Technology and Ethics 1 Technology and Ethics

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Technology and Ethics 1 Technology and Ethics Technology and ethics 1 Technology and ethics Technology and ethics The human being through the lens of advances in genetics, biotechnology, and artificial intelligence Scientific cycle 2020-2023 Technology and ethics Table of Contents The human being through the lens of advances in genetics, biotechnology, and artificial intelligence................................................................................................. 1 1. Towards a “geneticization” of society?................................................................................................ 2 2. Using genetic engineering to manipulate living organisms.. 4 Shaping nature by means of gene drive engineering?......................... 4 Is human genome editing acceptable?............................................................................................... 5 How should human genome editing be regulated in Canada and worldwide?....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 3. The application of artificial intelligence in health care: A dehumanization of care?......................................................................................................................................................... 7 Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9 1 Technology and ethics Technology and ethics The human being through the lens of advances in genetics, biotechnology, and artificial intelligence Technology is a fundamental feature of the possible, this type of question has humanity. Its impact on our lives at the become increasingly important in today’s beginning of the 21st century seems societies. greater than ever. Our entry into the digital age has brought rapid and profound Aware of the major issues raised by changes and breakthroughs on many levels contemporary technologies, the Pierre in our individual and collective lives. At Elliott Trudeau Foundation will focus on the same time, major advances have been the theme of “Technology and ethics” in made over the past 30 years in the areas its cycle of leadership programs beginning of biotechnology and the life sciences, in 2020-2021. While these programs aim including, for example, genetically to train our Scholars to become engaged modified organisms, cloning, artificial leaders in their communities and around organs, assisted reproductive technology, the world, it is essential that these and technologies for sequencing and emerging leaders understand the ethical editing the human genome. These issues that are raised by contemporary developments bring new social challenges technologies and that they are equipped and confront us with ethical dilemmas. to face the challenges these technologies Technologies such as human genome pose. Our 2020 Scholars, Fellows, editing, for example, have the potential and Mentors will particularly focus on to cure serious diseases or save lives, but developments in biotechnology and on the could also lead to new forms of social incorporation of artificial intelligence into inequality and may have unforeseen health care. How is humanity shaped by negative consequences for humanity advances in these areas, and, in turn, how in the long term. How can inventions can we shape them on the basis of ethical such as these be managed to enable us principles? This is the core question that to take advantage of the benefits they will direct our scientific cycle, including our can bring while mitigating their risks? Institutes for Engaged Leadership in 2020- As technological advances seem to 2021. continually push back the boundaries of Technology and ethics 2 Technology and ethics This paper focuses on three areas of (such as athletic abilities) of a person technological application that will be based on their genetic analysis. For some examined in light of the issues referred to analysts, such as Timothy Caulfield, a above: genetic testing, human genome 2013 Fellow of the Pierre Elliott Trudeau editing, and the incorporation of artificial Foundation, these developments reflect intelligence into health care. the “massive emphasis” placed on genetics by society over the last twenty years.5 Towards a “geneticization” 1 of society? Other researchers echo this sentiment, criticizing the current trend towards Since the completion of the Human “geneticization,” or the tendency to focus Genome Project in 2003, which has given on the genetic determinants of our health us an understanding of the human genome or identity as individuals, to the detriment pattern, genome sequencing technologies of social, economic, and environmental have become more efficient and less factors that affect the human condition.6 expensive.1 It has therefore become easier Professor Kim Tallbear, a 2018 Fellow of to explore an individual’s genome and to the Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation, identify genes or sequences responsible expressed a similar perspective in for certain diseases.2 In recent years, her critical analysis of the concept of researchers have also become interested in “indigenous DNA” that is used in the study the complex relationships between human of the genetics of human populations and genes and the environment. They have in the genetic ancestry testing industry.7 focused on genes that may increase the Going against a biological conception of predisposition to certain diseases as well indigenous identity and the idea that it as looking at environmental and behavioral can be “proven” by a genetic test, she has conditions that could prevent such demonstrated that the composition of predispositions from being expressed.3 this identity is much more complex and involves social factors. In the wake of these scientific and technological developments, Western Moreover, one of the major ethical societies have witnessed the development issues raised by genetic testing – and of a market for genetic tests, including the collection of genetic information in over-the-counter tests. More than 30,000 general8 – is the confidentiality of the genetic tests are currently available.4 For information gathered. According to the a few hundred dollars, private companies Genetic Discrimination Observatory, “The offer tests that can paint a picture of the quality and scope of privacy policies risks of developing certain diseases and and security features of private DTC-GT inform consumers about their heredity. [Direct-to-consumer genetic testing] Some companies go beyond heredity companies’ genetic databases are highly and predisposition to disease, offering to variable and consumers are not always interpret the various potential capabilities informed of applicable limitations.”9 It 3 Technology and ethics can prove very difficult to maintain a syndrome has been offered to pregnant minimum level of control over your data women during the first trimester of and the way it will be used.10 And when pregnancy. Consisting of a simple maternal personal genetic data is shared with third blood test, this is a more reliable technique parties, such as insurance companies or that is safer for the fetus, and can be used employers, these third parties may treat earlier in pregnancy than the method the individual concerned differently on previously used for this type of genetic the basis of their genetic characteristics. screening. Some experts believe that these The typical scenario of this nature relates features, combined with the commercial to the possibility of an insurer using an interests backing the routinization of the individual’s genetic profile to calculate NIPT, may put more pressure on women, their insurability.11 How and to what extent who are left with the moral burden of can we mitigate the risks of genetic deciding whether or not to accept the discrimination, namely the “denial of rights, test, but are not always properly informed privileges, or opportunities on the basis about this decision by medical staff.14 of information obtained from genetically- Moreover, the number of conditions that based diagnostic and prognostic tests”?12 can be detected by the NIPT is continually Are the existing regulations sufficient? increasing, so that the test should soon be capable of offering a wide range of In Canada, the Act to Prohibit and Prevent genetic information about the fetus. It is Genetic Discrimination came into force important to consider whether the ability in May 2017. This law prohibits obliging a to obtain an increased amount of genetic person to undergo genetic testing or to information about a fetus is a positive report results of testing as a prerequisite development, from both individual and for the provision of goods and services. It societal perspectives. To what extent also amends the Canadian Human Rights should we protect the right of pregnant Act to prohibit discrimination based on women to choose not to be informed of a person’s genetic characteristics. In the likelihood that their fetus has atypical December 2018, however, the Court of genetic conditions? At the societal level, Appeal of Quebec ruled that the law was is it not possible that prenatal genetic invalid because it did not fall within federal screening encourages eugenics? jurisdiction.13 The Canadian Coalition for Genetic Fairness has lodged an appeal For some
Recommended publications
  • Genetic Discrimination in the Workplace: an Overview of Existing Protections Melinda B
    Loyola University Chicago Law Journal Volume 30 Article 2 Issue 3 Spring 1999 1999 Genetic Discrimination in the Workplace: An Overview of Existing Protections Melinda B. Kaufmann Stock and Leader, P.C. Follow this and additional works at: http://lawecommons.luc.edu/luclj Part of the Civil Rights and Discrimination Commons, and the Labor and Employment Law Commons Recommended Citation Melinda B. Kaufmann, Genetic Discrimination in the Workplace: An Overview of Existing Protections, 30 Loy. U. Chi. L. J. 393 (1999). Available at: http://lawecommons.luc.edu/luclj/vol30/iss3/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by LAW eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Loyola University Chicago Law Journal by an authorized administrator of LAW eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Genetic Discrimination in the Workplace: An Overview of Existing Protections Melinda B. Kaufinann* Our fate is in our genes. I. INTRODUCTION The sophistication of genetic technology has grown at an amazing rate. As this technology improves, scientists can predict more genetic markers and traits than ever before. 2 Genetic information can poten- tially benefit society because it is likely to lead to cures and treatments for currently incurable genetic disorders. This knowledge, however, also has the potential to create a biological underclass of people based on their latent genetic disorders. Some critics have gone so far as to suggest that knowledge of genetic fitness could be used to choose between parents in custody battles, or to determine whether potential adoptive parents are suitable.3 More commonly, however, genetic technology can be used to screen applicants for both employment and health insurance.
    [Show full text]
  • Eugenomics: Eugenics and Ethics in the 21 Century
    Genomics, Society and Policy 2006, Vol.2, No.2, pp.28-49 Eugenomics: Eugenics and Ethics in the 21st Century JULIE M. AULTMAN Abstract With a shift from genetics to genomics, the study of organisms in terms of their full DNA sequences, the resurgence of eugenics has taken on a new form. Following from this new form of eugenics, which I have termed “eugenomics”, is a host of ethical and social dilemmas containing elements patterned from controversies over the eugenics movement throughout the 20th century. This paper identifies these ethical and social dilemmas, drawing upon an examination of why eugenics of the 20th century was morally wrong. Though many eugenic programs of the early 20th century remain in the dark corners of our history and law books and scientific journals, not all of these programs have been, nor should be, forgotten. My aim is not to remind us of the social and ethical abuses from past eugenics programs, but to draw similarities and dissimilarities from what we commonly know of the past and identify areas where genomics may be eugenically beneficial and harmful to our global community. I show that our ethical and social concerns are not taken as seriously as they should be by the scientific community, political and legal communities, and by the international public; as eugenomics is quickly gaining control over our genetic futures, ethics, I argue, is lagging behind and going considerably unnoticed. In showing why ethics is lagging behind I propose a framework that can provide us with a better understanding of genomics with respect to our pluralistic, global values.
    [Show full text]
  • Legal Responses to Discriminatory Actions: a Comparative Analysis Hugo Rojas Alberto Hurtado University
    Loyola University Chicago International Law Review Volume 5 Article 3 Issue 2 Spring/Summer 2008 2008 Legal Responses to Discriminatory Actions: A Comparative Analysis Hugo Rojas Alberto Hurtado University Follow this and additional works at: http://lawecommons.luc.edu/lucilr Part of the International Law Commons Recommended Citation Hugo Rojas Legal Responses to Discriminatory Actions: A Comparative Analysis, 5 Loy. U. Chi. Int'l L. Rev. 127 (2008). Available at: http://lawecommons.luc.edu/lucilr/vol5/iss2/3 This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by LAW eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Loyola University Chicago International Law Review by an authorized administrator of LAW eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. LEGAL RESPONSES TO DISCRIMINATORY ACTIONS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Hugo Rojast I. Introduction Comparison is, at its core, an odious device. However, comparative analyses provide us with the opportunity to learn from others' experiences. The purpose of this essay is to evaluate and analyze the different variables that exist in the treat- ment of discrimination across divergent legal cultures. Within each of the de- fined variables, it is possible to detect levels of normative intensity, with some countries focusing more on the victim's ability to glean monetary compensation and others focusing on the punishment and/or sanctioning of the discriminator and still others focusing on variables in between. Ultimately, it is not my inten- tion to assert that any one model is more suitable or effective in its treatment of discrimination than another. Instead, the intricacies of a variety of legal cultures are laid out like a map, providing an overview of the diverse geography that exists in the legal treatment of discrimination and simplifying the task of navigat- ing this ever-changing terrain.
    [Show full text]
  • Confidentiality in Arbitration: Beyond the Myth Richard C
    University of Missouri School of Law Scholarship Repository Faculty Publications 2006 Confidentiality in Arbitration: Beyond the Myth Richard C. Reuben University of Missouri School of Law, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/facpubs Part of the Dispute Resolution and Arbitration Commons, and the Evidence Commons Recommended Citation Richard C. Reuben, Confidentiality in Arbitration: Beyond the Myth, 54 U. Kan. L. Rev. 1255 (2006) This Article is brought to you for free and open access by University of Missouri School of Law Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of University of Missouri School of Law Scholarship Repository. Confidentiality in Arbitration: Beyond the Myth Richard C. Reuben* I. INTRODUCTION Confidentiality has long been part of the mythology of alternative dispute resolution (ADR). That is to say, one of the apparent virtues of ADR is that its processes have been viewed as confidential. This aspect of the mythology has come under more scrutiny in recent years, particularly in the mediation context.2 This is not surprising considering the popularity of mediation 3 and the centrality of confidentiality to the mediation process. 4 Confidentiality was the primary thrust of the Uniform Mediation Act (UMA), 5 and in their * Richard C. Reuben is an associate professor of law at the University of Missouri-Columbia School of Law. I would like to thank Chris Drahozal, Steve Ware, and the members of the Kansas Law Review for inviting me to participate in this symposium, and all of the symposium participants for their helpful comments.
    [Show full text]
  • The Bio Revolution: Innovations Transforming and Our Societies, Economies, Lives
    The Bio Revolution: Innovations transforming economies, societies, and our lives economies, societies, our and transforming Innovations Revolution: Bio The Executive summary The Bio Revolution Innovations transforming economies, societies, and our lives May 2020 McKinsey Global Institute Since its founding in 1990, the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) has sought to develop a deeper understanding of the evolving global economy. As the business and economics research arm of McKinsey & Company, MGI aims to help leaders in the commercial, public, and social sectors understand trends and forces shaping the global economy. MGI research combines the disciplines of economics and management, employing the analytical tools of economics with the insights of business leaders. Our “micro-to-macro” methodology examines microeconomic industry trends to better understand the broad macroeconomic forces affecting business strategy and public policy. MGI’s in-depth reports have covered more than 20 countries and 30 industries. Current research focuses on six themes: productivity and growth, natural resources, labor markets, the evolution of global financial markets, the economic impact of technology and innovation, and urbanization. Recent reports have assessed the digital economy, the impact of AI and automation on employment, physical climate risk, income inequal ity, the productivity puzzle, the economic benefits of tackling gender inequality, a new era of global competition, Chinese innovation, and digital and financial globalization. MGI is led by three McKinsey & Company senior partners: co-chairs James Manyika and Sven Smit, and director Jonathan Woetzel. Michael Chui, Susan Lund, Anu Madgavkar, Jan Mischke, Sree Ramaswamy, Jaana Remes, Jeongmin Seong, and Tilman Tacke are MGI partners, and Mekala Krishnan is an MGI senior fellow.
    [Show full text]
  • Genome As a Tool of Genetic Engineering: Application in Plant and Plant Derived Medicine
    International Journal of Biotech Trends and Technology (IJBTT) – Volume 8 Issue 1- Jan - March 2018 Genome as a Tool of Genetic Engineering: Application in Plant and Plant Derived Medicine A.B.M. Sharif Hossain1,2 Musamma M. Uddin2 1Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hail University, Hail, KSA 2Biotechnology Program, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia introduce point mutations. Genetically modified Abstract organism (GMO) is considered as an organism that The study was conducted from different is generated through genetic engineering. The first modern research data to review the innovative GMOs were bacteria in 1973, GM mice were generated in 1974 [4]. Insulin-producing bacteria latest technology in the genomics and its were commercialized in 1982 and genetically application in Agriculture, biomedicinae and modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the plant derived medicine. Application of genome first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the in genetic engineering and molecular United States December in 2003 [4]. Genetic biotechnology have been exhibited well. engineering biotechnology has been applied in Genetically Modified Organism (GMO), numerous fields including agriculture, industrial Agrobacterium mediated recombination (T- biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in DNA) and genetic engineering using molecular laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and Biotechnology in plant, medicine and human growth hormone are now manufactured in biomedicine have been highlighted from GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebra fish are being used for technology based different research data. research purposes, and genetically modified Moreover, molecular biotechnology in crops have been commercialized [4].
    [Show full text]
  • Your Dna Is Your Resume: How Inadequate Protection of Genetic Information Perpetuates Employment Discrimination
    Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice Volume 7 | Issue 1 Article 8 Spring 4-1-2001 YOUR DNA IS YOUR RESUME: HOW INADEQUATE PROTECTION OF GENETIC INFORMATION PERPETUATES EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/crsj Part of the Civil Rights and Discrimination Commons, Disability Law Commons, Health Law and Policy Commons, and the Labor and Employment Law Commons Recommended Citation YOUR DNA IS YOUR RESUME: HOW INADEQUATE PROTECTION OF GENETIC INFORMATION PERPETUATES EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION, 7 Wash. & Lee Race & Ethnic Anc. L. J. 117 (2001). Available at: https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/crsj/vol7/iss1/8 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice at Washington & Lee University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice by an authorized editor of Washington & Lee University School of Law Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. YOUR DNA is YOUR RESUME: How INADEQUATE PROTECTION OF GENETIC INFORMATION PERPETUATES EMPLOYMENT DIsCRIMINATION Tobi T. Bromfield' L INTRODUCTION Genetic testing, the new Pandora's Box of medical knowledge, cannot be greeted with full embrace. While genetic testing is useful for indicating the number of persons likely to contract a known disorder, potential harm exists when identified groups which carry a presently known genetic disease are singled out.2 This technology's youth and potential discriminatory effects present grave dangers of racial discrimination against minorities due to the lack of understanding and misuse of genetic information by potential employers.
    [Show full text]
  • Review of the Current State of Genetic Testing - a Living Resource
    Review of the Current State of Genetic Testing - A Living Resource Prepared by Liza Gershony, DVM, PhD and Anita Oberbauer, PhD of the University of California, Davis Editorial input by Leigh Anne Clark, PhD of Clemson University July, 2020 Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1 I. The Basics ......................................................................................................................................... 2 II. Modes of Inheritance ....................................................................................................................... 7 a. Mendelian Inheritance and Punnett Squares ................................................................................. 7 b. Non-Mendelian Inheritance ........................................................................................................... 10 III. Genetic Selection and Populations ................................................................................................ 13 IV. Dog Breeds as Populations ............................................................................................................. 15 V. Canine Genetic Tests ...................................................................................................................... 16 a. Direct and Indirect Tests ................................................................................................................ 17 b. Single
    [Show full text]
  • Equity & Social Justice Resource Guide
    Metropolitan King County Council Equity & Social Justice Section EQUITY & SOCIAL JUSTICE RESOURCE GUIDE “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” 1 Equity Resources: Compiled using multiple national and local sources, May 2020 [this page left intentionally blank] 2 Equity Resources: Compiled using multiple national and local sources, May 2020 CONTENT I. Terminology THE LAW II. Protected Classes III. Legislation READING: IV. Books V. Blogs and Articles VI. Magazines VII. Reports MEDIA VIII. Films IX. Videos X. Podcast XI. Web Sites LANGUAGE EQUITY TRAININGS (To be added) XII. Online training XIII. Learning & Development FACILITATION (To be added) WELL BEING (To be added) ADDITIONAL READING XIV. Challenging Racism XV. Colorblindness, Diversity, Inclusion, and Equity XVI. Racial Equity Tool Kits XVII. Talking About Pronouns 3 Equity Resources: Compiled using multiple national and local sources, May 2020 TERMINOLOGY The following terminology is commonly used in conversations regarding social justice, diversity, equity and allyship. It is meant to be a starting point for engaging in open and honest conversation by offering a shared language of understanding. Please note, this list is not exhaustive and the meaning of these words may change and evolve based on context. If there is a term that you feel should be included here, please let me know. 1. Ableism: A system of oppression that includes discrimination and social prejudice against people with intellectual, emotional, and physical disabilities, their exclusion, and the valuing of people and groups that do not have disabilities. 2. Accomplice: An ally who directly challenges institutionalized homophobia, transphobia and other forms of oppression, by blocking or impeding oppressive people, policies and structures.
    [Show full text]
  • DNA Testing and the Next Generation of Environmental Forensics
    DNA Testing and the Next Generation of Environmental Forensics Andrew M. Deines, Ph.D.; William L. Goodfellow, Jr., BCES; Karen J. Murray, Ph.D. Historically, assessing species presence has relied on a time consuming and labor intensive process. Advances in genetic testing techniques provide a faster, cheaper, and more accurate taxonomic assessment, which can be used to answer a range of environmental and ecological questions. The rapid advancements and substantial reduction in cost for DNA sequencing in the field of human genomics has created an opportunity to use the same technologies and specific modifications for broad use in environmental and ecological studies – from baseline studies to risk and impact assessments. In the last two decades the development of genetic sequencing technology and the expansion of the field of genomics (analysis of an organism’s entire genetic code) has unlocked information hidden within cells, transforming the world of medical diagnostics and providing avenues to additional scientific discovery. In the field of human genetics, researchers are nearing the goal of providing a human genome for $1000 using “next-generation” sequencing— what scientists call new high-throughput and high resolution genetic tools. These same DNA sequencing methods are being applied to many aspects of environmental and ecological study. DNA sequencing technology reported in the academic literature has addressed important evolutionary and ecological questions, leading to the development of new fields of study such as environmental genetics and conservation genomics. The development of new techniques almost monthly creates a wealth of opportunities for environmental assessments. Rapid DNA sequencing allows for the exploration of the genetic make-up of individual animals, populations, and assemblages of species in astonishing detail.
    [Show full text]
  • Guide to Biotechnology 2008
    guide to biotechnology 2008 research & development health bioethics innovate industrial & environmental food & agriculture biodefense Biotechnology Industry Organization 1201 Maryland Avenue, SW imagine Suite 900 Washington, DC 20024 intellectual property 202.962.9200 (phone) 202.488.6301 (fax) bio.org inform bio.org The Guide to Biotechnology is compiled by the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) Editors Roxanna Guilford-Blake Debbie Strickland Contributors BIO Staff table of Contents Biotechnology: A Collection of Technologies 1 Regenerative Medicine ................................................. 36 What Is Biotechnology? .................................................. 1 Vaccines ....................................................................... 37 Cells and Biological Molecules ........................................ 1 Plant-Made Pharmaceuticals ........................................ 37 Therapeutic Development Overview .............................. 38 Biotechnology Industry Facts 2 Market Capitalization, 1994–2006 .................................. 3 Agricultural Production Applications 41 U.S. Biotech Industry Statistics: 1995–2006 ................... 3 Crop Biotechnology ...................................................... 41 U.S. Public Companies by Region, 2006 ........................ 4 Forest Biotechnology .................................................... 44 Total Financing, 1998–2007 (in billions of U.S. dollars) .... 4 Animal Biotechnology ................................................... 45 Biotech
    [Show full text]
  • Protecting Human Research Participants NIH Office of Extramural Research Introduction
    Protecting Human Research Participants NIH Office of Extramural Research Introduction Research with human subjects can occasionally result in a dilemma for investigators. When the goals of the research are designed to make major contributions to a field, such as improving the understanding of a disease process or determining the efficacy of an intervention, investigators may perceive the outcomes of their studies to be more important than providing protections for individual participants in the research. Although it is understandable to focus on goals, our society values the rights and welfare of individuals. It is not considered ethical behavior to use individuals solely as means to an end. The importance of demonstrating respect for research participants is reflected in the principles used to define ethical research and the regulations, policies, and guidance that describe the implementation of those principles. Who? This course is intended for use by individuals involved in the design and/or conduct of National Institutes of Health (NIH) funded human subjects research. What? This course is designed to prepare investigators involved in the design and/or conduct of research involving human subjects to understand their obligations to protect the rights and welfare of subjects in research. The course material presents basic concepts, principles, and issues related to the protection of research participants. Why? As a part of NIH's commitment to the protection of human subjects and its response to Federal mandates for increased emphasis on protection for human subjects in research, the NIH Office of Extramural Research released a policy on Required Education in the Protection of Human Research Participants in June 2000.
    [Show full text]