Chapter 1 Pariahs, Outcasts and Rogues

Notes

1. Robert Hendrickson, The Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins, Facts on File, New York, 1997, p. 510; The Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, Volume XI, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989. Also see J.A. Sauter, Among the Brahmins and Pariahs, Mittal Publication, New Delhi, 1986; Ramakant Prasad, The Parahiyas: A Study in Cultural Ecology and Tribal Dynamics, Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica, No. 42, Vienna, 1978; Robert Deliège, The World of the ‘Untouchables’: Paraiyars of Tamil Nadu, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1997. 2. William J.V. Neill et al., Reimaging the Pariah City: Urban Development in Belfast & Detroit, Avebury, Aldershot, 1995. 3. John D. Donoghue, Pariah Persistence in Changing Japan: A Case Study, University Press of America, Washington, DC, 1978. 4. Hannah Arendt, The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age, Grove Press, New York, 1978. 5. Robert E. Harkavy, ‘The pariah state syndrome’, Orbis, Vol. 21(3), 1977, pp. 623–49 and ‘Pariah states and nuclear proliferation’, International Organization, Vol. 35(1), Winter 1981, pp. 135–63; Richard K. Betts, ‘Paranoids, pygmies, pariahs and non-proliferation’, Foreign Policy, 26, Spring 1977, pp. 157–83; Peter Vale, ‘South Africa as a pariah international state’, International Affairs Bulletin, Vol. 1(3), 1977, pp. 121–41; Efraim Inbar, ‘The emergence of pariah states in world politics: The isolation of Israel’, The Korean Journal of International Studies, Vol. 15(1), Winter 1983/84, pp. 55–83; Sara Pienaar, ‘South Africa from paragon to pariah: Contrasts between the League of Nations and the United Nations’, International Affairs Bulletin, Vol. 9(3), 1985, pp. 5–14; Martin Sicker, The Making of a Pariah State: The Adventurist Politics of Muammar Qaddaﬁ, Praeger, New York, 1987; Greg Mills et al., From Pariah to Participant: South Africa’s evolving Foreign Relations, 1990–1994, South African Institute of International Affairs, Johannesburg, 1994. For a retroactive application to a pre- war case, see Aleksandr Nekrich, Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German–Soviet Relations, 1922–1941, Columbia University Press, New York, 1997. 6. Hilal Khashan, Partner or Pariah: Attitudes toward Peace with Israel in Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, Policy Papers, No. 4, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1996. 7. Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq: The pariah state’, Current History, Vol. 91(561), January 1992, pp. 11–16; Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus inter Pariahs: A Crisis Chronology, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1999. 8. Tim Niblock, ‘Pariah States’ & Sanctions in the Middle East: Iraq, Libya, Sudan, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 2001. 9. Robert Thomas, Serbia: Still Europe’s Pariah? Alliance Publishers, London, 1996. 10. D. Elsworth Blanc (ed.), North Korea – Pariah?, Novinka Books, Huntington, NY, 2001. 11. One of the most elaborate studies of errant state conduct during the Cold War years is that of Efraim Inbar, Outcast Countries in the World Community, Graduate School of International Studies, University of Denver, Denver, 1985.

361 362 Notes

12. Exceptions include the present author’s book, Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, and Wilfried von Bredow, Thomas Jäger & Gerhard Kümmel, ‘North Korea between isolation, dis- sociation and integration’, The Korean Journal of National Unification, Vol. 6, 1997, pp. 101–49. 13. See, for example, C. Howard, Splendid Isolation, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1967; George Monger, The End of Isolation: British Foreign Policy 1900–1907, Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1963. 14. Among the numerous books on the subject are Elliott Abrams, Security and Sacrifice: Isolation, Intervention, and American Foreign Policy, Hudson Institute, Indianapolis, 1995; Richard D. Challener, From Isolation to Containment, 1921–1952: Three Decades of American Foreign Policy from Harding to Truman, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1970; Justus D. Doenecke & John E. Wilz, From Isolation to War, 1931–1941, Harlan Davidson, New York, 1990; W. Patrick Strauss, Isolation and Involvement: An Interpretive History of American Diplomacy, Xerox College Publishers, Waltham, Mass., 1972. 15. The Oxford English Dictionary. 16. Richard Bjornson, The Picaresque Hero in European Fiction, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1977, p. 3; Robert Alter, Rogue’s Progress: Studies in the Picaresque Novel, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1964, p. viii; Claudio Guillén, The Anatomy of Roguery: A Comparative Study in the Origins and the Nature of Picaresque Literature, Garland Publishing, New York, 1987, pp. 1–4. 17. Robert Alter, p. viii. 18. Richard Bjornson, p. 4. 19. Robert Alter, pp. 3–5. 20. Gwenda Morgan, Rogues, Thieves and the Rule of Law: The Problem of Law Enforcement in North-East England, 1718–1820, UCL Press, London, 1998; Lionel Rose, Rogues and Vagabonds: Vagrant Underworld in Britain, 1815–1985, Routledge, London, 1988; Padraic O’Rarrell, Irish Rogues, Rascals, and Scoundrels, Mercier Press, Dublin, 1992; James M. Denham, ‘A Rogue’s Paradise’: Crime and Punishment in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1861, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, 1997; Charles F. Adams, The Magnificent Rogues of San Francisco: A Gallery of Fakers and Frauds, Rascals and Robber Barons, Scoundrels and Scalawags, Pacific Books, Palo Alto, 1997; Walter Block, Defending the Undefendable: The Pimp, Prostitute, Scab, Slumlord, Libeler, Moneylenders, and other Scapegoats in the Rogue’s Gallery of American Society, Fleet Press, New York, 1976; David Philips & Susanne Davies (eds), A Nation of Rogues?: Crime, Law, and Punishment in Colonial Australia, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1994; Michael Kurland, A Gallery of Rogues: Portraits in True Crime, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1994; Ted R. Gurr, Rogues, Rebels, and Reformers: A Political History of Urban Crime and Conflict, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, 1976. 21. Richard Marcinko, Rogue Warrior, Pocket Books, New York, 1992. 22. Gordon Newell’s Rogues, Buffoons & Statesmen, Hangman Press, Seattle, 1975, is a story of politics in the US state of Washington; another example is ‘Rogues’ Gallery’ & Indian Politics by Jogendra N. Sahni, Allied, New Delhi, 1982. 23. Timothy W. Stanley, ‘American strategy after the Cold War: The price of disengagement’, Comparative Strategy, Vol. 10, January–March 1991, pp. 73–82; President Ronald Reagan, quoted by Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws: America’s Search for a New Foreign Policy, Hill & Wang, New York, 1996, p. 27; Anthony Lake, ‘Confronting backlash states’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73(2), March/April 1994, p. 45. Notes 363

24. Charles Krauthammer, ‘The unipolar moment’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 70(1), 1991, pp. 30–2; David Mutimer, The Weapons State: Proliferation and Visions of Security, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 2000. 25. Anthony Lake, 1994, pp. 45–55. 26. Debra von Opstal and Andrew C. Goldberg, Meeting the Mavericks: Regional Challenges for the Next President, Centre for Strategic and International Studies, Washington DC, 1988. Also see Guy Arnold, The Maverick State: Gaddafi and the New World Order, Cassell, London, 1996. 27. President George Bush, 1990, quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington DC, 2000, p. 2. Also see Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 27; Stephen Chan and Andrew J. Williams, Renegade States: The Evolution of Revolutionary Foreign Policy, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1994. 28. Anthony Lake, 1994, p. 45. 29. English translations of the German ‘Schurkenstaaten’, as used by Ellen L. Frost, ‘Umgang mit “Schurkenstaaten”’, Internationale Politik, Vol. 52(4), April 1997, pp. 1–6. 30. Paul Brooker, Defiant Dictatorships: Communist and Middle-Eastern Dictatorships in a Democratic Age, Macmillan Press – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1997. 31. Thomas H. Henriksen, Using Power and Diplomacy to Deal with Rogue States, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Stanford, 1999, p. 8. 32. Additional references to ‘pariah states’ are to be found in, among others, Marc D. Millot, ‘Facing the emerging reality of regional nuclear adversaries’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(3), Summer 1994, p. 42; Phil Williams and Stephen Black, ‘Transnational threats: Drug trafficking and weapons proliferation’, Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 15(1), April 1994, pp. 127–51. 33. Robert S. Litwak, ‘What’s in a name?: The changing foreign policy lexicon’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, pp. 375, 391–2. 34. Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, pp. 16, 23–4. 35. See, for instance, Colin S. Gray, ‘Deterrence in the new strategic environment’, Comparative Strategy, Vol. 11(3), July–September 1992, pp. 247–67; Hans Binnendijk and Patrick Clawson, ‘New strategic priorities’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 18(2), Spring 1995, pp. 109–26; Michael Mandelbaum, ‘Lessons of the next nuclear war’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74(2), March/April 1996, pp. 33–6; Ashok Kapur, ‘Rogue states and the international nuclear order’, International Journal, Vol. 51(3), Summer 1996, pp. 420–39; Stephen Zunes, ‘The function of rogue states in U.S. Middle East policy’, Middle East Policy, Vol. 5(2), May 1997, pp. 150–67; John Bray, ‘Sanctions: Sticks to beat rogue states’, The World Today, Vol. 52(8–9), August/September 1996, pp. 206–8; Raymond Tanter, Rogue Regimes: Terrorism and Proliferation, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1998; Michael C. Hudson, ‘The United States and the Middle East’, in Michael Klare and Yogesh Chandrani (eds), World Security: Challenges for a New Century, third edition, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1998, pp. 122–32; Alexandra Kura (ed.), Rogue Countries: Background and Current Issues, Nova Science Publishers, Huntington, NY, 2001. 36. Quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 53. 37. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 52–3. 38. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 56–9, 64. 39. Alexander L. George, Bridging the Gap: Theory and Practice in Foreign Policy, US Institute of Peace Press, Washington, DC, 1993, p. 49. 364 Notes

40. Anthony Lake, pp. 45–55. 41. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 3–62, 77. 42. See Richard Falkenrath, ‘Weapons of mass reaction’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 22(2), Summer 2000, p. 52; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 132; Philip Bowring, ‘“Rogue” states are overrated’, International Herald Tribune, 6 June 2000. 43. Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus inter Pariahs, 1999, p. 6. 44. See, for example, William Blum, Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower, Zed Books, London, 2002; Noam Chomsky, Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs, Pluto Press, London, 2000, pp. 2–3, 23, 55–63; Noam Chomsky, 9–11, Seven Stories Press, New York, 2001; Clyde Prestowitz, Rogue Nation: American Unilateralism and the Failure of Good Intentions, Basic Books, New York, 2003. Will Grant and Jon Farmer, ‘America, the original rogue state: a guide to its postwar adventures’, New Statesman, Vol. 130(4562), 11 May 2001, p.18. 45. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 65. 46. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 63. 47. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 48, 75–8. 48. Robert S. Litwak, ‘What’s in a name?’, p. 380. 49. Quoted in International Herald Tribune, 30 May 2000. 50. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 47, 89. 51. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 3–5, 66–8, 87. 52. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 75. 53. The President’s State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002, www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases 54. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 8–9. 55. Larry Hedrick, Rogue’s Gallery: America’s Foes from George III to Saddam Hussein, Brassey’s (US), Washington DC, 1992, p. 5. Also see Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1997. 56. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 63–4, 87. 57. Eric Herring, ‘Rogue rage: Can we prevent mass destruction?’, Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 23(1), March 2000, pp. 188–212. 58. Michael Klare, ‘The new “rogue state” doctrine’, Nation, Vol. 260(18), 5 August 1995, p. 625. 59. Hazel Smith, ‘Bad, mad, sad or rational actor?: why the “securitization” para- digm makes for poor policy analysis of north Korea”, International Affairs, Vol. 76(3), July 2000, pp. 597–602. 60. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and US Foreign Policy, pp. 74, 96. 61. Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus inter Pariahs, p. 4. 62. Robert S Litwak, Rogue States and US Foreign Policy, pp. 42, 79–81. 63. US Department of State, US National Security Strategy: Prevent Our Enemies from Threatening Us, Our Allies, and Our Friends with Weapons of Mass Destruction, 15 September 2002, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/wh/15425.htm 64. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President delivers State of the Union Address, 29 January 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/ 20020129-11.html 65. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President’s Remarks at the United Nations General Assembly, 12 September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/ news/releases/2002/09/20020912-1.html 66. President delivers State of the Union Address, 29 January 2001. Notes 365

67. President delivers State of the Union Address, 29 January 2001. 68. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President Bush delivers graduation speech at West Point, 1 June 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/ 2002/20020601-3.html 69. US National Security Strategy: Prevent Our Enemies From Threatening Us, Our Allies, and Our Friends with Weapons of Mass Destruction, 15 September 2002. 70. US Department of State, U.S. National Security Strategy: Strengthen Alliances to Defeat Global Terrorism and Work to Prevent Attacks Against Us and Our Friends, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/wh/15423.htm 71. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People, 20 September 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/ news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html 72. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President Bush delivers graduation speech at West Point, 1 June 2002.

Chapter 2 Deviant Actors in World Politics

1. Vaughn P. Shannon, ‘Norms are what states make of them: The political psychology of norm violation’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 44(2), June 2000, p. 302. 2. David Downes and Paul Rock, Understanding Deviance: A Guide to the Sociology of Crime and Rule-Breaking, third edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998, p. 1. 3. See Alex Thio, Deviant Behavior, second edition, Houghton Mifﬂin Co., Boston, 1983, pp. 4–16. 4. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, The Free Press, New York, 1973, pp. 2, 15. 5. Howard S. Becker, pp. 1–3. 6. Howard S. Becker, pp. 8–11. 7. John Curra, The Relativity of Deviance, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, Calif., 2000, p. 16. 8. Albert Cohen, quoted by Alex Thio, p. 4. 9. David Downes and Paul Rock, p. 26. 10. Nachman Ben-Yehuda, The Politics and Morality of Deviance, State University of New York Press, New York, 1990, pp. 61–2. 11. Howard S. Becker, 1973, pp. 12–13. 12. Howard S. Becker, 1973, p. 15. 13. Talcott Parsons, quoted by Alex Thio, p. 4. 14. Alex Thio, p. 5. 15. From a discussion of deviance, www.webref.org/sociology/d/deviance.htm 16. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, World Politics: Trend and Transformation, eighth edition, Bedford, Boston, 2001, pp. 209, 218. 17. Frederick L. Schuman, International Politics: The Western State System and the World Community, sixth edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958, p. 280. 18. Alex Thio, pp. 24–5, 85. 19. Howard S. Becker, pp. 16–18. 20. Howard S. Becker, p. 18. 21. Nachman Ben-Yehuda, p. 47. 22. Alex Thio, p. 89. 366 Notes

23. John Curra, p. 16. 24. Mervyn Frost, ‘A turn not taken: Ethics in IR at the millennium’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, December 1998, p. 123. 25. Mervyn Frost, ‘A turn not taken’, p.124; Jeffrey W Legro, ‘Which norms matter? Revisiting the “failure” of internationalism’, International Organization, Vol. 51(1), Winter 1997, p. 31; Martha Finnemore, ‘Norms, culture, and world politics: Insights from sociology’s institutionalism’, International Organization, Vol. 50(2), Spring 1996, pp. 325–47; Hans-Peter Schmitz and Kathryn Sikkink, ‘International human rights’, in Walter Carlsnaes et al. (eds), Handbook of International Relations, Sage Publications, London, 2002, p. 520. 26. Robert Axelrod, ‘An evolutionary approach to norms’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 80(4), December 1986, p. 1096; Gary Goertz and Paul F. Diehl, ‘Toward a theory of international norms’, Journal of Conﬂict Resolution, Vol. 36(4), December 1992, pp. 634–64; Jeffrey W. Legro, 1997, p. 31; Ann Florini, ‘The evolution of international norms’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40(3), September 1996, pp. 363, 386. 27. Mervyn Frost, ‘A turn not taken’, pp. 123–5. 28. Andrew P. Cortell and James W. Davis, ‘How do international institutions matter? The domestic impact of international rules and norms’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40(4), December 1996, pp. 452–3; Friedrich V. Kratochwil, Rules, Norms, and Decisions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989, p. 10. 29. For a survey of deﬁnitions of norms, see Janice E Thomson, ‘Norms in international relations: A conceptual analysis’, International Journal of Group Tensions, vol. 23(1), Spring 1993, pp. 68–79. 30. Patricia N. Limerick, ‘Dancing with professors: The trouble with academic prose’, The New York Times Book Review, 31 October 1993, pp. 3, 23–4. 31. Janice E. Thomson, p. 81. 32. Robert Axelrod, pp. 1096–7; Ann Florini, p. 364. 33. Peter J. Katzenstein, ‘Introduction: Alternative perspectives on national security’, in Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics, Columbia University Press, New York, 1996, p. 5; Jeffrey W. Legro, p. 33. Also see Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1996, p. 22; Audie Klotz, Norms in International Relations: The Struggle against Apartheid, Cornell University Press, 1995, p. 14; Andrew Hurrell, ‘Norms and ethics in International Relations’, in Walter Carslnaes et al. (eds), p. 143. 34. Raymond Cohen, International Politics: The Rules of the Game, Longman, London, 1982, p. 8. 35. Ann Florini, p. 364. 36. Gary Goertz and Paul F. Diehl, pp. 634–9. 37. Audi Klotz, p. 14. 38. Robert Axelrod, p. 1108. 39. Shah M. Tarzi, ‘International norms, trade, and human rights: A perspective on norm conformity’, The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, Vol. 27(2), Summer 2002, p. 192. 40. Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, ‘The socialization of international human rights norms into domestic practices: introduction’, in Risse et al. (eds), The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, p. 5. 41. Audi Klotz, pp. 6, 165. 42. D.W. Greig, International Law, Butterworth, London, 1970, pp. 13, 15. Notes 367

43. Raymond Cohen, pp. 49–94; Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, p. 8. Also see Friedrich V. Kratochwil, pp. 74–81; Shah M. Tarzi, p. 187. 44. Ann Florini, pp. 364–5. 45. Rick Fawn and Jeremy Larkins, ‘International society after the Cold War: Theoretical interpretations and practical implications’, in Fawn & Larkins (eds), International Society after the Cold War: Anarchy and Order Revisited, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1996, p. 1. 46. Luigi Bonanate, Ethics and International Politics, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995, p. 38. Also see Charles Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979, pp. 181–2. 47. Andrew Hurrell, ‘International politics theory and the global environment’, in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds), International Relations Theory Today, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995, p. 146. 48. Robert Axelrod, 1985, p. 1096. 49. Ann Florini, 1996, p. 367; Andrew Hurrell, ‘Norms and ethics in International Relations’, in Walter Carlsnaes et al. (eds), pp. 146–7. 50. T.V. Paul, ‘Nuclear taboo and war initiation in regional conﬂicts’, Journal of Conﬂict Resolution, Vol. 39(4), December 1995, pp. 699–701. 51. Richard K. Herrmann and Vaughn P. Shannon, ‘Defending international norms: The role of obligation, material interest, and perception in decision making’, International Organization, Vol. 55(3), Summer 2001, p. 622. 52. Ethan A. Nadelmann, ‘Global prohibition regimes: The evolution of norms in international society’, International Organization, Vol. 44(4), Autumn 1990, pp. 479, 522–3; Richard Price, ‘Reversing the gun sights: Transnational civil society targets land mines’, International Organization, Vol. 52(3), Summer 1998, pp. 613–44; Rodger A. Payne, ‘Persuasion, frames and norm construction’, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 7(1), March 2001, pp. 47–54. For other typologies of norms and regimes, see Jack Donnelly, ‘International human rights: A regime analysis’, International Organization, Vol. 40(3), Summer 1986, pp. 603–42; Newell M. Stultz, ‘Evolution of the United Nations anti-apartheid regime’, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 13(1), February 1991, pp. 1–23; Nicholas G. Onuf, World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations, University of South Carolina Press, 1989, pp. 145–54. 53. Mervyn Frost, Ethics in International Relations: A Constitutive Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 105–11. Also see Peter Sutch, ‘Human rights and settled norms: Mervyn Frost and the limits of Hegelian human rights theory’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 26(2), April 2000, pp. 215–31. 54. Richard K. Herrmann and Vaughn P. Shannon, p. 622. 55. Shah M. Tarzi, p. 193. 56. Richard K. Herrmann and Vaugh P. Shannon, p. 650. 57. Shah M. Tarzi, pp. 189–91, 202. 58. Chris Brown, ‘Ethics, interests and foreign policy’, in Karen E. Smith and Margot Light (eds), Ethics and Foreign Policy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001, pp. 23–4. 59. Vaughn P. Shannon, pp. 311–12. 60. Daniel S. Papp, Contemporary International Relations: Frameworks for Understanding, second edition, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 1984, p. 31. Also see Louis Henkin et al., Right v. Might: International Law and the Use of Force, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1989. 368 Notes

61. Puchala and Hopkins, 1983, quoted by Charles W. Kegley and Gregory A. Raymond, A Multipolar Peace? Great-Power Politics in the Twenty-ﬁrst Century, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1994, p. 122. 62. Charles W. Kegley and Gregory A. Raymond, p. 122. 63. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, ﬁfth edition, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1973, p. 231. 64. Michael Howard, ‘Ethics and power in international policy’, International Affairs, Vol. 53(3), July 1977, p. 374. 65. Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics, quoted by Michael Howard, p. 375. 66. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996, p. 184. 67. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981, Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, New York, 1985, p. 547. Also see Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1994, pp. 832–3. 68. See Richard N. Haass, Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the Post- Cold War World, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, DC, 1994, pp. 62–3. 69. Raymond Cohen, p.7. Also see Robert W. Cox, ‘Towards a post-hegemonic con- ceptualization of world order’, in James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel (eds), Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992, p. 137. 70. Ian Clark, The Hierarchy of States: Reform and Resistance in the International Order, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, p. 18. On different types of international order, see John A. Hall, International Orders, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1996. 71. Brian Hocking and Michael Smith, World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1990, pp. 275–81. 72. Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear: The National Security Problem in International Relations, Wheatsheaf Books, Brighton, 1983, pp. 181–4; Brian Hocking and Michael Smith, pp. 283, 293. Also see Janna Thompson, Justice and World Order: A Philosophical Inquiry, Routledge, London, 1992. 73. Seyom Brown, International Relations in a Changing Global System: Toward a Theory of the World Polity, second edition, Westview Press, Boulder, 1996, p. 126 74. Ian Clark, p. 40. 75. James N. Rosenau, ‘Governance, order, and change in world politics’, in James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel (eds), pp. 9–11; Stanley Hoffmann, Duties Beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Relations, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1981, p. 496; Chris Brown, International Relations Theory: New Normative Approaches, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1992, pp. 182–7. 76. See Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, pp. 18–24; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 54–6; Barry R. Schneider, ‘Nuclear proliferation and counter-proliferation: Policy issues and debates’, Mershon International Studies Review, Vol. 38(2), October 1994, pp. 210–25; Hans Kristensen, ‘Targets of opportunity’, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 53(5), September/October 1997, pp. 27–8; John M. Deutch, ‘The new nuclear threat’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 71, Fall 1992, pp. 120–34; Kathleen C. Bailey, Doomsday Weapons in the Hands of Many – the Arms Control Challenge of the ‘90s, Illinois University Press, Urbana. 1991; Joachim Krause, ‘Proliferation risks and their strategic relevance: what role for NATO?’ Notes 369

Survival, Vol. 37(2), Summer 1995, pp. 135–48; Richard Kokoski, Technology and the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995, pp. 1–4; Sten Lundbo, ‘Non-proliferation: Expansion of export control mechanisms’, Aussenpolitik, Vol. 48(2), 1997, pp. 137–47; Raymond Tanter, pp. ix–x; Brad Roberts, ‘Proliferation and non-proliferation in the 1990s: looking for the right lessons’, The Nonproliferation Review, Fall 1999, pp. 70–82; Paul Bracken, Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age, Harper Collins, New York, 1999; ‘The nuke pipeline’, Time, 17 December 2001 77. Charles Krauthammer, pp. 23–33. 78. John M. Deutch, pp. 120–34; Joachim Krause, pp. 135–48. 79. Time, 24 June 2002. 80. Brian Solomon (ed.), Chemical and Biological Warfare, H.W. Wilson Co., New York, 1999; Judith Miller et al., Germs: Biological Weapons and America’s Secret War, Touchstone Books, Old Tappan, NJ, 2002; Jonathan B Tucker, ‘Chemical and biological terrorism: how real a threat?’ Current History, Vol. 99(636), April 2000, p. 147. 81. Gavin Cameron, ‘Nuclear terrorism reconsidered’, Current History, Vol. 99(636), April 2000, pp. 155–7; Time, 29 October 2001, 12 November 2001. 82. Michael Klare, ‘Itching for a fight’, Progressive, Vol. 60(9), September 1996, p. 32; Thomas H. Henriksen, ‘The rise and decline of rogue states’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, p. 358. 83. Quoted by Richard Falkenrath, ‘Weapons of mass reaction’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 22(2), Summer 2000, p. 52. 84. The President’s State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002, www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html 85. 2003 G8 Summit, Non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: A G8 declaration, http://www.g8.fr/evian/english… 86. Treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, 1968, www.state.gov/ www/global/arms/treaties/npt1.html; Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 578–9. 87. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 477, 576; Michael Barletta, ‘Cynics are naïve about international norms’, Discussion paper presented for the conference ‘Nuclear, biological, chemical, and missile (NBC/M) control regimes: Prospects for the twenty-first century’, Monterey, CA, 23–24 April 2001, cns.miis.edu/cns/staff/mbarlett/naivete.pdf. 88. Kananaskis Summit, Statement by G8 leaders: The G8 Global Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction, 27 June 2002, http://www.library.utoronto.cd/g7/summit/2002kananaskis/arms.html 89. Raymond Tanter, pp. ix–x; Joachim Krause, pp. 135–48; Stephen Zunes, pp. 150–67; Oliver Thraenert, ‘Biological weapons and the problems of nonproliferation’, Aussenpolitik, Vol. 48(2), 1997, pp. 150–1; Stephen R. Bowers and Kimberly R. Keys, ‘Technology and terrorism: the new threat for the millennium’, Conflict Studies, No. 309, May 1998, pp. 1–17, Brad Roberts, p. 71; Jonathan B. Tucker, pp. 149–51; Mark Juergensmeyer, ‘Understanding the new terrorism’, Current History, Vol. 99(636), April 2000, p. 158. 90. Quoted by Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 27. 91. US State Department, Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999, www.state.gov/www/ global/terrorism/1999report/1999index.html 92. Quoted by Jonathan B. Tucker, p. 147. 93. Kananaskis Summit, Statement by G8 leaders. 370 Notes

94. Susan Koch in U.S. Foreign Policy Agenda, 1998: 27–8, ‘The nuke pipeline’, Time, 17 December 2001. 95. ‘Clinton urges world action on terror’, The New York Times, 22 September 1998. 96. US State Department, Patterns of Global Terrorism, reports for 2000, 2001 and 2003, at www.state.gov/s/c/rls/pgtrpt2000, www.state.gov/s/c/rls/pgtrpt2001 and www.state.gov/documents/organization/20109.pdf 97. Stephen R. Bowers and Kimberly R. Keys, pp. 5–7. 98. Quoted by Brian Solomon, p. 130. 99. John Arquilla, David Ronfeldt and Michele Zanini, ‘Information-age terrorism’, Current History, Vol. 99(636), April 2000, pp. 179–84. 100. See Ellen L. Frost, pp. 1–4; C. Gearty, The Future of Terrorism, Phoenix, London, 1997; Adrian Guelke, The Age of Terrorism and the International Political System, I.B. Tauris, New York, 1995. 101. Theunis J. Kruger, Internasionale en Transnasionale Terrorisme – n Volkeregtelike Perspektief (International and Transnational Terrorism – An International Law Perspective) unpublished LLM dissertation, Potchefstroom University, Potchefstroom, 2001, pp. 40–1; UN Press Release Note 5679, UN Treaties against International Terrorism, 19 September 2001, www.un.org/news/press/ docs/2001/note5679.doc.htm; Rich Mkhondo, ‘Terrorism’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), Crimes of War: What the Public Should Know, W.W. Norton, New York, 1999, pp. 349–50. 102. US State Department, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001; G8 Evian Summit 2003, Building International Political Will and Capacity to Combat Terrorism: A G8 Action Plan, http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/2003 103. Michael Littlejohns, ‘A deﬁnition failure by UN duck hunters’, Earth Times News Service, 5 February 2002, www.earthtimes.org/littlejohnsbio.htm; Michael Jordan, ‘Terrorism’s slippery deﬁnition eludes UN diplomats’, Christian Science Monitor, 3 February 2002. 104. US State Department, Washington File, ‘UN called to action against terrorism’, 1 October 2001, http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/01100117.htm 105. See Timothy W. Stanley, ‘American strategy after the Cold War: the price of disengagement’, Comparative Strategy, Vol. 10, January/March 1991, pp. 73–82; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 16. 106. Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, 1996, pp. 16–24; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 75. 107. Quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 2. 108. Joseph Nye, ‘What New World Order?’, in William C. Olson and James R. Lee (eds), The Theory and Practice of International Relations, 9th edition, Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1994, p. 80. 109. Keith B. Payne, ‘The case for National Missile Defense’, Orbis, Vol. 44(2), Spring 2000, p. 193. 110. Richard Falkenrath, ‘Weapons of mass reaction’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 22(2), Summer 2000, p. 54. 111. Richard Falkenrath, p. 52. 112. Richard K. Herrmann and Vaughn P. Shannon, p. 622. 113. Steven R. Ratner, ‘Aggression’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), p. 25. 114. Charles Krauthammer, pp. 23–33; Ellen L. Frost, pp. 1–4; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 26; Anthony Lake, pp. 45–55; Raymond Tanter, p. ix. 115. David Weissbrodt, quoted by Lowell Dittmer, ‘Chinese human rights and American foreign policy: A realist approach’, The Review of Politics, Vol. 63(3), Summer 2001, p. 424. Notes 371

116. Quoted by Robert F. Drinan, The Mobilization of Shame: A World View of Human Rights, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2001, pp. x, xi, 198. 117. For Commission resolutions, consult www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridocda.nsf 118. Thomas M. Franck, ‘The emerging right of democratic governance’, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 86(1), January 1992, pp. 46–91. 119. Freedom in the World 2000, cited by Beeld, 28 December 2000. Also see Chapter 12. 120. On UN instruments, see www.uncjin.org; on others, see OECD Observer, 25 April 2001, www.oecdobserver.org/news/categoryfront.php/id/49/corruption.html 121. Roger Cohen, ‘Ethnic cleansing’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 136–8. 122. Quoted by Roger Cohen, p. 138. 123. Roger Cohen, p. 138. 124. Diane F. Orentlicher, ‘Genocide’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 153–7; Colette Braeckman, ‘Incitement to genocide’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 192–4; Kenneth J. Campbell, Genocide and the Global Village, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2001, p. 21. 125. Mark Huband, ‘Rwanda – The Genocide’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 312–15; Kenneth J. Campbell, p. 34. 126. M. Cherif Bassiouni, ‘Crimes against humanity’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 107–8; William Shawcross, ‘Persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 272–5; Maud S. Beelman, ‘Internal displacement’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), p. 199, Spyros Economides, ‘The international criminal court’, in Karen E. Smith and Margot Light (eds), pp. 112–28. 127. Steven R. Ratner, ‘Categories of war crimes’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 374–5. 128. Frank Smythe, ‘Gulf War’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 166–7; Caryle Murphy, ‘Occupation of territory’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 263–4. 129. Quoted in UN Monthly Chronicle, Vol. 14(1), January 1977, p. 103. 130. Mark Penny and Ed Miles, ‘Environmental warfare’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 132–3; Robert Block, ‘Kuwaiti oil wells’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), pp. 134–5; Frank Smyth, p. 167. 131. Morton H. Halperin and Kristen Lomasney, ‘Toward a global “guarantee clause”’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4(3), July 1993, p. 67; Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics, Westview Press, Boulder, 1991, pp. 20–2. 132. Stephen Chan and Andrew J. Williams; Anthony Lake, pp. 45–55; Robert S. Snyder, ‘The U.S. and Third World revolutionary states: understanding the breakdown in relations’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 43(2), June 1999, pp. 265–90. 133. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S Foreign Policy, p. 97; Houman A. Sadri, Revolutionary States, Leaders, and Foreign Relations: A Comparative Study of China, Cuba, and Iran, Praeger, Westport, 1997, pp. 12–13. 134. Charles Krauthammer, pp. 23–33; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 24; Michael Mandelbaum, p. 34. 135. Daniel Pipes, ‘Attempts by rogue states to inﬂuence U.S. policy’, Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Relations, House of Representatives, March 19, 1996, US Government Printing Ofﬁce, Washington 1996, pp. 49–52. 136. See Noam Chomsky, Rogue States, p. 30. 137. Phil Williams and Stephen Black, pp. 127–51. 372 Notes

138. E.J. Osmanczyk, The Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements, Taylor & Francis, London, 1990, pp. 589–96. Also see Frank Pearce and Michael Woodiwiss (eds), Global Crime Connections: Dynamics and Control, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1993; Alison Jamieson, ‘Global drug trafficking’, Conflict Studies, No. 234, September 1990, pp. 1–41. 139. Daniel Pipes, ‘Attempts by rogue regimes to influence U.S. policy’, Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Relations, House of Representatives, March 19, 1996, US Government Printing Office, Washington, 1996, p. 49. 140. See Jakkie Cilliers and Christian Dietrich (eds), Angola’s War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2000; Sagaren Naidoo, ‘Natural resources in conflict’, Conflict Trends, No. 4, 2000, pp. 28–33. 141. Elizabeth Rubin, ‘Mercenaries’, in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), p. 249. 142. See Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason (eds), Peace, Profit or Plunder?: The Privatisation of Security in War-torn African Societies, Institute for Security Studies, Halfway House, 1999. 143. Elizabeth Rubin, p. 249. 144. Yearbook of the United Nations 1989, Vol. 43, UN, New York, 1990, pp. 824–7. 145. XII Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-aligned Movement, Durban 1998, Basic Documents, Department of Foreign Affairs, Pretoria, 1998, pp. 43–4. 146. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf, pp. 222–5; Phil Williams, ‘Transnational criminal organizations and international security’, in Michael Klare and Yogesh Chandrani (eds), pp. 249–69. 147. Phil Williams, ‘Transnational criminal organizations and international security’, p. 268. 148. Daniel Pipes, p. 53. 149. For UN documents, see www.odccp.org 150. Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997, p. 5. 151. Charles W. Maynes, ‘The perils of (and for) an imperial America’, Foreign Policy, No. 111, Summer 1998, p. 44; Leon T. Hadar, ‘Burma: US foreign policy as a morality play’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, p. 412; Richard N Haass, ‘Sanctioning madness’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76(6), November/December 1997, pp. 74–85; Gary C. Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly A. Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy, second edition, Institute for International Economics, Washington, 1990, pp. 5–9. 152. John Bray, 1996, pp. 206–8; Brigitte Stern, ‘Einseitige Wirtschaftssanktionen’, Internationale Politik, Vol. 52(4), April 1997, pp. 7–12. 153. Quoted by Noam Chomsky, Rogue States, p. 4. 154. USIS interview with Stuart Eizenstat, Under-Secretary of State for Economics, Business, and Agricultural Affairs, September 1997, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. 155. A term used by Alexander L George, p. 45. 156. Alexander L. George, p. 51. 157. Daniel Byman, Roger Cliff and Phillip Saunders, ‘US policy options toward an emerging China’, The Pacific Review, Vol. 12(3), 1999, p. 422; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 74. 158. Remarks by Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright on US sanctions against Burma, 22 April 1997, transcript courtesy of USIA, Johannesburg. 159. Time, 1 July 2002. Notes 373

160. Time, 30 September 2002. 161. Gerald Segal, ‘Does China matter?’, Foreign Affairs, Volume 78(5), September/ October 1999, p. 30. 162. Quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 41. 163. Quoted by Keith B. Payne, ‘The case for National Missile Defense’, Orbis, Vol. 44(2), Spring 2000, p. 187. 164. Time, 11 September 2000; Financial Times, 9–10 September 2000; Financial Times, 8–9 April 2000. 165. Space Daily, 5 February 2001, www.spacedaily.com/news 166. Brad Roberts, pp. 71–5; Barry R. Schneider, p. 225; Lynn Davis, US Under- secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Affairs, ‘Combating nuclear smuggling’, U.S. Department of State Dispatch, Vol. 6(48), 27 November 1995, p. 872. 167. See Michael J. Mazarr, ‘The problem of a rising power: Sino-American relations in the 21st century’, The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7(2), Winter 1995, p. 33; Stephen C. Pelletiere, Landpower and Dual Containment: Rethinking America’s Policy in the Gulf, Strategic Studies Institute, Carlisle, 1999, pp. 1–2. 168. See Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, p. 15; Alan M. Wachman, ‘Does the diplomacy of shame promote human rights in China?’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22(2), April 2001, pp. 257–81; Robert F. Drinian (whose book on human rights bears the title The Mobilization of Shame). 169. Daniel Byman, Roger Cliff and Phillip Saunders, p. 426. 170. Michael J. Mazarr, p. 33. 171. For example, Kenneth Lieberthal, ‘A new China strategy’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74(6), November–December 1995, pp. 47–9. 172. Michael J. Mazarr, p. 38; Gerald Segal, ‘East Asia and the “constrainment” of China’, International Security, Vol. 20(4), Spring 1996, pp. 107–35; Audrey K. Cronin and Patrick M. Cronin, ‘The realistic engagement of China’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 19(1), Winter 1996, p. 142; James Shinn, ‘Conditional engagement with China’, in Shinn (ed), Weaving the Net: Conditional Engagement with China, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1996, pp. 4–9. 173. Alexander L. George, pp. 50–1. 174. Meghan L. O’Sullivan, ‘Sanctioning “rogue states”’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 22(2), Summer 2000, p. 56. 175. Aryeh Neier, ‘The new double standard’, Foreign Policy, No. 105, Winter 1996–97, p. 95. 176. Gerald Segal, p. 34. 177. Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 151; Gerald Segal, ‘Does China matter?’, pp. 29–31, 35; David M. Lampton, ‘China’, Foreign Policy, No. 110, Spring 1998, p. 13; the collection of articles in the ‘China threat’ debate in Issues & Studies, Vol. 36(1), January/February 2000. Also see James V. Feinerman, ‘Chinese participation in the international legal order: Rogue elephant or team player?’, China Quarterly, No. 141, 1995, pp. 186–210. 178. See Aryeh Neier, pp. 95–100; Audrey K. Cronin and Patrick M. Cronin, p. 164. 179. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 90; Thomas H. Henriksen, Using Power and Diplomacy to Deal with Rogue States, pp. 18–19. 180. Time, 25 October 1999. 181. US Department of State, Washington File, 28 September 2001, Fact Sheet: Sanctions on India and Pakistan, http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/ 01092807.htm 374 Notes

182. Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, pp. 25–6. On the conditions that could encourage compliance, see Darren G. Hawkins, ‘Domestic responses to international pressure: Human rights in authoritarian Chile’, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 3(4), December 1997, pp. 407–9. 183. Vaughn P. Shannon, p. 304. 184. Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, pp. 22–4. 185. Thomas H. Henriksen, ‘The rise and decline of rogue states’, pp. 368–70. 186. Paul Brooker, p. 4.

Chapter 3 From Turkey to Rhodesia

1. Thomas H. Henriksen, ‘The rise and decline of rogue states’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, pp. 350–2. 2. Wayne S. Cole, An Interpretive History of American Foreign Relations, The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Ill., 1968, pp. 65, 83–4, 186; Thomas H. Henriksen, Using Power and Diplomacy to Deal with Rogue States, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Stanford, 1999, p. 3; ‘Barbary wars’, FAS Military Analysis Network, http://www.fas.org; “Barbary coast”, Encarta Reference, http://encarta.msn.com 3. Quoted by F.H. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1967, pp. 19, 31–2, 46. 4. AER Boak, Albert Hyma & Preston Slosson, The Growth of Western Civilization, fourth edition, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1951, p. 691. 5. René Albrecht-Carrié, A Diplomatic History of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, Methuen, London, 1967, pp. 40–2. 6. Quoted by Robert E. Harkavy, ‘The pariah state syndrome’, Orbis, Vol. 21(3), 1977, p. 625. 7. René Albrecht-Carrié, p. 93; F.H. Hinsley, p. 235. 8. Quoted by F.S. Northedge and M.J. Grieve, A Hundred Years of International Relations, Duckworth, London, 1971, p. 107. 9. Quoted by Yves Beigbeder, Judging War Criminals: The Politics of International Justice, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1999, p. 81. 10. Yves Beigbeder, pp. 82–4. 11. Robert G. Wesson, Soviet Foreign Policy in Perspective, The Dorsey Press, Homewood, III.,1969, pp. 38–9; George F. Kennan, Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1941, D. van Nostrand, New York, 1960, pp. 14–17. 12. George F. Kennan, pp. 19–29. 13. Edward Hallett Carr, A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, vol. 3, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1966, pp. 109, 114. 14. René Albrecht-Carrié, pp. 335–7, 349. 15. See George F. Kennan, pp. 10ff; Robert G. Wesson, pp. 37ff; Edward Hallett Carr’s series, A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, pp. 59ff, The Interregnum 1923–1924, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1965, pp. 243–53, and Socialism in One Country 1924–1926, vol. 3, part 1, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1964, pp. 3ff; Louis Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs: A History of the Relations between the Soviet Union and the Rest of the World 1917–1929, Vintage Books, New York, 1960, pp. 10ff; Chris Osakwe, The Participation of the Soviet Union in Universal International Organizations, A.W. Sijthoff, Leiden, 1972, pp. 1–5; B. Ponomaryov, A. Gromyko Notes 375

and V. Khvostov (eds), History of Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1945, Progress Pub- lishers, Moscow, 1969, pp. 13ff. 16. Edward Hallett Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, p. 427. 17. Quoted by Edward Hallett Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, p. 279. 18. Quoted by John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States: An Interpretive History, second edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990, pp. 94–5, 106. 19. Quoted by Edward Hallett Carr, The Interregnum, p. 247. 20. Edward Hallett Carr, The Interregnum, p. 253. 21. Chris Osakwe, p. 1; Robert G. Wesson, p. 111. 22. Yves Beigbeder, pp. 87–92. 23. Louis L. Snyder, The Weimar Republic: A History of Germany from Ebert to Hitler, D. Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1966, pp. 14, 23, 98. 24. Quoted by Louis L. Snyder, pp. 14, 37. 25. Hagen Schulze, Weimar: Deutschland 1917–1933, Siedler Verlag, 1982, p. 29 (quotation translated from the German). 26. Robert G. Wesson, p. 87; Edward Hallett Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, p. 149. 27. Louis L. Snyder, p. 48; George F. Kennan, p. 47. 28. Erich Eyck, A History of the Weimar Republic, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1967, pp. 303–13. 29. Louis L. Snyder, pp. 72–4; Hagen Schulze, p. 279 (translated from the German). 30. George F. Kennan, p. 60; Erich Eyck, p. 319; Louis L. Snyder, p. 79; Hagen Schulze, p. 29. 31. Louis L. Snyder, pp. 87, 97. 32. Robin Renwick, Economic Sanctions, Harvard University Center for International Affairs, Cambridge, Mass., 1981, pp. 11–12; Mervyn Frost, ‘Collective sanctions in international relations: An historical overview of the theory and practice’, in David Willers and Sonja Begg (eds), South Africa and Sanctions: Genesis and Prospects, SAIIR/SAIIA, Johannesburg, 1979, pp. 8–11. 33. Quoted by Robin Renwick, pp. 17–18. 34. Mervyn Frost, ‘Collective sanctions’, pp. 11–13; Robin Renwick, pp. 17–23. 35. Harry Browne, Spain’s Civil War, Longman, Harlow, 1983, pp. 35–8, 60–5. 36. Eugene K. Keefe et al., Area Handbook for Spain, Foreign Area Studies of the American University, Washington DC, 1976, pp. 263–5. 37. Quoted by Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 265–6. 38. Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 266–8. 39. Quoted by Eugene K. Keefe et al., p. 269. 40. Quoted by Eugene K Keefe et al., p. 270. 41. Quoted by Max Gallo, Spain under Franco: A History, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1973, p. 173. 42. Robert Graham, Spain: Change of a Nation, Michael Joseph, London, 1984, p. 37; Harry Browne, p. 75; Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 257–271. 43. Max Gallo, pp. 181–5. 44. Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 274–5; Max Gallo, pp. 188–9. 45. Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 276–288; Max Gallo, pp. 196, 203–18. 46. Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 277–82; Raymond Carr and Juan Pablo Fusi Aizpurua, Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1981, p. 58; Max Gallo, p. 225. 47. Eugene K. Keefe et al., pp. 257–9, 288; Harry Browne, p. 75. 48. Tom Gallagher, Portugal: A Twentieth-Century Interpretation, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1983, pp. 85–97. 376 Notes

49. Tom Gallagher, pp. 87, 95: R.A.H. Robinson, Contemporary Portugal: A History, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1979, p. 91. 50. R.A.H. Robinson, pp. 92–3; Hugh Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, Hawthorn Books, New York, 1970, pp. 182–3. 51. Hugh Kay, p. 190; R.A.H. Robinson, p. 151. 52. Tom Gallagher, p. 151. 53. See Hugh Kay, p. 290; Tom Gallagher, p. 185. 54. Hugh Kay, p. 290. 55. Hugh Kay, p. 438; Tom Gallagher, p. 232. 56. Greg O’Leiry, The Shaping of Chinese Foreign Policy, Croom Helm, London, 1980, p. 29; King C. Chen (ed.), China and the Three Worlds: A Foreign Policy Reader, M.E. Sharpe, White Plains, NY, 1979, pp. 8–9; C.P. Fitzgerald, The Chinese View of Their Place in the World, Oxford University Press, London, 1964, pp. 51–7; Donald P. Whitaker and Rinn-Sup Shinn et al., Area Handbook for the People’s Republic of China, Foreign Area Studies of the American University, Washington DC, 1972, pp. 335, 342; Wolfgang Bartke, Der Diplomatische Dienst der Volksrepublik China nach der Kulturrevolution, Institut für Asienkunde, Hamburg, 1972, p. 5. 57. Quoted by Joseph Camilleri, Chinese Foreign Policy: The Maoist Era and Its Aftermath, Martin Robertson, Oxford, 1980, p. 27. Also see Forster Rhea Dulles, American Policy Toward Communist China 1949–1969, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York, 1972, pp. 6–21. 58. C.P. Fitzgerald, p. 51. 59. Quoted by M. Schaller, The United States and China in the Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press, New York, 1979, p. 139. 60. Donald P. Whitaker and Rinn-Sup Shinn et al., p. 309. 61. Joseph Camilleri, pp. 28, 40; Peter Harris, Political China Observed: A Western Perspective, Croom Helm, London, 1980, p. 151; Donald P. Whitaker and Rinn- Sup Shinn et al., p. 343. 62. Quoted by Joseph Camilleri, p. 41. 63. King C. Chen (ed.), pp. 15–18; Donald P. Whitaker & Rinn-Sup Shinn et al., pp. 337–43. 64. Robert C. North, The Foreign Relations of China, third edition, Duxbury Press, North Scituate, Mass., 1978, p. 9; Michael B. Yahuda, Towards the End of Isolationism, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan , London, 1983, pp. 7, 181. 65. Miao Wang, Impact of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution on Communist China’s Foreign Policy, PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman, 1977, pp. 190–1. 66. Miao Wang, pp. 192, 196; Ishwer C. Ojha, Chinese Foreign Policy in an Age of Transition: The Diplomacy of Cultural Despair, Beacon Press, Boston, 1971, pp. 236–55; Kuang-Sheng Liao, Antiforeignism and Modernization in China 1860–1980, Chinese University Press, Hong Kong, 1986, p. 232; Robert G. Sutter, Chinese Foreign Policy After the Cultural Revolution, 1966–1977, Westview Press, Boulder, 1978, p. 7; Shen-yu Dai, China, the Superpowers and the Third World, Chinese University Press, Hong Kong, 1974, p. 7. 67. Yves Beigbeder, p. 94. Also see R.J. Rummell, China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900, Transaction Publishers, Somerset, NJ, 1991. 68. Quoted by David Childs, The GDR: Moscow’s German Ally, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1983, p. 299. 69. David Childs, pp. 299–300; Hanns-Dieter Jacobsen, ‘Strategy and focal points of GDR foreign trade relations’, in Eberhard Schultz et al., (eds), GDR Foreign Policy, M.E. Sharpe, New York, 1982, p. 138. 70. David Childs, pp. 86–7, 307. Notes 377

71. Hanns-Dieter Jacobsen in Eberhard Schultz et al., (eds), p. 127; David Childs, pp. 301, 311–12. 72. Harry R. Strack, Sanctions: The Case of Rhodesia, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1978, pp. 8–9. 73. Annette Seegers, Revolution in Africa: The Case of Zimbabwe (1965–1980), PhD dissertation, Loyola University, Chicago, 1984, p. 286. 74. Robert C. Good, UDI: The International Politics of the Rhodesian Rebellion, Faber & Faber, London, 1973, pp. 65–73. Also see R. Kent Rasmussen, Historical Dictionary of Zimbabwe/Rhodesia, The Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, NJ, 1979, p. 286; Elaine Windrich, Britain and the Politics of Rhodesian Independence, Croom Helm, London, 1978, pp. 63–79; Martin Meredith, The Past is Another Country: Rhodesia 1890–1979, Andre Deutsch, London, 1979, p. 56. 75. Quoted by Harry R. Strack, p. 17. 76. Robert C. Good, p. 203. 77. Harry R. Strack, p. 47. 78. Martin Meredith, p. 59. 79. Harry R. Strack, pp. 47–8, 83–4; Robert C. Good, p. 250.

Chapter 4 Principal Pariahs of the Cold War Era

1. Unless otherwise indicated, the factual information in this chapter is taken from the present author’s book, Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990. 2. Information courtesy of the Taipei Liaison Ofﬁce, Johannesburg. 3. The Republic of China Yearbook: Taiwan 2001, Government Information Ofﬁce, Taipei, 2001, pp. 103–9, 154–6, 533–6. 4. Charles Kwarteng, ‘The Arabs, Israel and Black Africa: The politics of courtship’, The Round Table, No. 322, April 1992, pp. 167–81. 5. Robert O. Freedman, ‘Israeli–Russian relations since the collapse of the Soviet Union’, Middle East Journal, Vol. 49(2), Spring 1995, p. 234. 6. William Korey, ‘The UN anti-Israel campaign’, Midstream, Vol. 29(1), January 1983, p. 9. The annual Middle East Contemporary Survey, Europa Publications, London, provides a good record of international responses to Israel’s occupation of Arab territories and its other instances of rule-breaking behaviour. Among the numerous sources for texts of UN resolutions, are http://www/us- israel.org/jsource/UN/unga and www/us-israel.org/jsource/ UN/unga 7. Quoted by Deon Geldenhuys, Isolated States, p. 103. 8. Norman Podhoretz, ‘The abandonment of Israel’, Commentary, Vol. 62(1), July 1976, pp. 23–31; Bernard Lewis, ‘The anti-Zionist resolution’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 55(1), October 1976, pp. 54–64; Irving Louis Horowitz, ‘From pariah people to pariah nation: Jews, Israelis and the Third World’, in Michael Curtis and Susan A. Gitelson (eds), Israel in the Third World, Transaction Books, New Brunswick, 1976, p. 389. 9. The Europa World Yearbook 2001, Europa Publications, London, 2001, pp. 2082–91. 10. United Nations Department of Public Information, Press Release SC/7733, 16 April 2003, http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF 11. See Carlos Portales, ‘External factors and the authoritarian regime’, in Paul W. Drake and Iván Jaksic (eds), The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1995, pp. 251–73. 378 Notes

12. Federico Gil, The Political System of Chile, Houghton Mifﬂin, Boston, 1966; Alan Angell, ‘Counterrevolution in Chile’, Current History, 66, January 1974, pp. 6–9. 13. See Pamela Constable and Arturo Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet, W.W. Norton, London, 1993; Hugh O’Shaughnessy, Pinochet: The Politics of Torture, Latin America Bureau, London. 14. Peter Kornbluh, ‘Declassifying U.S. intervention in Chile’, NACLA Report on the Americas, Vol. 32(6), May/June 1999, pp. 36–42; Gil Merom, ‘Democracy, dependency, and destabilization: The shaking of Allende’s regime’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 105(1), 1990, pp. 75–95. 15. Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 14 March 1980, p. 30139. 16. Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, March 1987, p. 34988. 17. Paul W. Drake and Iván Jaksic, ‘Introduction’, in Drake and Jaksic (eds), pp. 13–14; Brian Lovemore, ‘The transition to civilian government in Chile, 1990–1994’, in Drake and Jaksic (eds), pp. 305–33. 18. Sara Pienaar, ‘South Africa from paragon to pariah: Contrasts between the League of Nations and the United Nations’, International Affairs Bulletin, Vol. 9(3), 1985, pp. 5–14. The subject is treated more fully in Pienaar’s book, South Africa and International Relations Between the Two World Wars: The League of Nations Dimension, Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, 1987. 19. See Greg Mills (ed.), From Pariah to Participant: South Africa’s Evolving Foreign Relations, 1990–1994, SA Institute of International Affairs, Johannesburg, 1994.

Chapter 5 Iraq

1. The Europa World Year Book 1996, Europa Publications, London, 1996, p. 1623; Christine M. Helms, Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab World, Brookings Institution, Washington DC, 1984, pp. 21–4. 2. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1623. 3. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1623; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington DC, 2000, p. 141. 4. Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq, the pariah state’, Current History, Vol. 91(561), January 1992, p. 12. 5. Christine Gosden, ‘Why I went, what I saw’, Washington Post, 11 March 1998. Gosden, a British medical geneticist, visited Halabja ten years after the chemical attack to examine the long-term genetic damage caused. 6. The Europa World Year Book 1996, pp. 1623–4; Christine M. Helms, pp. 30–4; Ewan W. Anderson and Khalil H. Rashidian, Iraq and the Continuing Middle East Crisis, Pinter Publishers, London, 1991, pp. 26–31; Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran and Iraq: The Threat from the Northern Gulf, Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, pp. 127–41. 7. Thomas Koszinowski, ‘Iraq as a regional power’, in Derek Hopwood et al. (eds), Iraq: Power and Society, Ithaca Press, Reading, 1993, p. 284; Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq, the pariah state’, p. 15; Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran and Iraq, pp. 141–9. 8. Thomas Koszinowski, pp. 283–6; Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq: Sanctions, Law and Natural Justice, second edition, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1998, p. 1. 9. Amatzia Baram and Barry Rubin, ‘Introduction’, in Baram and Rubin (eds), Iraq’s Road to War, Macmillan, – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1994, p. x. Notes 379

10. Phebe Marr, ‘Iraq’s uncertain future’, Current History, Vol. 90 (552), January 1991, p. 3. 11. Thomas Koszinowski, pp. 286–7; Amatzia Baram, ‘The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait: Decision-making in Baghdad’, in Baram and Rubin (eds), Iraq’s Road to War, p. 26. 12. Phebe Marr, p. 4. 13. Thomas Koszinowski, p. 287. 14. Amatzia Baram and Barry Rubin, ‘Introduction’, p. xii; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iraq: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1990, p. 200; Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1624. 15. Thomas Koszinowski, pp. 291–3; Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, Iraq since 1958, I.B. Tauris & Co., London, 1990, pp. 270–1. 16. Thomas Koszinowski, p. 292. 17. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1624; Amatzia Baram, ‘The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait’, pp. 15–16; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iraq: A Country Study, p. xxviii. 18. Alan Dowty, ‘Sanctioning Iraq: The limits of the new world order’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 17(3), Summer 1994, p. 179. 19. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 140; Ahmed Hashim, p. 12; The Europa World Year Book 1996, pp. 1625–6. 20. Bruce W. Jentleson, With Friends like These: Reagan, Bush, and Saddam, W.W. Norton, New York, 1994, pp. 218–9. 21. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1994, pp. 35, 327. 22. For example, Robert Fisk in The Independent, 30 December 2000; Bruce Riedel, a staff member of Clinton’s National Security Council, quoted by George S Hishmeh, ‘Lifting sanctions on Iraq seen unlikely by top Clinton aide’, 3 June 1997, article courtesy of USIA, Johannesburg; Eric Pooley, ‘Facing down a despot’, Time, 24 November 1997, pp. 22–8; Efraim Karsh and Inari Rautsi, Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography, Brassey’s London, 1991. 23. Dawid van Lill, ‘Politiek maak mens siek!’ Insig, December 1998, p. 33; James Gow, ‘Introduction’, in Gow (ed.), Iraq, the Gulf Conflict and the World Community, Brassey’s (UK), London, 1993, p. 2; others simply depicted Saddam as ‘mad’ (quoted by Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, p. 97). 24. Larry Hedrick, Rogue’s Gallery: America’s Foes from George III to Saddam Hussein, Brassey’s (US), Washington DC, 1992. 25. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President Delivers State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002. 26. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President’s Radio Address, 22 March 2003, and President’s Radio Address, 5 April 2003, both on the White House website. 27. 10 Downing Street, Prime Minister’s Address to the Nation, 22 March 2003, and Blair and Bush: Messages to the Iraqi People, 10 April 2003, both on the 10 Downing Street website. 28. Human Rights Watch Middle East, Iraq’s Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1995, p. xvii. 29. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626. 30. Bruce W. Jentleson, p. 76. 31. Thomas Koszinowski, pp. 292–3; Time, 24 November 1997. 32. Quoted by Amatzia Baram, ‘The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait’, p. 11. 33. Commission of the European Communities, XXVth General Report of the Activities of the European Communities 1991, Office for Official Publications of 380 Notes

the European Communities, Brussels, 1992, p. 342. (Israel did not participate in the war against Iraq either before or after the missile strikes.) 34. Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, Iraq since 1958, pp. 274–5; Bruce W. Jentleson, pp. 221–6; Geoff Simons, Iraq from Sumer to Saddam, pp. 284–95; Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran and Iraq, pp. 179, 232; William Lowther, Iraq and the Supergun: Gerald Bull – The True Story of Saddam Hussein’s Dr. Doom, Pan Books, London, 1991. 35. Time, 22 October 2001, 16 September 2002, 30 September 2002; US Government White Paper 3050, Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction, 18 February 1998, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. 36. Time, 22 October 2001, 16 September 2002 and 30 September 2002; US Government White Paper 3050, Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction. 37. Press statement, 9 September 2002, on the publication of an IISS Strategic Dossier,Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Net Assessment, http://www.iiss. org/news-more.php?itemID-88 38. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Assessment of the British Government, September 2002, www.fco.gov.uk/ Files/Kfile/iraqdossier.pdf 39. Time, 22 October 2001, 16 September 2002, 23 September 2002 and 30 September 2002 40. Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran and Iraq, p. 179. 41. From the IISS Military Balance 1990–1991, cited by Thomas Koszinowski, p. 292. 42. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1606. 43. Ewan W. Anderson and Khalil H. Rashidian, Iraq and the Continuing Middle East Crisis, Pinter Publishers, London, 1991, pp. 114–5. 44. The allies’ war aims are discussed more fully under foreign action against Iraq. 45. Commission of the European Communities, XXIVth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1990, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1991, pp. 344–6. 46. Commission of the European Communities, XXVth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1991, p. 342. 47. Commission of the European Communities, XXIVth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1990, pp. 344–6; David J. Scheffer, ‘Use of force after the Cold War: Panama, Iraq, and the new world order’, in Louis Henkin et al., Right v. Might: International Law and the Use of Force, second edition, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1991, pp. 141–2. 48. Thomas Koszinowski, pp. 297–8. 49. Thomas Koszinowski, p. 299; Amatzia Baram, ‘The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait’, p. 25. 50. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 38 51. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp. 183–9. 52. Thomas Koszinowski, p. 293. 53. Human Rights Watch Middle East, Iraq’s Crime of Genocide, pp. xv–xvii. 54. See Iraq: Evidence of Torture, Amnesty International, London, 1981; Walid Al-Hilli, Iraq: Facts and Future Outlook, Mustafa Association, London, 1992; Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy, Zed Books, London, 1994. 55. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 303. 56. Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq: Fin de regime?’, Current History, Vol. 95(597), January 1996, p. 13. Notes 381

57. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 25(3), 1992, p. 85 and Vol. 25(6), 1992, p. 95. 58. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 143. 59. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 302. 60. Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq: Fin de regime?’, p. 15. 61. Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, p. 281. 62. Quoted by Bruce W. Jentleson, p. 219. 63. Ann Clwyd, ‘The abuse of human rights in Iraq’, in Iraq: Sancions and Human Rights, War on Want, London, ca. 1996, p. 8; Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus Inter Pariahs: A Crisis Chronology, 1997–98, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1999, p. 50. 64. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1623. 65. Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, p. 279; Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq, the pariah state’, p. 16. 66. Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 287. 67. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626. 68. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp. 193, 286–9. 69. Barry Rubin, ‘The United States and Iraq: From appeasement to war’, in Baram and Rubin (eds), Iraq’s Road to War, p. 256. 70. Barry Rubin, ‘The United States and Iraq’, p. 260. 71. Amatzia Baram, ‘The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait’, p. 10. 72. Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq, the pariah state’, p. 16. 73. Commission of the European Communities, XXIVth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1990, Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1624. 74. See Security Council resolutions 707 (15 August 1991), 712 (19 September 1991), 715 (11 October 1991), 949 (15 October 1994), 1060 (12 June 1996), 1115 (21 June 1997), 1134 (23 October 1997), 1194 (9 September 1998), and 1205 (5 November 1998. 75. Hans Blix, ‘Iraq will benefit from weapons inspection’, Address to the Washington Institute’s Policy Forum, 11 January 2002, http://metimes.com/ 2K2/issue2002-4/reg/iraq_will_benefit.htm 76. Time, 23 September 2002 and 30 September 2002. 77. 10 Downing Street, Blair and Bush: Messages to the Iraqi People, 10 April 2003. 78. Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction, Praeger, Westport, 1999, p. xvii. 79. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626; Bulletin of the European Union, 10, 1994, p. 58. 80. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626. 81. Bulletin of the European Union, 10, 1994, p. 58. 82. Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, p. 56. 83. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, pp. 14–15. 84. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 24. 85. ‘Undoing Saddam Hussein’, editorial, Washington Post, 31 March 1997. 86. White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President’s remarks at the United Nations General Assembly, 12 September 2002, http:///www.whitehouse.gov/ news/releases/2002/09/20020912-1.html 87. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President’s Radio Address, 22 March 2003. 382 Notes

88. David J. Scheffer, ‘Use of force after the Cold War’, pp. 145–6. 89. Quoted by Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, p. 59. 90. Rick Francona, Ally to Adversary: An Eyewitness Account of Iraq’s Fall from Grace, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1999. 91. Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus inter Pariahs, p. 46. 92. Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 37; Helmut Hubel, ‘Western Europe and Iraq: The cases of France and West Germany’, in Amatzia Baram and Barry Rubin (eds), Iraq’s Road to War, pp. 273–83; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iraq: A Country Study, pp. 202–6; Bruce W. Jentleson, p. 15. 93. Quoted by Jo-Anne Hart, ‘American objectives in the crisis’, in James Gow (ed.), Iraq, the Gulf Conflict and the World Community, p. 34 and by Bruce W. Jentleson, p. 139. 94. See Barry Rubin, ‘The United States and Iraq’, pp. 255–63; Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 291; Bruce W. Jentleson, pp. 15–21, 94–6. 95. Bruce W. Jentleson, p. 105. 96. Andrew P. Cortell and James W. Davis, ‘How do international institutions matter? The domestic impact of international rules and norms’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40(4), December 1996, pp. 464–72 97. Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran and Iraq, p. 150; Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, pp. 4–15, 201–4. 98. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626. 99. Time, 28 December 1998–4 January 1999. 100. Time, 1 July 2002. 101. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President’s Radio Address, 5 April 2003. 102. 10 Downing Street, Coalition Victory is Certain, 24 March 2003, 10 Downing Street website; 10 Downing Street, Blair & Bush: Messages to the Iraqi People, 10 April 2003. 103. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President’s Radio Address, 22 March 2003; 10 Downing Street, Blair & Bush: Messages to the Iraqi People, 10 April 2003. 104. Martin Shaw, ‘Sanctions in perspective’, in Iraq: Sanctions and Human Rights, War on Want, London, ca. 1996, p. 4. 105. Commission of the European Communities, XXIVth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1990, pp. 290–1. 106. Jo-Anne Hart, pp. 44–5. 107. Alan Dowty, p. 190; United Nations Security Council, Report of the Secretary- General pursuant to paragraph 5 of resolution 1302 (2000), UN, New York, 29 November 2000, p. 21; George S. Hishmeh, ‘Lifting sanctions on Iraq seen unlikely by top Clinton aide’, 3 June 1997, article courtesy of USIA, Johannesburg. 108. Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus inter Pariahs, p. 57; Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, pp. 214–42. 109. Quoted by Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, p. 105. 110. Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 5 of resolution 1302 (2000), p. 21. 111. George A. Lopez, ‘Economic sanctions and failed states: Too little too late and some- times too much?’ A paper prepared for the Purdue conference on failed states, 8–11 April 1999, www.ippu.purdue.edu/conference; Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp. 124–60; Ahmed Hashim, ‘Iraq, the pariah state’, p. 16; Geoff Simons, Iraq – Primus inter Pariahs, pp. 55–60. Notes 383

112. Quoted in Keesing’s Record of World Events, March 2000, p. 43491. 113. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626; Anthony H. Cordesman & Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp. 2–3; Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, pp. 67–70. 114. Gary C. Gambill, ‘Syria’s foreign relations: Iraq’, Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, Vol. 3(3), March 2001, pp. 1–3; ‘Saddam breaks oil blockade with Iran’s help’, 4 July 2000, http://www.smh.com.au/news/0007/04/world/world11.html 115. Time, 2 and 30 October 2000. 116. Time, 21 August 2000. 117. Alan Dowty, p. 180; Campaign against Sanctions on Iraq, UN Security Council resolutions relating to Iraq, www.cam.ac.uk; David J. Scheffer, ‘Use of force after the Cold War’, p. 147. 118. Alan Dowty, p. 180 119. Quoted in Washington Times, 2 May 1997. 120. Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions, pp. 175–220; Geoff Simons, The Scourging of Iraq, pp. 77–98; Time, 18 January 1999. The UN Chronicle carried regular reports on the activities of UNSCOM and IAEA in- spectors in Iraq. 121. Campaign against sanctions on Iraq, UN Security Council resolutions relating to Iraq, www.cam.ac.uk./societies; Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions, p. 3; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 146; US Department of State, Background Note: Iraq, December 2001, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/ bgn/6804.htm 122. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626; Geoff Simons, Iraq – From Sumer to Saddam, p. 46. 123. See resolutions 1111 (4 June 1997), 1143 (4 December 1997), 1153 (20 February 1998), 1210 (24 November 1998), 1242 (21 May 1999), 1281 (10 December 1999), 1302 (8 June 2000), 1330 (4 December 2000); Report of the Secretary- General pursuant to paragraph 5 of resolution 1302 (2000), p. 22; Time, 19 June 2000. 124. UN Chronicle, June 1995, pp. 31–2; Introductory Statement by Benon V. Sevan, Executive Director of the Iraq Programme, at the Informal Consultations of the Security Council, UN Ofﬁce of the Iraq Programme, 6 June 2000, www.globalpolicy.org/ security/sanction/iraq1; US Department of State, Background Note: Iraq, December 2001. 125. UN Ofﬁce of the Iraq Programme Oil-for-Food, 21 May 2003, http://222.un.org/ Depts/oip/ 126. The annual General Report on the Activities of the European Communities/Union, published by the European Commission, provides details of EC/EU humanitarian aid to Iraq. 127. Alain Gresh, ‘Oil for food: The true story’, Le Monde Diplomatique, October 2000, www.globalpolicy.org/security 128. Quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 101. 129. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq – From Sumer to Saddam, p. 35. 130. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 126; Geoff Simons, Iraq – From Sumer to Saddam, pp. 35–8. Also see George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, ‘Why we didn’t remove Saddam’, Time, 2 March 1998. 131. Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions, pp. xvii–xviii; Johanna McGeary, ‘Taking out Saddam’, Time, 30 November 1998. 132. Time, 2 December 2002. 133. Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions, p. xxiii. 384 Notes

134. James Gow, ‘Introduction’, p. 1. 135. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, p. 25. Also see ‘Undoing Saddam Hussein’, editorial, Washington Post, 31/3/1997, and David J. Scheffer, pp. 143–4. 136. Human Rights Watch Middle East, Iraq’s Crime of Genocide, p. xviii. 137. The White House, Ofﬁce of the Press Secretary, President discusses Iraqi Freedom Progress in Radio Address, 29 March 2003, the White House website; President’s Radio Address, 5 April 2003. 138. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions, p. xix. 139. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions, p. xix. 140. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp. 183, 204. 141. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp. 205–8. 142. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond, pp.153–5; The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1626; Christine M. Helms, pp. 21–4.

Chapter 6 Iran

1. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1989, p. xxv; Shireen T. Hunter, Iran and the World: Continuity in a Revolutionary Decade, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1990, p. 1; The Europa World Year Book 1996, Europa Publications, London, 1996, p. 1604; John L. Esposito, ‘The Iranian revolution: a ten-year perspective’, in Esposito (ed.), The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact, Florida International University Press, Miami, 1990, p. 17. 2. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. xxvi; The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington DC, 2000, p. 160. 3. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604. 4. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604. 5. Zachary Karabell, ‘Iran and human rights’, in David P. Forsythe (ed.), Human Rights and Comparative Foreign Policy, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 2000, pp. 206–7. 6. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. 221. 7. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 51–2; R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy: Contending orientations’, in Ramazani (ed.), Iran’s Revolution: The Search for Consensus, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1990, p. 49; R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s export of the revolution: Politics, ends, and means’, in John L. Esposito (ed.), The Iranian Revolution, p. 41; Mark J. Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1991; Moshe Efrat and Jacob Bercovitch (eds), Superpowers and Client States in the Middle East, Routledge, London, 1991. 8. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, pp. 146–7. 9. R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 49. 10. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, pp. xxvii, 197, 329. 11. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604; Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 57–9. 12. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604; Shireen T. Hunter, p. 1. Notes 385

13. US journalist Robin Wright, quoted by David Menashri, Revolution at a Crossroads: Iran’s Domestic Politics and Regional Ambitions, Policy Paper No. 43, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington DC, 1997, p. 84. Also see Mehran Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran: From Tribalism to Theocracy, Praeger, Westport, 1992. 14. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. 295; Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604; James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American–Iranian Relations, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1988, pp. 270–3. 15. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 1–2. 16. Jahangir Amuzegar, Iran’s Economy under the Islamic Republic, I.B. Tauris & Co, London, 1993, pp. 310–16. 17. Eliyahu Kanovsky, Iran’s Economic Morass, Policy Paper No. 44, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington DC, 1997, p. ix. 18. R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, in Ramazani (ed.), Iran’s Revolution, p. 52; David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, Holmes & Meier, New York, 1990, p. 98. 19. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 37, 46. 20. Quoted by R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s export of the revolution’, p. 48. 21. Quoted by R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 55. 22. Roger M. Savory, ‘Religious dogma and the economic and political imperatives of Iranian foreign policy’, in Miron Rezun (ed.), Iran at the Crossroads: Global Relations in a Turbulent Decade, Westview Press, Boulder, 1990, p. 55. 23. Quoted by David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 247. 24. Quoted by John L. Esposito, ‘The Iranian revolution: A ten-year perspective’, p. 31. 25. Quoted by R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 55. 26. Quoted by David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 203. 27. Quoted by John L. Esposito, ‘The Iranian revolution: A ten-year perspective’, p. 35. 28. Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1605; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. xxxi (quoting Khomeini), 226. 29. Europa World Year Book 1996, pp. 1606–7. 30. Quoted by John Calabrese, Revolutionary Horizons: Regional Foreign Policy in Post- Khomeini Iran, St. Martin’s, New York, 1994, p. 145. 31. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 40–5. 32. Anoushiravan Ehteshami, After Khomeini: The Iranian Second Republic, Routledge, London, 1995, pp. 145–7. 33. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1607. 34. Shaul Bakhash, ‘Iran’s remarkable election’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9(1), January 1998, p. 80. 35. Quoted by Stephen C. Fairbanks, ‘Iran: No easy answers’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, p. 457. 36. Human Rights Watch, Brieﬁng to the 59th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights, 27 February 2003, http://www.hrw.org/un/chr59/iran.htm 37. Quoted by Ali Massoud Ansari, ‘They shall still drink Coke: In defence of critical dialogue’, The World Today, Vol. 52(8&9), August/September 1996, p. 210. 38. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: The Dilemmas of Dual Containment, Westview Press, Boulder, 1997, p. 13. 39. Quoted by Ali Massoud Ansari, p. 210. 40. Anthony Lake, ‘Confronting backlash states’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73(2), March–April 1994, pp. 45–55. 41. Yehezkel Dror, Crazy States: A Counterconventional Strategic Problem, Heath Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 1971. 386 Notes

42. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. 232. 43. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p.1607; David Menashri, Revolution at a Crossroads, p. 81. 44. See, for instance, European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1995, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1996, p. 337. 45. Eric Hooglund, ‘The United States and Iran, 1981–9’, in Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Manshour Varasteh (eds), Iran and the International Community, Routledge, London, 1991, p. 36. 46. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1608; Ahmed Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, Adelphi Paper 296, IISS, London 1995, p. 45. 47. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 126. 48. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 40–5. 49. R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 49. 50. R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 57. 51. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 125. 52. Jamal S. al-Suwaidi, ‘The Gulf security dilemma: The Arab Gulf states, the United States, and Iran’, in Jamal S al-Sawaidi (ed.), Iran and the Gulf: A Search for Stability, The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies Research, Abu Dhabi, 1996, pp. 327–9. 53. Quoted by Shahram Chubin, Iran’s National Security Policy: Capabilities, Intentions & Impact, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC, 1994, p. 52. 54. Ahmed Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 1995, p. 69; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 171; Time, 3 August 1998. 55. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, pp. 281–305 and p. 266 for the direct quotation; Shahram Chubin, p. 47; Mohammad Mohadessin, Islamic Fundamentalism: The New Global Threat, Seven Locks Press, Washington DC, 1993, pp. 129–39; Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 455. 56. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President Delivers State of the Union Address, Washington DC, 29 January 2002. 57. The U.S.: Iran working on nuclear weapons, CNN.com/world, 13 December 2002,http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/12/13/iran.nuclear/index.html 58. Time, 17 March 2003; Beeld, 15 May 2003. U.S. 59. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1607; Patrick Clawson, Iran’s Challenge to the West: How, When, and Why, Policy Paper No. 33, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington DC, 1993, p. xii. 60. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 25(12), 1992, p. 37. 61. Ellen Laipson, ‘Symposium: U.S. policy toward Iran: From containment to relentless pursuit?’, Middle East Policy, Vol. 4(1&2), September 1995, p. 1. 62. R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 49. 63. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. xxx; Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 115, 174–6; Edgar O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 1979–95: The Iranian Connection, New York University Press, New York, 1997; Mohammad Mohaddessin, pp. 113–24. 64. Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 447. 65. Quoted by David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 204. 66. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 62–3. 67. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1607; Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 147; Gary C. Hufbauer et al., Notes 387

Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: Supplemental Case Studies, second edition, Institute for International Economics, Washington DC, 1990, p. 583. 68. Thomas Sancton, ‘Iran’s state of terror’, Time, 11 November 1996. 69. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 13. 70. Zachary Karabell, p. 207. 71. Time, 29 June 1998. 72. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, pp. 147–8; Time, 29 June 1998. 73. Iran: State of Terror: An Account of Terrorist Assassinations by Iranian Agents, Parliamentary Human Rights Group, London, June 1996, p. 2. 74. Iran: State of Terror, pp. 3, 6–7. 75. Declaration by the Presidency on behalf of the European Union on Iran, April 10, 1997, www.eurunion.org/news/press/1997 76. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1607. 77. Quoted in Time, 8 October 2001. 78. International Herald Tribune, 26 September 2001. 79. David H. Saltiel and Jason S. Purcell, ‘Moving past dual containment: Iran, Iraq, and the future of U.S. policy in the Gulf’, Bulletin of the Atlantic Council of the United States, Vol. 33(1), January 2002, p. 1; International Herald Tribune, 26 September 2001. 80. Quoted in Time, 8 October 2001. 81. See, for instance, CIA Director George Tenet, cited in Time, 21 February 2000. 82. www.state.gov/documents/organization/20109.pdf 83. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, President Delivers State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002. 84. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, p. 222. 85. Quoted by Mohammad Mohadessin, p. 37. 86. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 121. 87. Quoted by Barry Rubin, ‘The state of U.S.–Iran relations’, in Barry M. Rosen (ed.), Iran Since the Revolution: Internal Dynamics, Regional Conflict, and the Superpowers, Columbia University Press, New York, 1985, p. 108. 88. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, pp. xxx, 222–9, 233; John L. Esposito, ‘The Iranian revolution: A ten-year perspective’, pp. 33, 53. 89. Antony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, pp. 148–51. 90. R.K. Ramazani, ‘Iran’s foreign policy’, p. 58; Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1608. 91. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1604. 92. See, for example, Iran: Violations of Human Rights 1987–1990, Amnesty International Publications, London, 1990, and annual reports on Iran available at www.amnesty.org/ailib/aireport 93. European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1997, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1998, p. 256. 94. Miron Rezun, ‘The internal struggle, the Rushdie affair, and the prospects for the future’, in Rezun (ed.), Iran at the Crossroads, pp. 213–15; Keesing’s Record of World Events, January 2000, p. 43386. 95. Quoted in Amnesty International Annual Report 1998: Iran, www.amnesty.org.ailib/ aireport/ar98 96. Quoted in Amnesty International Annual Report 2000: Iran, www.web.amnesty. org/web.ar2000web.nsf Also see US Department of State, Iran Country Report on 388 Notes

Human Rights Practices for 1998, www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1998; Human Rights Watch World Report 1999: Iran, www.humanrightswatch.com/hrw/ worldreport99 97. Amnesty International Report 2001: Iran, www.web.amnesty.org.web.ar2001; Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 461. 98. Report on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, prepared by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights, Mr. Maurice Danby Copithorne, pursuant to Commission resolution 2000/28, UN Economic and Social Council, 16 January 2001, p. 3. 99. Amnesty International, Media Brieﬁng, 2 May 2002, http://web.amnesty.org/ library/Index/engIOR410152002?Open?Open; The Charlotte Observer, 27 February 2003, http://www.charlotte.com/mld/observer/2003/02/27/news/5272512.htm; Human Rights Watch, UN: Setback on human rights votes, 16 April 2003, http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/unchr041603.htm 100. The Charlotte Observer, 27 February 2003. 101. Human Rights Watch, Brieﬁng to the 59th session of the UN Commission on Human Rights, 27 February 2003. 102. The Soviet Union also featured in Tehran’s den of demons, variously desig- nated the ‘Red, ‘Second’ and ‘Lesser Satan’. See Helen C. Metz (ed.), Iran, pp. xxx, 225; David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 287; Roger M. Savory, p. 52. 103. Quoted by Anthony Parsons, ‘Iran and Western Europe’, in R.K. Ramazani (ed.), Iran’s Revolution, p. 71. 104. Quoted by Barry Rubin, ‘The state of U.S.–Iran relations’, p. 99. 105. Quoted by David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 205. 106. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 46, 59; David Menashri, A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 245 (for the quote on Israel). 107. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 70–1. 108. Ahmed Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, p. 46. 109. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran’s Military Forces in Transition: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction, Praeger, Westport, 1999, p. 5. 110. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 59, 62. 111. Time, 19 January 1998. 112. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman, Iran’s Military Forces in Transition, p. 5. 113. Time, 29 June 1998. 114. Time, 29 June 1998. 115. Stephen C. Fairbanks, pp. 459–61. 116. Shireen T. Hunter, pp. 54, 140. 117. Quoted by James A. Bill, p. 275. 118. Robin Wright, ‘Dateline Tehran: A revolution implodes’, Foreign Policy, No. 103, Summer 1996, p. 161. 119. Ahmed Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, p. 47. 120. The annual reports are available on the US State Department website, http://www.state.gov/www/global/narcotics_law 121. US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 2002, March 2003, http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17950.htm 122. Quoted by Gary C. Hufbauer et al., Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, p. 579. 123. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 3. 124. Associated Press, Washington DC, 23 June 1998, courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. Notes 389

125. Quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 13. 126. Time, 22 October 2001. 127. Quoted by Gary Sick, ‘Iran: The adolescent revolution’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1), Summer 1995, p. 151. 128. Quoted by Gary Sick, ‘Symposium: U.S. policy toward Iran’, Middle East Policy, Vol. 4(1&2), September 1995, p. 6. 129. Both quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 173, 177, respectively. 130. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 25(12), 1992, p. 37. 131. See, for example, Commission of the European Communities, XXVIIth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1993, p. 270; European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1994, Ofﬁce for Ofﬁcial Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1995, p. 305; General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1995, p. 337; General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1996, p. 326. 132. European Union Declaration on Iran, 29 April 1997, www.eurunion.org/news/ press/1997 133. EU External Relations, ‘The Iranian choice’ – an opportunity to embrace the family of nations, speech by Chris Patten, Teheran, 5 February 2003, http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/news/patten/sp03_56.htm 134. Quoted in Iran: State of Terror, pp. 1–2. 135. Published by the UN Economic and Social Council and available on the Internet at www.unhcr.ch/huridocda.nsf) 136. Amnesty International Report 1997: Iran, www.amnesty.org/ailib/aireport/ar97) 137. Quoted in Iran: State of Terror, p. 1. 138. Martin Wright, Iran: The Khomeini Revolution, Longman, Harlow, 1989, pp. 61–2. 139. Assistant Secretary of State Robert Pelletreau in March 1995, quoted by Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 13. 140. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 9. 141. Shireen T. Hunter, p. 63. 142. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmned S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 9; Shireen T. Hunter, p. 64. 143. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, pp. 9–10; Patrick Clawson, Iran’s Challenge to the West: How, When, and Why, Policy Paper No. 33, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington DC, 1993, p. 89 (the latter source containing the direct citation from the Act); Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 171–2. 144. Arms Control Association, Washington levies sanctions for WMD-related transfers to Iran, June 2002, http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002_06/wmdjune02.asp 145. European Union Declaration on Iran, www.eurunion.org/news/press/1997 146. The Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1607; Iran: State of Terror, p. 4; Shireen T. Hunter, p. 143. 147. Anoushiravan Ehteshami, ‘Iran and the European Community’, in Ehteshami and Manshour Varasteh (eds), Iran and the International Community, p. 71. 148. Patrick Clawson, p. 95. 149. Declaration by the Presidency on behalf of the European Union on Iran, April 10, 1997, and European Union Declaration on Iran, both at www.eurunion.org/ news/press/1997 390 Notes

150. ‘Iran: EU set to open high-level dialogue with Teheran’, Radio Free Europe, 10 June 1998, www.rfel.org/nca/features/1998; Iran news editorial, 20 May 1999, www.salamiran.org/Media/IranNews; EU External Relations, ‘The Iranian choice’. 151. Los Angeles Times, 10 December 1997. 152. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, p. 9; Martin Wright, p. 55. 153. Martin Wright, p. 56. 154. Christian Science Monitor, 10 February 1997. 155. Anthony H. Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Containment, pp. 9–11, 15–16; Martin Wright, p. 54; Robin Wright, p. 173; ‘EU reacts to Iran/Libya legislation’, The European Union Press Releases, 23 July 1996, www.eurunion.org/news/press/1996; ‘Brittan reacts to signature of Total contract in Iran’, The European Union Press Releases, 30 September 1997, www.eurunion.org/news/press/1997; European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1996, p. 338. 156. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 177. 157. Keesing’s Record of World Events, May 2000, p. 43599 & June 2000, p. 43650. 158. Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 449. 159. Iran: State of Terror, pp. 89–90. 160. US Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2002. 161. James A. Bill, p. 314. 162. Martin Wright, p. 56. 163. Anthony Cordesman and Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, pp. 3–4. 164. Anthony Lake, pp. 45–55. 165. Anthony H. Cordesman & Ahmed S. Hashim, Iran: Dilemmas of Dual Containment, pp. 16–22; Patrick Clawson, pp. 87–8. 166. www.un.int/iran/press 167. Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 452. 168. www.un.int/iran/press 169. Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 452. 170. Zachary Karabell, p. 219; David Menashri, Revolution at a Crossroads, 1997, p. 82. 171. Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 453. 172. Quoted by Adam Tarock, Iran’s Foreign Policy since 1990: Pragmatism Supersedes Islamic Ideology, Nova Science Publishers, Commack, NY, 1999, p. 47. 173. Europa World Year Book 1996, p. 1608. 174. Zachary Karabell, pp. 210, 214. 175. Zachary Karabell, p. 218. 176. Quoted by David Menashri, Iran: A Decade of War and Revolution, p. 98. 177. Stephen C. Fairbanks, p. 455; K.L. Afrasiabi, After Khomeini: New Directions in Iran’s Foreign Policy, Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, pp. 176–7. 178. Martin Wright, p. 62. 179. New York Times, 22 January 1998.

Chapter 7 Libya

1. Geoff Simons, Libya: The Struggle for Survival, second edition, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1996, pp. 314–15. 2. John Paxton (ed.), The Statesman’s Year-Book 1987–88, Macmillan Press – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1987, p. 799; EGH Joffe, ‘Libya – regional history, regional and national borders’, in J.A. Allan et al. (eds), Libya: State & Region: Notes 391

A Study of Regional Evolution, SOAS Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, London, 1989, p. 1. 3. Martin Sicker, The Making of a Pariah State: The Adventurist Politics of Muammar Qaddafi, Praeger, New York, 1987, pp. 7–8. 4. Martin Sicker, pp. 13–16. 5. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 2287. 6. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1989, pp. 38–40. 7. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 40; Ronald B. St John, Qaddafi’s World Design: Libyan Foreign Policy, 1969–1987, Saqi Books, London, 1987, p. 16. 8. Martin Sicker, pp. 23–4, 101; Ronald B. St John, pp. 12–13. 9. Martin Sicker, p. 17; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 42–3. 10. Ronald B. St John, pp. 17–21, 26. Also see I. William Zartman and A.G. Kluge, ‘The sources and goals of Qaddafi’s foreign policy’, American–Arab Affairs, No. 6, Fall 1983, pp. 63–4. 11. Martin Sicker, pp. 17, 33. 12. David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1987, p. 64. 13. Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), ‘Chronology of a revolution’, in Qadhafi’s Libya, 1969–1994, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1995, p. xxvii. 14. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 47–8; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2287. 15. Keesing’s Record of World Events, March 2000, p. 43493. 16. Quoted in Europa World Year Book, p. 2287. 17. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 48. 18. Martin Sicker, p. 33. 19. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 47; Guy Arnold, The Maverick State: Gaddafi and the New World Order, Cassell, London, 1996, pp. 12–22. 20. Martin Sicker, p. 32; The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2287–8; John Wright, Libya: A Modern History, Croom Helm, London, 1982, pp. 137–40. 21. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2287–8. 22. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 49–50. 23. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2287–8. 24. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 50–1. 25. Martin Sicker, pp. 24–33; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 49; Dirk Vanderwalle, ‘The Libyan Jamahiriyya since 1969’, in Vandewalle (ed.), p. 28. 26. Guy Arnold, pp. 5,23–30. 27. François Burgat, ‘Qadhafi’s ideological framework’, in Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), pp. 55–8; Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 306. 28. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 44. 29. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 51; John K. Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 1983, pp. 59–79; Judith Gurney, Libya: The Political Economy of Energy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996, pp. 5–6. 30. Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 304; J.A. Allan, Libya: The Experience of Oil, Croom Helm, London, 1981. 31. Martin Sicker; Lillian G. Harris, Libya: Qadhafi’s Revolution and the Modern State, Westview Press, Boulder, 1986, p. 83. 32. Guy Arnold. 33. Anthony Lake, ‘Confronting backlash states’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73(2), March/ April 1994, pp. 45–6. 34. I. William Zartman and A.G. Kluge, p. 69. 392 Notes

35. Roger W. Fontaine, Terrorism: The Cuban Connection, Crane, Russak & Company, New York, 1988. 36. Quoted by René Lemarchand, ‘Introduction: Beyond the mad dog syndrome’, in Lemarchand (ed.), The Green and the Black: Qadhafi’s Policies in Africa, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1988, p. 1. 37. Dawid van Lill, ‘Politiek maak mens siek!’, Insig, December 1998, p. 33. 38. Quoted by John Wright, Libya: A Modern History, Croom Helm, London, 1982, p. 162 and by Oye Ogunbadejo, ‘Qaddafi and Africa’s international relations’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 24(1), 1986, p. 35. 39. Quoted by Oye Ogunbadejo, p. 35. 40. Quoted by David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 184. 41. Quoted by Guy Arnold, p. 66. 42. Quoted by David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 70. 43. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 336. 44. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, Libya and the United States: Qadhafi’s Response to Reagan’s Challenge, Détente Publishers, New Delhi, 1984, p. 2. 45. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, p. 3. 46. Quoted by René Lemarchand, ‘Introduction’, p. 1. 47. Ronald B. St John, pp. 81–82; René Lemarchand, ‘Introduction’, p. 2. 48. Guy Arnold, p. 133. 49. Quoted by Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 281. 50. Ronald B. St John, p. 45; William Gutteridge, ‘Libya: Still a threat to Western interests?’, Conflict Studies, No. 160, 1984, pp. 22–4. 51. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 281. 52. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2290. 53. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 228. 54. David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 5. 55. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 254; Time, 26 November 2001. 56. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289. 57. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2291; Time, 12 February 2001. 58. BBC News, Country Profile: Libya, http://news.bbc.co.uk 59. The News, 1 May 2003, http://jang.com.pk/thenews/may2003-daily/01-05- 2003/world/w4.htm 60. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 281. 61. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289 62. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 282. 63. Lillian G. Harris, p. 89; Geoff Simons, Libya, pp. 281–3. 64. John Wright, Libya: A Modern History, p. 162. 65. Geoff Simons, Libya, pp. 48, 281; Time, 12 February 2001. 66. Quoted in Time, 13 December 1999. 67. Quoted in Time, 27 March 2000. 68. CNN.com, ‘Gadhafi says America has the right to retaliate’, 23 October 2001, http://cnn.worldnews; Time, 5 November 2001. 69. BBC News, CIA seeks rogue state co-operation, 30 October 2001, http://news. bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/americas/newsid_1627000/1627988.stm 70. BBC News, 18 May 2003, http://news.bloc.uk/2/hi/africa/3028407.stm 71. The News, 1 May 2003. 72. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/html/10220.htm; www.state.gov/documents/organization/20109.pdf 73. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 281–2; David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 181; John Wright, Libya, Chad and the Central Sahara, Hurst & Co., London, 1989. Notes 393

74. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 282; I. William Zartman and A.G. Kluge, p. 65; René Lemarchand, ‘Introduction’ pp. 9–10. 75. Ronald B. St John, pp. 35–48. 76. Quoted by Martin Sicker, p. 59. 77. Ronald B. St John, pp. 35–48; Khafed Hanaﬁ Ali, ‘Libya and the U.S.A.: blossoming friendship?’, The International Politics Journal, April 2003, http://www. siyassa.org.eg/esiyassa/ahram/2003/4/1REP04/HTM 78. Quoted by John Wright, Libya: A Modern History, p. 172. 79. Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), ‘Chronology of a revolution’, p. xxxi. 80. Quoted by Ronald B. St John, p. 69; Dirk Vandewalle, ‘The Libyan Jamahiriyya since 1969’, in Vandewalle (ed.), p. 3. 81. Ronald B. St John, pp. 28–34. 82. Ronald B. St John, pp. 28–38, 47; Hanspeter Mattes, ‘The rise and fall of the revolutionary committees’, in Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), p. 100. 83. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 217. 84. Nathan Alexander, ‘The foreign policy of Libya: Inﬂexibility amid change’, Orbis, Vol. 24(4), Winter 1981, p. 838. 85. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289. 86. Martin Sicker, pp. 89–91; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 55–6. 87. I. William Zartman and A.G. Kluge, p. 65. 88. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 217–18; Martin Sicker, p. 127. 89. Martin Sicker, pp. 128–9. 90. John Wright, Libya: A Modern History, pp. 206–7. 91. Quoted By Lillian G. Harris, p. 105. 92. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 282; Martin Sicker, pp. 119, 124. 93. Quoted by René Lemarchand, ‘Introduction’, p. 13. 94. Quoted by Oye Ogunbadejo, p. 51. 95. Guy Arnold, p. 89. 96. Ronald B. St John, p. 149. 97. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2291. 98. Ronald B. St John, pp. 35, 72, 143; Nathan Alexander, p. 840. 99. Lillian G. Harris, p. 84. 100. Ronald B. St John, pp. 143–4. 101. Quoted by Ronald B. St John, p. 69. 102. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 234, 279; John K. Cooley, pp. 229–33. 103. Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 48. 104. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289. 105. Libya: News and Views, 24 May 2003, http://www.libya1.com; ‘Libya denies it is seeking to develop weapons of mass destruction’, Spacedaily, 8 January 2003, http://www.spacedaily.com/2003/ 030108211633.mw780wuq. html 106. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 279; John K. Cooley, pp. 234–6; John K. Cooley, p. 241. 107. Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws: America’s Search for a New Foreign Policy, Hill & Wang, New York, 1996 108. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2291. 109. René Lemarchand, ‘Introduction’, p. 11; Guy Arnold, p. 95. 110. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 230. 111. John Wright, Libya: A Modern History, pp. 202–3. 112. Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 285. 113. Guy Arnold, p. 39. 394 Notes

114. Amnesty International Press Release, ‘Libya: The release of prisoners a positive step’, 3 September 2002, http://web.amnesty.org/ai.nsf/Index/MDE190032002? OpenDoument&of=Countries\Libya. 115. Human Rights Watch Press Release, ‘Libya should not chair U.N. Commission, 9 August 2002, http://hrw.org/press/2002/08/libya080902.htm 116. Arabic News.com, 14 August 2002, http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/ Day/020814/2002081410.html 117. US State Department Briefing, 22 January 2003, http://www.usis.it/ file2003_01/ alia/a3012205.htm 118. Quoted by Ronald B. St John, p. 71 119. Nathan Alexander, p. 827. 120. Ronald B. St John, pp. 76, 79. 121. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 230–1, 273–6. 122. Martin Sicker, p. 123. 123. Quoted by David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 19. 124. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, p. 55. 125. Quoted by Martin Sicker, p. 127. 126. Ronald B. St John, p. 69. 127. Quoted by Oye Ogunbadejo, p. 34. 128. Quoted by Martin Sicker, p. 113. 129. Quoted by Martin Sicker, p. 122. 130. Martin Sicker, pp. 113–17. 131. Nathan Alexander, p. 829. 132. Martin Sicker, p. 114. 133. Quoted by John K. Cooley, p. 83. 134. Raymond Tanter, Rogue Regimes: Terrorism and Proliferation, St Martin’s, New York, p. 132, 1998, 135. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 307. 136. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 307. 137. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington DC, 2000, p. 107. 138. US State Department, US trade sanctions on Libya renewed, 3 January 2003, http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/03010303.htm 139. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 24(12), 1991, p. 118. 140. Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 307. 141. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Libya, p. 307. 142. Bulletin of the European Union, 9.1995, p. 47. 143. Quoted by Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), ‘Chronology of a revolution’, p. xxix. 144. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 24(12), 1991, p. 118. 145. See, for instance, Commission of the European Communities, XXVIth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1992, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1993, p. 355. 146. Bulletin of the European Union, 9.1995, p. 47. 147. Ronald B. St John, pp. 82–3; EU External Relations, ‘The EU’s relations with Libya’, April 2000, p1, http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/lybia/ intro/index.htm 148. Ronald B. St John, pp. 83, 87. 149. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 26(11), 1993, p. 73. 150. See Bulletin of the European Union, 4.1996, p. 79 and 7/8, 1996, p. 94. 151. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2290; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S Foreign Policy, pp. 65, 84. Notes 395

152. New York Times, 4 October 1997. 153. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289; ‘Libya: Security Council arms and air embargo stays in place’, UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(4), December 1994, p. 33. 154. Quoted in ‘Libya: Security Council arms and air embargo stays in place’, UN Chronicle, Vol. 31(4), December 1994, p. 33; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2290. 155. Beeld, 28 July 1999. 156. ClariNews, 11 April 2003, http://quickstart.clari.net/qs_se/webnews/wed/cb/Qeu- libya-sanctions.RI_3_DAB.html 157. BBC 4 Radio News, 8 August 2002, 6.30 a.m., http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/news; The News, 1 May 2003. 158. US Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, Background Note: Libya, January 2002, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm 159. US Department of State, US trade sanctions on Libya renewed, 3 January 2003. 160. BBC News, 19 May 2003. 161. Newsday.com, 22 May 2003, http://www.new…/sns-ap-us-libya 162. Ronald B. St John, p. 82; David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 190. 163. Ronald B. St John, p. 86. 164. Geoff Simons, Libya, pp. 66, 363. 165. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289. 166. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2290–1. 167. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2292; Raymond Tanter, p. 158. For an official Libyan account of the ‘enormous physical, material and financial damage’ caused by international sanctions, see ‘Sixth comprehensive report on damage caused by the implementation of Security Council resolutions 748 (1992) and 883 (1993) during the period from 15 April 1992 to 31 December 1995’, transmitted to the UN Secretary General by the Libyan Mission to the UN, September 1996, courtesy of the Libyan Embassy, Pretoria. 168. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2292; Beeld, 28 July 1999. 169. David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 190; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 277. 170. Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, pp. 273–8. 171. EU External Relations, ‘The EU’s relations with Libya, April 2000, p. 2. 172. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Libya: A Country Study, p. 254. 173. Aftab K. Pasha, p. 7; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 105. 174. Ronald B. St John, p. 82; Aftab K. Pasha, p. 7; Geoff Simons, Libya, pp. 325–31; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2289. 175. David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 15. 176. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, p. 53. 177. Newsday.com, 22 May 2003. 178. Arabic News.com, 14 August 2002. 179. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, pp. 147–8. 180. Rapport, 16 August 1998. 181. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, pp. 65–6, 144. 182. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, p. 65. 183. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, p. 48. 184. Aftab K. Pasha, pp. 56–7; Paul Brooker, Defiant Dictatorships: Communist and Middle-Eastern Dictatorships in a Democratic Age, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1997, p. 16. 396 Notes

185. Quoted by Martin Sicker, p. 121. 186. Quoted by Aftab K. Pasha, p. 57. 187. Quoted by David Blundy and Andrew Lycett, p. 14.

Chapter 8 North Korea

1. The Europa World Year Book 2000, Europa Publications, London, 2000, p. 2129; D.S. Lewis, Korea: Enduring Division? A Keesing’s Special Report, Longman, Harlow, 1988, p. 130. 2. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2129. 3. D.S. Lewis, p. 131 (for direct quote); Hazel Smith, ‘The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and its foreign policy in the 1990s: More realist than revolutionary?’ in Stephen Chan and Andrew J. Williams (eds), Renegade States: The Evolution of Revolutionary Foreign Policy, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1994, p. 97. 4. Geoff Simons, Korea: The Search for Sovereignty, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1995, p. 52. 5. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2129–30; Freedom House, North Korea 1998, www.freedomhouse.org/reports/worst98 6. B.C. Koh, ‘Ideology and North Korean foreign policy’, and Sang-Woo Rhee, ‘Chuch’e ideology as North Korea’s foreign policy guide’, both in Robert A. Scalapino and Hongkoo Lee (eds), North Korea in a Regional and Global Context, Korea Research Monograph 11, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1986, pp. 21–3, 34, 39–42, respectively. 7. Bruce Cummings, Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1997, p. 419. 8. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2129. 9. Adrian Buzo, The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea, Westview Press, Boulder, 1999, p. 188; Samuel S. Kim, ‘The two Koreas and world order’, in Young Whan Kihl (ed.), Korea and the World: Beyond the Cold War, Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, p. 53; Chong Bong-uk, North Korea: Uneasy, Shaky Kim Jong-il Regime, Naewoo Press, Seoul, 1997, p. 159. 10. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2130–5; Adrian Buzo, p. 206. 11. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2135; Bruce Cummings, p. 426; Adrian Buzo, pp. 216–7. 12. Young Whan Kihl, ‘Korea after the Cold War: An introduction’, in Kihl (ed.), p. 9. 13. On the Games, see Adrian Buzo, pp. 186–7. 14. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2130. 15. Adrian Buzo, p. 229; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2130. 16. Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1995, pp. 88–9. 17. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2130–1. 18. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2131. 19. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2131–2. 20. Choong Nam Kim, ‘Pyongyang’s dilemma of reform and opening’, Korea and World Affairs, Vol. 24(2), Summer 2000, p. 247; Andrew O’Neil, ‘The 2000 inter-Korean summit: The road to reconciliation?’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 55(1), April 2001, pp. 55,59; Jongchul Park, ‘Inter- Korean relations after the summit meeting’, Korea and World Affairs, Vol. 25(2), Summer 2001, pp. 190–2. 21. Time, 14 May 2001 and 28 May 2001. Notes 397

22. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2134; Adrian Buzo, p. 193; Samuel S. Kim, pp. 32–3; Jongchul Park, pp. 204–5. 23. Choong Nam Kim, ‘Pyongyang’s dilemma of reform and opening’, Korea and World Affairs, Vol. 24(2), Summer 2000, pp. 250–1. 24. Leon V. Sigal, Disarming Strangers: Nuclear Diplomacy with North Korea, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1998, pp. 11–12. 25. British Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd, quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 46. 26. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, pp. 48, 52. 27. The Sunday Telegraph, quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 53. 28. Time, 25 December 2000–1 January 2001. 29. Time, 6 November 2000. 30. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, pp. xx–xxi. 31. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 47. 32. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign PolicyI: Containment after the Cold War, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington DC, 2000, p. 81. 33. Time, 26 June 2000. 34. Quoted by Time, 7 August 2000. 35. Joel S. Wit, ‘North Korea: The leader of the pack’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 24(1), Winter 2001, p. 77. 36. Kongdan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, ‘North Korea’s nuclear program’, in Young Whan Kihl (ed.), p. 234. 37. Adrian Buzo, p. 194; Kongdan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, pp. 234–5; Michael Ertman, ‘North Korean arms capabilities and implications’, Korea and World Affairs, Vol. 17(4), Winter 1993, p. 610. 38. Jin-Hyun Paik, ‘Nuclear conundrum’, Korea and World Affairs, Vol. 17(4), Winter 1993, p. 628; Bruce Cummings, p. 466. 39. Alexandre Y. Mansourov, ‘The origins, evolution and future of the North Korean nuclear program’, Korea and World Affairs, Vol. 19(1), Spring 1995, pp. 46–50, 66; Denny Roy, ‘The security–human rights nexus in North Korea’, The Journal of East Asian Affairs, Vol. 11(1), Winter–Spring 1997, pp. 4–5; Jin-Hyun Paik, pp. 636–7; Michael J. Mazarr, ‘Going just a little nuclear: Nonproliferation lessons from North Korea’, International Security, Vol. 20(2), Fall 1995, p. 100. 40. Andrea M. Savada, North Korea: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1994, p. 254. 41. Quoted by Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, p. 154. 42. Quoted by Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, p. 2. 43. Kongdan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, p. 243. 44. Paul Bracken, ‘Nuclear weapons and state survival in North Korea’, Survival, Vol. 35(3), Autumn 1993, pp. 137, 141. 45. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2132; Adrian Buzo, pp. 220–5; Kongdan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, pp. 235–42; Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 33. 46. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2132; Adrian Buzo, p. 225; Michael Ertman, p. 610; Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, pp. 101–21; Geoff Simons, Korea, pp. 9, 16. 47. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2132; Andrea M. Savada, p. xxix. 48. Andrea M. Savada, p. xxxi; Bong-uk Chong, North Korea: The Land that Never Changes, Naewoo Press, Seoul, 1995, pp. 116–17; Michael Ertman, p. 611; ‘Northeast Asia’, www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolift97 49. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2132; Adrian Buzo, pp. 228–9; Leon V. Sigal, p. 9; Michael J. Mazarr, ‘Going just a little nuclear’, pp. 97–8; Alexandre Y. Mansourov, pp. 57–8. 398 Notes

50. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2133. This status was conﬁrmed in a second American inspection in May 2000 – Keesing’s Record of World Events, May 2000, p. 43572. 51. The White House, Ofﬁce of the Press Secretary, President Delivers State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002. 52. CNN.com/WORLD, 19 April 2003, http://edition.cnn.com/2003/W… 53. CNN.com/WORLD, 10 January 2003, http://www.cnn.com/2003WO… 54. US Department of State, Press Statement, North Korean Nuclear Programme, 16 October 2002, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2002/14432.htm, Time, 28 October 2002; CNN.com./WORLD, 19 April 2003. 55. CNN.com./WORLD, 19 April 2003; CNN.com./WORLD, 10 January 2003; Guardian Unlimited, 12 February 2003, http://www.guardian.co.uk/korea.article. 0,2763,894215,00.html; MSNBC News, 11 May 2003, http://stacks,msnbc.com/ news/…; CentreDaily.com, 24 April 2003, http://www.cenredaily.com/m… 56. Guardian Unlimited, 12 February 2003; Ohio.com, 9 April 2003, http://www. ohio.com/mld/ohio/news/breaking_news/5590876.htm 57. Michael Ertman, pp. 615–20; Paul Bracken, p. 140. 58. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2132–3; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws: America’s Search for a New Foreign Policy, Hill & Wang, New York, 1996, p. 141; Joel S. Wit, ‘North Korea: The leader of the pack’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 24(1), Winter 2001, p. 78; Bhubhindar Singh, ‘The 1998 North Korean missile launch and the “normalization” of Japanese statehood’, Issues & Studies, Vol. 37(#), May/June 2001, pp. 142–62; FAS World Space Guide, www.fas.org/spp/guide/dprk; Time, 14 September 1998. 59. Joel S. Wit, pp. 79, 87; Jongchul Park, pp. 197, 204–5; Time, 14 May 2001. The DPRK is not a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime – Northeast Asia, www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97. 60. Michael Ertman, pp. 615–20; Time, 14 September 1998; Financial Times, 4–5 November 2000. 61. Adrian Buzo, pp. 196–7; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 141; Time, 14 September 1998; FAS, North Korea Special Weapons Guide, http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide… 62. Time, 3 December 2001. 63. Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, pp. 138, 141; Michael Ertman, pp. 612–5; Andrea M. Savada, p. 203; Northeast Asia. 64. Chae-Jin Lee, ‘The United States and Korea’, in Young Whan Kihl (ed.), p. 78; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws, p. 137; Robert Dujarric, ‘North Korea: Risks and rewards of engagement’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, pp. 469–70; Choong Nam Kim, p. 249. 65. Chae-Jin Lee, p. 80. 66. Joel S. Wit, p. 79; Michael Ertman, p. 620; Denny Roy, ‘The myth of North Korean “irrationality”’, The Korean Journal of International Studies, Vol. 25(2), Summer 1994, p. 144. 67. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 32. 68. Walter Slocombe, Principal Deputy Under-Secretary of Defence, quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 25. 69. Bulletin of the European Union, 3, 1994, p. 61. 70. Quoted by Hyung-Kook Kim, ‘U.S. policy toward North Korea: From positive engagement to constructive containment’, The Journal of East Asian Affairs, Vol. 13(1), Spring/Summer 1999, pp. 116–17. 71. Quoted by Hyung-Kook Kim, p. 118. Notes 399

72. Adrian Buzo, pp. 176–7; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2133; Geoff Simons, Korea, p. xx; Andrea M. Savada, p. 262; US Department of State, Washington File, 6 October 2000, www.usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror 73. US Department of State, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Background Note: North Korea, October 2000, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm 74. US Department of State, Washington File, 6 October 2000; Michael Millett, ‘North Korea steps up pressure for respectability’, 9 October 2000, www.smh.com.au/ news; Background Note: North Korea, October 2000 75. International Herald Tribune, 26 September 2001. 76. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/ html/10249.htam; Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001, www.state.gov/documents/ organization/20109.pdf 77. www.state.gov/documents/organization/20109.pdf 78. B.C. Koh, pp. 28–31. 79. Quoted by Chong Bong-uk, North Korea: Uneasy, Shaky Kim Jong-il Regime, pp. 219–20. 80. US Department of Defense, 1996–1997 Defense White Paper, www.pipeline.com/ psywarrior/korea 81. Quoted by Dae-Ho Byun, North Korea’s Foreign Policy, Korean Unification Studies Series 13, Research Center for Peace and Unification of Korea, Seoul, 1991, pp. 46–7. 82. Dae-Ho Byun, pp. 96–113. 83. Andrea M. Savada, pp. 258–61. 84. Hazel Smith, p. 112. 85. Quoted by Jhe Seong-ho, ‘North Korean human rights: A premise of unification’, Korea Focus, Vol. 3(1), January–February 1995, pp. 63–4; Robert Dujarric, p. 470; Freedom House, North Korea 1998, www.freedomhouse.org/ reports/worst98 86. Chae-Jin Lee, p. 72; Denny Roy, ‘The security–human rights nexus in North Korea’, pp. 8–9; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2129. 87. Jhe Seong-ho, ‘North Korean human rights: a premise of unification’, Korea Focus, Vol. 3(1), January–February 1995, pp. 66–8. 88. Park Heung Soon, ‘Role of NGOs in improving human rights in North Korea’, Korea Focus, Vol. 7(6), November–December 1999, pp. 34–45. 89. Amnesty International Report, 2003, http://web.amnesty.org/report2003/Prk- summary-eng; Human Rights Watch World Report 2003, Asia Overview, http://www.hrw.org.wr2k3/asia.html 90. Sang-Woo Rhee, p. 37. 91. Andrea M. Savada, pp. 258–61. 92. D.S. Lewis, p. 131. 93. Hazel Smith, p. 103. 94. Quoted by B.C. Koh, p. 27. 95. Quoted by Chong Bong-uk, North Korea: Uneasy, Shaky Kim Jong-il Regime, p. 21. 96. Andrea M. Savada, p. 204. 97. Both quoted by B.C. Koh, p. 33. 98. Bruce Cummings, p. 464; Chae-Jin Lee, p. 72. 99. Joel S. Wit, pp. 79, 87; Jongchul Park, pp. 197, 204–5. 100. Jongchul Park, p. 196. 101. Joel S. Wit, p. 77; ‘A rogue state? The charges’, www.megastories.com/nkorea; US Department of State, International Information Programs, 21 May 2003, http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/global/drugs/03052105.htm; Guardian Unlimited, 20 January 2003, http://www.guardian.co.uk/korea/article/0,2763,878118,00.html. 400 Notes

102. Quoted by Michael J. Mazarr, ‘Going just a little nuclear’, p. 102. Also see Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, pp. 133, 156. 103. Yahoo!News, 23 May 2003, http://story.news.yahoo.com/n… 104. Yahoo!News, 13, 26 May 2003, http://story.news.yahoo.com/n…; The Delegation of the European Commission to the Republic of Korea, 11 February 2002, http://www.delkor.cec.eu.int/e…; The Danish EU Presidency, 28 May 2003, http://www.eu2002.dk/news/n…; EU Declaration on North Korea, 11 January 2003, http://www.eu2003.gr/en/articl… 105. The words of Arnold Kanter, Under-secretary of State for Political Affairs, 1992, quoted by Chae-Jin Lee, p. 72. 106. Chae-Jin Lee, p. 72; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2133; Andrea M. Savada, p. 205. 107. US Department of State, Press Statement, North Korean nuclear program. 108. Quoted by Adrian Buzo, pp. 225–6. 109. Adrian Buzo, pp. 227–8; Andrea M. Savada, p. xxxii; Chong Bong-uk, North Korea: The Land that Never Changes, p. 114. 110. See, for instance, decisions of the European Parliament, 22 April 1993, and of the EU presidency, 31 March 1994, as reflected in the respective years’ General Report on the Activities of the European Communities/Union, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels. 111. The Danish EU Presidency, 28 May 2003; EU Declaration on North Korea, 11 January 2003; The EU’s relations with the DPRK, 14 April 2003, http://europa. eu.int/comm/exte…; Presidency Conclusions, Brussels European Council, 20–21 March 2003. 112. Los Angeles Times, 11 January 2003, http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/ world/la-fg-norkor/1jan11.story 113. News from the United Nations Information Centre Washington, DC, 17 April 2003, http://www.unicwash./org/unnews2003/unnews%20-%2004-17-2003.htm 114. Declaration by the Presidency on behalf of the European Union on the situation on the Korean Peninsula, 17 October 1996, www.irlgov.ie/iveagh/eu/ press; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2131 115. Diane Manifold, ‘United States eases sanctions on North Korea’, International Economic Review, February/March 2000, p. 3; Chae-Jin Lee, p. 73; Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, p. 161; Vladimir N. Pregelj, ‘Normalizing U.S. commercial relations with North Korea’, in D. Ellsworth Blanc (ed.), North Korea – Pariah?, Novinka Books, Huntington, NY, 2001, pp. 65–77. 116. Chong Bong-uk, North Korea: Uneasy, Shaky Kim Jong-il Regime, p. 158. 117. Diane Manifold, pp. 3–4. 118. Diane Manifold, pp. 3–4. 119. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2133. 120. Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, p. 160. 121. Adrian Buzo, pp. 176–7; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2133. 122. Chae-Jin Lee, p. 78. 123. Chae-Jin Lee, p. 71; Joel S. Wit, p. 78. 124. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 110; Hyung-Kook Kim, pp. 115–17. 125. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 5; Michael J. Mazarr, ‘Going just a little nuclear’, p. 110. 126. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 81. 127. Jongchul Park, p. 204. 128. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 81. Notes 401

129. Keesing’s Record of World Events, November 2000, p. 43861; Financial Times, 4–5 November 2000. 130. US Department of State, Press Statement, North Korean nuclear program. 131. Beeld, 18 October 2002. 132. Ohio.com, Breaking News, 9 April 2003; CentreDaily.com, 24 April 2003; Yahoo!News, 23 May 2003. 133. Andrew O’Neil, p. 56; Robert Dujarric, p. 472; Jongchul Park, pp. 189–207. 134. Robert Dujarric, pp. 474–5. 135. EU External Relations, The EU’s relations with the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, 7 December 2001, http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/ north_korea/intro/index.htm; EU External Relations, The EU’s relations with the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, 7 December 2001; Delegation of the European Commission in the Republic of Korea, Press Release, 16 May 2003; The EU relations with the DPRK, Country Strategy Paper 2001–2004, http://europa.eu.int/comm/exte… 136. CentreDaily.com, 24 April 2003; Yahoo!News, 23 May 2003; Bruce Cummings, ‘North Korea: The sequel’, Current History, Vol. 102, No. 663, April 2003, pp. 147–51. 137. Presidency Conclusions, Brussels European Council, 20–21 March 2003. 138. Denny Roy, ‘The security–human rights nexus in North Korea’, p. 7. 139. ‘North Korea says it meets rights standards’, 13 February 2001, Associated Press. 140. Quoted by Adrian Buzo, pp. 225–6. 141. CBS.NEWS.com, 3 March 2003, http://www.cbsnews.com/stori… 142. Quoted by Geoff Simons, Korea, p. 27. 143. Chae-Jin Lee, p. 72; Jin-Hyun Paik, p. 638. 144. Ronald F. Lehman, ‘A North Korean nuclear-weapons program: International implications’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 24(3), September 1993, p. 258; Michael Millett, ‘North Korea steps up pressure for respectability’, 9 October 2000, www.smh.com.au/news 145. Quoted by Adrian Buzo, p. 226. 146. Adrian Buzo, p. 226. 147. Quoted by Alexandre Y. Mansourov, p. 65. 148. Adrian Buzo, p. 226. 149. Quoted by Kongdan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, p. 240. 150. Quoted by Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, p. 160. 151. Quoted by Michael J. Mazarr, North Korea and the Bomb, p. 155; Chong Bong- uk, North Korea: The Land that Never Changes, p. 121. 152. Adrian Buzo, p. 228; Denny Roy, ‘The myth of North Korean “irrationality”’, p. 142. 153. Yahoo!News, 26 May 2003. 154. Ohio.com, 9 April 2003. 155. MSNBC News, 11 May 2003. 156. EU External Relations, The EU’s relations with the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, 7 December 2001.

Chapter 9 Cuba

1. Jorge I. Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba’s Foreign Policy, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1989, p. 8; Louis A. Pérez, Cuba under the Platt Amendment 1902–1934, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1986. 402 Notes

2. Jorge I. Domínguez, pp. 8–9. 3. Mary Murray, Cruel & Unusual Punishment: The U.S. Blockade against Cuba, Ocean Press, Melbourne, 1993, p. 8; Jan K. Black et al., Area Handbook for Cuba, second edition, Foreign Area Studies of the American University, Washington DC, 1976, pp. 343–4. 4. James D. Rudolph (ed.), Cuba: A Country Study, American University, Washington DC, 1987, pp. 24–38; The Europa World Year Book 2000, Europa Publications, London, 2000, p. 1161. 5. Statement by Carlos Martinez Salsamendi, President of the Chamber of Commerce of Cuba, Havana, 8 April 1996. 6. Quoted by Maurice Halperin, The Taming of Fidel Castro, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1981, p. 7. 7. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 1161. 8. Quoted by Maurice Halperin, pp. 8–10. 9. Jorge I. Domínguez, p. 3. 10. Jorge I. Domínguez, p. 4. 11. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1161. 12. Quoted by Jan K. Black et al., p. 345. 13. Quoted by Jan K. Black et al., p. 348. 14. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1161; Julie M. Feinsilver, ‘Cuba’s current integration into the international and hemispheric systems’, in Archibald R.M. Ritter and John M. Kirk (eds), Cuba in the International System: Normalization and Integration, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, 1995, p. 74. 15. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 1161–2. 16. Maria C. Werlau, ‘Foreign investment in Cuba: The limits of commercial engagement’, World Affairs, Vol. 160(2), Fall 1997, p. 55. 17. Country Profile: Cuba 1998–99, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, 1998, pp. 10–12; Susan Eckstein, ‘The limits of socialism in a capitalist world economy: Cuba since the collapse of the Soviet bloc’, in Miguel A. Centeno and Mauricio Font (eds), Toward a New Cuba? Legacies of a Revolution, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1997, p. 136; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo: U.S. Sanctions against Cuba, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1998, p. 171. 18. Quoted by Edward Gonzalez and David Ronfeldt, Storm Warnings for Cuba, RAND National Defense Research Institute, Santa Monica, Calif., 1994, p. 16. 19. Quoted by Edward Gonzalez and David Ronfeldt, p. 32. 20. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 1162–3. 21. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1163; Mauricio Font, ‘Crisis and reform in Cuba’, in Miguel A. Centeno and Mauricio Font (eds), pp. 121–6; Maria C. Werlau, pp. 51–69. 22. Edward Gonzalez and David Ronfeldt, pp. 42–3. 23. Country Profile: Cuba 1998–99, p. 12; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 171. 24. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1163. 25. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1163. 26. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1164; Country Profile: Cuba 1998–99, p. 8. 27. Human Rights Watch World Report 2003 – Cuba, http://64.21.33.164/ ref/dis/04030301.htm; EU official visits Cuba and opens new embassy, Economic Report, 12 March 2003, http://www.radiohc.cu/ingles/economy/ economy/5mar.htm 28. Washington File, 29 April 2003, http://www.usembassy.it/file2003_04/alia/ a3042906.htm Notes 403

29. CBSNEWS.com, 19 March 2003; http://www.cbsnes.com/stories/2003/03/19/ world/main544555.shtml; Human Rights Watch World Report 2003. 30. Quoted by Larry Hedrick, Rogue’s Gallery: America’s Foes from George III to Saddam Hussein, Brassey’s (US), Washington DC, 1992, p. 161. 31. Quoted by Larry Hedrick, p. 163. 32. Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, ‘Making state action possible: The United States and the discursive construction of the “Cuban problem”, 1960–1994’, Millennium, Vol. 25(2), 1996, p. 386. 33. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, Cuba: Dilemmas of a Revolution, third edition, Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, p. 127. 34. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, pp. 135–6; H. Michael Erisman, Cuba’s International Relations: The Anatomy of a Nationalistic Foreign Policy, Westview Press, Boulder, 1985, p. 149. Among the numerous biographies of Castro are Peter Bourne, Castro: A Biography of Fidel Castro, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1986; Tad Szulc, Fidel: A Critical Portrait, Hutchinson, London, 1986; Robert E. Quirk, Fidel Castro, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1993. 35. U.S. Department of State, Transcript: President Bush urges Cuba to hold free elections, allow dissent, 20 May 2002, http://usembassy.state.gov/havana/ wwwhbuse.html 36. Pamela S. Falk, Cuban Foreign Policy: Caribbean Tempest, Lexington Books, Lexington, 1986, p. 4; Jiri Valenta, ‘Cuba in the Soviet alliance system’, in Georges Fauriol and Eva Loser (eds), Cuba: The International Dimension, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, 1990, p. 3. 37. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 361. 38. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 380. 39. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 381. 40. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 125. 41. David Thomas, ‘Foreword’, in Alistair Hennesey and George Lambie (eds), The Fractured Blockade: West-European–Cuban Relations during the Revolution, Macmillan, London, 1993, p. xiv. 42. Gillian Gunn Clissold, ‘Cuban–U.S relations and the process of transition’, in Miguel A. Centeno and Maurice Font (eds), p. 85. 43. Quoted by H. Michael Erisman, p. 20; Juan M. del Aguila, p. 111; Pamela S. Falk, p. 4. 44. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 134. 45. Jorge I. Domínguez, p. 3. 46. Juan M. del Aguila, p. 109. 47. Jorge I. Domínguez, pp. 3, 6–7 48. Roger W. Fontaine, Terrorism: The Cuban Connection, Crane, Russak & Co., New York, 1988, pp. 5–10; Irving Louis Horowitz, ‘Epilogue: Castro and the end of ideology’, in Horowitz (ed.), Cuban Communism, 1959–1995, eighth edition, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, 1995, p. 862. 49. David Thomas, p. xiv; Jorge I. Domínguez, p. 1. 50. Roger W. Fontaine, pp. 5–10; Irving Louis Horowitz, p. 862; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 126; Juan M. del Aguila, p. 112. 51. John M. Kirk and Peter McKenna, Canada–Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, 1997, p. 177. 52. Donna R. Kaplowitz, ‘Cuba’s foreign policy: Old goals, new strategies’, in Kaplowitz (ed.), Cuba’s Ties to a Changing World, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1993, p. 1. 404 Notes

53. Roger W. Fontaine, pp. 2–3. 54. www.state.gov/documents/organization/20109.pdf 55. Mortimer J. Stamm, ‘Human rights in the Cuban revolution’, in Rowan H. Ireland and Stephen R. Niblo (eds), Cuba: Thirty Years of Revolution, Institute of Latin American Studies, La Trobe University, 1990, pp. 58–9. 56. Maria C. Werlau, p. 58. 57. Amnesty International Report 2003: Cuba, http://web.amnesty.org/report2003/ Cub-summary-eng 58. http://64.21.33.164/ref/dis/01160302.htm 59. Juan M. del Aguila, pp. 199–202. 60. Both quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 390. 61. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 390. 62. Edward Gonzalez, Cuba: Clearing Perilous Waters?, RAND National Defense Research Institute, Santa Monica, Calif., 1990, pp. viii–ix. 63 http://www.ustreas.gov/offices/enforcement/otac/legal/statutes/libertad.pdf 64. Quoted by John M. Kirk and Peter McKenna, pp. 179, 181. 65. John M. Kirk and Peter McKenna, pp. 177–9. 66. United Nations, Press Release, Commission on Human Rights, 57th session, 18 April 2001, www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf 67. Mortimer J. Stamm, ‘Human rights in the Cuban revolution’, in Rowan H. Ireland and Stephen R. Niblo (eds), Cuba: Thirty Years of Revolution, Institute of Latin American Studies, La Trobe University, 1990, pp. 58–9. 68. David Thomas, p. xiv. 69. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 128. 70. Paul Brooker, Defiant Dictatorships: Communist and Middle-Eastern Dictatorships in a Democratic Age, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1997, p. 22. 71. Quoted by David Thomas, p. xiv. 72. David Thomas, p. xiv. 73. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 384. 74. Larry Hedrick, p. 170; Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 384. 75. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 128. 76. Jorge I. Domínguez, pp. 1, 7. 77. H. Michael Erisman, p. 26. 78. Quoted by Houman A. Sadri, Revolutionary States, Leaders, and Foreign Relations: A Comparative Study of China, Cuba, and Iran, Praeger, Westport, 1997, p. 65. 79. Jorge I. Domínguez, p. 7. 80. Juan M. del Aguila, p. 144. 81. David C. Jordan, Revolutionary Cuba and the End of the Cold War, University Press of America, Lanham, 1993, pp. 194–202; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1162; Constantine Menges, ‘Castro: Nearly thirty years of revolutionary warfare’, in Georges Fauriol and Eva Loser (eds), p. 299; Larry Hedrick, p. 170. 82. US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2003, http://usembassy.state.gov/havana/wwwhncsr.html 83. Country Profile: Cuba 1998–99, p. 7; Mary Murray, pp. 9–10; Maria C. Werlau, p. 56. 84. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 6–7. 85. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 7–8. 86. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 96; H. Michael Erisman, p. 150. 87. Quoted by Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 8–9. Notes 405

88. Quoted by Mary Murray, p. 32. 89. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 96. 90. Quoted by Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 148. 91. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Scao, p. 390; Edward Gonzalez, p. 69. 92. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 363. 93. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 3–4; Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 363. 94. Quoted by Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 392. 95. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 139. 96. Quoted in Strengthening of the economic blockade against Cuba by the Republican Party: Political madness or desperation? Embassy of Cuba, Pretoria, undated.. 97. US Department of State, Transcript: President Bush urges Cuba…20 May 2002. 98. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, 1998, p. 4. 99. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, pp. 124–5. 100. A 1995 document of the Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, quoted by John M. Kirk and Peter McKenna, p. 180. 101. www.sigloxxi.org/arcos-i.htm 102. U.N. Human Rights Commission denounces Cuba, http://www.newhumanist.com/ rights.html 103. Bulletin of the European Union, 12, 1996, p. 19. 104. EU, Declaration by the Presidency on behalf of the European Union concern- ing the arrest of opposition members in Cuba, 26 March 2003, http://ue.eu.int/ Newsroom 105. www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf 106. Financial Times, 22 April 1998; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 1164. 107. CBSNEWS.com, 24 April 2003, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/04/24/ world/main551000.shtml 108. Amnesty International Report 1998: Cuba, www.amnesty.org/ailib.aireport/ar98; cubafacts, Human rights in Cuba since the papal visit, www.cubafacts.com/ Humanrights 109. www.sigloxxi.org/arcos-i.htm; Human Rights Watch World Report 1998: Cuba, www.hrw.org/worldreport/Americas 110. Bulletin of the European Union, 6.1997, p. 120 and 12.1997, p. 122. 111. EU, Declaration by the Presidency…, 26 March 2003. 112. Bulletin of the European Union, 6.1997, p. 120 and 12.1997, p. 122. 113. Mary Murray, pp. 9–12; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 63–5. 114. Quoted by H. Michael Erisman, p. 24. 115. Jorge I. Domínguez, p. 2. Mary Murray, p. 13; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 59–73; Gary C. Hufbauer et al., p. 194. 116. Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 1–3,123–7,153–8; Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 391. 117. Gillian Gunn Clissold, pp. 79–80; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 177, 184–5. 118. EU, Delegation of the European Commission to the United States, Time to encourage reform together in Cuba, 7 November 1996, www.eurunion.org/news/press. Also see Brigitte Stern, ‘Einseitige Wirtschaftssanktionen’, Internationale Politik, Vol. 52(4), April 1997, pp. 7–12. 119. Common Dreams News Center, U.N.: Opposition grows to U.S. blockade of Cuba, 14 November 2002, http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/1114-06.htm; 406 Notes

Archibald R.M. Ritter and John M. Kirk, ‘Introduction’, in Ritter and Kirk (eds), p. 1. 120. Human Rights Watch World Report 1998: Cuba. 121. United Nations Press Release, Fifty-fifth General Assembly Plenary, 9 November 2000, www.unhcr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf 122. Julie M. Feinsilver, pp. 73–7. 123. Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Relaciones diplomaticas de Cuba con 164 paises, 23 December 1997. 124. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Cuba. 125. Jutta Weldes and Diana Saco, p. 382; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 5. 126. John M. Kirk and Peter McKenna, p. 177. 127. Bulletin of the European Union, 12, 1996, p. 19; European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1996, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1997, p. 354; EU, Delegation of the European Commission to the United States, Time to encourage reform together in Cuba, November 7, 1996, www.eurunion.org/news/press 128. EU, Delegation of the European Commission to the United States, European Union spells out Cuba policy, 3 December 1996, www.eurunion.org/news/press. 129. European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1995, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1996, p. 314. 130. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Cuba. 131. Remarks by Stuart Eizenstat, Under-Secretary for Economic, Agricultural, and Business Affairs, US Department of State, Presented at a conference sponsored by the North American Committee of the National Policy Association, National Press Club, Washington DC, 7 January 1998, courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. On the Arcos Principles, see www.sigloxxi.org/arcos-i.htm 132. Edward Gonzalez, pp. 66–8; James B. Cunningham, US Deputy Representative to the UN, USUN Press Release, No.165, November 9, 2000, www.un.int/usa 133. Time, 16 August 1999. 134. Donald E. Schulz, ‘The United States and Cuba: From a strategy of conflict to constructive engagement’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 35(2), Summer 1993, p. 84. 135. Quoted by Larry Hedrick, p. 163; Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, pp. 60–1. 136. Fidel Castro, Before, we were fighting for our country; today we are fighting for the world, Speech in Santiago de Cuba, July 26, 1998. Editora Politica, Havana, 1998, p. 31. 137. Quoted by Donna R. Kaplowitz, Anatomy of a Failed Embargo, p. 178. 138. Quoted in The Economist, 17 January 1998. 139. Donald E. Schulz, p. 81. 140. The Economist, 17 January 1998. 141. Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Is there U.S. property in Cuba?, Embassy of Cuba, Pretoria, undated. 142. Quoted by Mary Murray, pp. 24–34. 143. Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Speech delivered by the Cuban Minister of Foreign Relations, Roberto Robaina, at the World Conference on Human Rights, in Vienna, the 16th of June 1993, undated. 144. BBCNews, 9 November 1999, http://news.bbc.co.uk 145. Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Some legal aspects violated by the ‘Hemls (sic)-Burton’ Act, undated. Notes 407

146. Anonymous, Basic Facts on the ‘Helms-Burton’ Act, Havana, undated. 147. Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Speech delivered by Mr. Roberto Robaina Gonzalez, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Cuba to the 52nd session of the Commission on Human Rights Geneva, April 10, 1996, undated. 148. Embassy of Cuba, Pretoria, On the alleged violations of human rights in Cuba, undated. 149. Republic of Cuba, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Why is there no justiﬁcation for a resolution nor the existence of a special rapporteur for Cuba?, 1995. 150. Embassy of Cuba, Pretoria, On the alleged violations of human rights in Cuba. 151. Fidel Castro, Welcoming and farewell speeches on the occasion of John Paul II’s visit, Editora Política, Havana, 1998, p. 9. 152. Gillian Gunn Clissold, pp. 77, 80. 153. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 130. 154. Quoted by Juan M. del Aguila, p. 135. 155. Quoted in Strengthening of the economic blockade against Cuba by the Republican Party. 156. Jorge I. Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution, 1989, p. 5; Alistair Hennesey and George Lambie (eds). 157. Amnesty International Report 1999: Cuba, www.amnesty.org/ailib/aireport/ar99; cubafacts.com; Human rights in Cuba since the papal visit, www.cubafacts.com/ Humanrights

Chapter 10 Myanmar

1. Robert H. Taylor, ‘Myanmar: Military politics and the prospects for democrat- isation’, Asian Affairs, Vol. 29(1), February 1998, p. 3. 2. Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, Burma Behind the Mask, Burma Centrum Nederland, Amsterdam, 1996, pp. 119–20. 3. Josef Silverstein, ‘Historical introduction: Burma 1945–1992’, in Marc Weller (ed.), Democracy and Politics in Burma: A Collection of Documents, Government Printing Ofﬁce, National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma, Manerplaw, 1993, pp. 1–2, 366; The Europa World Year Book 2000, Europa Publications, London, 2000, p. 2591; Stefan Collignon, The Burmese Economy and the Withdrawal of European Trade Preferences, European Institute for Asian Studies, Brussels, 1997, p. 1; Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, in Carey (ed.), Burma: The Challenge of Change in a Divided Society, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1997, p. 2; Frederica M. Bunge (ed.), Burma: A Country Study, Foreign Area Studies, American University, Washington, DC, 1983, pp. xxi, 47; Michael Fredholm, Burma: Ethnicity and Insurgency, Praeger Publishers, Westport, 1993, pp. 4–6; David I. Steinberg, ‘The Burmese political economy: Opportunities and tensions’, in Myanmar towards the 21st Century: Dynamics of Continuity and Change, Institute of Security and International Studies, Chulalongkorn University and the Asia Foundation, Chiang Rai, 1995, p. 12. 4. Josef Silverstein, ‘Historical introduction: Burma 1945–1992’, p. 3. 5. Josef Silverstein, ‘Historical introduction: Burma 1945–1992’, pp. 3–4; Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 1,17; Rolf C. Carriere, ‘Responding to Myanmar’s silent emergency’, in Peter Carey (ed.), p. 210; Frederic M. Bunge (ed.), pp. xx, 51, 58–63; Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency since 1948, Westview Press, Boulder, 1994, p. vii; Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, p. 88. 408 Notes

6. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2591; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, 1997, p. 7; Martin Smith, Paradise Lost? The Suppression of Environmental Rights and Freedom of Expression in Burma, Article 19, London, 1994, p. 2. 7. Josef Silverstein, ‘Historical introduction: Burma 1945–1992’, pp. 4–5; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2591. 8. Quoted by Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, Zed Books, London, 1991, p. 16. 9. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2592; Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 5; Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, p. 16. Also see Bertil Lintner, Outrage: Burma’s Struggle for Democracy, White Lotus, London, 1990. 10. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2592. 11. Michael Fredholm, p. 4; John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, The Pacific Review, Vol. 5(3), 1992, pp. 291–2. 12. Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, p. 9. 13. Quoted by Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, Burma’s Revolution of the Spirit: The Struggle for Democratic Freedom and Dignity, Aperture Foundation, New York, 1994, p. 57. 14. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2592; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 4. 15. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2592. 16. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2592; John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, p. 292. 17. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2593–4, 2598; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 8; Janelle M. Diller, The National Convention in Burma (Myanmar): An Impediment to the Restoration of Democracy, International League of Human Rights, New York, 1996, pp. 2–3; EU External Relations, The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002, europa.eu.int/comm./external_relations/ Myanmar/intro/.) 18. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2593–4, 2598; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 9. 19. The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002. 20. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2593–5. 21. Josef Silverstein, ‘The 1994 United Nations resolution: What can the Secretary General do?’, in Regime Change and Regime Maintenance in Asia and the Pacific, Discussion Paper No. 17, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra, 1996, pp. 4–6. 22. David I. Steinberg, ‘Priorities for Burma’s development: The role of international aid’, in Peter Carey (ed.), p. 174; Peter J. Perry, ‘Military rule in Burma: A geographical analysis’, Crime, Law and Social Change, Vol. 19(1), January 1993, p. 26. 23. Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. vii; John Bray, ‘Burma: Prospects for regional integration’, in Ian G. Cook et al., Fragmented Asia: Regional Integration and National Disintegration in Pacific Asia, Avebury, Aldershot, 1996, p. 181; Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, p. 85; The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2595–6; European Commission, The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002, http:www.europa.eu.int/com… 24. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2596–7. 25. Frederica M. Bunge (ed.), p. xxi. 26. Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 1; Frederica M. Bunge (ed.), pp. 65–6. 27. Frederica M. Bunge (ed.), p. 209. Notes 409

28. Frederica M. Bunge (ed.), pp. 207–14; Chi-shad Liang, Burma’s Foreign Relations Neutralism in Theory and Practice, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1990, pp. 166–8. 29. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2599. 30. David I. Steinberg, The Burmese political economy, p. 2. 31. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2597–8; Kanbawza Win, Constructive Engagement in the Burmese Context, CPDSK Publishers, Bangkok, 1995, p. i. 32. Asia Pacific News Digest, http://www.soros.org/burma/rifkind.html,1997 33. Quoted in State of Fear: Censorship in Burma (Myanmar), Article 19 Country Report, London, 1991, p. 74. 34. Quoted by John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, p. 292. 35. Quoted by Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, The Woodrow Wilson Press Center, Washington, DC, 2000, p. 78. 36. Resolution 2003/12, http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf 37. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 404; UN Human Rights Commission resolution 2003/12. 38. Martin Smith, Censorship Prevails: Political Deadlock and Economic Transition in Burma, Article 19, London, 1995, p. 5. 39. Burma: General Assembly Report of the Special Rapporteur, http://www.hri.ca/ fortherecord1999 40. UN Human Rights Commission, Press Release HR/CN/862, 20 April 1998, http://srchl.un.org/plweb-cgi 41. Amnesty International Report 2003, Myanmar, http://web.amnesty.org/ report2003/mmr-summary-eng 42. Resolution 2002/67, http://www.hri.ca/fortherecord2002/vol3/myanmarchr.htm 43. Human Rights Commission resolution 2003/12. 44. Human Rights Watch, Documents on Burma, 3 June 2003, file://C:\ DOCUME-1\LOCALS-1\Temp\TM8CAND4.htm 45. The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2593, 2595; Burma: The Alternative Guide, second edition, Burma Action Group, London, 1996, p. 10; Keesing’s Record of World Events, November 2000, p. 43855. 46. Keesing’s Record of World Events, June 2000, p. 43627. 47. Burma: General Assembly Report of the Special Rapporteur, 1999, http://www.hri.ca/fortherecord1999 48. ILO Press Release, 7 November 2001, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/ bureau/inf/pr/2001/48.htm; Letter by Glenys Kinnock, MEP, to the WTO, 9 April 2002, www.burmainfo.org/eu/Kinnock20020409.pdf 49. Human Rights Watch World Report 2002: Children’s Rights, 16 October 2002, http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/10/burma-1016.htm; Macon.com, Politics, 19 October 2002, http://www.macon.com/mld/m… 50. Burma: The Alternative Guide, p. 10. 51. Kanbawza Win, A Burmese Appeal to the UN and the US, CPDSK Publishers, Bangkok, 1994, p. 12; Amnesty International, Extrajudicial Execution and Torture of Members of Ethnic Minorities, Amnesty International Publications, London, 1988; Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar, prepared by the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, February 1993, reproduced in Marc Weller (ed), p. 400. 52. Keesing’s Record of World Events, October 2000, p. 43802. 53. Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), pp. 10–11. 54. Marc Weller (ed.), pp. 368, 399, 401. 55. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2597. 410 Notes

56. Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, pp. 74, 121. 57. See Alan Clements, Burma: The next Killing Fields? Odonian Press, Berkeley, 1992. 58. Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, pp. 21–2. 59. Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, p. 74. 60. For example Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 23(5), 1990, p. 89. 61. UN Commission of Human Rights, Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in Myanmar, 1997, http://www.hri.ca/fortherecord1997 62. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 303. 63. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 398. 64. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 437. This warning was echoed the following year by the EC – Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 25(3), 1992, p. 102. 65. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 403. 66. Kanbawza Win, A Burmese Appeal to the UN and the US, p. 7. 67. Martin Smith, Paradise Lost? p. 6. 68. State of Fear, pp. 12–13. 69. Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, p. 95. 70. Quoted by Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, p. 95. 71. Martin Smith, Paradise Lost?, p. 1. 72. Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. vii. 73. Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 15; Country Proﬁle: Myanmar (Burma), p. 36; David I. Steinberg, ‘Background’, in Steinberg (ed.), Burma: Prospects for Political and Economic Reconstruction, World Peace Foundation, WPF Reports, No. 15, Cambridge, Mass., 1997, pp. 29–30; Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, p. 89. 74. International Narcotics Control Board, Annual Report for 2002, http://www. incb.org/e/ind_ar.htm; UNDCP report on the drug situation in Myanmar, 2001, cited in Myanmar Times, 26 February – 4 March 2001, http://www3.itu.int/MIS- SIONS/Myanmar/int01/mt0330502.htm; US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2002: Burma, http://usinfo.state.gov/ regional/ea/burma/narc2002.htm 75. Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 15. 76. South China Morning Post, 2 September 1997. 77. Concurrent resolution, reproduced by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 436. 78. Quoted by Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, p. 89. 79. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, Discussion Paper 58, RIIA, London, 1995, p. 25; David I. Steinberg, ‘Background’, in Steinberg (ed.), Burma: Prospects for Political and Economic Reconstruction, p. 30; Ronald D. Renard, The Burmese Connection: Illegal Drugs and the Making of the Golden Triangle, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1996, p. 106; Bertil Lintner, ‘Drugs, insurgency and counterinsurgency in Burma’, in Myanmar towards the 21st Century: Dynamics of Continuity and Change, pp. 21, 32–5; Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, pp. 78–9. 80. Myanmar Times, 26 February – 4 March 2001; Keesing’s Record of World Events, January 2000, p. 43360. 81. ‘Impact of Myanmar’s membership into ASEAN’, Presentation by His Excellency U Ohn Gyaw, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Union of Myanmar at the Asia Society, New York, 30th September 1997, published by the Permanent Mission of the Union of Myanmar to the UN, New York, 1997, p. 2; Ronald D. Renard, pp. 2, 106. 82. Myanmar Times, 26 February – 4 March 2001. 83. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 428. 84. Quoted by John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, p. 292. Notes 411

85. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 428. 86. Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, p. 63. 87. All General Assembly resolutions can be found on the UN website, http://www.un.org/ga… 88. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 304. 89. Marc Weller (ed.), pp. 426–8. 90. Resolution 2002/67, http://www.hri.ca/fortherecord2002/vol3/myanmarchr.htm 91. Marc Weller (ed.), pp. 402–3. 92. UN Commission on Human Rights, resolution 1992/58, 3 March 1992, quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), pp. 304–5; subsequent resolutions can be found at http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda 93. Resolution 2003/12. Earlier Commission resolutions can be found at http:// www.unhchr.ch/huridocda, among other websites. 94. See the Bulletin of the European Communities/European Union from 1992 onwards. 95. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 440. 96. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 55; Martin Smith, Censorship Prevails, p. 5. 97. http://europa.eu.int/abc/doc/off/bull/en/200210p106018.htm 98. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 440; Jan Donkers and Miska Nijhuis, p. 112. 99. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 434. 100. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 428. 101. John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, p. 292. 102. Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, p. 97. Also see Barbara Victor, The Lady: Aung San Suu Kyi, Nobel Laureate and Burma’s Prisoner, Faber & Faber, Boston, 1998. 103. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2594. 104. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598. 105. Quoted in Burma: The Alternative Guide, pp. 2–3, 33. 106. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598. 107. Quoted by Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 13. 108. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2595. 109. John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community”, p. 292; Kanbawza Win, A Burmese Appeal to the UN and the US, p. 6. 110. Alan Clements and Leslie Kean, p. 69. 111. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 304. 112. Resolution 1995/72, ‘Situation of human rights in Myanmar’, http://www. unhchr.ch/huridocda 113. Quoted in Time, 15 November 1999, p. 38. 114. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598. 115. Financial Times, 18–19 November 2000; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598; The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002; Human Rights Watch World Report 2002: Burma. 116. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 24(1/2), 1991, p. 100. 117. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 426. 118. European Commission, Burma/Myanmar – Council conclusions, 9 April 2001, http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/10/burma-1016.htm 119. See, for instance, Amnesty International, Burma: Extrajudicial Execution and Torture of Members of Ethnic Minorities, Amnesty International Publications, London, May 1988. 120. See, for example, K.S. Venkateswaran, Burma: Beyond the Law, Article 19, The International Centre against Censorship, London, 1996. 121. Concurrent resolution, 1992, quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 436. 412 Notes

122. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598. 123. John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, pp. 292–4. 124. Rolf C. Carriere, pp. 210, 223. 125. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 437; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 11. 126. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598; Leon T. Hadar, ‘Burma: US foreign policy as a morality play’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, p. 416. 127. US State Department, Conditions in Burma and US policy toward Burma, 28 March 2001 – 27 September 2001, http://usinfo.state.gov/regional/ea/ burma/burma209.htm 128. Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 40. 129. David I. Steinberg, ‘Priorities for Burma’s development’, p. 176. 130. Keesing’s Record of World Events, June 2000, p. 43627. 131. Robert H. Taylor, ‘Myanmar: Military politics and the prospects for democrati- sation’, Asian Affairs, Vol. 29(1), February 1998, p. 10; John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 34. 132. David I. Steinberg, ‘The Burmese political economy: Opportunities and tensions’, p. 9; Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, p. 92; ICFTU Online, 31 October 2002, http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=991216646&Language=EN 133. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 24(1/2), 1991, p. 100. 134. European Commission, General Report on the Activities of the European Union 1997, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1998, p. 340; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 11. 135. Keesing’s Record of World Events, April 2000, p. 43519; The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002. 136. www.mfsa.com.mt/mfsa/sanctions/burma%20council%20common% 20position.pdf 137. Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 37. 138. John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, p. 292. 139. Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 38. 140. David I. Steinberg, ‘Priorities for Burma’s development’, p. 177; The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598; Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 11; John Bray, ‘Myanmar: Resisting the international community’, p. 293; John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 53; Jan Donkers and Miska Nijhuis, p. 101; Keesing’s Record of World Events, May 2001, p. 44156. 141. Rolf C. Carriere, p. 210. 142. Bulletin of the European Union, 10, 1996, p. 85. 143. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2598. 148. Jan Donkers and Minka Nijhuis, p. 95. 149. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 24(1/2), 1991, p. 100; Bulletin of the European Communities, 10, 1996, p. 85; The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002. 150. Marc Weller (ed.), p. 453. 151. Country Profile: Myanmar (Burma), p. 28; Burma: The Alternative Guide, p. 1. 152. Leon T. Hadar, p. 413. 153. Time, 18 September 2000. 154. Josef Silverstein, ‘The 1994 United Nations resolution’, p. 3; The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 2593–8; Report of the Secretary-General, 16 October 2002, http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/show.php?cat=806 155. Marc Weller (ed.), pp. 304, 365; UN Commission on Human Rights, Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in Myanmar, 1997, http://www.hri.ca/ fortherecord1997 Notes 413

156. ILO Press Release, 4 September 2002, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/ bureau/inf/pr/2002/40.htm; ILO, Press release 14 May 2003, http://www. ilo.org/public/engl… 157. John Bray, ‘Burma: Prospects for regional integration’, p. 195. 158. Quoted by John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 58. 159. European Commission, The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002. 160. Conditions in Burma and US policy toward Burma for the period 28 March 2001 – 27 September 2001. 161. Leon T. Hadar, p. 415; Josef Silverstein, ‘The 1994 United Nations resolution’, p. 3. 162. Quoted by Kanbawza Win, Constructive Engagement in the Burmese Context, p. 15. 163. Leon T. Hadar, p. 420. 164. John Bray, ‘Burma: Prospects for regional integration’, p. 190. 165. Country Proﬁle: Myanmar (Burma), p. 11. 166. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 43; Human Rights Watch World Report 2002: Burma; Keesing’s Record of World Events, May 2001, p. 44155. 167. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, pp. 45–6. 168. Human Rights Watch World Report 2002: Burma. UN General Assembly resolution 56/231 of 24 December 2001 alluded to the establishment of a national human rights committee. 169. Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 15. 170. Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, p. 16; John Bray, ‘Burma: Prospects for regional integration’, pp. 191–4. 171. Quoted by Leon T. Hadar, pp. 421–2. 172. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 56. 173. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, pp. 56–7; US State Department, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2002: Burma. 174. Bertil Lintner, ‘Drugs, insurgency and counterinsurgency in Burma’, p. 34; US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 1997, http://www.usemb.se/drugs/Southeastasia 175. Peter Carey, ‘Introduction’, pp. 15–16. 176. Stefan Collignon, p. 11. 177. Quoted by John Bray, ‘Burma: Resisting the international community’, p. 293. 178. Quoted by Josef Silverstein, ‘The 1994 United Nations resolution’, p. 3. 179. Quoted by Josef Silverstein, ‘The 1994 United Nations resolution’, p. 5. 180. UN Commission on Human Rights, Press Release HR/CN/862, 20 April 1998, http://srchl.un.org/plweb-cgi 181. South China Morning Post, 2 September 1997. 182. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2595. 183. ‘Impact of Myanmar’s membership into ASEAN’, p. 2. 184. Quoted in State of Fear, p. 76. 185. John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 46. 186. Quoted in State of Fear, p. 71. 187. Quoted in State of Fear, p. 71. 188. Quoted by John Bray, Burma: The Politics of Constructive Engagement, p. 54. 189. Quoted by Marc Weller (ed.), p. 441. 190. David I Steinberg, ‘Priorities for Burma’s development’, pp. 175–6. 191. Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, p. 18; State of Fear, p. 72. 414 Notes

192. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2595. 193. Keesing’s Record of World Events, November 2000, p. 43855; KS Venkateswaran, pp. 71–2; Marc Weller (ed.), p. 398. 194. Leon T. Hadar, p. 419; Robert H. Taylor, p. 11. 195. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2593; Country Proﬁle: Myanmar (Burma), pp. 5–6. 196. Time, 30 October 2000 and 30 July 2001; Financial Times, 27–28 January 2001; Keesing’s Record of World Events, October 2000, p. 43801. 197. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2593. 198. Financial Times, 18–19 November 2000. 199. Conditions in Burma and US policy toward Burma for the period 28 March 2001 – 27 September 2001; Human Rights Watch World Report 2002: Burma; The EU’s relations with Myanmar/Burma, November 2002.

Chapter 11 Yugoslavia

1. Carole Rogel, The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the War in Bosnia, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1998, p. 57; The Europa World Yearbook 2000, Europa Publications, London, 2000, p. 4065. 2. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 4065. 3. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 4065; Mirko Ostojic, ‘Foreign factor in the breaking up of Yugoslavia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 43(1001), 5 November 1992, pp. 5–6. 4. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, pp. 4065–6; Milos Dromnjak, ‘Crisis in Yugoslavia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 42(995–7), 5 October – 5 November 1991, p. 1; James Ridgeway and Jasminka Udovicki, ‘Introduction’, in Udovicki and Ridgeway (eds), Yugoslavia’s Ethnic Nightmare: The Inside Story of Europe’s Unfolding Ordeal, Lawrence Hill Books, New York, 1995, p. 6. 5. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, pp. 4066–7. For detailed analyses of the breakup of Yugoslavia, see Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, Westview, Boulder, 1993; Laslo Sekelj, Yugoslavia: The Process of Disintegration, Columbia University Press, New York, 1993; Branka Magas, The Destruction of Yugoslavia: Tracking the Break-up 1980–92, Verso, London, 1993; Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia’s Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course and Consequences, Hurst & Co., London, 1995; Alex N. Dragnich, Yugoslavia’s Disintegration and the Struggle for Truth, Columbia University Press, New York, 1995; Bogdan Denitch, Ethnic Nationalism: The Tragic Death of Yugoslavia, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1996; John M. Lampe, Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996; Jasminka Udovicki and James Ridgeway (eds), Burn this House: The Making and Unmaking of Yugoslavia, Duke University Press, Durham, 1997; Aleksandar Pavkovic, The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism in a Multinational State, St Martin’s New York, 1997. 6. Predrag Simic, ‘Dynamics of the Yugoslav crisis’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 26(2), June 1995, p. 169. 7. Predrag Simic, ‘Dynamics of the Yugoslav crisis’, p. 168. 8. Country Proﬁle: Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) Macedonia 1997–98, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, 1997, p. 25; additional information from various state and non-state sources on the Internet. Notes 415

9. Yves Beigbeder, Judging War Criminals: The Politics of International Justice, Macmillan, Houndmills, 1999, p. 149. 10. See Yugoslavia: Crisis in Kosovo, Helsinki Watch and the International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, no place of publication, 1990; Yugoslavia: Human Rights Abuses in Kosovo 1990–1992, Human Rights Watch, New York, 1992. 11. The Independent International Commission on Kosovo, The Kosovo Report: Conﬂict, International Response, Lessons Learned, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000, pp. 39–59. 12. The Kosovo Report, pp. 2–3. 13. The Kosovo Report, p. 141; Time, 9 July 2001. 14. Lenard J. Cohen, ‘Post-Milosevic Serbia’, Current History, Vol. 100(644), pp. 102–3; EU External Relations, The EU’s relations with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, June 2001, http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/ sec/fry/montenegro/index/htm; Country Report: Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro), second quarter 1998, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, 1998, p. 8. 15. Country Report: Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro), p. 8; Lenard J. Cohen, ‘Post- Milosevic Serbia’, p. 99. 16. Lenard J. Cohen, ‘Post-Milosevic Serbia’, pp. 99–103. 17. Lenard J. Cohen, ‘Post-Milosevic Serbia’, pp. 101–2. 18. Keesing’s Record of World Events, October 2000, p. 43807 and November 2000, p. 43874; Financial Times (London), 25–26 November 2000; Eric D. Gordy, ‘Building a “normal, boring” country: Kostunica’s Yugoslavia’, Current History, Vol. 100(644), March 2001, pp. 109–113. 19. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Indictment against Slobodan Milosevic et al., May 1999, http://www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/mil-ii990524e.htm 20. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), Yugoslavia through Documents: From Its Creation to Its Dissolution, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1994, p. 625. 21. Patrick Moore of the Open Media Research Institute, quoted by Thomas Cushman and Stjepan G. Mestrovic, ‘Introduction’, in Cushman and Mestrovic (eds), This Time We Knew: Western Responses to Genocide in Bosnia, New York University Press, New York, 1996, p. 17. 22. Quoted by Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds, p. 279. 23. Quoted by Miguel R. Rodrigues, “NATO as an instrument of imperialistic geopolitics of the USA’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1091-3), April–June 2000, p. 22. 24. Sabrina P. Ramet, Balkan Babel: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia from the Death of Tito to Ethnic War, second edition, Westview, Boulder, 1996, p. 300. 25. Julie Mertus, ‘Serbia: Reimagining Europe’s outlaw nation’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, p. 489. 26. James Ridgeway and Jasminka Udovicki, ‘Introduction’, in Udovicki and Ridgeway (eds), Yugoslavia’s Ethnic Nightmare, p. 12. 27. The Kosovo Report, p. 163. 28. Michael Libal, Limits of Persuasion: Germany and the Yugoslav Crisis, 1991–1992, Praeger, Westport, 1997, p. 141. 29. Predrag Simic, ‘Dynamics of the Yugoslav crisis’, p. 157. Also see James Ridgeway and Jasminka Udovicki, ‘Introduction’, in Udovicki and Ridgeway (eds), Yugoslavia’s Ethnic Nightmare, 1995, p. 12; James Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War, Columbia University Press, New York, 1997, pp. 42–4. 30. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 691. 416 Notes

31. Michael Libal, p. 141. 32. Yves Beigbeder, pp. 142–9. For the ﬁndings of the CSCE, UN, US Congress, US State Department, CIA, International Red Cross and Helsinki Watch, see Thomas Cushman and Stjepan G. Mestrovic, ‘Introduction’, in Cushman and Mestrovic (eds), p. 15. 33. The United Nations and the Situation in the Former Yugoslavia, Reference Paper, 15 March 1994, UN Department of Public Information, New York, p. 43. 34. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Indictment. 35. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 654ff. 36. See, for example, UN Security Council resolution 942 of September 1994. 37. Robert Thomas, Serbia: Still Europe’s Pariah? European Security Study No. 24, Institute for European Defence and Strategic Studies, London, 1996, pp. 25–30. 38. See, for instance, Security Council resolutions 970 of January 1995 and 1015 of September 1995. 39. See resolutions 998, 1004, 1010 and 1019 of 1995. 40. See, for example, resolution 1034 of 21 December 1995. 41. The Kosovo Report, pp. 141–2. 42. The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 4073. For countervailing Yugoslav views of the Kosovo conﬂict and NATO involvement, see the collection of articles in the Belgrade-based Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1091–3), April–June 2000. 43. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Indictment. 44. These transgressions were well documented in the annual reports of Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. 45. Review of International Affairs, Vol. 42(995–7), 5 October–5 November 1991, p. 17. 46. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 680. 47. United Nations Press Release, Commission on Human Rights adopts resolutions on the situation of human rights in …the former Yugoslavia…, 18 April 2000, http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf 48. Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘Intensifying the comprehensive international cooperation of Yugoslavia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1096), August 2000, p. 30. 49. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 310. 50. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 342, 348 and 380. 51. EC declarations on Yugoslavia, 26 March 1991, 8 May 1991 and 5 July 1991, in Review of International Affairs, Vol. 42(995–7), 5 October–5 November 1991, p. 19. 52. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 576. 53. See Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 382ff. 54. For example, resolution 47/147 of 18 December 1992. 55. See resolution 713 of September 1991. 56. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 684–6. 57. For example, its declaration of September 1991. 58. As in a declaration of March 1992. 59. In a declaration of October 1991. 60. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 349 and 356, 618–21, 644, 769; Review of International Affairs, Vol. XLIII(1003), 1 April 1992, p. 17. 61. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 368. 62. EC statement of 11 April 1992, quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 524–5. 63. CSCE Declaration of 15 April 1992, quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 528. 64. For example, resolution 752 of May 1992. Notes 417

65. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 884–904. 66. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 134. 67. The Kosovo Report, pp. 140–2; Country Report: Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro) , p. 13. 68. Council conclusions on the principle of conditionality… Bulletin of the European Union, 4-1997, p. 134. 69. Message of the European Union, Brussels, 10 November 1997, in Review of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1065), 15 February 1998, p. 12. 70. Branislava Alendar, ‘Conditions for the normalization of relations between FR Yugoslavia and the European Union’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1070–71), 15 July–15 August 1998, p. 9; Ranko Petkovic, ‘Elections and sanctions’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 47(1049–50), 15 October– 15 November 1996, p. 7. 71. Quoted by Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 782, 878. 72. Keesing’s Record of World Events, March 2000, p. 43477. 73. Time, 12 July 1999. 74. Keesing’s Record of World Events, September 2000, p. 43766. 75. Keesing’s Record of World Events, September 2000: p. 43766. 76. On the staggering toll in death and destruction wrought by the bombardment, see Dragan Jovasevic, ‘NATO genocide in the FR of Yugoslavia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1091–3), April–June 2000, pp. 62–7. 77. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 311. 78. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 379. 79. Snezana Trifunovsla (ed.), p. 426. 80. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 644. 81. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 350, 762. 82. Oskar Kovac, ‘Reintegration of Yugoslavia into the international financial system’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 50–1(1087–8), December 1999–January 2000, p. 35. 83. See Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), pp. 626, 644, 721, on the views of the European Council, Group of Seven and UN Security Council. 84. The United Nations and the Situation in the Former Yugoslavia, pp. 49–50. 85. Snezana Trifunovska (ed.), p. 923. 86. Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds, p. 270. For a Yugoslav view, see Miodrag Mitic, ‘International law and the status of the FR of Yugoslavia in the United Nations’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1072), 15 September 1998, pp. 27–44. 87. See Security Council resolution 1074 of October 1996. 88. Country Profile: Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) Macedonia 1997–98, p. 16; Predrag Simic, ‘Ambassadors return to Belgrade’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 47(1044), 15 May 1996, pp. 4–8; Predrag Simic, ‘The Bosnian endgame’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 47(1048), 15 September 1996, p. 3. 89. Dragana M. Djuric, ‘How to get out of the vicious circle?’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 47(1052), 15 January 1997, p. 9; Dejan Jovovic, ‘Yugoslavia and the International Monetary Fund’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 47(1044), 15 May 1996, p. 12; Ranko Petkovic, p. 7. 90. Country Profile: Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) Macedonia 1997–98, p. 7; The Kosovo Report, p. 140; The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 4072; Country Report: Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro), p. 13; Milutin Janjevic, ‘The Euro and Yugoslavia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 50(1076), 15 January 1999, 418 Notes

pp. 4–5; Domenico Gallo, ‘A collateral aspect of NATO aggression: European Union sanctions’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1091–3), April–June 2000, p. 41. 91. Keesing’s Record of World Events, February 2000, p. 43432. 92. CNN.com, U.S. lifts oil, travel sanctions against Yugoslavia, 12 October 2000, http://europe.cnn.com/2000/US/10/12/us.yugoslavia.02/ 93. CNN.com, Clinton lifts sanctions against Yugoslavia, 19 January 2001, http://www.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/01/19/clinton.yugoslavia/ 94. The Kosovo Report, pp. 7, 99–129; The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 4074. 95. The Kosovo Report, p. 100; Richard J Goldstone, Kosovo: An Assessment in the Context of International Law, Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, New York, 2000, p. 13; Lenard J Cohen, ‘Kosovo: “Nobody’s country”’, Current History, Vol. 99(635), March 2000, pp. 117–23. 96. Time, 13 December 1999; The Europa World Yearbook 2000, p. 4074. 97. The United Nations and the Situation in the Former Yugoslavia, pp. 2–3. 98. ‘The NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) in Bosnia and Herzegovina’, NATO Basic Fact Sheet, No. 11, April 1997, http://www.nato.int/docu/facts/sfor.htm 99. Yves Beigbeder, pp. 146–52. 100. Yves Beigbeder, p. 160. 101. Time, 7 June 1999, 6 September 1999, 16 October 1999, 27 March 2000, 9 July 2001. 102. Time, 9 July 2001. 103. See resolution 1207 of 1998. 104. Time, 9 July 2001. 105. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Indictment; BBC News, The charges against Milosevic, 8 February 2002, http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1402790.stm 106. Time, 17 April 2000 and 5 February 2001; Keesing’s Record of World Events, November 2000, p. 43874; Beeld, 3 August 2001; Time, 10 September 2001. 107. Yves Beigbeder, p. 160. 108. Federal Foreign Minister Zivadin Jovanovic in Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1096), August 2000, p. 30. 109. Time, 12 July 1999. 110. EU External Relations, The EU’s relations with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, June 2001, http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/sec/fry/ compos_184_96.htm 111. Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘Intensifying the comprehensive international cooperation of Yugoslavia’, p. 30; Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘The heart of freedom beats in Yugoslavia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 51(1091–3), April–June 2000: 7–9. 112. Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘The heart of freedom beats in Yugoslavia’, p. 8. 113. Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘The heart of freedom beats in Yugoslavia’, p. 6. 114. The Kosovo Report, pp. 4–5,19,141; Michael Mandelbaum, ‘A perfect failure: NATO’s war against Yugoslavia’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 78(5), September–October 1999, pp. 2–8; Ivo H. Daalder and Michael E. O’Hanlon, ‘Unlearning the lessons of Kosovo’, Foreign Policy, Fall 1999, pp. 128–39. 115. Zivadin Jovanovic: ‘The heart of freedom beats in Yugoslavia’, p. 6. 116. Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘The heart of freedom beats in Yugoslavia’, p. 8. Also see David Binder, ‘Whose ethnic cleansing?’ in the same edition of the Review, p. 33; Dragan Jovasevic, ‘Terrorism in Kosovo and Metohija: Criminal–legal aspects’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 50(1085–6), October–November 1999, pp. 19–22. Notes 419

117. Zivadin Jovanovic, ‘The heart of freedom beats in Yugoslavia’, p. 8. 118. Radoje Kontic, ‘Yugoslavia and Russia’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1063–4), 15 December 1997, pp. 1–3; ‘Common Declaration of Friendly Relations and Cooperation between FR Yugoslavia and PR China’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1063–4), 15 December 1997, p. 2; ‘Joint declaration signed in Moscow by President Yeltsin and President Milosevic’, Review of International Affairs, Vol. 49(1068–69), 15 May–15 June 1998, p. 1. 119. Keesing’s Record of World Events, June 2000, p. 43641.

Chapter 12 Additional African States

1. http://www.worldaudit.org/publisher.htm 2. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington, DC, 2000, pp. 77–8. 3. Robert B. Shepard, Nigeria, Africa, and the United States, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1991, p. 4. 4. Robert B. Shepard, p. 6. 5. Robert B. Shepard, p. 157; Tunde Babawale, ‘Nigeria’s foreign policy’, in Said Adejumobi and Abubakar Momoh (eds), The Political Economy of Nigeria under Military Rule (1984–1993), Sapes Books, Harare, 1995, pp. 114, 121. 6. Cece Modupé Fadopé, ‘Nigeria’, Vol. 2(12), January 1997, http://www.foreign policy-infocus.org; Salih Booker et al., ‘Nigeria’s Transition: From End to Beginning’, Council on Foreign Relations, 1998–99, http://www.cfr.org/public/ pubs/nigeriaconf98.html; Abubakar Momoh, ‘The military and human rights’, in Said Adejumobi and Abubakar Momoh (eds), pp. 312–37. Also see Larry Diamond et al. (eds), Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under Babangida, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1997. 7. Cece Modupé Fadopé. 8. Evan H. Potter, ‘Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Explaining Canada’s hard-line approach to sanctions, 1995–1996’, Round Table, April 1997, http://ehostvgw6.epnet.com 9. http://projects.sipri.se/expcon/euframe/eu_nigeria.htm 10. Cece Modupé Fadopé; Salih Booker et al.; Adonis Hoffman, ‘Nigeria: The policy conundrum’, Foreign Policy, No. 101, Winter 1995–96, p. 151. 11. Cece Modupé Fadopé. 12. Adonis Hoffman, p. 152. 13. Cece Modupé Fadopé. 14. Sola Akinrinade, ‘Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Towards an understanding of a foreign policy crisis’, Round Table, April 1997, http://ehostvgw6.epnet.com 15. Sola Akinrinade. 16. Evan H. Potter. 17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/204720.stm 18. Evan H. Potter. 19. Evan H. Potter. Also see Morton H Halperin & Kristen Lomasney, ‘Guaranteeing democracy: A review of the record’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9(2), April 1998, p. 145. 20. Cece Modupé Fadopé. 21. Adonis Hoffman, p. 146. 22. Evan H. Potter. 23. The Europa World Year Book 2000, Europa Publications, London, 2000, p. 2763. 420 Notes

24. Time, 7 February 2000. 25. Robert B. Shepard, p. 157. 26. Cece Modupé Fadopé; Adonis Hoffman, p. 150. 27. Robert B. Shepard, p. 2; Helen C. Metz (ed.), Nigeria: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC, 1992, pp. 245–50; Adonis Hoffman, pp. 149, 157; Cece Modupé Fadopé; Sola Akinrinade. 28. Susan E. Rice, ‘Prospects for democracy in Nigeria’, US Department of State Dispatch, July 1998, http://ehostvgw6.epnet.com 29. Evan H. Potter. 30. Adonis Hoffman, p. 158. 31. Salih Booker et al. 32. Time, 7 February 2000. 33. New York Times, 10 February 1997. 34. Salih Booker et al. 35. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 2763; http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ africa/204720.stm 36. Derek Ingram, ‘Commonwealth update’, Round Table, October 1999, http://ehostvgw6.epnet.com. The EU rewarded Nigeria by lifting all remaining sanctions – http://www.dti.gov.uk/export.control/notices/1999/notice5.htm 37. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, 1996, pp. 8–9. 38. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 9–10; Peter Uvin, ‘Ethnicity and power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different paths to mass violence’, Comparative Politics, Vol. 31(3), April 1999, p. 256. 39. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 10–11. 40. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, p. 11. 41. Peter Uvin, pp. 257–8. 42. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, p. 12. 43. Peter Uvin, pp. 257–8. 44. Peter Uvin, p. 260; Christopher Clapham, ‘Rwanda: The perils of peacemaking’, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 35(2), March 1998, pp. 200–2. 45. Peter Uvin, p. 260. 46. Jean-Paul Chretien, quoted by Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot, Soldiers to the Rescue: Humanitarian Lessons from Rwanda, Development Centre of the OECD, Paris, 1996, p. 57. 47. Peter Uvin, p. 260; The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 12,15; Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot, p. 57; Christopher Clapham, p. 205. 48. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 16–17. 49. Quoted by Peter Uvin, p. 261. 50. Quoted in The United Nations and Rwanda 1993–1996, pp. 21–2. 51. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 23–8. 52. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 28–36. 53. Gerard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis, 1954–1994: History of a Genocide, Hurst & Co., London, 1995, pp. 206–12. 54. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 37–8, 40, 57; Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot, p. 58; Christopher Clapham, p. 207; Shaharyar M. Khan, The Shallow Graves of Rwanda, I.B. Tauris, London, 2000. 55. The United Nations and Rwanda, 199–1996, p. 37. 56. Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omaar, ‘The genocide in Rwanda and the international response’, Current History, Vol. 94(591), April 1995, p. 156. 57. Gerard Prunier, pp. 264–5. Notes 421

58. Gerard Prunier, pp. 37, 51. 59. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 62–3. 60. Quoted in The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 63–4. 61. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 44, 61. For an even more graphic account of the horrors, see Gerard Prunier, pp. 253–7. 62. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 62–4. 63. Quoted by Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot: 58. For a detailed report on who organized and executed the genocide, see Gerard Prunier, pp. 239–48. 64. Gerard Prunier, pp. 209–11. 65. Quoted in The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, p. 51. 66. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 48, 50, 58; Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omar, p. 157. 67. Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot, p. 70. 68. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 54–6; Gerard Prunier, pp. 234–5; Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot, p. 58. 69. Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omar, p. 158. 70. Quoted by Gerard Prunier, p. 274. 71. Gerard Prunier, pp. 274–5. 72. The United Nations and Rwanda 1993–1996, p. 59. 73. The United Nations and Rwanda 1993–1996, p. 48; Gerard Prunier, pp. 275–6. 74. The United Nations and Rwanda 1993–1996, p. 57. 75. Alex de Waal and Rikiya Omar, p. 159; Larry Minear and Philippe Guillot, pp. 62–7. 76. The United Nations and Rwanda, 1993–1996, pp. 64–6, 103; Nina Huygen ‘Towards a Permanent International Criminal Court’, Verfassung und Recht in Uebersee, Vol. 29(3), 1996, pp. 298–9; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Rwanda, http://www.hrw.org/wr2k3/africa9.html; Time, 10 September 2001; CNEWS, Convictions in Rwanda genocide, 19 February 2003, http://cnews. canoe.ca/CNEWS/World/2003/02/19/28713-ap. html 77. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Rwanda; Amnesty International, Report 2003: Rwanda, http://web.amnesty.org/report2003/Rwa-summary-eng; allAfrica.com, Rwandans say ‘yes’ in vote, 2 June 2003, http://allafrica.com/ stories/200306040403.html; allAfrica.com, New constitution becomes effective, 5 June 2003, http://allafrica.com/stories200306050223.html 78. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Rwanda. 79. W.J. Hartogh, ‘The conﬂict in Sudan: A failed state’, Forum, No 4, South African Defence College Studies in National Security, ca. 2000, p. 94. 80. Cecil Eprile, War and Peace in the Sudan 1955–1972, David & Charles, London, 1974, p. 49; John O. Voll and Sarah P. Voll, The Sudan: Unity and Diversity in a Multicultural State, Westview, 1985, pp. 10, 49–61. 81. The Europa World Year Book 2001, Europa Publications, London, 2001, pp. 3678. 82. Mohammed B. Hamid, ‘Devolution and national integration in the Southern Sudan’, in Muddathir Abd Al-Rahim et al. (eds), Sudan since Independence: Studies of the Political Development since 1956, Gower, Aldershot, 1986, p. 131; The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3678; Abel Alier, Southern Sudan: Too Many Agreements Dishonoured, Ithaca Press, Reading, 1991, p. 256. 83. Douglas H. Johnson, ‘North–south issues’, in Peter Woodward (ed.), Sudan after Nimeiri, Routledge, London, 1991, p. 120. 84. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3678; Douglas H. Johnson, p. 120; W.J. Hartogh, p. 97; Abel Alier, p. 268. 85. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 3678–9, 3684; Kamal O. Salih, ‘The Sudan, 1985–9: The fading democracy’, in Peter Woodward (ed.), pp. 51–71. 422 Notes

86. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3679. 87. Amnesty International, ‘The Tears of Orphans’: No Future without Human Rights, Amnesty International Publications, London, 1995, p. 1. 88. Bulletin of the European Communities, Vol. 25(10), 1992, p. 92. 89. John O. Voll and Sarah P. Voll, pp. 81–7; Muhammad B. Hamid, ‘Aspects of Sudanese foreign policy’, in Muddathir Abd Al-Rahim et al. (eds), pp. 170–1; Peter Woodward, ‘Sudan: Threats to Stability’, Conflict Studies, No 173, Institute for the Study of Conflict, London, 1985, p. 20. 90. UN Press Release, Commission on Human Rights adopts resolutions on human rights in Iran, Sudan and Democratic Republic of Congo, 20 April 2001, http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane.nsf 91. European Commission, Bulletin of the European Union, Sudan, 19 May 2003, http://europa.eu.int/abc/doc/off/bull/en/200301/p106031.htm 92. African Rights, Sudan’s Invisible Citizens: The Policy of Abuse against Displaced People in the North, African Rights, London, 1995, p. 2. 93. George E. Moose, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Senate testimony on US policy towards Sudan, 15 May 1997, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. 94. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 3685. 95. Time, 25 June 2001. 96. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 3681–3. 97. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Sudan. 98. Gary C. Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly A. Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: Supplemental Case Histories, second edition, Institute for International Economics, Washington, DC, 1990, p. 633. 99. Time, 21 May 2001;Human Rights Watch, Human Rights News, 16 April 2003, http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/04/unchr.041603.htm; Amnesty International, News Release, 1 April 2003, http://www.amnestyusa.org/news/ 2003/sudan04012003.html 100. Quoted by Jim Fisher-Thompson, ‘Eritrean President chides Sudanese regime for stalling peace talks’, US Information Agency briefing, 18 September 1997, courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. 101. Louis Depree, quoted in Washington Times, 3 June 1997. 102. Amnesty International, ‘The Tears of Orphans’, p. 4. 103. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3683. 104. See, for example, Human Rights Watch’s submission to the UN Commission on Human Rights 58th session, http://www.hrw.org/un/unchr58.htm 105. Jim Fisher-Thompson. 106. Shannon Field, The Civil War in Sudan: The Role of the Oil Industry, Occasional Paper 23, The Institute for Global Dialogue, Braamfontein, 2000, p. 9. 107. Remarks by Secretary of State Madeleine Albright on Sudan, 4 November 1997, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. 108. Gare Smith, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour, US State Department, remarks to the Senate Foreign Relations Africa subcommittee, 25 September 1997, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg. 109. Commission of the European Communities, XXVth General Report on the Activities of the European Communities 1991, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Brussels, 1992: 350. 110. W.J. Hartogh, p. 103; Shannon Field, p. 2. 111. Abel Alier, p. 236; Shannon Field, pp. 5–7, 28. Also see Amnesty International’s report, Sudan: The Human Price of Oil, May 2000, cited in Africa Confidential, Vol. 41(13), 23 June 2000, p. 4. Notes 423

112. Africa Confidential, Vol. 38(15), 18 July 1997: 1; Ann M Lesch, ‘Osama bin Laden’s “business” in Sudan’, Current History, Vol. 101(655), May 2002, pp. 203, 209. 113. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3685. 114. Christian Science Monitor, 6 May 1997. 115. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 3681, 3685; Ann M. Lesch, pp. 207–8. 116. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3685; Africa Confidential, Vol. 38(15), 18 July 1997, p. 3. 117. Kenneth R. McKune, Acting Coordinator for Counter-terrorism, in testimony to the US Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee for African Affairs, 15 May 1997, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg; Tim Niblock, ‘Pariah States’ and Sanctions in the Middle East: Iraq, Libya, Sudan, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1991, pp. 200–1. 118. Gare Smith. 119. George E. Moose, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 15 May 1997, text courtesy of USIS, Johannesburg; Kenneth R. McKune. 120. George E. Moose. 121. Remarks by Secretary of State Madeleine Albright on Sudan. 122. Shannon Field, pp. 8–10. 123. Remarks by Secretary of State Madeleine Albright on Sudan; Tim Niblock, p. 208. 124. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3685. 125. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3685. 126. Kenneth R. McKune; Ann M. Lesch, p. 208. 127. George E. Moose. 128. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2002, www.state.gov/documents/organization/ 20109.pdf 129. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2002. 130. Mohammed B. Hamid, ‘Devolution and national integration in the Southern Sudan’, p. 129; W.J. Hartogh, pp. 101–4; Christian Science Monitor, 6 May 1997; Ann M. Lesch, p. 4. 131. John O. Voll and Sarah P. Voll, p. 124. 132. Shannon Field, p. 4. 133. Clinton in September 1997, quoted by Jim Fisher-Thompson. 134. George E. Moose. 135. Christian Science Monitor, 6 May 1997. 136. US Department of State, International Information Programs, ‘U.S. goal: Keep weapons of mass destruction out of terrorists’ hands’, 12 March 2002, http://usembassy-australia.state.gov/hype/2002/0312/epf206htm 137 Monterey Institute of International Studies, Weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East: Sudan, http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/sudan.htm 138 AFP, ‘Sudan denies possessing weapons of mass destruction’, 10 January 2003, http://sudan.net/news/posted/6406.html 139 Ann M. Lesch, pp. 203–4. 140 The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 3685; W.J. Hartogh, p. 101. 141. Africa Confidential, Vol. 38(15), 18 July 1997, p. 1. 142. Gary C. Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly A. Elliott, p. 634. 143. Africa Confidential, Vol. 41(13), 23 June 2000, pp. 3–4. 144. Africa Confidential, Vol. 41(13), 23 June 2000, pp. 3–4. 145. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, cited by Tim Niblock, p. 208. 146. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 3681, 3685. 147. Time, 25 June 2001. 424 Notes

148. Keesing’s, September 2001: 44331; Africa Confidential, Vol. 43(15), 26 July 2002, p. 1; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Sudan; Time, 5 August 2002. 149. US Department of State, Fact Sheet, 21 October 2002, Sudan Peace Act, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2002/14531.htm; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Sudan; ReliefWeb, Sudan:Government hails Bush remarks on peace process, 24 April 2003, http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwbinsf… 150. ‘Security Council lifts sanctions against Sudan’, http://srchl.un.org 151. Africa Confidential, Vol. 43(4), 22 February 2002, p. 4. 152. Africa Confidential, Vol. 43(4), 22 February 2002, p. 4. 153. George E. Moose.

Chapter 13 Some Other Deviant States

1. The Europa World Year Book 2001, Europa Publications, London, 2001, p. 365; William Maley, The Foreign Policy of the Taliban, Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 2000, www.cfr.org/public/ForeignPolicy_Taliban 2. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 365. 3. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 366. 4. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 365. 5. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 366–8, 371. 6. Quoted by Time, 1 October 2001. 7. William Maley; The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 368; Ahmed Rashid, ‘Afghanistan: Ending the policy quagmire’, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 54(2), Spring 2001, pp. 398–9; Time, 1 October 2001. 8. Ahmed Rashid, p. 397; The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 368. 9. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 368–9. 10. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 368–9. 11. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 370–1; William Maley. 12. CIA, The World Factbook: Afghanistan, www.odci.gov.cia/publications/factbook 13. Ahmed Rashid, p. 406. 14. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 369. 15. William Maley. 16. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 369; UN Press Release, Commission on Human Rights adopts resolutions on situation of human rights in seven countries, 18 April 2000, http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane.nsf 17. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 369–70; William Maley. 18. UN Press Release, Commission on Human Rights adopts resolutions on situation of human rights in seven countries, 18 April 2000. 19. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2001: Afghanistan, www.hrw.org/wr2k2/ asia1.html 20. William Maley; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Afghanistan, www.hrw.org/wr2k2/asia1.html 21. Amnesty International, Annual Report 1999: Afghanistan, www.amnesty.org/ ailib/aireport/ ar99/asa11.htm 22. Human Rights Watch, World Report 1999: Asia Overview, www.hrw.org/ wr2k.Asia.htm; Time, 4 June 2001; William Maley. 23. See the annual reports of Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch on Afghanistan. 24. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2000, http://usinfo.state.gov/regional/nea/sasia/ afghan/2000pot.htm Notes 425

25. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 370; William Maley. 26. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 371; William Maley. 27. Ahmed Rashid, pp. 400–1. 28. See, for example, the US State Department’s International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 1993, http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu?ERC?law/INC/1993/04.html 29. Ahmed Rashid, p. 404; The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 372; William Maley; US State Department, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 1997, www.state.gov/www/global/narcotics-law1997; Beeld, 1 October 2001. 30. Ahmed Rashid, pp. 402–3. 31. William Maley; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Afghanistan. 32. Quoted by William Maley. 33. William Maley. 34. Quoted by William Maley. 35. Financial Times (London), 14 September 2001. 36. The Europa World Year Book 2001, pp. 360–71. 37. William Maley; The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 370; International Herald Tribune, 26 September 2001. 38. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 371; International Herald Tribune, 26 September 2001; Time, 1 October 2001. 39. Ahmed Rashid, p. 395. 40. US Department of State, Bureau of South Asian Affairs, Background Note: Afghanistan, June 2002, www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm 41. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/ html/10220.htm 42. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘Human rights in Chinese foreign policy’, The China Quarterly, No. 139, September 1994: 631. 43. John F. Copper, ‘Peking’s post-Tienanmen foreign policy: The human rights factor’, Issues & Studies, Vol. 30(10), October 1994, p. 50. 44. Hung-yi Jan, ‘Interaction between Mainland China and the UN human rights regime’, Issues & Studies, Vol. 34(11/12), November/December 1998, p. 69; James D. Seymour, ‘Human rights in China’ Current History, Vol. 93(584), September 1994, p. 259; Denny Roy, ‘Human rights as a national security threat: The case of the PRC’, Issues & Studies, Vol. 32(2), February 1996, p. 75. 45. Hung-yi Jan, pp. 70–1; Andrew J. Nathan, p. 631. 46. John F. Copper, p. 50. 47. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 1029. 48. Hung-yi Jan, p. 75; James D. Seymour, ‘Human rights and the world response to the 1989 crackdown in China’, China Information (Leiden), Vol. 4(4), Spring 1990, pp. 6–9. 49. Quoted by Hung-yi Jan, p. 76. 50. Andrew J. Nathan, p. 636. 51. James D. Seymour, ‘Human rights and the world response to the 1989 crackdown in China’, p. 1; Lowell Dittmer, ‘Chinese human rights and American foreign policy: A realist approach’, The Review of Politics, Vol. 63(3), Summer 2001, pp. 446–9; Andrew J. Nathan, ‘Human rights in Chinese foreign policy’, pp. 636–7. 52. Jing-dong Yuan, ‘Sanctions, domestic politics, and U.S. China policy’, Issues & Studies, Vol. 33(10), October 1997: 95. 53. Jing-dong Yuan, p. 98. 54. Hung-yi Jan, pp. 82–4. 55. Quoted by Lowell Dittmer, p. 445. 426 Notes

56. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘China: Getting human rights right’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 20(2), Spring 1997, p. 135. 57. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘China: Getting human rights right’, pp. 136–7. 58. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘China: Getting human rights right’, pp. 136–7. 59. Lowell Dittmer, p. 446. 60. Michael Barry, ‘China reaches a WTO agreement with the United States’, International Economic Review, US International Trade Commission, February– March 2000, p. 7. 61. James Shinn, ‘Introduction’ and ‘The principles of engagement’, in Shinn (ed.), Weaving the Net: Conditional Engagement with China, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1996, pp. 5, 25–6. 62. James D. Seymour, ‘Human rights and the world response to the 1989 crackdown in China’, pp. 12–13. 63. Alan M. Wachman, ‘Does the diplomacy of shame promote human rights in China?’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22(2), April 2001, p. 257. 64. Lowell Dittmer, p. 447. 65. The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 1032. 66. Quoted by Hung-yi Jan, p. 88. 67. Colin Mackerras, The New Cambridge Handbook of Contemporary China, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001, p. 175; The Europa World Year Book 2001, p. 1031; Time, 9 August 1999. 68. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘China: Getting human rights right’, pp. 138–40; Kenneth Christie and Denny Roy, The Politics of Human Rights in East Asia, Pluto Press, London, 2001, pp. 225–6. 69. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘Human rights in Chinese foreign policy’, pp. 636–7; Time, 29 November 1999. 70. Hung-yi Jan, p. 57; Time, 13 March 2000; Amnesty International, Report 2003: China, http://www.web.amnesty.org/report2003/Chn-summary-eng 71. European Commission, External Relations, EU-China dialogue on human rights, 22–23 January 2001, http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/externalrelations/ human-rights/news/gac_jan_01.htm 72. Andrew J. Nathan, ‘China: Getting human rights right’, p. 138. 73. Hung-yi Jan, pp. 56, 72, 73, 88; Andrew J. Nathan, ‘Getting human rights right’, p. 137; Time, 11 January 1999. 74. http://www,state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/18239.htm 75. Amnesty International, Report 2003: China; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: China and Tibet, http://www,hrw.org/wr2k3/asia4.html 76. Daniel Byman, Roger Cliff and Phillip Saunders, ‘US policy options toward an emerging China’, The Paciﬁc Review, Vol. 12(3), 1999, pp. 422–4; Lowell Dittmer, p. 441; Gerald Segal, ‘East Asia and the “constrainment” of China’, International Security, Vol. 20(4), Spring 1996, pp. 116–32; Kenneth Lieberthal, ‘A new China strategy’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74(6), November– December 1995, p. 35; Michael Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws: America’s Search for a new Foreign Policy, Hill & Wang, New York, 1996, p. 151; Audrey Kurth Cronin and Patrick M. Cronin, ‘The realistic engagement of China’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 19(1), Winter 1996, pp. 147–58; Jing-dong Yuan, pp. 102–6; Soong-Bum Ahn, ‘China as number one’, Current History, Vol. 100(647), September 2001, p. 251; Colin Mackerras, pp. 175–6; Time, 7 June 1999; David Shambaugh, ‘Sino-American relations since September 11: Can the new stability last?’, Current History, Vol. 101(656), September 2002, pp. 247–9. Notes 427

77. Der Spiegel, 12 March 2001; ClariNews, 11 April 2003, http://quickstart. clari.net/qs_se/webnews…; Lowell Dittmer, p. 446. Jing-dong Yuan, pp. 110–20. 78. Jing-dong Yuan, p. 107. 79. Time, 29 October 2001; US State Department, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001. 80. Jing-dong Yuan, pp. 96–7; Denny Roy, p. 80. 81. Financial Times (London), 7–8 July and 14–15 July 2001. 82. ClariNews, 11 April 2003. 83. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, Syria and the Middle East Peace Process, Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1991, p. 13. 84. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked: The Suppression of Human Rights by the Asad Regime, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991, pp. 6–7. 85. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 14–21; Thomas Collelo (ed.), Syria: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1988, p. xx. 86. Ivor Lucas, ‘The paradox of Syria’, Asian Affairs, Vol. 25(1), February 1994, p. 7. 87. The EU’s relations with Syria: Political and Economic Situation, http://europa. eu.int/comm/external-relations/syria; The Middle East and North Africa 2002, Europa Publications, London, 2002, pp. 969–70. 88. BBCNEWS, Syria gets UN security seat, 9 October 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/ hi/english/world/middle_east/newsid_1587000/1587862.stm 89. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Washington, DC, 2000, p. 76; Raymond Tanter, Rogue Regimes: Terrorism and Proliferation, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1998, p. 187; Time, 19 June 2000. 90. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, pp. 192–5; Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, p. 152. 91. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 14–21; Pedro Ramet, The Soviet–Syrian Relationship since 1955: A Troubled Alliance, Westview, Boulder, 1990, p. 129. 92. Thomas Collelo (ed.), p. 272. 93. www.state.gov/documents/organization/20109.pdf 94. Patrick Clawson, in ‘Syria: Peace partner or rogue regime?’ Hearing before the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, 25 July 1996, US Government Printing Ofﬁce, Washington, DC, 1996, p. 38. 95. BBCNEWS, Blair seeks Mid-East support, 1 November 2001, http://news.bbc. co.uk/hi/english/world/middle_east/newsid_1631000/1631476.stm 96. US Embassy, Tel Aviv, Transcript: Powell says U.S. watching Syria’s anti-terrorist actions, 4 May 2003, http://www.usembassy-israel.org.il… 97. Human Rights Watch World Report 2003: Syria, http://www.hrw.org/wr2k3/ mideast7.html 98. ABC News Online, 14 April 2003, http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/ s831313.htm 99. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 141–3. 100. Robert S. Litwak, p. 76; Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. ix–x; Pedro Ramet, pp. 6–8 Thomas Collelo (ed.), pp. 222–3; Nicholas Blandford, ‘Lebanon: Ready to go it alone?’, Middle East, No. 313, June 2001, p. 316; The Middle East and North Africa 2002, pp. 966, 971. 101. Ambassador Philip C. Wilcox, Coordinator for Counterterrorism, in ‘Syria: Peace partner or rogue regime?’ Hearing before the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, 25 July 1996, p. 35. 102. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, p. 3; Patrick Clawson, pp. 36–7. 428 Notes

103. The Middle East and North Africa 2002, pp. 966–7. Two years later the two states concluded an anti-terrorism agreement, which Damascus has reportedly honoured – Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001. 104. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, p. 5; Thomas Collelo (ed.), pp. xxiii, 221. 105. Thomas Collelo (ed.), pp. 220, 224, 272; Robert S. Litwak, p. 76. 106. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, pp. 198–9; Moshe Ma’oz, Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995: 203. 107. Moshe Ma’oz, Syria and Israel, p. 215. 108. Moshe Ma’oz, Syria and Israel, p. 216–18, 242; The Middle East and North Africa 2002, p. 961. 109. Quoted by Moshe Ma’oz, Syria and Israel, p. 243. 110. US Information Service, Boucher says Syria taking U.S. concerns seriously, 21 April 2003, http://www.usis.it/file2003_04/alia/A3041805.htm 111. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, pp. 175–6. 112. Michael Klare, p. 132. 113. Pedro Ramet, pp. 1–3. 114. Thomas Colello (ed.), pp. 227–8. 115. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, p. 1. 116. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. ix, 145; Michael Klare, p. 90; Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, p. 1. 117. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, pp. 4, 55; Moshe Ma’oz, Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995, p. 183. 118. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, p. 3; Thomas Colello (ed.), p. xxii. 119. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 22–9. Also see the regular reports of Amnesty International on Syria. 120. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. x, 146. 121. The Europa World Year Book 2000, p. 3490. 122. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, p. 11. 123. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Syria, http://hrw.org/wrzkz/ mena8.htm 124. Human Rights Watch News, ‘EU must not forget imprisoned Syrian democrats’, 30 August 2002, http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/08/syria0830.htm 125. Human Rights Watch, ‘Syria: Long prison terms for democracy activists’, 2 August 2002, http://hrw.org/press/2002/08/syria080102.htm 126. Human Rights Watch, ‘Syria: Clampdown on free expression’, 12 February 2002, http://hrw.org/press/2002/02/syria0211.htm 127. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/18289.htm. The State Department’s findings were confirmed in Amnesty International, Report 2003: Syria, http://web.amnesty.org/report2003/Syr-summary-eng and Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Syria, http://www/state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/ 18289.htm 128. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 163–5. 129. Raymond Tanter, pp. 185, 189; Patrick Clawson, p. 42; The Middle East and North Africa 2002, p. 965. 130. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 142–3. 131. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003: Syria. 132. Gary C. Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly A. Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: Supplemental Case Histories, second edition, Institute for International Economics, Washington, DC, 1990, p. 585. 133. Middle East Watch, Syria Unmasked, pp. 142–3. Notes 429

134. Gary C. Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly A. Elliott, p. 586. 135. Gary C. Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly A. Elliott, p. 587. 136. Raymond Tanter, p. 188. 137. Robert S. Litwak, p. 48; The Europa World Year Book 2000, pp. 3487–8. 138. Alasdair Drysdale and Raymond Hinnebusch, pp. 2–3.

Chapter 14 Non-State Deviants

1. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001, www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001 2. Theunis J. Kruger, Internasionale en Transnasionale Terrorisme – ‘n Volkeregtelike Perspektief (International and Transnational Terrorism – An International Law Perspective), Unpublished LLM dissertation, Potchefstroom University, Potchefstroom, 2001, pp. 10–11. 3. US Department of State, Office of Counterterrorism, Foreign Terrorist Organizations, 30 January 2003, http://www.state/gov/s/ct/rls/fs/2003/17067.htm; Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001. 4. Time, 8 October 2001; Countering the Changing Threat of International Terrorism, www.fas.org/irp/threat/commission.htm 5. US State Department, Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999, Washington, DC, 2000, www.state.gov/www/global/terrorism/1999report/mideast.html; Marshall Brain, ‘Osama bin Laden’, http://people.howstuffworks.com/bin-laden.htm; ‘Fact sheet: Usama bin Ladin’, USIS Washington File, 22 August 1998, www.usembassy-australia.state.gov/hyper/wf980820/epf404.htm; Time, 9 December 2002. Several books on bin Laden and al-Qaeda have been published in the wake of 11 September 2001. Among them are Peter L. Bergen, Holy War Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama bin Laden, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2001; Roland Jacquard and Samia Serageldin (eds), In the Name of Osama bin Laden: Global Terrorism and the bin Laden Brotherhood, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 2002; Simon Reeve, The new Jackals: Ramzi Yousef, Osama bin Laden and the Future of Terrorism, Carlton Books, London, 2001; Yossef Bodansky, Bin Laden, The Man Who Declared War on America, Prima Publishing, Roseville, CA, 2001; Elaine Landau, Osama bin Laden: A War against the West, Twenty-first Century Books, Brookfield, Conn., 2002; As’ad AbuKhalil, Osama bin Laden and the Taliban: Consequences of US Foreign Policy, Seven Stories Press, New York, 2002, and Luis SR Vas, Osama bin Laden – King of Terror or Saviour of Islam?, Pustak Mahal, New Delhi, 2001. 6. David Plotz, ‘What does Osama bin Laden want?’, 13 September 2001, http://slate.msn.com/id/115404 7. Michael Dobbs, ‘Inside the mind of Osama bin Laden’, The Washington Post Online, 20 September 2001, www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/lad- ninsd.htm; ‘Fact sheet: Usama bin Ladin’, USIS Washington File, 22 August 1998. 8. Time, 1 October 2001. 9. Michael Dobbs. 10. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999. 11. ‘Saudi Arabia: Bin Laden, others sign fatwa to “kill Americans”’, Al-Quds al- ’Arabic (London), 23 February 1998, www.emergency.com/bladen98.htm 12. Michael Dobbs. 13. Time, 19 February 2001. 14. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999; Ann M. Lesch, ‘Osama bin Laden’s “business” in Sudan’, Current History, Vol. 101(655), May 2002, p. 205. 430 Notes

15. William Maley, The Foreign Policy of the Taliban, Council on Foreign Relations, www.cfr.org/public/ForeignPolicy_Taliban_Paper.html; Time, 5 November 2001. 16. Time, 10 December 2001. 17. Marshall Brain; David Plotz. 18. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999; Ann M. Lesch, p. 206. 19. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999. 20. David Plotz. 21. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001; Beeld, 12 November 2001, citing a report in London’s Sunday Telegraph, 11 November 2001; Time, 24 December 2001. 22. Time, 9 December 2002. 23. Time, 26 May 2003. 24. Time, 12 November 2001; The Straits Times, 28 September 2001. 25. Beeld, 12 November 2001, citing a report in London’s Sunday Telegraph, 11 November 2001. 26. The Straits Times, 28 September 2001. 27. Revealed by CNN, reported in Beeld, 20 August 2002. 28. Financial Times, 15–16 September 2001. 29. Ann M. Lesch, p. 208; FBI ten most wanted fugitives, www.fbi.gov/mostwant/ topten/fugitives/laden.htm; International Herald Tribune, 26 September 2001. 30. Quoted in Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001. 31. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001. 32. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001. 33. US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 2002, http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/global/drugs/03030109.htm; The Straits Times, 28 September 2001. 34. Diamonds.Net, NGO reports Al Qaeda diamond links – press release, 18 April 2003, http://www.diamonds.net/news/newsitem.asp. .. 35. Tom Fennell and Stefan Lovgren, ‘The diamond war’, Maclean’s, 22 March 1999, http://ehostvgwl8.epnet.com; Permanent Mission of Ireland to the UN, Angola (Unita) Sanctions Committee, 22 February 2001, www.un.int/ireland/ angola; ‚’The war of oil and diamonds’, Earth Island Journal, Vol. 15(1), Spring 2000, www.earthisland.org/eijournal/spr2000/ fe_spr2000oilwar.html; FAS Intelligence Resource Program, UNITA, FALA, CEDA, www.fas.org/irp/world/ para/unita.htm 36. Irish UN Ambassador Richard Ryan, Permanent Mission of Ireland to the UN, Angola (Unita) Sanctions Committee, 22 February 2001, www.un.int/ ireland/angola 37. US Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control, Foreign assets control Regs UNITA (Angola), www.tradeport.org/ts/ntdb/exprest/faci/unita.html; International Law Update, Vol. 7, October 2001, http://ehostvgwl8.epnet.com 38. ‘Angola’, UN Chronicle, Vol. 37(1), 2000, p. 15. 39. ‘The Sierra Leone civil war’, free.freespeech.org. 40. UN, ‘Conflict diamonds: Sanctions and war’, www.un.org/peace/africa/ Diamond.html 41. Christian Science Monitor, 16 May 2002. 42. New York Times, 21 March 2002. 43. Deon Geldenhuys, Foreign Political Engagement: Remaking States in the Post-Cold War World, Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1998, p. 191. 44. ‘U.N. bans conflict diamonds’, CBS News, 5 July 2000, www.cbsnews.com/ stories/ 2000/06/30/world/main211475.shtml; Andrew Cockburn, ‘Diamonds: The real story’, National Geographic, March 2002, p. 13. Notes 431

45. Andrew Cockburn, p. 23. 46. Tom Fennell and Stefan Lovgren; Peter Hawthorne and Edward Barnes, ‘Diamonds in the rough’, Time, 6 December 1999, www.time.com/time/maga- zine/articles/0,3266,35061,06.html 47. ‘The war of oil and diamonds’. 48. Tom Fennell and Stefan Lovgren; Peter Hawthorne and Edward Barnes. 49. Ian Smillie et al., ‘The heart of the matter: Sierra Leone, diamonds and human security’, Partnership Africa Canada, January 2000, www.africaaction.org/ docsoo/sl001.htm 50. Ian Smillie et al. 51. ‘U.N. bans conflict diamonds’, CBS News, 5 July 2000, www.cbsnews.com/stories; Ian Smillie et al.; ‘UN debates Liberia sanctions’, BBC News, 25 January 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1136987.stm 52. ‘New UN sanctions on Liberia automatically in force’, World News, 8 May 2002, www.oneworld.org/ips2 53. ‘U.N bans conflict diamonds’, CBS News, 5 July 2000, www.cbsnews.com/ stories 54. Kimberley Process Interlaken Declaration of 5 November 2002, http://www.kimberleyprocess.com/BulletinDisplay.asp?Key=37; Physicians for Human Rights, The campaign to eliminate conflict diamonds, January 2003 update, http://www. phrusa.org/campa; The Kimberley Process, Final communique, Kimberley Process plenary meeting, Johannesburg, 28–30 April 2003, http://www.kimberleyprocess. com/news/documents.asp?Id=51 55. Matthew F. Trundle, ‘Identity and community among Greek mercenaries in the classical world: 700-322 BCE’, The Ancient History Bulletin, Vol. 13(1), 1999, pp. 28–38; Janice E. Thomson, ‘State practices, international norms, and the decline of mercenarism’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 34(1), March 1990, pp. 23–47. 56. University of Minnesota Human Rights Library, www1.umn.edu/humanrts/ instree/1977ehtm 57. Thalif Deen, ‘U.N. Convention against mercenaries gathers dust’, 19 October 1998, www.hartford-hwp. com/archives/27a/062.html; International Service for Human Rights, Self-determination, http://www:ishr.ch/About… 58. UN Commission on Human Rights, ‘The right of peoples to self-determination … ‘, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Mercenaries, 21 December 1994, www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/e-cn4-1995-29.htm 59. Report on mercenaries presented to Human Rights Commission, UN press release HR/CN/764, 14 March 1997, www.hartford-hwp. com/archives/27a/003.html 60. UN Commission on Human Rights, ‘The right of peoples to self-determination…’, Sean Cleary, ‘Angola – a case study of private military involvement’, in Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason (eds), Peace, Profit or Plunder?: The Privatisation of Security in War-Torn African Societies, Institute for Security Studies, Halfway House, 1999, pp. 141–50; Beeld, 23 September 1997. 61. Sebastian Mallaby, ‘New role for mercenaries’, Los Angeles Times, 3 August 2001, www.globalpolicy.org/security/peacekpg/reform/2001/mercenaries.htm 62. Thalif Deen, UN Commission on Human Rights, ‘The right of peoples to self- determination…’; Simon Sheppard, ‘Foot soldiers of the New World Order: The rise of the corporate military’, New Left Review, March/April 1998, www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/sheppard.htm 63. Ian Smillie et al.; Ian Douglas, ‘Fighting for diamonds – Private military companies in Sierra Leone’, in Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason (eds), pp. 175–200. 432 Notes

64. UN Commission on Human Rights, ‘The right of peoples to self-determination…’. 65. See, for instance, UN Commission on Human Rights, ‘The right of peoples to self- determination…’ and resolution 2003/2 of 17 April 2003, http://www.unhchr.ch/ Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf… 66. XIII Conference of heads of state or government of the Non-Aligned Movement, Kuala Lumpur, 20–25 February 2003, final document, http://www.un.int/ malaysia/NAM/finaldoc.html 67. David Shearer, ‘Privatising protection’, The World Today, September 2001, www.globalpolicy.org/security/peacekpg/reform/2001/private.htm; Sean Creehan, ‘Soldiers of Fortune 500 international mercenaries’, Harvard International Review, Winter 2002, www.globalpolicy.org/security/peacekpg/ reform/pmc.htm 68. David Shearer; Jonah Schulhofer-Wohl, ‘Should we privatize the peacekeeping?’, Washington Post, 12 May 2000, www.globalpolicy.org/security/peacekpg/ reform/private.htm; Sean Creehan; Sebastian Mallaby; Simon Sheppard, ‘Soldiers for hire’, Contemporary Review, August 1999, www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/ m2242/1603_275/55683933/p1/articles.jhtml; Ian Douglas, ‘Fighting for diamonds – Private military companies in Sierra Leone’, in Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason (eds), pp. 175–200. 69. David Shearer; Sean Creehan; Simon Sheppard, ‘Foot soldiers of the New World Order: The rise of the corporate military’; Simon Sheppard, ‘Soldiers for hire’; Deborah D. Avant, ‘Privatizing military training’, June 2000, www.fpif.org/ briefs/vol5/v5nl/7mil_body.html; Los Angeles Times, 14 April 2002. 70. Der Spiegel, cited in Beeld, 20 July 2002. 71. Jonah Schulhofer-Wohl. 72. David Shearer. 73. Sean Creehan. 74. Thalif Deen. 75. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 12 February 2002, www.globalpolicy.org/ security/peacekpg/general/2002/pmc.htm 76. ‘Mad Mike comes in from the cold’, The Economist, 16 February 2002; The Independent, 14 February 2002. 77. Simon Sheppard, ‘Soldiers for hire’; David Shearer, ‘Privatising protection’. 78. Sandline International, Corporate Overview, www.sandline.com/site/index.html 79. Sandline International, Corporate Overview. 80. Gerhard O.W. Mueller, ‘Transnational crime: Definitions and concepts’, in Phil Williams and Dimitri Vlassis (eds), Combating Transnational Crime: Concepts, Activities and Responses, Frank Cass, London, 2001, pp. 13–14. 81. Transnational Criminal Activity, Canadian Security Intelligence Service, November 1998, www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/law/orcrime.htm; Phil Williams, ‘Transnational criminal organizations: Strategic alliances’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 18(1), Winter 1995, pp. 57–72; UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, www.odccp. org/crime; Beeld, 20 July 2002 82. Gerhard O.W. Mueller, pp. 14–20. 83. Transnational Criminal Activity, Canadian Security Intelligence Service. Among the numerous works of substance published on transnational organized crime are H. Richard Friman and Peter Andreas (eds), The Illicit Global Economy and State Power, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, MD, 1999; Patrick J. Ryan and George E. Rush (eds), Understanding Organized Crime in Global Perspective, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 1997. 84. Phil Williams, ‘Transnational criminal organizations’, pp. 57–72. 85. Published by the UN Development Programme, New York, 1999, pp. 41–2. Notes 433

86. UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, www.odccp. org 87. Summit final communique, http://birmingham.g8summit.gov.uk 88. UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention. 89. Summit final communique, http://birmingham..g8summit.gov.uk 90. Interpol website, www.interpol.int; www.cjmsu.edu Index

Abacha, Sani 281–4, 354 Association of Southeast Asian Nations Abiola, Moshood 280–1 (ASEAN) 174, 232–3, 242, 246, Abubakar, Abdulslami 284 248, 262, 275 Afghanistan 5, 37–8, 43, 102, 124, Atatürk, Kemal 53 128, 303–11, 327, 330–4, 343, 353, Aum Shinrikyo 25, 330 356 Australia 249 African Union (AU) 156. See also Axis of evil 8–11, 25, 91, 122, 168, Organization of African Unity 175, 180, 188 Aggression/threat of aggression 4, Aylwin, Patricio 79 30–1, 73–4, 81–2, 94, 100, 111, Aziz, Tariq, 110 119–21, 130, 140, 150, 183, 189, 206, 261, 264, 276, 278, 299, 321, Babangida, Ibrahim 280–1 353, 357 Baker, James 234 Al-Assad, Bashar 319–27 Ball, George 62 Al-Assad, Hafez 319–27, 354 Ballistic missiles see Weapons of mass Al-Bashir, Omar Hassan Ahmad 293–5, destruction 299, 301 Bangladesh 237, 244 Al-Qaeda ix, 27, 37–8, 47, 306–7, Bani-Sadr, Abolhassan 114–15 330–4, 354, 356 Barbary states 51, 142 Alarcon, Ricardo 222 Batista, Fulgencio 200 Albright, Madeleine 42, 100–1, 128–9, Bazargan, Mehdi 114 131, 175, 193, 244, 267, 300, 316 Bazoft, Farzad 96 Algeria 150–1 Bin Laden, Osama ix, 27, 37, 43, 297, Allende, Salvador 77 299, 304, 306, 308, 330–4 Amin, Haﬁzullah 304 Biological weapons see Weapons of mass Amnesty International 33, 125, 156, destruction 187, 194, 209, 235, 243, 275, 295–6, Blair, Tony 110, 321 312, 315, 324 Blix, Hans 106, 155 Angola 39, 46, 335–6, 339 Blood diamonds 39, 335, 337–41, 350, Annan, Koﬁ 30, 104, 316 356 Anti-Americanism/-Westernism 36–7, Angola 339 98, 111, 126–8, 130, 132, 141, 157, Democratic Republic of Congo 340–1 158, 167, 187–8, 197, 211, 264, 300, Kimberley Process 341 323, 353, 358–9 Sierra Leone 339–40 Anti-colonial norm 60, 66, 80 Bosnia-Herzegovina 45, 256–9, 261–3, Apartheid 79–83 266–7, 269–70, 274, 278, 332 Arab Cooperation Council 95 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 237 Arab League 99, 120, 133, 143, 161 Brinkmanship 49, 174, 179, 196, 222 Arafat, Yasser 37, 147 Brittan, Leon 219 Armenian massacre 52 Burma see Myanmar Aronson, Bernard 214 Bush, George (senior) 90, 97, 100, 130, Assertiveness (in foreign policy) 36–7, 147, 202, 209, 322 98, 111, 128, 141, 152–3, 167, 187, Bush, George (junior) 8–11, 25, 43, 91, 197, 201, 211–12, 216, 264, 277, 99–101, 103, 121, 130, 175, 180, 353, 358 193, 205, 215, 292, 294, 321 434 Index 435

Butler, Richard 106 responses to pressure 222–4 transgressions 206–13, 353 Cambodia 38, 338 Canada 8, 135, 190, 215, 220, 244, D’Alema, Massimo 150, 163 280, 282 Danforth, John 301 Carter, Jimmy 158, 175, 202, 214 Dayton Peace Agreement 258, 263, Castro, Fidel 8, 31, 147, 165, 200–25 267, 272, 277. See also Yugoslavia Castro, Raúl 200, 215, 221 De Klerk, FW 82–3 Chad 150, 152, 343 Del Ponte, Carla 273 Chamberlain, Neville 57 Democracy 31–3, 78, 96–7, 100, 111, Chávez, Hugo 105 125, 140, 143–4, 165, 186, 198, Chemical weapons see Weapons of mass 209–10, 214–16, 221, 225, 229–34, destruction 237, 239–42, 251, 253, 258, 265–7, Chile 2, 76–9, 83–4, 351, 359 271, 280–3, 285, 302, 313, 319, 354. China (People’s Republic, PRC) 7, 32, See also Human rights 45–6, 61–3, 66–7, 104, 110, 169–70, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 174, 177, 181, 238, 245, 247–50, 39, 340–1, 343 277, 304, 310–27, 353, 355, 357–8 Deng Xiaoping 312–13 Christopher, Warren 119, 130, 193, 214 Destabilization 80–2, 130, 139, 151, Chun Doo Hwan 183 159, 299, 301 Clinton, Bill 11, 27, 30, 41, 43, 128, Deterrence 47, 177, 333 130, 135, 189, 193, 204, 214, 221, Deviance/deviants 13–50, 351–7. See 274, 296, 299, 314, 322 also International norms Cohen, William 43 anti-deviant actions 41–5 Colby, Bainbridge 54 norms 17–22 Colombia 5, 37 order 22–3; see also revisionism Commonwealth 41, 281–2, 284, 302 responses to foreign pressure 47–9 Conference on Security and theories 13–16 Cooperation in Europe (CSCE, later transgressions (of deviant states): OSCE) 259, 262–3, 265–7, 269, anti-Westernism 36; assertiveness 272, 275 36–7; conventional armaments Conflict diamonds see Blood diamonds 30; crimes against humanity Containment 4, 9, 42–3, 108, 137, 33–5; democracy and human 164, 192, 220, 274, 301, 326 rights 31–3; drug trafficking 37; Conventional military build-up 30, 111, export of revolution 36; regional 121–2, 140, 156, 167, 182, 353, 358 aggression 30–1; threats to peace Cook, Robin 238, 251 24–7; war crimes 35–6; terrorism Coolidge, Calvin 54 27–30 Council of Europe 260, 262 transgressions (of non-state deviants): Crimes against humanity 33–5, 261, armed rebellion 38–9; organized 264, 273–4, 276, 278, 353, 358. See crime 40; trading blood also Genocide diamonds 39; mercenarism Croatia 256–7, 261–3, 269–70, 274 See 39–40; terrorism 37–8 also Yugoslavia typology 46–7 Crocker, Chester 153, 164 Divide-and-survive 49, 110, 140, 224, Cuba 4–7,27, 32, 36–7, 45–6, 195, 278 199–225, 351, 353–7 Djindjic, Zoran 273 demonization 205, 224 Drug trafficking 37, 129, 132, 140, foreign demands 213–16 188–9, 212–13, 232, 238–9, 241, history 199–205 244, 248–50, 253, 277, 283, 306, international reactions 216–21 309, 325, 327, 353, 358 436 Index

Dulles, John Foster 61 Gorbachev, Mikhail 202, 304, 322 Gore, Al 214 Economic Community of West African Group of Eight (G8, previously G7) 7, States (ECOWAS) 280 26–7, 173, 189, 265, 275 Egypt 71, 94, 119, 158, 161, 181, 332 Guevara, Ernesto (Ché) 207 Eisenhower, Dwight 205–6 Gulf Cooperation Council 99, 120, Ekeus, Rolf 106 262, 275 Engagement 45, 164, 179, 192–4, Gulf War 4, 35, 43, 90, 92, 102, 105, 220–1, 247–50, 275, 314, 326 127, 322 Environmental warfare/degradation 35, 95, 237 Habré, Hissène 147, 150 Ethnic cleansing 33–4, 236, 253, Habyarimana, Juvenal 285–90 261–2, 265, 272–3, 295. See also Haig, Alexander 147 Crimes against humanity Hallstein Doctrine 63 European Community/Union 40, 53, Helms, Jesse 214 61, 352, 354 Human rights 2, 6–7, 10, 31–3, 48, 60, China 316 64, 66, 286, 352–5, 357–8. See also Cuba 204, 217–18, 220 United Nations Commission on Iran 123–4, 131, 134–5, 140–1 Human Rights Iraq 83, 92, 99–100, 104 Afghanistan 306–11, 327 Libya 159–60 Chile 78–9 Myanmar 236, 239–41, 243, 245–6, China 62–3, 312–17, 327 248, 253 Cuba 206ff Nigeria 280–2, 284 international regime 32 Non-state deviants 341 Iran 113ff North Korea 173, 183, 189–91, 194, Iraq 96ff 197 Libya 145ff Rwanda 289 Myanmar 229ff Sudan 293, 301 Nigeria 280–4, 302 Syria 322, 325–6 North Korea 186ff Yugoslavia 256, 259, 262, 265–70, South Africa 79–84 272, 275 Sudan 292–6, 302 Executive Outcomes 39, 340, 343, 346 Syria 319, 324–5, 327 Yugoslavia 256ff Ford, Gerald 202, 205 Human Rights Watch 33, 96, 125–6, France 104, 110, 123, 136, 138, 159, 156, 187, 209, 235, 307, 315, 324 162, 266, 271 Hurd, Douglas 239, 248 Franco, Francisco 57–9 Hussein, Saddam 8, 31, 49, 85–111, Freedom House 33, 209, 312, 315 117, 125, 233

Garang, John 293, 301 Independent International Commission Genocide 34–5, 95–6, 111, 261, 263–4, on Kosovo 258, 261, 276 274, 276, 278, 285–91, 302, 353. See India 47, 306 also Crimes against humanity Indonesia 6, 29, 249 Germany (East, German Democratic International Atomic Energy Agency Republic) 63–4, 66–7 (IAEA) 92–3, 99, 105, 155, 176, Germany (Imperial) 23 178–80, 189–91, 194–7 Germany (reuniﬁed Federal Republic) International Criminal Court 6, 35, 44 123, 138, 148, 266, 268, 271 International Criminal Tribunal for the Germany (Weimar) 55–6, 66, 351 Former Yugoslavia 260–3, 267, Gladstone, William 52 272–4 Index 437

International Labour Organization (ILO) Japan 8, 23, 25, 88, 135, 138, 162, 217, 235, 242–3, 248, 252–3 174, 177, 179, 181, 183, 190, 193, International Monetary Fund (IMF) 195, 227, 245–7, 250, 252, 359 174, 219, 223, 244, 269–71, 283 Jiang Zemin 277, 314–15 International norms 17–22, 352 John Paul II, 204, 223–4 change 19 Jovanovic, Zivadin 264, 274, 276–7 contemporary norms 24–40, 352 contestation 19 Kabbah, Tejan 337–8, 343 deﬁnition 17–18 Kabila, Joseph 341 emergence 18 Kabila, Laurent 340–1 expression 18–19 Kagame, Paul 291–2 observance 20 Karmal, Babrak 304 power 21–2 Karzai, Hamid 311 settled norms 20 Kayibanda, Gregoire 285 strength 19–20 Kennedy, John 206, 214, 220 International prosecution 44, 109, Kennedy, Robert 205, 221 161, 274, 291, 338 Kenya 43 International supervision 44, 105–8, Khamenei, Hojatoleslam Ali 115, 274 117–18, 123–4, 127 Iran 4, 5, 8, 9, 23, 25–7, 36–7, 49, Khan, Mohammad Daud 303 88–9, 92, 94, 102, 181–2, 195, 300, Khatami, Mohammad 118ff, 356 307, 310, 353, 356, 359 Khmer Rouge see Rebel movements demonization 118–19, 129, 139, Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 31, 351 113ff external responses 132–8 Kim Dae-jung 173, 193 foreign demands 129–32 Kim Il Sung 31, 86, 169ff history 112–18 Kim Jong Il 9, 86, 169ff reactions to foreign pressure 138–40 Kimberley Process 341 transgressions 119–29, 353 Kissinger, Henry 147, 202, 212 International Tribunal for Rwanda 291 Kohl, Helmut 316 Intifada 73, 76 Korean War 61, 169 Iraq 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 25, 35, 43, 49, 73, Kosovo 256–7, 270–4, 276–8. See also 85–111, 116–17, 133, 195, 300, 331, Yugoslavia 351–3, 355–7 Kostunica, Vojislav 259, 268, 271, 273 demonization 90–1 Kurds (in Iran) 115 external punishment 101–9 Kurds (in Iraq) 88–96 foreign demands 98–101 Kurds (in Turkey) 322 history 85–90 Kuwait 4, 36, 43, 85ff, 122, 124 responses to foreign pressure 109–10 Kyoto Protocol 6 transgressions 91–8, 353 Islamic Conference Organization 262, Lake, Anthony 5 275, 305 League of Nations 52, 55–7, 85 Isolation 2, 9, 44, 53–8, 60–6, 68–76, Lebanon 321–2, 325 79–83, 133, 162, 172, 192, 219, Liberia 337–40 225–6, 232–3, 244, 247, 250–3, 259, Li Peng 278 269, 274, 305, 311, 313. See also Libya 4, 7, 9, 23, 25, 27, 40, 142–67, sanctions. 182, 195, 332, 351, 353–5, 357, Israel 2, 31, 70–6, 83–4, 88, 92, 94, 97, 359 119, 138–9, 149, 155, 158, 167, 319, demonization 147, 157, 165–6 321–4, 331, 351 foreign demands 158–9 Italy 56–7, 266, 271 history 142–7 438 Index

international pressure 159–64 Nimeiry, Gaafar 147, 149, 292–3, responses to foreign pressure 164–6 295 transgressions 148–59, 353 Non-Aligned Movement 40, 83, 202, Lloyd George, David 54 219, 232 Non-state deviance 37–40, 328–50, Macedonia 256–7, 270. See also 351, 359 Yugoslavia armed rebellion 38–9, 334–8, 350 Major, John 100 mercenarism 39–40, 341–7, 350 Malaysia 249 terrorism 37–8, 328–34, 350 Mandela, Nelson 83, 233, 241, 284 trade in blood diamonds 39, Mao Tse-tung 61, 96, 315 338–41, 350 Maung Maung 228–9 transnational crime 40, 348–50 Menem, Carlos 215 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Mercenaries 39–40, 341–7, 350, 356 (NATO) 60, 258, 263, 268, 271–2, anti-mercenarism norm 342–3, 347, 275–8 350 North Korea (Democratic People’s crime links 343 Republic of Korea, DPRK) 4, 5, 8, operations 341–7 9, 10, 25–7, 48, 168–98, 318, 351, Organization of African Unity 342 353 private military companies 344–7 demonization 174–5, 188, 195 United Nations 342–4, 347 external actions 190–4 Military action 42, 47, 90–1, 99–3, foreign demands 189 163, 173, 256–9, 263, 268, 274, history 168–74 276–8, 308, 311, 327, 333–4, 356–7. responses to pressure 194–7 See also Pre-emptive attack transgressions 175–89, 353, 357 Military build-up (conventional) 30, 94 Nuclear weapons see Weapons of mass Milosevic, Slobodan 44, 49, 233, destruction 256–78, 356 Mladic, Ratko 258 Obasanjo, Olusegun 279–84 Momoh, Joseph 336 Oil 89, 95, 101, 105, 108, 113, 116, Montenegro see Yugoslavia 135, 146–7, 160, 164, 233, 245, Mubarak, Hosni 149, 151, 297 281–3, 297, 300, 322 Museveni, Yoweri 299 Omar, Mohammad 305, 334 Musharraf, Pervez ix, 47, 249, 310 Organization for Security and Mussadeq, Mohammad 113 Cooperation in Europe see Myanmar 5, 7, 37, 226–53, 343, Conference on Security and 353–4, 356–7 Cooperation in Europe demonization 233–4 Organization of African Unity (OAU) history 226–33 83, 154, 161, 280, 282, 286. See also international pressure 241–50 African Union transgressions 234–9, 353 Organization of American States (OAS), 7, 79, 201, 216, 218–19, 225 Najibullah, Ahmadzai 304–5 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Namibia 79–83 Countries (OPEC) 146–7 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 143–4, 152 Ottoman Empire see Turkey Ne Win 226–8, 232 Outcast states 1–2, 5, 11, 51–67, 70 Nicaragua 4, 27, 208 Nidal, Abu 150 Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza 112ff Niger 150, 161 Pahlavi, Reza Shah 112 Nigeria 161, 279–84, 302, 353–4, 356. Pakistan x, 47, 129, 247, 304–5, See also Human rights, Sanctions 310–11, 332 Index 439

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Russia (Bolshevik) 53–5, 66 37, 71, 119, 149, 151, 158 Russia (Federation) 29, 104, 110, 125, Pariah states 1–3, 5, 11, 68–84 136, 190, 266, 268, 277, 306, 310, Park Chung Hee 183 333 Patten, Chris 131 Rwanda 33–5, 284–92, 302, 353, 357 Pelletreau, Robert 130 Pinochet, Augusto 77–9, 233 Sadat, Anwar 147, 149, 151 Portugal 59–61, 66–7 Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira 59–60 Powell, Colin 321 Sánchez, Ilich Ramírez (‘The Jackal’) Pre-emptive attack 10, 11, 42–3, 355 37, 297, 299 Proliferation of weapons see Weapons of Sanctions 38, 41–3, 56–9, 61, 65–6, 79, mass destruction 290–2, 298, 300–1, 308, 311, Putin, Vladimir 174 313–14, 318, 326–7, 356–7 Cuba 199, 201–4, 209, 213–14, Qaddaﬁ, Muammar 31, 144–67 217–19, 222, 224–5 Iraq 90, 100, 103–5, 110, 331 Rabbani, Burhanuddin 305 Iran 128, 133–7 Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi 118, Libya 159–64 121–2, 127, 134, 136, 139 Myanmar 226, 241–7, 252 Reagan, Ronald 4, 27, 118–19, 147, Nigeria 280–4 149, 166, 175, 188, 205, 214 non-state deviants 333, 335–8 Rebel movements 38–9, 334–8, 350 North Korea 190–2, 196 Khmer Rouge 38, 338, 350 South Africa 81–3 Revolutionary United Front (RUF) Yugoslavia 256, 259, 263, 267–71 336–40, 343, 350, 356 Sankoh, Foday 336, 340 Unita 38, 40, 43, 45–6, 335–6, 339, Saro-Wiwa, Ken 281 350, 354, 356 Saudi Arabia x, 46, 95, 105, 139, 161, United Nations 335ff 305, 310, 331 Regional hegemony 95, 111, 119–21, Savimbi, Jonas, 38, 335–6 139. See also Aggression Saw Maung 229, 233, 251 Revisionism 23, 154, 317, 323, 332 Serbia see Yugoslavia Revolution, export of 36, 117, 120, Sese Seko, Mobuto 150, 340, 343 124, 140, 151–3, 166–7, 184–6, 201, Shagari, Shehu 280 207–8, 216, 224, 299, 308–9, 327, Shanghai Communiqué 62 353, 358 Sierra Leone x, 38, 39, 336–40, 343 Revolutionary United Front see Rebel Singapore 247, 249–50 movements Slovenia 256–8, 261, 263, 269–70 See Rhodesia 64–7 also Yugoslavia Rifkind, Malcolm 233 Smith, Ian 65 Robaina, Roberto 222–3 Somalia 150, 332 Robinson, Mary 316 South Africa 2, 44–5, 47, 79–84, 282, Rogue states ix, 1–3, 9, 168, 188, 193, 284, 351, 354–5, 359. See also 300, 351, 358 Sanctions doctrine/policy/strategy 5–9, 11 South Korea (Republic of Korea) 168ff, meaning of term 3–4 359 rise of rogues 4–6 Soviet Union 4, 23, 55, 67, 71, 88, Roosevelt, Franklin 58 102, 114, 116–17, 125, 157, 165, Roosevelt, Theodore 211 168, 170, 173, 177, 187, 201, 206, Rumsfeld Commission 25 213, 247, 265, 303, 323. See also Rushdie, Salman 126, 131–2, 134 Russia (Bolshevik) Rusk, Dean 206 Spain 57–9, 66–7 440 Index

State Law and Order Restoration Thatcher, Margaret 166 Council (SLORC/State Peace and Tibet 312, 314–15 Development Council, SPDC) Tito, Josip Broz 256 229–53 Transgressions see Deviance/deviants States of concern 4, 9 Transnational criminal organizations Steadfastness and Confrontation Front 40, 340, 348–50, 356 151 criminal groups 348–50 Straw, Jack 346 Europol 350 Subversion 44, 108–9, 137, 164, G8 349 166–7, 171, 199, 207, 221, 274 Interpol 349–50 Sudan 5, 6, 43, 150, 292–302, 332, United Nations 348–9 343, 353, 357 Truman, Harry 59 Suu Kyi, Aung San 229–31, 233, 235, Turkey 2, 5, 46, 52–3, 85, 94, 136, 139, 240–2, 244, 251–2 142, 351 Syria 5, 87, 105, 151, 182, 300, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus 319–27, 353, 357 2

Taiwan (Republic of China, ROC) 2, U Nu 227, 229 61, 68–70, 84, 183, 317, 351 Unita see Rebel movements Taliban 38, 124, 305–11, 320, 332, United Arab Emirates 89, 120, 124, 334 305, 311 Tanzania 43 United Kingdom 85–6, 89, 105, 123, Taraki, Nur Mohammad 303 127, 143, 148, 150, 158–60, 166, Tarnoff, Peter 130–1 220, 227, 251, 266, 268, 271, 282–3, Taylor, Charles 340 304, 336, 354 Terrorism ix, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 25, 27–9, United Nations 8, 28–34, 37–40, 43–6, 37–8, 42–3, 76, 82, 277, 297–9, 58–9, 61, 65–6, 282–3, 293–6, 300, 301–2, 307–9, 318, 326–34, 350, 305–13, 320, 322, 352, 356–7 353, 356 Cuba 202ff anti-terrorism norm 28–9, 38, 329, Iran 125ff 350, 356–7 Iraq 89ff criminal gangs 334 Israel 71–6 Cuba 207–9 Libya 143ff cyber-terrorism 28, 330 Myanmar 228ff deﬁnition 328–9 non-state deviants 329ff netwar 28 North Korea 169ff non-state deviance 37–8, 328–34 Rwanda 285–92 Iran 122–4, 127–8, 130–1, 134, South Africa 79–83 136–7, 140–1 Taiwan 69–70 Iraq 97–8 Yugoslavia 258ff Libya 146–50, 158–67 United Nations Assistance Mission for North Korea 172, 174–5, 183–4, 189, Rwanda (UNAMIR) 287, 289–90 191, 195, 197 United Nations Commission on Human Syria 320–2 Rights 96–7, 125–6, 131, 133, terrorist attacks 122–3, 148–50, 156–7, 159, 187, 202, 204, 210, 183–4, 208–9, 297–8, 320, 329–34 216–17, 234–7, 239–43, 246–7, 250, terrorist groups 37–8, 97, 149, 253, 262, 264–5, 275, 282, 287–9, 297–8, 320, 329–34 293–5, 306–7, 313–14, 318, 352, United Nations 329, 333–4 354 WMD 330, 333–4 United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone Than Shwe 230–1, 246 (UNAMSIL) 337–8 Index 441

United Nations Monitoring, Veriﬁcation 166–7, 174, 180, 189, 193, 197, 327, and Inspection Commission 330, 351, 352–4, 357 (UNMOVIC) 93, 99, 106 ballistic missiles 25, 48, 91–3, 99, United Nations Special Commission on 105, 121, 155–6, 180–3, 189, 191, Iraqi Disarmament (UNSCOM) 193–7, 201, 206, 317, 321 92, 99, 103, 106 biological weapons 25, 91–3, 99, United States of America ix–x, 3–5, 25, 105, 121, 181–2, 321 30, 36–7, 41, 44, 47, 51, 58, 60, 64, chemical weapons 25, 87ff, 121, 155, 280, 283, 290, 294, 296, 298–301, 181–2, 299–300, 321, 326, 333 351, 354, 358–9 non-proliferation regimes 26–7, 91, Afghanistan 304–6, 308, 311 121, 131, 138, 155, 178–80, 181, as rogue state 5–6 183, 189–90, 196 axis of evil 9–11 nuclear weapons 2, 25, 47, 73–4, 99, China 61–2, 312–18 105, 121–2, 141, 155, 172, Chile 77–9 176–80, 189–98, 201, 206, 300, Cuba 199ff 317, 333, 357 Iran 113ff, 357 Weinberger, Caspar 130 Iraq 88ff Western European Union 269, 275 Libya 142ff World Bank 136, 174, 191, 219, 223, Myanmar 226ff 244, 247, 269–71, 283 non-state deviants 328ff World Trade Organization (WTO) North Korea 168ff 223, 270, 315 rogue state policy 5–9, 11 Syria 320–3, 325–7 Yeltsin, Boris 277 terrorism 330–4 Yugoslavia 5, 33–5, 44–5, 48–9, United Nations 329, 333 254–78, 352–4, 356 Yugoslavia 265–8, 271, 276 demonization 260–1, 277 external demands 265–8 Van der Stoel, Max 97 history 254–60 Vedrine, Hubert 7 international measures 268–75 responses to pressure 275–8 War crimes 35–6, 94–5, 111, 260–1, transgressions 261–5, 353 263–4, 267, 274, 276, 278, 296, 302, 307, 338, 353, 358 Zimbabwe x, 352, 359 Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) Zionism 74–5, 88, 98, 151, 154, 157, 4, 6, 7, 10, 30, 43, 111, 121, 130, 164, 324 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 155, 159, Zoellick, Robert 233–4