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English

Structure in Persuasion

While all language—written, spoken, or visual—has an argumentative element that aims to make a point, the most easily recognized as arguments are those messages that make a claim and present evidence to support it. Writers seek to maximize the effectiveness of their claims by using various devices of language, by appealing to the audience with emotions and logic, and by establishing their own credibility and integrity. But writers also reinforce their claims by the way they structure each piece. Each writer decides:  how to introduce the topic  how and when to make the claim  how to offer concession and counterargument  how to provide evidence and information that will best support that claim

Activity One: An Op-Ed piece that appeared in the New York Times in 1990 is reprinted below. As you read, mark any structures or devices that create logical, emotional, and ethical appeals.

America Needs Its Nerds by Leonid Fridman

(1) There is something very wrong with football, prefer to build model airplanes the system of values in a society that has rather than get wasted at parties with their only derogatory terms like nerd and geek for classmates, become social outcasts. the intellectually curious and academically Ostracized for their intelligence and refusal serious. to conform to society’s anti-intellectual (2) A geek, according to Webster’s New values, many are deprived of a chance to World Dictionary, is a street performer who learn adequate social skills and acquire good shocks the public by biting off heads of live communication tools. chickens. It is a telling fact about our (5) Enough is enough. language and our culture that someone (6) Nerds and geeks must stop being dedicated to pursuit of knowledge is ashamed of who they are. It is high time to compared to a freak biting the head off a face the persecutors who haunt the bright live chicken. kid with thick glasses from kindergarten to (3) Even at a prestigious academic the grave. For America’s sake, the anti- institution like Harvard, anti-intellectualism intellectual values that pervade our society is rampant: Many students are ashamed to must be fought. admit, even to their friends, how much they (7) There are very few countries in the study. Although most students try to keep up world where anti-intellectualism runs as their grades, there is a minority of high in popular culture as it does in the U.S. undergraduates for whom pursuing In most industrialized nations, not least of knowledge is the top priority during their all our economic rivals in East Asia, a kid years at Harvard. Nerds are ostracized while who studies hard is lauded and held up as an athletes are idolized. example to other students. (4) The same thing happens in U.S. (8) In many parts of the world, elementary and high schools. Children who university professorships are the most prefer to read books rather than play prestigious and materially rewarding “America Needs Its Nerds” by Leonid Fridman, Originally published in the New York Times, 1990. Used by permission. Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 1 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion positions. But not in America, where to compete in the technology race with average professional ballplayers are much Japan or remain a leading political and more respected and better paid than faculty cultural force in Europe? How long can members of the best universities. America remain a world-class power if we (9) How can a country where typical constantly emphasize social skills and parents are ashamed of their daughter physical prowess over academic studying mathematics instead of going achievement and intellectual ability? dancing, or of their son reading Weber* *Maximilian Weber (1864–1920), German political economist and while his friends play baseball, be expected sociologist.

After reading the Op-Ed piece, answer the following questions:

1. What is the writer’s overall purpose in writing the essay?

2. What is the writer’s chief claim (in your own words)?

3. Consider the ways in which the writer creates the appeals of logos, pathos, and ethos. Cite a sentence or short passage which expresses each appeal:

Logos:

Pathos:

Ethos:

4. Who is the intended audience for this Op-Ed piece?

5. What does the writer assume about that audience?

Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 2 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion Now re-examine the essay, which has been reprinted in the center column, one paragraph at a time. In the right-hand column, write a brief explanation of how the writer attempts to persuade the reader in that particular paragraph. Then, using the terms from ―Structural Elements and Rhetorical Strategies,‖ write the purpose of the paragraph. The first three have been done for you as examples.

Paragraph There is something very wrong with the  Sets tone with diction: “. . . 1 system of values in a society that has something very wrong . . .” and only derogatory terms like nerd and geek “derogatory terms” for the intellectually curious and  Sets up the either-or absolute: “only academically serious. derogatory terms”

Structural or Rhetorical Element(s):

INTRODUCTION, CLAIM

Paragraph A geek, according to Webster’s New  Surprising, even shocking, definition 2 World Dictionary, is a street performer of “geek” who shocks the public by biting off  Ties language and cultural values heads of live chickens. It is a telling fact together about our language and our culture that someone dedicated to pursuit of Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): knowledge is compared to a freak biting the head off a live chicken. DEFINITION

Paragraph Even at a prestigious academic  Qualifies with “many,” “most,” “a 3 institution like Harvard, anti- minority” intellectualism is rampant: Many  Uses Harvard to impress and students are ashamed to admit, even to perhaps to shock their friends, how much they study.  Stereotypes “nerds” and “athletes” Although most students try to keep up as polar opposites their grades, there is a minority of undergraduates for whom pursuing Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): knowledge is the top priority during their years at Harvard. Nerds are ostracized EXAMPLE while athletes are idolized.

Paragraph The same thing happens in U.S. 4 elementary and high schools. Children who prefer to read books rather than play football, prefer to build model airplanes rather than get wasted at parties with their classmates, become social outcasts. Ostracized for their intelligence and Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): refusal to conform to society’s anti- intellectual values, many are deprived of a chance to learn adequate social skills and acquire good communication tools.

Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 3 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion Paragraph Enough is enough.  Three-word sentence signals shift in 5 voice

Structural or Rhetorical Element(s):

TRANSITION

Paragraph Nerds and geeks must stop being 6 ashamed of who they are. It is high time to face the persecutors who haunt the bright kid with thick glasses from kindergarten to the grave. For America’s sake, the anti-intellectual values that pervade our society must be fought. Structural or Rhetorical Element(s):

Paragraph There are very few countries in the 7 world where anti-intellectualism runs as high in popular culture as it does in the U.S. In most industrialized nations, not least of all our economic rivals in East Asia, a kid who studies hard is lauded and held up as an example to other students. Structural or Rhetorical Element(s):

Paragraph In many parts of the world, university 8 professorships are the most prestigious and materially rewarding positions. But not in America, where average professional ballplayers are much more respected and better paid than faculty members of the best universities. Structural or Rhetorical Element(s):

Paragraph How can a country where typical parents 9 are ashamed of their daughter studying mathematics instead of going dancing, or of their son reading Weber while his friends play baseball, be expected to compete in the technology race with Japan or remain a leading political and cultural force in Europe? How long can Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 4 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion America remain a world-class power if we constantly emphasize social skills and physical prowess over academic Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): achievement and intellectual ability?

Activity Two: Now read a letter to the editor which appeared in the New York Times to rebut Mr. Fridman’s Op-Ed piece. After reviewing the entire letter, you will be asked to examine the structure, one paragraph at a time—as you have just done with the original essay. As you read, mark where you see structures or devices that create logical, emotional, and ethical appeals being used.

All Work and No Play Makes Jack a Nerd by David Lessing and David Herne (Harvard, Class of ’93) published January 28, 1990

To the Editor: less the intellectual champion of Mr. (1) While ―America Needs Its Nerds‖ Fridman’s descriptions than a person whose (Op-Ed, Jan. 11) by Leonid Fridman, a intelligence is not focused and enhanced by Harvard student, may be correct in its contact with fellow students. Constant study message that Americans should treat renders such social learning impossible. intellectualism with greater respect, his (4) For a large majority at Harvard, identification of the ―nerd‖ as guardian of academic pursuit is the highest goal; a this intellectual tradition is misguided. limited number, however, refuse to partake (2) Mr. Fridman maintains that anti- in activities other than study. Only these intellectualism runs rampant across this select few are the targets of the geek label. country, even at the ―prestigious academic Continuous study, like any other obsession, institution‖ he attends. However, he is not a habit to be lauded. Every student, no confuses a distaste for narrow-mindedness matter how ―intellectually curious,‖ ought to with anti-intellectualism. Just as Harvard, as take a little time to pursue social knowledge a whole, reflects diversity in the racial, through activities other than study. ethnic and religious backgrounds of its (5) Mr. Fridman’s analysis demonstrates students, each student should reflect a further flaws in his reference to Japan. He diversity of interest as well. comments that ―in East Asia, a kid who (3) A ―nerd‖ or ―geek‖ is distinguished studies hard is lauded and held up as an by a lack of diverse interest, rather than by a example to other students,‖ while in the presence of intellectualism. Thus, a nerd or United States he or she is ostracized. This is geek is not, as Mr. Fridman states, a student an unfair comparison because Mr. Fridman’s ―for whom pursuing knowledge is the top first reference is to how the East Asian child priority‖ but a student for whom pursuing is viewed by teachers, while his second knowledge is the sole objective. reference is to how the American child is A nerd becomes socially maladjusted viewed by fellow students. Mr. Fridman is because he doesn’t participate in social equating two distinct perspectives on the activities or even intellectual activities student to substantiate a broad involving other people. As a result, a nerd is Lessing, David, and David Herne. “All Work and No Play Makes Jack a Nerd.” New York Times: 28 January 1990. Due diligence Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 5 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion generalization on which he has no factual intellectualism ought to include social data. knowledge. (6) Nerdism may also be criticized (7) While we in no way condone the because it often leads to the pursuit of terms ―nerds‖ and ―geeks‖ as insults, we knowledge not for its own sake, but for the also cannot condone the isolationist sake of grades. Nerds are well versed in the intellectualism Mr. Fridman advocates. type of intellectual trivia that may help in . obtaining A’s, but has little or no relevance to the real world. A true definition of

After reading the letter to the editor, answer the following questions.

1. What is the writers’ overall purpose in writing the letter?

2. What is the writers’ chief claim (in your own words)?

3. Consider the ways in which the writers create the appeals of logos, pathos, and ethos. Cite a sentence or short passage which expresses each appeal:

Logos:

Pathos:

Ethos:

4. Who is the intended audience for this letter to the editor (besides the editor)?

5. What do the writers assume about that audience?

Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 6 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion 6. What is the reason for the concession in paragraph 1? How does the use of concession at the beginning of the letter strengthen the writers’ argument?

Now re-examine the letter, which has been reprinted in the center column, one paragraph at a time. In the right-hand column, write a brief explanation of how the writer attempts to persuade the reader in that particular paragraph. Then, using the terms from ―Structural Elements and Rhetorical Strategies,‖ write the purpose of the paragraph.

Paragraph While ―America Needs Its Nerds‖  First clause offers a concession to 1 (Op-Ed, Jan. 11) by Leonid Fridman, Fridman’s opinion: “may be correct…” a Harvard student, may be correct in  Second clause begins the its message that Americans should counterargument: “his identification…is treat intellectualism with greater misguided.” respect, his identification of the ―nerd‖ as guardian of this intellectual Structural or Rhetorical Element: tradition is misguided. CONCESSION/COUNTERARGUMENT

Paragraph Mr. Fridman maintains that anti- 2 intellectualism runs rampant across this country, even at the ―prestigious academic institution‖ he attends. However, he confuses a distaste for narrow-mindedness with anti- intellectualism. Just as Harvard, as a Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): whole, reflects diversity in the racial, ethnic and religious backgrounds of its students, each student should reflect a diversity of interest as well. Paragraph A ―nerd‖ or ―geek‖ is distinguished 3 by a lack of diverse interest, rather than by a presence of intellectualism. Thus, a nerd or geek is not, as Mr. Fridman states, a student ―for whom pursuing knowledge is the top priority‖ but a student for whom pursuing knowledge is the sole objective. A nerd becomes socially maladjusted because he doesn’t Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): participate in social activities or even intellectual activities involving other people. As a result, a nerd is less the Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 7 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion intellectual champion of Mr. Fridman’s descriptions than a person whose intelligence is not focused and enhanced by contact with fellow students. Constant study renders such social learning impossible. Paragraph For a large majority at Harvard, 4 academic pursuit is the highest goal; a limited number, however, refuse to partake in activities other than study. Only these select few are the targets of the geek label. Continuous study, like any other obsession, is not a habit to be lauded. Every student, no matter Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): how ―intellectually curious,‖ ought to take a little time to pursue social knowledge through activities other than study. Paragraph Mr. Fridman’s analysis demonstrates 5 further flaws in his reference to Japan. He comments that ―in East Asia, a kid who studies hard is lauded and held up as an example to other students,‖ while in the United States he or she is ostracized. This is an unfair comparison because Mr. Fridman’s first reference is to how the East Asian child is viewed by Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): teachers, while his second reference is to how the American child is viewed by fellow students. Mr. Fridman is equating two distinct perspectives on the student to substantiate a broad generalization on which he has no factual data. Paragraph Nerdism may also be criticized 6 because it often leads to the pursuit of knowledge not for its own sake, but for the sake of grades. Nerds are well versed in the type of intellectual trivia that may help in obtaining A’s, but Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): has little or no relevance to the real world. A true definition of intellectualism ought to include social knowledge.

Paragraph While we in no way condone the 7 terms ―nerds‖ and ―geeks‖ as insults, we also cannot condone the isolationist intellectualism Mr. Structural or Rhetorical Element(s): Fridman advocates.

Write a general conclusion about the effectiveness of the letter, based on the structure and content of each paragraph, the chief claim, and the use of the appeals, compared to the effectiveness of the Op-Ed piece by Leonid Fridman.

’s use of and (Write the name of the writer[s] of the stronger argument.) (Name one of the devices used by the writer[s].) makes (his/their) argument more effective than that of (Name another of the devices used by the writer[s].) because (Name the writer[s] of the weaker argument.) (Write an explanation of why the argument is stronger.)

Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 9 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion Activity Three: Writing a Concession/Counterargument Read the excerpt below.

Is Google Evil? (excerpt) By Adam L. Penenberg Internet privacy? Google already knows more about you than the National Security Agency ever will. And don’t assume for a minute it can keep a secret. YouTube fans—and everybody else—beware. What’s at stake? Over the years, Google has collected a staggering amount of data, and the company cheerfully admits that in nine years of operation, it has never knowingly erased a single search query. It’s the biggest data pack rat west of the NSA, and for good reason: 99 percent of its revenue comes from selling ads that are specifically targeted to a user’s interests. ―Google’s entire value proposition is to figure out what people want,‖ says Eric Goldman, a professor at Silicon Valley’s Santa Clara School of Law and director of the High Tech Law Institute. ―But to read our minds, they need to know a lot about us.‖ Every search engine gathers information about its users—primarily by sending us ―cookies,‖ or text files that track our online movements. Most cookies expire within a few months or years. Google’s, though, don’t expire until 2038. Until then, when you use the company’s search engine or visit any of myriad affiliated sites, it will record what you search for and when, which links you click on, which ads you access. Google’s cookies can’t identify you by name, but they log your computer’s IP address; by way of metaphor, Google doesn’t have your driver’s license number, but it knows the license plate number of the car you are driving. And search queries are windows into our souls, as 658,000 AOL users learned when their search profiles were mistakenly posted on the Internet. And Google knows far more than that. If you are a Gmail user, Google stashes copies of every email you send and receive. If you use any of its other products—Google Maps, Froogle, Google Book Search, Google Earth, Google Scholar, Talk, Images, Video, and News—it will keep track of which directions you seek, which products you shop for, which phrases you research in a book, which satellite photos and news stories you view, and on and on. Served up à la carte, this is probably no big deal. Many websites stow snippets of your data. The problem is that there’s nothing to prevent Google from combining all of this information to create detailed dossiers on its customers, something the company admits is possible in principle. Soon Google may even be able to keep track of users in the real world: Its latest move is into free wifi, which will require it to know your whereabouts (i.e., which router you are closest to). Google insists that it uses individual data only to provide targeted advertising. But history shows that information seldom remains limited to the purpose for which it was collected. Accordingly, some privacy advocates suggest that Google and other search companies should stop hoarding user queries altogether: Internet searches, argues Lillie Coney of the Electronic Privacy Information Center, are part of your protected personal space just like your physical home. So the question is not whether Google will always do the right thing—it hasn’t, and it won’t. It’s whether Google, with its insatiable thirst for your personal data, has become the greatest threat to privacy ever known, a vast informational honey pot that attracts hackers, crackers, online thieves, and—perhaps most worrisome of all—a government intent on finding convenient ways to spy on its own citizenry.

Excerpt from http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2006/11/google.html. Due diligence. Copyright © 2012 Laying the Foundation®, Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit us online at www.ltftraining.org. 10 Student Activity—Structure in Persuasion 1. What is the claim, as stated in the excerpt?

2. Whether you actually agree or disagree with the claim is not important for the purposes of this exercise. For practice, assume you disagree with the claim. In the space below, write one sentence of concession, followed by one or two sentences of counterargument. Refer to ―Structural Elements and Rhetorical Strategies‖ for assistance. Be prepared to share your response.

 Concession—a respectful acknowledgment of an opposing viewpoint. By recognizing and fairly summarizing an opposing viewpoint, the writer or speaker is seen as logical and fair-minded.  Counterargument—follows a concession and strongly counters or refutes the opposition’s evidence Terms of concession and counterargument: I concede that. . .; however, Yes, . . .but. . . I recognize that. . ., but I must point out that. . . While I agree that. . ., I doubt that. . . While it is true that. . ., we must remember that Although I understand that. . ., I still believe that. . .