Behavior Analysis and Sports Climbing

Home , Bouldering, Climbing wall, Redpoint (climbing), Sport climbing

Journal of Behavioral Health and Medicine 2010, 1, 143-154 Number 2 (Summer 2010)

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND SPORTS CLIMBING

Richard K. Fleming University of Massachusetts Medical School

Eric J. Hörst TrainingforClimbing.com

Rock climbing, particularly the version known as “sport climbing,” has complex response, performance and training characteristics that make it rich for behavioral analysis and intervention. The purpose of this paper is to explore the operant characteristics of sport climbing as an endeavor in its own right, but also to illustrate the potential for behavior analysis to contribute to sport psychology in general. Accordingly we will: (a) describe sport climbing, emphasizing its behavioral demands and consensus training procedures, (b) review conventional climbing literature (e.g., training books) and research on variables affecting performance in sport climbing, and (c) describe, with supportive data, how behavioral principles and procedures could be applied conceptually to sport climbing, and (d) to suggest opportunities for operant research and practice. Keywords: rock climbing, behavior analysis, sports performance ______Sport climbing is a highly athletic form of point ascent, a fluid and graceful ascent of a rock climbing in which the climber performs difficult climb using hands and feet alone. complex gymnastic moves on overhanging or Ropes, bolt anchors and a competent partner seemingly blank vertical rock faces. The ve- to feed and hold the rope (“belay”) are em- nue may be outdoors on natural cliffs, indoors ployed as safety precautions, but only to catch on artificial climbing gym walls, or, as is the climber in the event of a fall. In a redpoint most often the case, a combination of both. ascent, the rope is never weighted. The Climbing gyms afford climbers a multi- process of accomplishing such an ascent is faceted training environment in which to pre- painstaking. Many hours, or even days, are pare for outdoor ascents (Hörst, 2007). They devoted to acquiring and rehearsing difficult also play host to an international network of individual moves on climbs which usually climbing competitions. In the past two dec- cannot be completed on the climber’s first ades, the popularity of sport climbing and its attempt. Through repeated practice, individual cousin “bouldering” have grown dramatically, moves and short sequences are linked and the resulting in busier cliffs and boulder fields, an climber ultimately is able to complete a fluent

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the increased number of indoor climbing gyms, ascent, free of falls. Generally speaking, sport

This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. the continued growth of national and interna- climbing is an open sport: each section of tional competitions and the formal recognition rock face a climber encounters for the first of sport climbing as an Olympic event. time is different from any other she or he has The ultimate goal in sport climbing is a red- seen, although important similarities also ex- ______ist. Because every climb is different, the rock Address all correspondence to: athlete is challenged to quickly and efficiently Richard K. Fleming generalize from a set of core physical tech- E. K. Shriver Center University of Massachusetts Medical School niques (response topographies) to meet the 200 Trapelo Road requirements of the climb. Arguably, once a Waltham, MA 02452 climber selects a difficult climb as a long- Email: [email protected] term project, sport climbing becomes a closed

143

144 RICHARD K. FLEMMING and ERIC J. HÖRST

sport; the task at hand is to learn and link of climbing movement, using sophisticated movement in a choreographed routine, much electronic measurement and transduction like a floor routine in gymnastics (Wolko, technology. The opportunities for operant Hrycaiko & Martin, 1993). The interplay of research are clear and present. these open to closed-sport characteristics of Sport climbing techniques and training re- sport climbing is what appeals to most sport gimens are far more systematic than the rock climbers. climbing and mountaineering approaches of Systematic training approaches have contri- old. As noted, a handful of elite and academi- buted to large advances in difficulty in sport cally oriented climbers have contributed to climbing in recent years. It may also be true training wisdom in important ways. They that the far greater number of young people have integrated developments in exercise and trying the sport indoors has “selected” for sport science with their own training and individuals who are the most genetically well climbing experiences to produce sophisticated prepared for the sport. Interest in the relative training programs (e.g., Hörst, 2003, 2007; contributions of innate ability and dedicated Goddard & Neumann, 1994; Sagar, 2001). training in the development of expertise in Procedures best suited to the physical form general has led K. Anders Ericsson to elabo- requirements of sport climbing address: (a) rate a theory of “deliberate practice” that is systematic approaches to learning bio- highly compatible with a behavioral approach mechanically efficient but surprisingly coun- to skill development (Ericsson, Krampe, and terintuitive moves (response classes) needed Tesch-Romer, 1993; Ericsson, 2007). Ele- to complete difficult sections of multi-section ments of deliberate practice applied to sport, climbs; (b) repeated and deliberate practice of which most certainly apply to sport climbing, these novel response classes, in order to build include: (a) objective assessment of the ath- fluency; and (c) practice at linking sequences lete’s physical, cognitive and emotional of moves, i.e., establishing the stimulus- strengths and weaknesses, to learn where best response chains that present themselves on to intervene; (b) program planning, accompa- sport climbs. One such response class is the nied by formal long and short-term goal “twist-lock,” a move in which the climber is setting; (c) systematic practice for acquisition better able to grasp and use a small handhold of specific motor behaviors (response topo- on overhanging rock by back-stepping the graphies); (d) repeated practice of new opposite foot on a foothold and then quickly response topographies to build requisite flu- turning that same leg and hip into the rock. ency; (e) stepwise methods for linking This move yields tremendous biomechanical complex sequences of moves (e.g., backward advantage over the more typical straight-on and forward chaining); (f) the use of careful- orientation, yet it is a move that most climbers This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the ly-designed macro- and micro-cycles of do not discover on their own. This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. training to optimize physiological adaptation Training approaches have not been limited and progress, including training “periodiza- to physical skill acquisition. Hörst (2003, tion;” and (e) precise self-management of 2007) elaborated on the assessment and time, goals and motivation. Advice on delibe- broad-based management of motivation, fear, rate training for climbing has been conveyed physiological preparation (anaerobic and in several sophisticated books written by aerobic endurance, strength, power, and flex- highly accomplished, or elite, climbers, most ibility requirements) and nutritional aspects of notably Hörst (2003, 2007). Controlled re- climbing. This expanded list of training research on climbing has been limited, but a quirements calls on the use of operant and few studies have focused on the biomechanics cognitive-behavioral procedures to accom-

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND SPORT CLIMBING 145

plish priority setting, time management, goal- tholds, etc. The best climbers will have a setting (stimulus control and establishing op- well-practiced repertoire of many classes of erations), systematic desensitization (to moves and will apply the most efficient become comfortable with safe falling), posi- moves (and do them quickly) under the pre- tive self-evaluation and self-talk (verbal senting stimulus conditions. One elite behavior) and continual measurement and climber, Francois Legrand, attributes his suc- monitoring of progress. cess to the fact that he has developed an What is the current knowledge base in sport especially broad response repertoire and has climbing, and how has it been developed? learned to quickly match moves to conditions The following section describes conventional, that occur on a novel climb (Perlman, 1995). experience-based wisdom and the limited Legrand refers to response repertoires as empirical research that has contributed to the “families of moves,” and his description of “working” knowledge base. the different families is fairly consonant with a behavior analyst’s description of response CONVENTIONAL WISDOM AND classes. For example, one class of moves is RESEARCH called “underclings,” which can be defined as Conventional Wisdom grasping the underside of a down-facing hold One source of sport climbing knowledge with one or both hands and pulling up and out comes from the reports of highly accom- on the hold in order to advance. Legrand plished climbers, those who climb at the points out that the exact form of the under- highest levels, establishing extremely difficult cling may vary and shift considerably, new routes on natural rock, or placing in the depending, for example, on the positioning of top ranks in national or international competi- one’s feet on existing footholds. Thus, there tions. Elite climbers typically have achieved exists a response class of undercling moves, that status through ten or more years of inten- and top climbers will have practiced the many sive and goal-directed practice - the type of variations of such moves so they can fluently deliberate practice described in the seminal adapt their behavior to suit different rock paper by Ericsson et al (1993). Consider two conditions. In behavior analysis terms, gene- examples of conventional wisdom: (a) identi- ralization among the members of a response fication of a repertoire of response classes that class is critical to expert performance. There all sport climbers will need to acquire, and (b) are probably 10 to 15 major response classes tactics involved in linking (chaining) sections used in sport climbing, the twist-lock de- of a difficult climb to produce a well- scribed earlier being another. orchestrated final ascent. Note that we now Another aspect of climbing involves the turn to using operant terminology to more seamless sequencing of individual moves, This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the especially those required on the most difficult This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. accurately describe the elite climbers’ non- technical descriptions. sections of a climb, to complete a redpoint Advanced-level sport climbing requires the ascent. Once all of the individual moves on a climber to have a broad repertoire of moves. climb have been mastered (by hanging on the Although each new expanse of rock to be rope at each section to rest and repeatedly ascended presents a different set of behavioral attempting the moves until they are fully ac- requirements, there are still reasonably dis- quired) the climber still has to link the moves crete classes of moves and distinctive together. This linking of individual sections is stimulus conditions, i.e., physical characteris- easier said than done: the climber must posess tic of the rock face such as its angle, the the endurance to complete the entire sequence orientation and size of handholds and foo- without rests, and tricky transitions between

146 RICHARD K. FLEMMING and ERIC J. HÖRST

Figure 1. Illustration of backward chaining applied to a sport climber’s preparation for a difficult redpoint ascent. Reprinted with permission from Stackpole Press.

moves must be well rehearsed. One highly articles in the scientific literature that, while recommended procedure for systematically not operant in nature, have implications for a linking sections of a climb together, illu- behavior analysis of sport climbing. Two of strated in Figure 1 (from Goddard & the most interesting investigated aspects of Neumann, 1994) essentially is backward motor behavior in sport climbing. Cordier, chaining. The procedure recommends linking France, Bolon and Pailhous (1993) used geo- the last sections of the climb first and then metric statistics to quantify and compare the working backward to add the other sections. searching (route finding) behaviors of novice What is the authors’ rationale for working in versus expert climbers. As a function of hav- this order? They suggest that the repeated ing more experience, expert climbers were rewarding experience of reaching the top will hypothesized to be more successful than no- better motivate the climber to complete the vice climbers at analyzing novel situations strenuous rehearsal requirement. In behavioral and performing moves in a more efficient terms, the climber maximizes reinforcement manner. In other words, their response reper- during practice by repeatedly succeeding on toires would be expected to be more fully the final sequences. developed and integrated. Climbers were fit- ted at the waist with a light-emitting diode, This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the Research the movement of which was recorded on vi- This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. Controlled research on operant and cogni- deotape and then processed by a computer tive-behavioral procedures has been applied application, resulting in digitized recordings to sports such as swimming (Hazen, John- of movement trajectories and quantification of stone, Martin, & Srikameswaran, 1990), entropy (a measure of the complexity of the baseball (Heward, 1978), football (Komaki, & climbers’ trajectories). Barnett, 1977), and others (see Martin, 2007, Climbers were asked to complete ten climb- and Martin & Tkachuk, 2000 for comprehen- ing trials on a novel route with one-minute sive reviews of behavioral sport psychology breaks separating each trial. Comparisons of research). However, research on sport climb- the time-series entropy data for each group ing has been sparse. The authors found three collected over ten trials showed that experts

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND SPORT CLIMBING 147

climbed far more efficiently. From an operant to describe sport climbing performance; (b) perspective, the measurement technology common stimulus and response classes in used in this study is appealing. By transduc- sport climbing are described; (c) the role of ing behavior (Johnston & Pennypacker, stimulus and response generalization in sport 1993), the less direct and reliable option of climbing is explained; (d) critical dimensions experimenter observation and recording is of climbing response classes are illustrated; obviated. and (e) behavioral procedures that could fur- Nougier, Orliaguet, and Martin (1993) in- ther improve climbing training and vestigated modifications in climbers’ manual performance are described. reaching (for a handhold) as a function of starting posture (easy versus difficult), the Reinforcement, Stimulus Control, and Estab- nature of the hold to be grasped (simple ver- lishing Operations sus complex), and the sequence of the Positive and negative reinforcement play movement (right-hand movements alone or important roles in sport climbing. Most sport before or after left-hand movements). The climbers set goals for themselves (usually to authors’ main hypothesis was that a difficult redpoint a challenging climb) which estab- starting posture should result in a decrease in lishes both interim accomplishments, such as the duration of the reach. Five expert climbers mastering individual moves or linking short each performed 120 trials of reaching and sequences, and the terminal accomplishment grasping on an artificial climbing wall. Each of completing the redpoint ascent, as powerful subject performed under each of the three natural reinforcers. The social encouragement condition manipulations - starting posture, that typically accompanies these stepwise and hold size (nature), and sequence. Infrared terminal accomplishments supplements these emitting diodes placed on the right hand al- reinforcers. Negative reinforcement also lowed for the precise measurement of the comes into play. A climber may make one last form and speed of hand movement. Results determined attempt to redpoint a climb at the indicated shorter movement durations for the end of the day to avoid having to return to the more difficult posture, regardless of the size climb on another day. Or, one may climb of the hold or the sequence, and longer- more carefully through a section to avoid a duration times for the easier posture. Finer potentially harmful fall. grained analysis of the course of acceleration Stimulus control is another important prin- of hand movements under both conditions ciple in sport climbing. Correct (immediate suggested to the authors that typical cognitive and accurate) performance of difficult moves “online controls” were suppressed by the state occurs when the climber’s motor behavior of disequilibrium experienced in the more comes under tight stimulus control of critical This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the difficult posture. features of the rock face - crucial handholds, This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. footholds, or cracks. As might be expected, A BEHAIVOR ANALYSIS OF stimulus control is established through re- SPORT CLIMBING peated successful practice of individual The premise of this paper is that behavior moves, once the climber has acquired them. analysis has the potential to contribute to the Stimulus control operates as sequences of understanding, assessment and enhancement moves are linked: stimuli associated with the of sport climbing performance. In the follow- completion of one move, such as the sight of ing section: (a) behavioral principles the next rock features, the feel of the foo- (reinforcement and stimulus control) and es- tholds and handholds one has reached, and tablishing operations are applied conceptually even subtle proprioceptive feedback asso-

148 RICHARD K. FLEMMING and ERIC J. HÖRST

ciated with body position, serve the dual sti- trolled lunge from one handhold to the next. mulus function of reinforcing the completion The more experiences a climber has had of the previous move and occasioning per- matching responses to different types of rock formance of the next difficult move. features, the more organized the various sti- The type of reinforcement and stimulus mulus classes become. control relations described above can be dis- Just as features of the rock fall into stimulus rupted or improved by prior events that classes, different types of movements form function as establishing operations. If the response classes. Using an example from climber is fatigued from inadequate rest or above, the hand position used to jam in a 1½” recovery, or perhaps distracted by pressing crack is somewhat different than the hand jam personal problems, he or she might not attend in a 3”crack, yet both fall into the response and respond as effectively to the critical sti- class of hand jams. Similarly, the propelling muli on a climb. Conversely, the climber who dynamic force needed to stab a handhold is well-rested and who has practiced visualiz- three feet beyond one’s maximum static reach ing a successful ascent might experience will be greater than if the handhold is only 6” maximum performance. For the more compet- out of reach. Yet both moves would still be itive climber, the magnitude of reinforcement considered to be in the response class of dy- for progress on a climb might be significantly namic movement. diminished if another climber succeeds first at the redpoint ascent. Conversely reinforcement Stimulus and Response Generalization might be increased if the competitor fails on a It should be evident at this point that al- previous attempt, thus opening a competitive though relatively distinct stimulus and “door.” Concurrent events might also affect response classes exist in rock climbing, stimu- performance. The presence of a crowd of on- lus generalization and response generalization lookers on a busy day, extreme heat and are critically important. Because the physical humidity or cold, or a new partner might ad- features of each piece of rock vary, a range of versely affect performance. Again, the flip variations within a stimulus class must occa- side is that an absence of onlookers, optimal sion the correct response classes (stimulus temperature and humidity, and a familiar generalization). In addition, slight but critical partner, might enhance performance. adaptations to responses within a response class must also occur to accommodate the Stimulus and Response Classes different physical features of the rock. Thus Stimulus and response generalization are response generalization is another important critical in sport climbing. For experienced component in building a climbing repertoire, climbers, the physical features of rock faces and variations must be deliberately trained. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the fall into distinct stimulus classes, each calling This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. for a particular class of response. Cracks Critical Behavioral Dimensions ranging in width from 1½” to 3” occasion the A host of behavioral dimensions are impor- response class of hand jamming (fitting in and tant in sport climbing. Because climbers need then wedging the hand into a crack), whereas to employ the most biomechanically advanta- ½” to 1½” cracks occasion finger jamming. A geous (e.g., strength-conserving) forms of long reach between two good handholds on a movement on the rock, specifying the topo- severely overhanging wall might occasion a graphy of response classes is very helpful in static twist lock move. A reach that cannot be training and practice, for example, keeping made statically because the handholds are too the hips close to the rock when moving up a far apart calls for a dynamic move - a con- severe overhang (e.g., the twist lock) will

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND SPORT CLIMBING 149

Figure 2. Hand placements of first and second ascents of a difficult route by a less experienced climber (Climber 1) and a more experienced climber (Climber 2).

better position one’s bodyweight over the feet hold. “Overgripping” a hold, out of fear, in- and legs and off the weaker forearm and arm experience or both, can waste energy and muscles. Duration is another critical dimen- result in premature failure. sion. Generally speaking, the longer a climber Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the use of two spends on a climb, the more fatigued she will behavioral dimensions to measure sport become. Faster ascents, as long as the moves climbing performance frequency and dura- are performed in good form, will use less tion. Two climbers were videotaped climbing energy than slower ascents. In many in- a severely overhanging and difficult (5.11c) stances, frequency is an important dimension. climb on natural rock. Performance evalua- An experienced climber can usually be distin- tions on overhanging rock are especially guished from a novice climber by observing informative when comparing expert and less- the number of hand placements used on a than-expert climbers, because an inefficient climb: the experienced climber will usually hand or foot move on such terrain can cause This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the pick the most advantageous handholds the the climber to torque (“barndoor” in climbing This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. first time while the novice will need to seek terms) outward and potentially lose purchase. out and test more holds before committing to Each climber completed the redpoint on their moves. Accuracy also distinguishes expert second attempt; the first attempt for each in- from novice climbers. Experts will place their volved in a fall and a brief rest on the rope. hands or feet precisely on handholds and foo- Climber 2 had over 20 years of experience, tholds, whereas a novice might be more apt to mostly on natural rock. Climber 1 had been over or under reach for holds, necessitating climbing for less than two years, although he recovery from the inefficient effort. Finally, had trained extensively over that period in an intensity can prove important. Expert climb- indoor climbing gym and was the physically ers use the least force necessary to grasp a stronger of the two climbers. Data were

150 RICHARD K. FLEMMING and ERIC J. HÖRST

Figure 3. Durations of first and second ascents of a difficult route by a less experienced climber (Climber 1) and a more experienced climber (Climber 2).

recorded directly from videotapes of the fours ascent, but both climbers took approximately ascents. the same time to complete their redpoint as- As the Cordier et al (1993) study suggests, cents. These data are only meant to be the more experienced climber should search illustrative of the notion that measuring the less and grasp fewer holds than a less expe- dimensions of frequency and duration may rienced climber during an initial ascent. It help distinguish experienced from less- might also be expected that a more expe- experienced climbers, and may provide a use- rienced climber (Climber 2) would require ful index of progress for aspiring climbers. less time on the rock to succeed in making moves. Figure 2 depicts the number of hand Behavior Analysis Procedures and Sport placements (one hand grasps a hold and main- Climbing tains that grasp for 2 sec or more) made by Formal behavior analytic procedures appear each climber on their first (practice) and particularly well suited to sport climbing. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the second (redpoint) ascents. Note that Climber Self-managed shaping could help a climber to This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. 1, the less experienced climber, used almost master difficult technical moves during the twice as many hand placements as Climber 2 acquisition phase of a redpoint effort when on the first ascent. On the second ascent, the first attempting a climb. For example, a move climbers were remarkably similar in the num- involving awkward body positioning could ber of hand placements they used; Climber 1 first be approximated, with closer approxima- adapted quickly. tions being added as the climber’s body Figure 3 shows durations for the first and adjusts to the novel orientation. This seems to second ascents of each climber. Again, happen naturally when one watches climbers Climber 1 took longer to complete the first working out hard moves in a gym, but atten-

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND SPORT CLIMBING 151

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly.

Figure 4: Training objectives and seasonal climbing goals, from Training for Climbing (Hörst, 2003)

152 RICHARD K. FLEMMING and ERIC J. HÖRST

tion to the size of approximations might help movement in easy to moderate climbing cha- a climber progress faster. Alternatively, a racterizes aerobic endurance, whereas the little assistance in the form of a slight upward number (frequency) of fingertip pull ups with pull on the rope might at first help a climber a 20 lb. weight belt may prove the appropriate complete a move. The assistance could then measure in a strength phase. Top-level climb- be gradually faded until the climber is per- ers, for whom progress will be slower and forming the move independently. perhaps more subtle to detect, could benefit Forward and backward chaining procedures from periodizing training and collecting data are also well suited to sport climbing, espe- to provide more sensitive quantitative feed- cially at the linking stage of an ascent. The back on their performance. Figure 4, from Goddard and Neumann (1994) example de- Training for Climbing (Hörst, 2003), provides scribed earlier suggests that backward an example of just such an approach. chaining might be more motivating because the climber gets to sample the highly reinforc- OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH ing consequence of reaching the top of the IN SPORTS CLIMBING route. In addition, the greater amount of prac- Opportunities for behavior analysis research tice on the last sections that would occur with in sport climbing are great. Climbing perfor- backward versus forward chaining might mance can be observed directly and work to climber’s advantage on a redpoint objectively along a host of different dimen- attempt: fatigued at the end of the ascent, the sions. In addition, the proliferation of climber might profit from the conditioned climbing gyms and smaller-scaled, portable reinforcement and stimulus control operations artificial walls provide a close simulation of that were established through repeated prac- actual climbing and a ready operant laborato- tice. In other words, the climber might find it ry for controlled research. Finally, the easier to “push through.” complex, sequential, and varied nature of the Fluency training, practicing making moves motor behaviors involved in sport climbing accurately and quickly, holds great potential provides opportunities for research on shaping as a sport climbing procedure. Again, al- (acquisition), chaining, and stimulus and re- though elite climbers currently understand sponse generalization, as suggested above. and apply versions of fluency training, the Such research should have generality to other approach could be made more precise and sports in which complex motor performance systematic. Perhaps a stopwatch could be is required. A logical area of applied beha- used to time the completion of correct moves vioral research would be on the development and sequences. Faster times could then be of more systematic training and performance gradually shaped. enhancement procedures. Research on shap- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the Finally, competence in performance man- This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. ing, chaining and fluency training in sport agement might prove beneficial to climbers. climbing has not been done at all, and it has In developing training programs, advanced been done only minimally in other more climbers profit from periodizing their training mainstream sports. Concerning applications over several months to isolate the develop- of feedback, the use of videotaped feedback ment of aerobic endurance, strength/power in training could be extended from research and anaerobic endurance, with dedicated pe- conducted with competitive swimmers (Ha- riods of rest. Performance goals with zen et al., 1990). For example, conducting appropriate dimensional measurement could component analyses of video-mediated feed- be established for distinctive objectives. For back packages might help isolate the most example, long durations of continuous critical independent variables included in the

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND SPORT CLIMBING 153

package, or help determine how certain va- to sports specifically by Starkes and Ericsson riables influence specific types or dimensions (2003). Physical variables such as sleep sta- of behavior. tus, recovery time from a prior workout, Although applied research on training and overall and proximal nutritional status, and performance enhancement procedures would muscle flexibility of muscles are just some prove practically useful, a natural science factors that could be affect performance in approach would suggest interest in more fun- orderly ways. Sport and exercise physiolo- damental research on the nature of the motor gists and motor behavior researchers have behavior involved in climbing. What are the conducted extensive research in this area major response classes involved in sport (Wilmore & Costill, 1994), but operant ana- climbing? Which are most critical steps in lyses are needed. becoming an expert climber? What types of variables influence climbing performance? REFERENCE Consider the wide range of variables that Cordier, P., France, M.M., Bolon, P., & Pailhous, J. (1993). Entropy, degrees of freedom, and free might be investigated to answer the last ques- climbing: A thermodynamic study of a complex tion. Central to an operant analysis would be behavior based on trajectory analysis. Journal of analyses of climbers’ reinforcers and punish- Sport Psychology, 4, 370-378. ers. The behavior of some climbers appears to Delignietes, D., Famose, J., Thepaut-Mathien, C., & be largely under the control of competitive Fleurance, P. (1993). A psychophysical study of difficulty rating in rock climbing. International social reinforcers and punishers (Did I climb Journal of Sport Psychology a 404-416. better or worse than my partner?), while the Ericsson, K.A. (2007, May). The acquisition of skilled behavior of others seems to be maintained by and expert performance through deliberate prac- the accomplishment of personal goals. Stimu- tice. Presidential Scholar’s Address presented at lus control relationships will also be the 33rd Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis: International. San Diego, important in a comprehensive operant analy- CA. sis. For example, climbers who learn to climb Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T., & Tesch-Romer, C. on artificial walls with distinctive, bolted- on (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the ac- holds seem to have trouble generalizing their quisition of expert performance. Psychological behavior to natural rock. While no one has Review, 100(3), 363-406. Goddard, D., & Neumann, U. (1994). Performance investigated that premise scientifically, there Rock Climbing. Mechanicsberg, PA:Stackpole are good reasons to believe it might be true. Books. On natural rock the holds tend to be flush Hazen, A., Johnstone, C., Martin, G.L., & Srikames- with the surface, greater in number (so the waran (1990). A videotaping feedback package climber might have to select from among sev- for improving skills of youth competitive swimmers. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 213-227. eral options), and of the same color. A Heward, W.L. (1978). Operant conditioning of a .300 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. American Psychological This document is copyrighted by the stimulus control analysis might investigate

This article is intended solely for the personal use of individual user and not to be disseminated broadly. hitter? The effects of reinforcement on the offen- climber performance under different condi- sive efficiency of a barnstorming baseball team. tions of hold complexity or subtlety, and as a Behavior Modification, 2, 25-40. function of prior indoor versus outdoor expe- Hörst, E.J. (2007). Learning to Climb Indoors. Guil- ford, CT: Falcon Globe/Pequot Press. rience. It might suggest ways to change Hörst, E.J. (2003). Training for Climbing. Guilford, artificial walls to improve generality. CT: Falcon Globe/Pequot Press. Finally, a broad range of historical variables Johnston, J.M., & Pennypacker, H.S. (1993). Strategies such as the amount and nature of prior delibe- and Tactics of Behavioral Research. Hillsdale, rate practice would be expected to affect NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Komaki, J., & Barnett, F.T. (1977). A behavioral ap- performance, as suggested generally by Erics- proach to coaching football: Improving the play son and colleagues (1993) and then extended execution of the offensive backfield on a youth

154 RICHARD K. FLEMMING and ERIC J. HÖRST

football team. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(4), 657-664. Martin, G.L. (2007). Applied Sport Psychology: Prac- tical Guidelines from Behavior Analysis (Third Edition). Manitoba, Sport Science Press. Martin, G.L., & Tkachuk, G.A. (2000). Behavioral sport psychology. In J. Austin and J. E. Carr (Eds.), Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis. Reno, NV: Context Press. Nougier, V., Orliaguet, J., & Martin, 0. (1993). Kine- matic modifications of the manual reaching in climbing: Effects of environmental and corporal constraints. International Journal of Sport Psy- chology, 24, 379-390. Perlman, E. (1995). Rock climbing skills: the basics and beyond. Truckee, CA: Eric Perlman Produc- tions. Sagar, H. R. (2001). Climbing Your Best. Mechanics- burg, PA: Stackpole Books. Starkes, J.L., & Ericsson, K.A. (2003). Expert Per- formance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sport Expertise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Wilmore, J.H., & Costill, D.L. (1994). Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Ki- netics. Wolko, K.L., Hrycaiko, D.W., & Martin, G.L. (1993). A comparison of two self-management packages to standard coaching for improving practice performance of gymnasts. Behavior Modification, 17, 209-223.