance with the Village the authorities to take cognizance of its Council as the most powerful body. It role and formulate a mechanism to establishes a linkage between the local empower it further. The state needs to people and the government and endow the village councils with such translates the policies of the powers and authority which will enable government into action. It enjoys full them to function as units of self- power in dealing with the internal government. administration of the village. The village councils are closely involved in References the planning and implementation of the rural development programmes 1. Aier I.L. 2006. Contemporary through the VDBs. Naga Social Formations and
64 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 E t h n i c I d e n t i t y. A k a n s h a of Festivals. Publication series of Publishing House, New Delhi. NEZCC, Dimapur, Nagaland in commemoration of Silver Jubilee 2. Bag Gunanidhi. 2001. Rural celebration.(1986-2012) Transformation in Tribal Areas: A study. Akansha Publishing House. 10. Materials on Rural Development New Delhi. Programmes in Nagaland, Rural Development Department, 3. Das.N.K & C.L Imchen. 1994. Government of Nagaland. People of India- Nagaland, Volume XXXIV, Anthropological 11. Mills, J.P. 1973. The Ao Nagas. Survey of India, Seagull Books. Oxford University Press, London. Calcutta. (2nd Edition).
4. Furer, Heimendorf Christopher 12. Mills, J.P.,1980. The Lotha Nagas, Von. 1962. Naked Nagas, Vikas Directorate of the Art & Culture, Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Government of Nagaland, Delhi. Kohima. (2nd Edition).
5. Furer, Heimendorf Christopher 13. Mills, J.P. 1980. The Rengma Von. 1976. Return of the Naked Nagas, Directorate of Arts & Nagas: An Anthropologist View of Culture, Government of Nagaland, Nagaland 1936-1970, Vikas Kohima. (2nd Edition). Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 14. Nagaland Basic Facts 2014, The Directorate of Information and 6. Hutton, J.H. 1961. The Angami Public Relations, Kohima, Nagas, Oxford University Press, Nagaland. London 15. Nagaland 1963-2013, Fifty Years 7. Hutton, J.H. 1968. The Sema On, The Coffee Table Book Nagas, Oxford University Press, Publication Committee, 50 Years London. of Statehood on behalf of the Government of Nagaland. 8. Kumar.B.B . 2005. Naga Identity. Concept Publishing Company, 16. Nshoga A. 2009. Traditional Naga New Delhi. Vi l l a g e S y s t e m a n d I t s T r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A n s h a h 9. Lanunungsang A. & Athungo Publishing House, Delhi. Ovung. 2012. Nagaland-The Land
Local Institutions of Governance of the Nagas: The Village Council, its Role and Function in Nagaland 65 17. Rizvi ,S.H.M & Shibani Roy. 20. Sema. John.H. 2013. Traditional 2006. Naga Tribes of North East and Modern Political Institutions India. B.R Publishing, New Delhi of the Nagas. Mittal Publication.
18. Sema,John.H., “Managing 21. Sema. John.H & Neizhanuo Customary laws of the land in Golmei. 2014. “Tourism Industry in Nagaland: Issues, Problems and Nagaland- Exploring Potentials for Challenges”. Paper submitted to Lal Cultural Tourism”, Tourism Bahadur Shastri Academy of Innovations (A Journal of Indian Administration and Rural Tourism Congress),Volume 3.No1, Development. March 2014.
19. Sema, John. H. 2012. “Political 22. Shimray U.M. 2007. Naga and Social Institutions and their Population and Integration Impact on the Economic Movement. Mittal Publications, Development in North East India New Delhi. with special reference to Nagaland”. Local Government Quarterly, April-June.
66 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Men and Women in PRI: a comparative study of elected PRI members of upper two tiers of Rohtak district of Haryana in India
Anupama Kaushik
Introduction struggle. The participation of men and women in these movements was not The modern age is the age of limited to the urban, educated, elite democracy and successful functioning men and women but included of democracy pre-supposes active thousands of ordinary, poor, rural men participation of both men and women and women. Some women political in the political process. In India, leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Durgabai common men and women entered the Deshmukh, Renuka Roy and Hansa political process in the early decades of Mehta were very articulate and aware the twentieth century. In 1905 when the and became members of the British partitioned the province of Constituent Assembly. Bengal, women joined men in protesting this decision by boycotting The Constitution of free India foreign goods and buying swadeshi gave women equal rights to participate goods. In 1907 under the Montague- in politics such as the right to vote and Chelmsford reforms some women the right to get elected. This enabled obtained voting rights. Radha Bai some Indian women to reach up to the Subharya, Renuka Roy, Annu highest position of legislators, Swaminathan were the earliest women ministers, CM, party chiefs, governors, who got into the central legislature. ambassadors, PM and President. Rasthtriya Stri Sabha –Bombay 1920, However, in comparison to men, the Mahila Rashtriya Sangh –Bangal 1928 participation and representation of and Nari Satyagraha Samiti –Calcutta women in law making and law 1929 mobilized women for political implementing bodies has been very work. The mass movement led by poor. Moreover, women's movement in Mahatma Gandhi drew men and India has been struggling with their women into the vertex of the freedom demands for reservation in parliament
67 and state legislatures since many and development functions be again decades. The failure of successive rested in the panchayats. The governments in getting the women acceptance of Montague-Chelmsford reservation in parliament and state reforms resulted in a stream of legislatures bill passed is self- legislation relating to village explanatory. This is why April 23, 1993 panchayats practically all over the was called a 'red letter day' for Indian country. women, when the 73rd Constitutional Amendment gave statutory status to Meanwhile, Gandhiji mooted the panchayats and provided 33 percent idea of Gram Swaraj with people at the reservation of seats to women at every centre. He had hoped that his tier of grassroots political institutions. philosophy of Panchayati Raj could be the framework of the political order of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) free India. However, Nehru did not see any special virtue in villages. Instead Panchayats have been in he underlined the advantages of existence in India since time science and technology and immemorial. They find mention in appreciated urban culture. Moreover, Manusmiriti as well as in Arthasastra Ambedkar roundly condemned the of Kautilya in 400 BC. These village as sink of localism, den of panchayats were responsible for ignorance, narrow mindedness and overall judicial, legislative and communalism. As a result, Panchayati revenue work of the area. In the midst Raj could find place only in the of conquest and rise and fall of Directive Principles of State Policy in empires, the village panchayat the form of Article 40. Later at the continued to survive and provide initiative of Prime Minister Jawaharlal continuity. It was with the coming of Nehru, most of the states adopted the Mughals that these panchayats went Panchayati Raj Acts in their respective through a phase of downfall. The states. Towards the end of the first five British rule following the Mughal rule year plan there were 1,52,237 further centralized power. It was panchayats in the country. But they during their reign that administrative lacked power in actual terms. The and legal powers of these institutions government constituted the Balwant were taken away leading to severe Rai Mehta Committee, which unrest among the masses. Probably this suggested a three tier Panchayati Raj and the shock of the mutiny of 1857 led system at the village, block and district the British to form a Royal level. However the Panchayati Raj Commission on decentralization. The institutions still did not function report recommended that the judicial properly due to lack of trained
68 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 personnel and dominance of wealthy regard to Village Panchayat. Following and high caste people. The Ashok this, a few states did make provisions Mehta Committee of 1978 probed for women's representation, for dilapidated economic conditions of example, the Maharashtra Zila these panchayats and concluded that Parishad and Panchayat Samiti Act of government interference must be 1961, provided for nomination of one removed from these institutions. The or two women to each of the three C.V.K.Rao Committee appointed by bodies, in case no woman was elected. the planning commission strongly In many other parts of India too women recommended the revival of the PRIs were recruited by cooption rather than all over the country, highlighting the election. However, some states need to transfer power of the state to resorted to reservation in the democratic bodies at the local level. Panchayati Raj. In Andhra Pradesh The L.M.Singhvi Committee since 1986, reservation of two to four recommended that to be effective, the seats was provided for women in Gram PRIs should be constitutionally Panchayat, with two women to be co- recognized and protected by the opted in Panchayat Samitis, in addition inclusion of a new chapter in the to elected women members. In constitution. It also suggested a Karnataka by the Act of 1985, in the constitutional provision to ensure Mandal Praja Parishad, 25 percent of regular, free and fair elections for the the total number was reserved for PRIs. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi women; out of these one seat was made repeated efforts in this direction. reserved for women from scheduled However, it was the Narsimha Rao castes/tribes. government which succeeded in getting the 73rd Constitutional Meanwhile, the committee on Amendment passed in April 1993. status of women in its report in 1976 suggested the establishment of Women and PRIs statutory 'all women' panchayats at the village level, with autonomy and When Panchayati Raj was resources of their own for the introduced in free India very few management and administration of women contested or got elected. The welfare and development programs for Balwant Rai Mehta Committee had women and children as a transitional recommended that there should be two measure. There were nine 'all women' women at Panchayat Samiti as co- panchayats in Maharashtra in 1993. opted members 'who are interested in work among women and children'. A The demand for reservation for similar provision was suggested with women in adequate proportion at local
Men and Women in PRI 69 self government level was strongly felt reserved for women. Provided also that due to the fact that women are the number of offices reserved under unequipped because of patriarchy, the clause shall be allotted by rotation traditions and a conservative social to different panchayats at each level. pattern in which women lack This provision enabled more than education, economic resources, access seven hundred thousand women to to information and media and do not participate in PRIs. have exposure to the outside world. It was also felt that to make it more Haryana and Rohtak meaningful, a guarantee is needed for women's emergence as Sarpanch and The state of Haryana was carved Zila Pramukh. In Andhra Pradesh the out of the state of Punjab on November 1986 Act provided for 9 percent 1, 1966. It has just 1.37 percent of the reservation for women for the office of total geographical area and less than chairperson of Zila Praja Parishad. The two percent of India's population. national perspective plan for women Total area of the state is 44,212 sq km. 1988, recommended 33 percent The state has provided electricity, reservation for women in the three-tier metaled roads and potable drinking system of PRI. It also recommended water to all its villages. Haryana is that 30 percent of the executive among the most prosperous states in positions from village to district level India, having one of the highest per- should be reserved for women. capita incomes. It has 21 districts. It However the year 1993 achieved a shares its capital Chandigarh with milestone with the acceptance of 73rd Punjab. Three fourths of the population Constitutional Amendment. The article of Haryana lives in villages. The state 243(3) of this Act reads, 'Not less than legislature of Haryana has 90 one third (including the number of members. Haryana sends 10 members seats reserved for women belonging to of parliament to the Lok Sabha and five the scheduled castes and scheduled to the Rajya Sabha. From its creation as tribes) of the total number of seats to be a State in 1966, till date only 5 women filled by direct election in every have ever entered the Lok Sabha from panchayat shall be reserved for women Haryana. These were Ms Chandrawati and seats may be allotted by rotation to (6th Lok Sabha), Ms.Shelja Kumari different constituencies in a (10th and 11th Lok Sabha), Prof panchayat'. And the clause (4) of the Kailasho Devi (12th and 13th Lok Act has the following provision: Sabha) and Shruti Choudhry, and '…….not less than one third of the total Kumari Selja (15th Lok Sabha). In the number of offices of chairperson in the present 16th Lok Sabha all members panchayats at each level shall be coming from Haryana are men. In the
70 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 present Rajya Sabha there is only one literacy rate is 88.4 and women 71.2 woman member from Haryana and rest percent. The total population of district four are men. In the present 13th is 10,58,683. There are 868 women per Vidhan Sabha out of 90 members, only 1000 men in Rohtak as per 2011 13 members are female. The census. The ratio in 0-6 age group is incumbent government is led by BJP's 807 girls for 1000 boys. Harbans Lal as Chief Minister. BJP has a strength of 47, INLD-19, INC-15, The sex ratio in Rohtak as well as independents -5, Haryana Janhit Haryana is very low despite material party-2, BSP-1 and Shiromani Akali and physical development. Female Dal-1member in the present Vidhan feticide is endemic and Haryanvi Sabha. In the 17 member ministry of women are unequal and marginalized Haryana at present there are only two yet valorized. There is a strong son women. In the High Court of Punjab preference in Haryana. Every family and Haryana presently there are eight wants to have sons and hardly anyone women out of a total of 52 judges. The wants more than one daughter. This sex ratio as per census 2011 in Haryana factor holds true regardless of wealth is 877 females per 1000 males and sex and education. Reports suggest that in ratio in 0-6 age group is 830 girls per Haryana the new entrants to the 1000 boys. As per census 2011 total political scene through the PRI are literacy rate is 76.64 percent but male merely rubber stamps or proxy literacy rate is 85.38 percent and candidates for their husbands and other female literacy rate is 66.77 percent in men folk. Nor do women fare any Haryana. Apart from female feticide, better in decision-making in the private abandonment of girl child, neglect of sphere as a majority of women have to health and education of girls and seek permission for even minor matters women, dowry, bigamy, desertion of such as going to the market or visiting wives, lack of sanitation, violence at friends and relatives. home and outside, Seedi Pratha (bonded labour and sexual harassment Case Study of women) are also prevalent. A case study was conducted in District Rohtak with its 146 June 2011 employing questionnaire, village and five blocks has interview and observation methods to geographical area of 1,66,847 hectares examine if reservation of 33 percent (1668 sq kms). Rohtak district has 151 seats in local self governing bodies has Gram Panchayats. It is 78 kms from resulted in empowerment of women Delhi. As per census 2011the literacy and also to find out the level of rate of the district is 80.4 percent. Male awareness and political participation
Men and Women in PRI 71 of men and women elected to the upper favour of reservation for women and two tiers of Panchayati Raj Institutions said that men and women are equal. in Rohtak district of Haryana i.e. in They were aware of the three tiers of Panchayat Samiti (block committee) the PRI. Most women as well as men and Zila Parishad (district council) were not satisfied with the functioning level. All 107 members of block of PRI. Some men as well as women committee and 14 members of district had difficulty in understanding budget council were included in the study. and rules. They wanted government Thus the total number of respondents training for the same. All men and was 121. women were aware of the problems in their area. They all wanted more The personal profile of the 121 economic aid to the PRI. They were members shows that 46 were women not associated with any social and 75 were men. This shows that organization. Only a few men and women have nearly 38 percent seats, women were aware of 73rd i.e. more than the 33 percent seats Constitutional Amendment. Men officially reserved for them. Women attend more meetings than women and and men both were mostly in 20-50 also contribute more in the discussions age-group, general category, Hindu than women. Men raise more issues and married. Women were mostly than women. This is because in literate and educated but in patriarchal rural setup young women comparison, men were more educated. must observe purdah. They must be Women mostly came from middle accompanied by some male family class joint families while men member to the PRI meetings, etc. In belonged to upper or middle class joint comparison to men, women were less families. In comparison, men were aware of political leaders and only 40 more educated and wealthy with more percent women read newspaper income and agricultural land than whereas all men did. women. Women joined politics mostly due to reservation and family pressure Thus the study shows that elected or encouragement, while men joined women members of zonal committee politics because they wanted to. For and districts council of Rohtak district women, it was their first experience in are literate young women occupying PRI bur some men had previous five percent more seats then are experience as well. Some women did reserved for them. Women lag behind not wish to get elected again although men in education and wealth and had to they agreed that their status in society observe purdah and are also dependent had increased after getting elected. on their male relatives in a traditional Most women as well as men were in patriarchal setup and they have entered
72 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 political arena for the first time in their female and public-male dichotomy. lives and contribute less than men in The division of labour is such that the activities of PRI but their presence household chores, child care, care of in the PRI has uplifted their status in other family members, etc. are society. Women acknowledged that considered to be women`s work. These reservation has led to improvement in unpaid and unrecognized full-time women's condition and that it has given activities leave little available time and them a chance to participate in energy for outside interests. community programs. Their awareness of local problems was at par with men Besides, politics is regarded as a and so was their difficulty relating to male prerogative and as a least suitable budget and rules. vocation for women. Women are seen as too soft, emotional, ignorant, The Problem unskilled, illiterate, inarticulate and traditional to be successful in politics. Indian society, especially the If women participate actively in rural society has a clear bias against politics, they are seen as depriving men women. Female feticide, female of their chances. Women who are infanticide, female infant mortality, 'allowed' to enter politics by their male adverse female sex ratio, low female relatives are mostly obedient, literacy, low female paid workforce uninformed, and inarticulate. As a participation rate, child marriages, result, such women enter politics with purdah, dowry, wife-battering, bride a patriarchal whip and behave under burning, etc. are clear symbols of the command and guidance of the secondary status of women. Women males as proxies or rubber stamps. are subordinated in the family which in Capable women are seen as a 'threat' turn extends their subordination in the and discouraged from contesting wider society, economy and polity, for elections by categorizing politics as it leaves then without means to get their dirty, corrupt and unsuitable for inequalities and subordination women. Even those who enter politics removed and grievances redressed. At are expected to confine themselves to times, the subordination may be so acting as 'women`s representatives' subtle and ingrained that women are and relate themselves to issues not even aware of it. specially oriented to women and children. They are expected to leave Moreover the traditional Indian other issues at the disposal of men. This social norms have clearly marked results in marginalization of women 'male' and 'female' areas. Women`s and restricts their operation and behavior is restricted by the private- exercise of power. Seasoned
Men and Women in PRI 73 politicians like L K Advani have the local level bureaucrats needs to be acknowledged that reservation for relooked at so that the information women is justified because women regarding plans, rules, budget, etc. face many difficulties in participating reaches PRI members automatically in public affairs. He accepts that it is and smoothly. twice as difficult for a woman to play a role in public life as it is for a man. Moreover, there is need for Despite all the above, in this case study, reservation to be increased to 50 women were not far behind men in percent in every state in India and also shouldering responsibilities of PRI. women to be politically mobilized for contesting elections and even To top it all is the fact that in India campaigning and questioning the 'implementation' is a major problem. In candidates. For women who are most cases, rules and laws exist but already in the PRIs, literacy and they lack in effective implementation. political education programs are Ineffectiveness combined with needed. Here political education corruption results in doom for all the means information about their powers, good policies and programs. In our rights and functions; acquaintance study also, women complained that the with the rules, plans, procedures and main problem which they encounter is systems as well as basic knowledge lack of information and understanding about the concept and relevance of about budget and rules. Panchayati Raj; the nature of Indian democracy and constitution; policies The Prospect and programs for women and other weaker sections, etc. In order to Women`s effective participation avoid distortions, proper curriculum in the Panchayati Raj or the latter`s development must be undertaken. usefulness for women`s rights and Training has to be sustained and development will become a reality frequent. For this, resource centers only if Panchayat system itself must be created with full-time social operates in a principled, democratic activists. Such centres need to and meaningful way. Hence, the need provide facilities for information of the hour is to strengthen the system dissemination, discussions, counseling and ensure greater people`s and problem solving. The political participation. Otherwise one-third action groups, the social works representation of women as members departments, the NSS and the women`s or the chairpersons will have little or no studies centers in the universities and relevance. In other words, the colleges all over India could be relationship between PRI leaders and mobilized to play the vital role of
74 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 catalysts in this regard. NGOs working not have much positive work to show in the area can also be utilized provided either. they have the inclination and correct approach. References
The bright side of this picture is 1. Kamesswarmma, K. 1987. 'Women that women themselves have a very and Political Awakening'. Roshni, positive and enlightened view on July- September, p 8. women`s capacities. They are all first timers in PRI and lack experience in 2. Forbes, C. 1998. Women in Modern dealing with officials and rules but they India: The New Cambridge History are not far behind men and they also of India. Cambridge University believe that reservation has brought Press: New Delhi, p 130. positive changes in the status of women. However, they need guidance 3. Sinha, Niroj. 2000. Women in Indian and support services. In the absence of Politics. Gyan Publishing House: institutional guidance and support New Delhi, p 21-23. services, they depend upon their 4. Singh, Raj. 2000 'Panchayati Raj families. They need to be made and Peoples Empowerment' in Raj independent economically and through capacity building. Singh (ed), New Panchayati Raj: A Functional Analysis. Anmol Sensitization of officials and men Publication: New Delhi, p 126. in general is also very crucial so that they can understand their role as 5. Mudgal, Gauri and Sushil. 2000. facilitators for empowerment of 'Capacity Building in Panchayati women and PRIs. Raj Institutions' in Raj Singh (ed), New Panchayati Raj: A Functional The task is an enormous one Analysis.anmol Publication: New and will take some time to show Delhi, p 50-52. results. Till training and economic empowerment takes place, a certain 6. Kaushik, Susheela. 1993. Women compromise on the quality of and Panchayati Raj. Har anand participation has to be made, i.e. low Publication: New Delhi, p 15 level of participation needs to be tolerated and critics need to become 7. Mathew, George. 2000. 'Will less critical and demanding. Moreover Reservation Ensure Participation' during most of history, men had been in Raj Singh (ed), New Panchayati controlling PRIs as well as other Raj: A Functional Analysis. Anmol political positions in India and they do Publication: New Delhi., p 40-41.
Men and Women in PRI 75 8. Government of Haryana, 15. High Court of Punjab and Haryana, http://haryana.gov.in/knowharyan http://highcourtchd.gov.in/?trs=ch a/knowharyana.html, Accessed on ief, Accessed on 6.10.2015. 6.10.2015. 16. Haryana Census 2011, 9. Gender Profile Haryana, http://censusindia.gov.in/2011- http://ncw.nic.in/pdfReports/Gend prov-results/data_files/haryana/1- er_Profile_Haryana.pdf, Accessed Figures%20at%20a%20Glance.pd on 6.10.2015. f, Accessed on 6.10.2015. ' 10. Not a single woman representative 17. Gender Profile Haryana, from Haryana in Lok Sabha' The http://ncw.nic.in/pdfReports/Gend Economic Times, er_Profile_Haryana.pdf, Accessed http://articles.economictimes.india on 6.10.2015. times.com/2014-05-19/news /49949291_1_women-candidates- 18. District Rohtak, congress-mps-lok-sabha, Accessed http://rohtak.nic.in/history.htm, on 9.10.2015. Accessed on 6.10.2015.
11. Haryana Vidhan Sabha 19. Haryana Census 2011, http://haryanaassembly.gov.in/Sea http://censusindia.gov.in/2011- rchParliamentMembers.aspx? prov-results/prov_data_ products House=LokSabha, Accessed on _haryana.html, Accessed on 6.10.2015. 6.10.2015.
12. Haryana Vidhan Sabha, 20. Gender Profile Haryana, http://haryanaassembly.gov.in/Sea http://ncw.nic.in/pdfReports/Gend rchParliamentMembers.aspx?Hou er_Profile_Haryana.pdf, Accessed se=RajyaSabha, Accessed on on 6.10.2015. 6.10.2015. 21. Adwani, L. K. 2008, My Country 13. Haryana Vidhan Sabha, My Life, Rupa and Co, New Delhi, http://haryanaassembly.gov.in/Sear p869. chMLAInformation.aspx, Accessed on 6.10.2015.
14. Council of Ministers, http://haryanaassembly.gov.in/Writ eReadData/ExtraLinksInformation /Council_Ministers.htm, Accessed on 6.10.2015.
76 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar
Sarbjot Singh Behl, Rawal Singh Aulakh
1.0 Introduction turned out to be a discontinuous and fragmented space with lack of urban Cities exist in time as well as in coherence & cultural identity that space. Their shape and appearance are destroyed the image of the historic city. derived from their past history as well as Modern urbanism, with its stereotyped their present function and to some & depersonalized solutions, has extent also from their projected future failed to address the aforementioned development. Every city, to a certain complexity of the Indian historic city. extent carries the evidence of its growth and history on its face. The Indian Amritsar- the city of the Golden traditional city has undergone a gamut Temple and the holiest place of Sikhs of evolutionary changes, upheavals and founded in the 16th century and situated disruptions by virtue of being subjected along the India-Pakistan border serves to extreme variations of socio-politico- as an apt example of such a city (figure- cultural & economic conditions over the 1). The aim of this investigation is to ages. It is evident that in the medieval establish the historical complexity, period, a relatively stable organic urban meaning and role of the time function in form of the traditional Indian city was constituting city space through an shaped and was preserved for a analysis of morphological models and considerable period of time until the the social context, and to establish 19th century. This overall stability of critical points in the time-space relation urban form in old cities began to cease in the process of the genesis, growth, by the onset of industrial age. From this transformation and future guidelines for period onwards, the Indian traditional ensuring and establishing dynamic cities were exposed to a new type of continuity between historic areas and development, different on size, scale their surroundings, thereby connecting and momentum, upsetting the critical and harmonizing old and new, past and equilibrium of the city organism. As a present, seed and growth (figure-2). result, the traditional Indian city
77 2.0 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CITY- AMRITSAR
2.1 Genesis and Growth: (Historical Perspective)
Figure: 1
Source: Documented records of Guru Ramdass School of Planning
Figure: 2
Source: M. Tech. Thesis, Aulakh.
78 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 2.2 From 1575 to 1804 AD middle of this holy tank, thus establishing sanctum sanctorum. With Worship of Natural Features: The this, the prototype of the present process of historic development is Harmandir Sahib, popularly known as clearly visible from the print of generic The Golden Temple, was complete as form of the city's spatial structure. The the integrated complex. first seed of the city was the ceremonial meeting place–Amrit Sarovar (pool of Multiplication Of Peripheral nectar) that also became the site for Functions: In the last quarter of the 16th Harmandar (The Abode of God) that century, around the holy tank (Amrit would become the central nucleus and Sarovar), came up a small township dominate the historic city for all times consisting of commercial precinct at the to come (figure-3). present site of Guru Bazaar and residential settlement inhabited by Centroidal Form of Sanctum goldsmiths, nomads and other Sanctorum: During the reign of the fifth craftsmen (figure-3). This small Guru of Sikhs, Guru Arjan Dev, the holy township was appropriately called tank was enlarged and a place of Ramdaspur worship (dharamsal) was erected in the
Figure: 3
Source: M. Tech. Thesis, Aulakh.
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 79 2.3 Emergence of Precincts constructed through a collective effort of all the Sikh leaders. A few of them, The city of Amritsar was subjected presumably the most prominent, to various invasions during the 18th established their own forts in the town: century, which periodically inflicted the the Bhangi Sardar Hari Singh in the damage on the city and Harmandar south-west of the Harmandar, Jassa Sahib. In order to protect the city and Singh Ramgariah in the south-east, the holy shrine, various Sikh leaders of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia in the east and Jai those times established their residences Singh Kanhiya in the north. The core (havelis, bungas) and residential was partly reconstructed and became districts (katras) around the Golden more thickly populated. But a whole Temple (Figure1) and encouraged range of forts with palaces, residential traders and craftsmen to reside in them districts with their own markets and (figure-4). The principle of equality and houses with spacious gardens sprang up unity, which Sikhism espoused, was o n all the sides of the town founded by at work in the reconstruction of Guru Ram Das. Ramdaspur. The Harmandar was
Figure: 4
Source: M. Tech. Thesis, Aulakh.
80 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 2.4 Consolidation: Ranjit Singh markets (bazaars) increasing by the 19th Period century. Outside the GuruDwara, the most widespread representative of the At the beginning of the 19th corporate life became the guild or Katra- century, the city of Amritsar was taken the two bases for fellowship, common over by the ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh, work and a common faith, that were thus bringing the city of Amritsar under united in the medieval town. a single administration. Double wall was constructed with moats around the Following the example of city to improve its fortification with Maharaja Ranjit Singh, other nobles of twelve gates, having bridges on the his court also laid down their gardens all moats. In 1809, a fort called Gobindgarh around the walled city of Amritsar. in the south-west of the city was Thus by the middle of the 19th century, constructed and in the north-east a the city of Amritsar was a well formed palace in the heart of Rambagh gardens entity with a strong historic core in the based on Chaar Bagh concept were laid heart of the city and on the outskirts down. The structure of Baba Atal, with surrounded by a green belt of gardens its beautiful frescoes was another gift of that acted as an interface between the Ranjit Singh. The city was more city and the country side (Figure 5 & populous than ever before, with new Figure 5 a). residential districts (katras), and
Figure: 5 Figure: 5(a)
Source: M. Tech. Thesis, Aulakh. Source: Gauba, Anand.
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 81 2.5 Socio-Physical, Structural and into account the mass and profile of its Morphological Attributes of Stable dominant structures (figure 6). The key Medieval City Form: structure in the plan of Amritsar is Harmandar by virtue of its geographic The urban pattern of old lo cation and being the starting point in Amritsar was qualified by a strong the growth of the city. The Golden centre-periphery relationship. The Temple was a many sided institution. centre remained fixed while the Outside the temple, the most wide periphery shifted in space and time to spread representative of the corporate accommodate the changing concepts. life become the guild or Katra (The The basic form of the city had the neighbourhood unit and the functional capacity to grow, modify and change precinct-in a sense); the two bases for both vertically and horizontally while fellowship, common work and common retaining the original character. The faith, that were united in the medieval spatial, typological and structural town. attributes of the city's medieval form reflect the above pattern The medieval city was a congeries of little cities, each with a certain degree 2.6 Socio-Physical: of autonomy and self-sufficiency, each formed so naturally out of common The ideas and institutions of needs and purposes that it only enriched medieval civilization concern us here and supplemented the whole. The only as they affected the urban pattern. division of the town into quarters, each To understand the plan one must take with a sub religious centre, often with a
Figure: 6 Figure: 7
Source: Thesis, Aulakh. Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
82 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 local provision market, always with its prevented institutional overcrowding own local water supply, a well or a and needless circulation: it kept the fountain was a characteristic feature; but whole town in scale- small structures, as the town grew, the quarters might small numbers and intimate relations. have become sixths, or even smaller fractions or the whole, without 2.7 Structural: dissolving into the mass. But it was in the central core around Golden Temple The source of the organic curves in that all individual autonomies got Amritsar was the emphasis on its central subjected to the greatest autonomy of core (figure 8). The essential fact of medieval urbanism was the constitution the faith and as a result the development of the city in such a fashion that all the in this vicinity was complimentary in all lines converge towards the centre and respects to the central feature. The that contour is usually circular (figure medieval city, despite its manifold 9). Apart from the linear movement to developments and its ambivalent the centre, a circumambulatory results, may be described a collective movement in the form of a series of structure whose main purpose was the rings around the central core serves the living of a religious life. purpose of enclosing and protecting it, These precincts were the first while the devious and meandering translation of the spatial qualities of the passages approach more close to it. sacred precinct of the original city and Two opposing forces of attraction and the very existence of the city is today protection generate the resulting plan: threatened by the overexpansion of the public buildings and open spaces wheeled traffic, the tradition of the find security behind a labyrinth of medieval precinct, realised form the streets; through which the knowing foot street and the major traffic artery, comes nevertheless penetrates (Figure10). back as a new form at a higher point in Figure: 8 the spiral of development (figure 7). In the main, the temple being central to the town, and since it drew to itself the largest crowds, it needed a forecourt to provide for the entrance and exit of the worshippers. As with the original growth of the city, the market settled close to the Harmandar because it is there that the inhabitants most frequently came together. This decentralisation of the essential social Source: Thesis, Aulakh. functions of the city not merely Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 83
Figure: 9 Figure: 10
Source: Records of GRSP. Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
Figure: 11 Figure: 12
Source: Recor ds of GRSP. Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
84 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 2.8 Morphological: And ordered space in contrast to a labyrinthine or maze pattern of space The archetypal concept of centre is surrounding it was the key feature of the revealed in its built form also (figure historic core of Amritsar. 13). The Centroidal form of Harmandar had the inherent potential to dominate Also the principle of formal the space around, and also by virtue of coherence symbolizing wholeness in its central location from where the city the whole of urban sequence was a expanded outwards. But since the unifying element in historic core. The ideology of Sikh faith was not to inspire method of growth by accumulation of awe but take everyone in its fold with massive, self contained units of humility, the dominance inherent in the buildings (figure 17), each cheek by Centroidal form was played down by jowl with each other held firmly in place locating the shrine at the lowest point in by the powerful force of compression. city's topography and the axis mundi These were held together by rhythm of (the vertical axis) is also kept low unifying elements like arcades, chajjas, (figure 14) projecting windows and columns.
Spatial contrast and formal In short the plan of Amritsar was coherence qualify the centre-periphery no static design (figure 18), embodying relationship induced by inherent the needs of single generation, typology (figure 15). A pattern of arbitrarily ruling out the possibilities of spatial contrast exists between the growth, re-adaptation, and change; sacred space and its environs to create rather here was continuity in change, a an image of order being wrested from unity emerging from a complex order. the chaos of surroundings (figure 16).
Figure: 13
Source: Thesis, Aulakh. Figure: 14
Source: Thesis, Aulakh
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 85
Figure: 15 Figure: 16
Source: Thesis, Aulakh Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
Figure: 17 Figure: 18
Source: Thesis, Figure: 18 Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
3. Transformations: (Historical 3.1 Colonial transplan t: Perspective) One of the early measures of the The 19th century idea of British administrators of Amritsar was increasing cha nge and progress raised to remove its fortifications. A ll the the problem of stabilisation and bastions and all the walls were equilibrium. There was a problem for demolished. A new wall only a few feet both the central institution and the city, thick was constructed, leaving only a but neither could solve it without few gates intact. However, till the end of transcending its inherited limitations the 19th century, only a few hundred (figure 19). This rich indigenously persons were living outside the city developed medieval city core of wall, and they were almost exclusively Amritsar was later subjected to the European (figure 20). colonial transplant and unleashing of the fury of contemporary urbanism.
86 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Morphological development was have a perimeter of 16 miles, nearly four closely connected with demographic times the perimeter of the city walls growth. Within the religious core, (f igu re 2 2). Much of the increase in the most important landmark of po p ula ti on w as due to industrial and British sprang as a clock tower after commercial activities. The maximum demolishing the Bunga Sarkar or industrial growth in Amritsar took place Bunga Shukarchakiya (the rest house of in the second quarter of the present confederacy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh) century, synchronising with the (Figure-21). Some new areas within the maximum increase in population. wall were brought into use in the late During British period the location 19th century. The old inhibition of of urban, commercial and transport residing within the walls was no longer modes just next to the outskirts of the old there. In 1911, there were over 10,000 city became newly created magnet for persons living outside the walled city. the urban development outside the By 1941 their number rose to 94,000. walled city. This tension caused conflicts The municipal area in 1938 came to in movement, activity and built form Figure: 22
Source: Thesis Aulakh.
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 87 within the realm of religious centre. As a development during British period was result of the major movement line on the other side of the railway tracks that instead of emanating from the religious acted as a strong barrier and between the centre cuts across it to join the new walled city of natives and the civil lines transport or commercial mode and hence of the civilised and thus initiating the shifting the original emphasis from the process of fragmentation. The advantage centre, this new movement line brings in of central geographic location of more vehicular traffic and commercial Harmandar was shifted to Railway activity with an increasing gradient Station, which became a new centre of towards the religious centre. Gradually the sprawling city (figure7). the eripheral area around religious centre transforms into CBD of the region. As 3.2 Invasion of commerce and per the historic records, there used to run traffic: a Dump-Trailer train on narrow gauge which used to collect garbage from By virtue of an important junction within the walled city and throw it over enroute the railway and road map of near Khazana Gate. undivided India, the invasion of commerce and later industrial growth Most of this growth took place on altered the land use pattern of the walled the other side of the railway tracks that city drastically. Following the law of divided the civil lines and walled city of least resistance, the commercial activity Amritsar. The bridge over railway tracks invaded the thickly populated walled city connecting these two settlements touched and as a result the old holy city of wall city at a point where Hall Gate (now Amritsar was converted into CBD of the Gandhi Gate) was established. The road region (figure 24). from Gandhi Gate to Golden Temple became the most important road as it The concentration of commercial connected the new transport nodes and activity was naturally followed by the ever-expanding City to the Golden invasion of the motor car. The horizontal Temple. The area around this road and penetration by the vehicular traffic and its branches got commercialised over a vertical punctuation by high rise in the period of time and is called Hall Bazaar. built form of the traditional city As a result of the increased accessibility adversely affected the character, and consumer pressure the core of the appearance and scale of the city in an city became CBD of the surrounding irrecoverable manner (Figure 23 a). region. The functions that came up by Except Town Hall and Government virtue of religious and historic functions school building, the major thrust of the eventually replaced the same.
88 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Figure: 23
Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
Figure: 23 (a)
Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 89 3.3 Socio-political disruption: (figure10).The second blow came as an aftermath of “Operation Blue Star” and While the previous transformations “Operation Black Thunder”. Driven took place over a period of time, there by the security concerns exclusively In were some abrupt upheavals as a result 1989 Government acquired 30 mts of of sudden and unforeseen socio-political area around the complex and for the developments, which affected the city sake of maintaining law and order and its historic core in a dramatic way. demolished all the structures falling with in the range of this zone. This act The first blow to the urban life of left a gaping hole in the heart of the the city came during the 1947 riots at historic core of Amritsar and thus the time of partition, in which large- draining life out of the city. scale loss of life and property took place. In response to this situation, a As a result of this demolition special provision in the form of drive certain drastic changes took place “Damaged Area Act” (figure 24) was in the built form, open spaces and constituted to deal with the crisis of movement which contrasted strongly redevelopment and rehabilitation of with the pre-existing structures around the damaged areas in the riots Golden Temple (figure 25).
Figure: 24
Source: Thesis, Aulakh.
90 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Figure: 26 Figure: 25
Source: Documented Records of GRSP Source: Documented Records of GRSP Socio-Physical, Structural and Morphological Attributes of Unstable Present City Form: 3.4 Change In Built Form pattern of Spatial Contrast between the centre and periphery essential to 3.4.1. Loss of Enclosure: achieve the qualitative difference between the formally ordered sacred By creating an indiscriminate space and its informal organic environs open space uniformly on all the sides of was lost. Harmandar it detracts from the structure itself, for its potential effect Every organic relationship cannot be concentrated but scattered between open space and its enclosure evenly around its circumference. A is made impossible, as all perspective
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 91 effects require sufficient vistas. after creating it was the next question. Putting a void around the building has The first option was to have a corridor prevented it from farming with its around the Golden Temple complex. environs, various diverse scenes. A (The project was earlier called project uniform and monotonous expanse of corridor), which was later replaced space all around Golden Temple has by the second option of creating also destroyed the hierarchy of public landscaped area all around. The spaces that surrounded the central second option was considered an shrine. The main public square–the improvement over the first one and Ghantaghar Chowk in front of the main readily grabbed for execution. entrance has now merged with the indiscriminate open space all around, 3. The road widening approach: The there by destroying the sense of arrival proposal was first made by INTACH & at the Abode of God. later the project was handed over to landscape Architect Ravinder Bhan. 3.4.2. Loss of Cohesion Improved public walks and gardens are unquestionably of great hygienic 1. The principle of formal coherence values. Indisputable is also the symbolising wholeness was characteristic changing result of rustic beauty into the of the historic core. This concept was heart of city, where nature's work and applicable to the buildings as part of large man's architecture can be taken into urban sequences. A coherent group of account, but we must give some visual features comprised on coherent thought to where and how the great whole by adopting a common architectural open areas should be located. vocabulary of Sikh architecture. The modular unity of this kind of architectural An attempt to harmonise the vast expression has been lost as a result of landscaped expanse with monumental architecture would inevitably result in a tearing down of the rich architectural disagreeable conflicting style in a heritage built form in the vicinity of medieval setting. The location of idyllic Golden Temple. The monotonous side parks next to the city's principal public faces without any architectural chara. space has resulted in clash between 2. The spatial void and vacuum of nature & stylistic monumentality. vision:The 30 mt. corridor around Whereas as a baroque garden and a Golden Temple provided very mughal charbagh enhance the beauty of tempting opportunity for the over the monument they address by creating enthusiastic planners and architects vistas following the principle of axial and was dealt with superficial geometry, the idyllic meandering park approach. What to do with the void all around a formally ordered space and monument cancel out each other.
92 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Moreover the choice of plants & trees, paving patterns, use of water First it becomes important to bodies and choice of material does not redefine and re-establish the status of follow any physical & historic context historic core in contemporary city of of the existing pattern in Golden Amritsar (figures 27 & 28). Figure 27 Temple Complex. Source: Thesis, Aulakh
3.5 Approach towards restructuring Second is to evolve a comprehensive historic part of Amritsar: development project with clearly defined objectives, goals and range of activities. In today's scenario, the This requires a detailed urban design of the conventional approach of urban historic core area and its possible planning to physically and visually extensions in the immediate periphery so structure the city has to give way to that each situation has clearly defined innovative solutions to deal with physical solutions within the framework of complex social and environmental larger planning/ conservation strategies of issues. As is evident from above, the the area. failure of current planning guidelines to regulate the process of change in Figure 28 historic urban core, results in a need to evolve a comprehensive and sustainable process of conserving the traditional urban form based on three spheres of understanding:
Figure 27
Source: Thesis, Aulakh Source: Thesis, Aulakh
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 93 Third, the development programme of human factors that go into making of must be self-sustainable by promoting the old historic areas of the city instead financial systems such as investment of indiscriminately subjecting them to from private sector and tourism economic and technical forces. industry. 4.0 Guidelines: There are two basic approaches in the modern practice of urban planning: The approach of conservative surgery has to be essentially preceded • The scientific approach: in the by a detailed diagnosis of existing domain of spatial and urban planning, conditions of built form, activities, and this is based on empirical quality of movement patterns. A survey with development, applied to the organic respect to the following factors can be nature of the city system. adopted as a basis of restructuring historic core (figure 29). In case of • Urban design approach: that in present day historic core, the task is to less spatial design and functional give shape and coherence to the ill- composition with all other aspects of designed core or to carve out a core the city's structure. from formless expanse. The raw material we have to use includes not While the scientific approach only plot of ground but existing confers greater importance to exact buildings in which the history and indicators (economic, demographic, therefore the personality of the place are technological) in the development of an embodied. In revitalising a historic entity, valuating them and designing core the dominating elements are them into the future, the urban design historic buildings of all kinds and approach sets urban shape, architecture periods which should be analysed. The of the city and morphological total effect of the core depends on the characteristics of the city in general as its way the old threads are woven into the priority goal. The differences between new fabric. the two approaches do not present an obstacle to their communication, and 4.1 Delineation of historic core as should be practised in the planning heritage zone: process combined. A concept of heritage conservation The synthesis of the above zone defined as an area of special mentioned two approaches was architectural, historical and cultural manifested for the first time in Patrick interest should be integrated into the Geddes' philosophy of 'Conservative master plan of the city. The built form, Surgery' which took a sensitive account open spaces, road network and
94 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Figure 29
Source- Thesis, Aulakh.
Figure 30
Source- Documentation by Dept. of Architecture
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 95 infrastructure in this zone should be 4.2.3 Morphological Survey of Built guided by a strong concern and drive for Form: preservation of the heritage value of the area (figure 30). To establish the principle of spatial contrast between the surrounding fabric 4.2 Raw material for restructuring and central monument, any new the historic core: intervention should follow the traditional typology. 4.2.1. Age and conditions of buildings: 4.2.4 Activity Pattern: Figure 32 To establish historic continuity: The chronological analysis establishes a Source- Documentation by Dept. historical time segment of various layers of Architecture Land use survey to of development over a period of time establish the activities complimentary to and the new intervention could benefit the main religious function of the from this data to achieve continuity and historic core. In case of historic core of unity. The data also would help in Amritsar, the trade based on traditional locally treating the problem areas and craft (wooden carving, metal check the spread of visual blight and establish safe and visually enriched embossing, engraving on dressed environment. stones), jewellery-artificial as well as carat, punjabi jutti, home industry 4.2.2 Height of Buildings: (condiments, papad wadian, murrabbas, pickles, pulses), souvenir shops (kadas, To establish spatial/visual kirpans, cassettes, photographs, relationships: The data should be rumalas), small publishing units or visually supported by street sectors and printing press (books, stationary), vista views. The height-width eateries flourished in the immediate relationship in approaching streets and vicinity of Golden Temple (figure 32). surrounding space is critical to the The vertical land use pattern shows that sequential visual experience as well as all this ground commercial activity was sense of enclosure around the religious an extension of just few floors monument (figure 31). residential settlement. This type of arrangement curbed the vertical Figure 31 development of commercial activity in this area, restraining the vehicular penetration.
Source- Documentation by Dept. of Architecture
96 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Figure 32 A clear hierarchy of approach roads with varying widths and gradients should be established to highlight primary and secondary entry points to the Golden Temple (figure 32 a)
4.2.6 Visual Survey of Built Form:
To establish the principle of visual coherence between the central feature and peripheral facades. Architectural façade control should be evolved by using traditional architectural features and motifs like chajjas, projecting windows and balconies, arcades, chabutras (platforms abutting streets), chhatris, and cupolas (figure 33).
Source- Documentation by Dept. of Figure 32 a Architecture
A part from this the small shrines surrounding the Golden Temple Complex like Akharaas, road side shrines should be integrated in the over all composition to encourage the religious fervour of the place.
4.2.5 Movement Patterns: to establish a balance between accessibility and activity.
A c o m b i n a t i o n o f circumambulatory corridor with parking points on its periphery and converging levels of pedestrian movement towards the central point. Locating informal sector strategically along the pedestrian paths should Source- Database Dept. of Architecture encourage the movement as a part of activity.
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 97 Figure 33
Source- Documentation by Dept. of Architecture
4.3 Public Participation: program based on certain incentives (social and financial) should be Initial forms of spatial structures evolved. For example, interest free are built with a view to developing the construction loans for incorporating the city, while transformations are most designed architectural controls, often the result of their utilisation. For rewarding the best street or bazaars, this reason, the degree of co ordination prizes for best processional avenues and between the primary constructed form temporary gateways erected during of the structure and the user's needs is of gurpurabs, etc. pre-eminent importance for the number and nature of transformations. 4.4 Institutional Participation:
Greater the agreement between Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak the initial form and the user's culture, Committee (SGPC) that looks after the the transformations will continuously Golden Temple complex and other build into and develop the primary religious shrines in the historic core of city form, thereby attaining gradual genesis of Amritsar should also be given a role of the structure. (financial and administrative) in the vicinity of religious monuments. A close Therefore, a flexible and co-ordination between the local bodies adaptable spatial structure should be and SGPC would ensure a harmonious evolved, for the reason that the nature of regulation of the environment of the the transformations does not change its religious buildings and their surroundings. primary form much, as structure that coincides with the needs and the culture 4.5 Financial Viability: of users undergo minimal adaptations. The concept of heritage tourism to To encourage public participation sustain the traditional resources should an attractive people's involvement be encouraged. The development of
98 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 tourist enclaves, the heritage walks can which remains unexploited in the provide financial sustainability. The historic core of Amritsar. Along with present scenario provides an pilgrimage tourism, the city of Amritsar opportunity for the design and being on international map can attract development on above pattern. enough foreign tourists. Tourism is an industry of great potential
5.0 Design Approach:
CENTRE PERIPHERY
PRIMARY CONSTRUCTED FORM GROWTH
SPECIFIC HISTORICAL TIME RANDOM URBAN DYNAMICS SEGMENT IN STRUCTURES AS IMPETUS TO DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT HERITAGE ZONE ZONE
HISTORIC CORE IN WALLED EVERSHIFTING PERIPHERY CITY (DEFINITION OF THE AROUND CORE DEFINITION PARAMETERS OF THE OF CONCENTRIC ZONES PROTECTED ZONE) OF DIMINISHING INFLUENCE
PRESERVATION/CONSERVATION GROWTH/DEVELOPMENT
INCREMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL
MODIFICATION AND PROGRESSIVE REPAIR DEVELOPMENT
COMPLEX FUNCTION LINEAR FUNCTION
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 99 References 10. Singh, Bhagat. A History of Sikh Misals. Patiala: Punjabi Books Unversity. 1993.
1. Amole, S.S. Amritsar. Patiala: 11. Singh, Giani Gian. Gurdham Bhasha Vibhag. 1974 Sangreh. Chandigarh: Kendri . Singh Sabha Academy. 2. Arthur, Korn. History Builds the Town. First edition. London and 12. Singh, Giani Gian. Twarikh Sri Bradford: Lund Humpries. 1953. Amritsar. Amritsar: Kendri Singh Sabha Committee. 1978. 3. Blumenfeld, Hans. The modern metropolis its origins, growth, Articles characteristics, and planning. Selected essays. (Ed. Paul. D. 1. Fonseca, Rory. “The walled city Spreiregen). U.S.A.: M.I.T. press. of Old Delhi.” Ekistics 182 1967. (1971): 72-80
4. Bor, Walter. The Making of Cities. 2. Noe, Samuel V. “Old Lahore and London: Leonard Hill. 1972. Old Delhi: variations on a Mughal theme.” Ekistics 295 (1982): 301-19 5. Carter, Harold. An Introduction to 3. Strange, Ian. “Planning for Urban Historical Geography. change, conserving the past: Baltimore, Maryland: Edward towards sustainable development Arnold Publishers Ltd. 1983. policy in historic cities.” Cities, vol. 14, No.4, (1997): 227-33 6. Gauba, Anand. Amritsar- A study in urban history (1840-1947). 4. Smith, Peter F. “Esthetics in cities.” First edition. Jalandhar: ABS Ekistics 265 (1997): 301-07 Publications. 1988. 5. Jain, Rajesh Kumar. “Conservation 7. Guru Arjandev. Sri Guru Granth of built heritage in India: initiatives Sahib. Amritsar. 1604. and approaches.” Spatio- Economic Development Record, 8. Padam, Piara Singh. Punjab Vol.9, No.4, (2002): 32-34 Roushan. Amritsar: Singh Brothers. 1995. 6. Hakim Besim S. “Urban Form in traditional Islamic cultures: 9. Saarinen, Eliel. The City its Growth, further studies needed for Its Decay, Its Future. Calcutta: formulating theory.” Cities, Scientific Book Agency. 1971. Vol.16, No.1, (1998): 51-55
100 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 7. Ford, Larry R. “lynch Revisited, 2. Archives of Department of new urbanism and theories of Architecture, Guru Nanak Dev good city form.” Cities, Vol.16, University, Amritsar. No.4, (!999): 247-57 3. Archives from Department of Historical Archives History, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. 1. Archives of Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
Historical Analysis of Urban Dynamics of a Traditional Indian City: A Case Study of Walled City Amritsar 101 Book Review their empires and made available natural resources for their industrial requirements. This is the stuff of the history of the 19th Development Issues in century. The spirit of nationalism in Contemporary India Europe and political ambitions were a Edited by Dr. M.R. Biju recipe for wars among the nations and Europe was devastated by the two World Concept Publishing Wars. The colonized countries awakened Company Pvt. Ltd., to realize their exploitation and to have New Delhi their own destiny. The history of the Pages xxxiv plus 606. second half of the 20th century is the history of these countries gaining freedom and embarking on the path of development. For these countries Traditionally, the term 'development' development has not been as easy as it has been associated with economic was for the west. For the countries which development. The western countries, chose democracy as the way of Europe and the North America (the U.S.A governance had to adopt broader and Canada) were first to achieve dimensions of development, because they development. Being in the north had to satisfy the aspirations of the people hemisphere they had soil moisture and with a wider perspective, with equity and abundance of water. Scientific discoveries social justice. The development story of and inventions, development of sciences, India falls in this category. application of new technologies and mechanization in agriculture, horticulture, The development narrative of India animal husbandry and dairying brought a begins with a bright Constitution, which boom of food production and abundance makes India a sovereign, socialist, secular, of milk, butter and cheese that ensure democratic republic. It aims to secure for nutrition for population. Industrial all its citizens, Justice social, economic revolution started in 1750 in England. The and political; Liberty of thought, second industrial revolution (1850) gave a expression, belief, faith and worship; push and spread in the western world. Equality of status and opportunity; and to Having no worry of food security, the promote among them all Fraternity, industrially and economically advanced assuring the dignity of the individual and European countries developed ambition the unity and integrity of the Nation. and had resources to colonize other countries, which were not so fortunate in Thus, the framework of our these material terms and were easy to be governance and development strategy is conquered. This made for expansion of well defined and determined. Each of the
102 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 above mentioned statements of the is an essential part of the process. Preamble of the Constitution has a distinct Universities, institutes of national dimension and meaning. importance and some dedicated magazines are playing a commendable Establishment of parliamentary role in recording, commenting upon and democracy, guaranteeing certain freedom documenting the performance through and Fundamental Rights, and assuring journals. It must be admitted that some dignity to every class of citizens were publication houses are supplementing this primary goals, coupled with the task admirably, by bringing out endeavour of development in all spheres publications on governance and to give a decent standard of life to the development issues. Concept Publishing teeming millions. Vast resources of the Company is one such publisher that country had to be marshalled to achieve continuously brings out seminal books on these ends. And thus the need to ensure a wide range of subjects, with remarkable economic development that would regularity. One such recent publication- provide food security, make for spread of 'Development Issues in Contemporary education, ensure health services, create India', edited by Dr. M.R. Biju, is an jobs for the millions, facilitate industrial addition to this corpus, which is under production, and provide right conditions review. The book contains in all, 29 well- for development of services. This researched articles by renowned necessitated an overarching body, namely academics and scholars in the respective the Planning Commission that would take fields, classified in five sections and stock of the resources, decide priorities, accommodated in 606 pages of print. recommend allocation of resources and funds and evaluate the progress Section I with the title Development periodically. In many respects and in Projects, Action Plans and Good many areas, development started after Governance contains nine articles. The Independence from scratch. Development section begins with the article by needs of the country have been (and still PrasenjitMaiti on Key Concepts of Impact are) massive; hence the Administration in Assessment and Resettlement Action for India or for that matter administration of Infrastructure Development Projects.She any developing economy is essentially a has presented case studies in the context Development Administration. of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, National Policy on Resettlement and India has an institutional approach to Rehabilitation 2003 and the World Bank governance and development through Policy Guidelines, and concludes that plan and policy formulation at national infrastructure projects to upgrade/widen and state levels. There is a huge roads, laying down road networks, etc. is a implementation hierarchy. Documentation development pre-requisite. She rightly
Book Review 103 asserts they should be implemented with existing environmental laws, comprehensive mitigation measures to consequently eliminating a substantial reduce pain of displacement and the number of transnational legal disputes. consequential loss to the owners and the Swami Prakash Srivastava in his tenants in terms of residence and Chapter on Special Economic Zones livelihood needs to be handled in a more (SEZ) makes a strong case for SEZs, as sensitive manner. according to him, SEZ is a trade capacity development tool, with the Jayant Sinha and Amrita Pal, in goal to promote rapid economic growth their article Economics of the by using tax and business incentives to Sustainable Environment- A Review, attract foreign investment and show how the newly emerged discipline technology. While suggesting a low tax of environmental economics though regime to attract foreign capital he primarily concerned with the proficient states that SEZs ensure better utilization of resources generally investment climate and have expressed in monetary terms, has given advantages in the form of provision of rise to a new economic theory in fiscal incentives, infrastructure contradicting the old theory. According facilities and hassle free governance. to the authors, the new theory is much Chapter 5, by author trio Pranab K. more holistic and organismic in nature Dan, Kousik Guhathakurta and and follows the principles of quantum Shatadru Gupta, is also on another theory. It proceeds on the premise that a aspect of SEZ, i.e. Modeling for Land sustainable human society has to Acquisition for SEZ and elaborates on conserve, recycle, and salvage the issue of SEZ projects facing intense materials and energy and advocates that protests from the farming community, the earth's carrying capacity depends on accusing the government of forcibly much of our efficiency in nurturing and snatching fertile land from them at using living systems to capture and heavily discounted prices as against the store solar energy and go for renewable prevailing prices in the commercial real resources. Next article Administrative estate industry. The sixth Chapter and Organizational Aspects of written by RituNarangon Health Care Environment Policy Making by duo System in Rural India: Need for Public- authors Manuka Khanna and Private Partnership (PPP), makes a Poornima Tripathi makes a case for case for fostering the health care standardization and uniformity in system in India by involving PPP implementation of international laws which has shown promising results in and national laws. This, according to various other fields of banking, them, would also lead to a partial telecommunication, insurance, etc. The harmonization or approximation of booming IT sector has given rise to
104 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 stress for women. R. Sunita has other rights of individuals and of the analyzed this occupational hazard in her disadvantaged sections of the society. article Stress Management of Women in Yet instances of violations of some or IT Sector, which has a practical piece of the other rights keep happening, advice to the companies stating that bringing up the noble issue of Human employees need a genial work Rights and their protection. Section II environment to keep them free from covers seven articles grouped together, stress.According to her, this is the key to dwelling upon very relevant topics. increasing productivity. In Chapter 8 This Section begins with Chapter 10, Arjun Sharma dwells on Good contributed by the Editor of the book Governance and E-Governance- Dr. M.R. Biju, on Human Rights and Prospects for Rural Bihar. The Gangetic Social Justice under Decentralization. plain of rural Bihar, a region of khet- His analysis is right when he says that khalian holds good prospects for the notion of social justice has emerged application of ICT tools for governance out of a process of evolution of societal by giving people there access to norms, order, law and morality and Facilitation Centres, IT tools, that the core element of social justice communication skills and RTI. He is the social equity. He advocates believes that e-Governance is equally development of democracy at suitable for rural Bihar, as it is for the grass root level so that democratic cities. E-commerce, which makes decentralization will contribute to business easy and fast, and has emerged vibrant local governance. Mass media as challenge to the brick-mortar plays a vital role in keeping the society commerce, has its own challenges. This informed of the happenings and if is the topic of Chapter, with the title handled carefully, has an immense Security Challenges in E-commerce by educative potential including the rights Sayed Raza Mousavizadeh and H. of the people. Amita Agarwal in her Rajshekhar. The author duo point out paper Human Rights and Mass that though this mode of doing business Mediacritically examines the link makes great success possible, there are between human rights and mass media. both legitimate opportunists as well as Considering the speed of electronic criminal elements finding their way in media and the way it catches people's it. They emphasizeon creating more interest, she believes that impact of awareness and a security culture for the mass media is more popular, lasting and benefits of both, the business side and far-reaching than all the government the consumers. agencies put together. Conventional wars may have subsided but the civil The Constitution of India gives wars and ethnic clashes in many primacy to Fundamental Rights and countries of the world force a large
Book Review 105 number of people to run for security. Madhava Menon. He pointedly says Chunnu Prasad in his article Refugees that it is a Constitutional mandate which and Human Rights-Comparative firstly prohibits discrimination and Studies between Chakmas in India and positively prescribes measures for Biharis in Bangladeshgoes into the educational advancement of the plight of refugees and asylum seekers. disadvantaged section of the society He makes a good case for following the through reservations, towards directions of the United Nations Human fulfilment of the equal opportunity Rights Commission for Refugees in guaranteed in the Constitution. Last in solving the refugee problem of the series of articles in this Section, we Chakmas and Bihars in a time-bound come to another advocacy article by manner. Right to Information Act, is a Ashutosh Pandey in Chapter 16 on sunshine law that has brought about Judicial Activism and Protection of transparency in governance and has Human Rights. According to him, it is strengthened democratic participation the inadequacy of the established of the citizens. Writer trio S.P. Guru, system to give due rights and justice to JohaniXaxa and Bibhuti Kalyan those suffering from various plights that Mahakulin their paper Right to the Public Interest Litigation, a legal Information and the Democratic innovation has come to the rescue of Political System: the Indian tortured prisoners, helpless women, Experiencevery convincingly establish voiceless tribals, etc. that the greater the access of the citizens to information the greater the The Editor has nicely categorized responsiveness of government to the papers according to themes. We now community needs. According to them come to Section III which has four well- this Act is a tool to empowering the chosen and equally well-researched people and combating corruption. It articles. At the beginning of the took centuries of thinking to recognize Sectionwe have the paper Achieving human rights. Sujan Singh in his paper Basic Education for All in India- Education for Human Rights: An Progress and Pitfall of Sarva Shiksha Analysis has rightly elaborated how Abhiyan by Amal Mandal. It is a critical education is undoubtedly the single reflection on a few crucial operational most potent remedy for making human aspects of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. rights a reality. He says that the torch of In spite of initial pitfalls in its progress, human rights should be kept burning the writer is assertive that success of and lighted by education on human SSA will determine when and whether rights. Chapter 15 is on Equal India will attain the cherished goal of Opportunities for Deprived Groups- satisfactory level of basic education. Need for Fresh Thinking by N.R. Chapter 18 contains an article on
106 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Deprivation and its Role in playing dynamic roles. Chapter 22 is a Universalization of Elementary paper Political Communication and the Education by Deepa Awasthi and U.C. Mass-media- A Conceptual Analysis by Vashishtha. The author duo make a case T.N. Pati, who has critically examined for balanced education that would the interrelationship between political enable the learner to discover and use communication and mass-media, and his potential and lay emphasis on concludes that political communication development of sound values, good may play a vital role in the survival, habits and self-discipline. A hard fact is stability, growth and development of that the schism between rural and urban the political system. In Chapter 23, we areas is widening. Ira Das takes this have an article Role of Panchayats in trend to develop the paper Rural-Urban Alleviating Rural Poverty: A Case Divide in Education Sector in Assam- Study of West Bengal by Niranjan An Undeveloped State in India. The Mandal and Asit Kumar Banerjee. The study reflects on the rural-urban author duo selected some sample disparity in educational attainment villages for their study. Based on the still prevailing in Assam, below the study they conclude that Gram national average. According to her, Panchayats could play synergetic role direct private sector investment in in Poverty Alleviation Programmes education in rural areas is needed th ro u gh th e process of planning, to bridge the disparity. Reena ex ec ut io n, monitoring and evaluation. Agarwal in her paper Psychological M il k co o p er at iv es have a good potential Basis of Value Education in Chapter to supplement the income of farmers 20,findsthat crime, violence, cruelty, and contribute to rural development. greed, indifference to human sufferings, RanjitKarmarkarand BholaNath Ghosh etc. show that there is a big value crisis in their paperMilk Cooperatives and and suggests a value based approach to Rural Development in West Bengalfind education. that cooperative milk business in their research area is still dependent upon the Section IV with the caption donation of the EEC and technology Development of the Marginalized takes imported from the foreign countries. us to a set of five articles forming SWOT Analysis is a conventional Chapters 21 to 25. The research paper method to look at a scheme. Vishnu by A.N. Panda on Political Participation Bhagwan has used it to examine of Tribal Leaders is a case study of National Rural Employment Guarantee Kuchinda Scheduled Area focusing on Act and shows a salutary feature of the the positional leaders of different scheme is that Gram Sabhas decide Panchayati Raj institutions. He finds types of works, approve the plans and that they are politically active and supervise the works.
Book Review 107 A remarkable feature of the book the Chapter on Krishna Water Dispute: is the wide range of development issues A Historical Background by Midatala it covers. Section V has four articles, Rani. She finds that the dispute in the beginning with Chapter 26- Krishna basin between Maharashtra, Manufacturing of Spaces: The 'Others' Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh has in ZO/Mizo Politics. A.S. Chakraborty brought into sharp focus the issue of finds that though The Peace Accord scarcity and struggles with regard to apparently seems to have ended in water resources and other important success, the fact remains that ethnic issues like water politics, displacement identities are further mushrooming and of people by raising the dams and large minorities including women in scale farmer suicides in the States. Mizoram today are raising their voices against the domination of the majority, Development Studies have taken i.e. the Zos/Mizos and the Church and centre stage as a distinct discipline of the State. Bhupinder Singh in his paper study and research, whose horizons are Coalition Politics in India: A Study of expanding by the day. India is on a path Punjab Politics in Chapter 27finds that of development in right earnestness. coalition politics has worked well in One has to admit that the process is Punjab, contributing to the cooperative bringing to the fore many issues and federalism in the country. Role of the they are being addressed in an Asom Gana Parishad in Assam Politics institutional approach, in the right and the Future of Regionalism is the democratic spirit. Articles in the subject of the paper contributed by bookare written with good analysis and Jogendra Kumar Das and Haren Ch. presented statistics bear out the Kalita. According to the writer duo, the contentions of the scholars. This edited decline of the AGP clearly shows that volume is a very valuable addition to scope of regionalism in isolation of a the corpus of development literature for larger nation-wide democratic researchers, students and for anyone movement in a federal democracy like interested in knowing about India is not bright. The book ends with developments taking place in India. F.B. Khan
108 Local Government Quarterly January - March 2016 Our Contributors
Sanhita Joshi Dr. Sanhita Joshi is Assistant Professor, Department of Civics and Politics, University of Mumbai.
S. Mohapatra Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra is Associate Professor in Geography, School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi.
Mahendra Sethi Mr. Mahendra Sethi is Editor, National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi.
Anita Nuna Dr. Anita Nuna is Associate Professor, Department of Gender Studies, NCERT, New Delhi.
N. Nagarajan Dr. N. Nagarajan is Professor and Head, Department of Lifelong Learning, University of Madras, Chennai.
H. John Sema Prof. H.John Sema is Professor, Department of Political Science, Nagaland University.
Contd... N. Golmei Ms. Neizhanuo Golmei is Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Nagaland University.
Anupama Kaushik Dr. Anupama Kaushik, is Associate Professor and Head, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Dr Harisingh Gour University, Sagar.
Manju Samariya Dr Manju Samariya is with Banasthali University, Rajasthan.
Sarbjot Singh Behl Prof. Sarbjot Singh Behl is Professor and Dean, Department of Architecture, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
Rawal Singh Aulakh Mr. Rawal Singh Aulakh is Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
F. B. Khan Mr. F. B. Khan is Advisor (Legal and Urban Services and Publications), All India Institute of Local Self- Government, Mumbai. OBJECTIVES
The main emphasis of the Institute’s work is to see that the local bodies can contribute more effectively to the development process and provide the citizens with better living conditions by meeting their aspirations in terms of required amenities, infrastructure and better environmental conditions, thus contributing to social and economic development of the society as a whole by better management of the human settlements. While these are the long-term objectives, the immediate ones are: To advance knowledge of the principles and practices of Local Government by conducting research and by organising training courses and programmes at various centres in India for officials and elected representatives in the local bodies. To strengthen and improve Local Government Institutions by improving their performance through education, orientation and bringing them together for common endeavor by organising specialised conferences, conventions and seminars. To make available a platform for members of local bodies and officials for exchange of views and ideas related to urban development and administration. To represent the views of local authorities supported by research work to the concerned higher authorities from time to time. To publish bibliographies, articles, books and other literature on matters of interest to local bodies. To publish journals, bulletins and other literature on different aspects of Local Government and on the working of Local bodies in different states. To undertake research studies in public administration, problems of local bodies and also in related topics of urban and environmental factors and arrange for their publication etc. To establish and maintain an information-cum-documentation service for local bodies. To undertake consultancy assignments in various areas of urban development and problems of local bodies with a view to improve and develop organisational, managerial and operational efficiency. In view of the above, the Institute has been collaborating with the relevant government departments, Central and State, Universities, Organisations and Research Institutions. The work of the Institute covers several aspects involving a multi-disciplinary teamwork. All India Institute of Local Self-Government M. N. Roy Human Development Campus, Plot No.6, 'F' Block, TPS Road No.12, Bandra (E), Mumbai – 400051. Tel : +91-22-26571713 / 4 / 5 Fax : +91-22-26572115 E-mail : [email protected] Website : www.aiilsg.org