A project by • The great experimental Neil Cummings, physicist Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic for Arnolfini’s induction when he wraps 50th anniversary two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring and finds that, upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current is induced in the other. He uses this principle to construct electromagnetic rotary devices which suggest the possibility of electric motors, generators and transformers. Through his research 1831 we come to understand Bristol Riots, electromagnetic force, which Queen exists everywhere and in all Square things, as one of the four fundamental components of our universe. Self Portrait: Arnolfini 1832 Discovery of electromagnetic current, Michael Faraday

Riots ensue as the Provoked by local magistrate H•ouse of Lords rejects the Sir Charles Wetherell’s Representation of the People opposition to the Bill, riots Act. Commonly known as break out and continue over the Reform Bill it intends to three days. The Mansion give greater representation House in Queen Square is in the House of Commons looted, the Bishop’s Palace to the many cities that set on fire, and the prison have expanded during the destroyed. Industrial Revolution. Dragoon guards violently Bristol has been suppress the riot by represented since 1295, but charging through Queen Left: Soldiers subduing the by 1830 only 6,000 of the Square with drawn swords. riots in Queen Square, Bristol. 104,000 population were Hundreds are killed or Above: Michael Faraday eligible to vote for their MP. severely wounded.

1 On 7th January, members o•f the French Académie des 1837 Sciences are introduced to an 1835 Government invention that will change the Narrow Quay nature of visual representation School of forever. The astonishingly warehouse extended Design to store tea and precise pictures are the work of Louis-Jacques- dry goods Mandé Daguerre, a Romantic painter and printmaker. Each daguerrotype is a remarkably detailed, unique image on a 1832 highly polished, silver-plated Acraman’s builds sheet of copper sensitised with iodine vapours, exposed warehouse at in a large box camera, Narrow Quay The Industrial Revolution the manufacturing developed in mercury fumes, e•stablished Britain as a world population of the country.” and stabilised (or fixed) with 1836 leader in manufacturing and The following year the saltwater. Daguerre is Bristol Zoo enabled British products to Committee concludes that required to publish detailed generate vast internal and successful international instructions of the process, international markets. By the competitors are funding but retains patents on the 1830s these markets are public design education, equipment. threatened as European, while Britain is not, Indian and American goods recommending that compete alongside British Parliament invest £1,500 to products with increasing establish a central school of success, a success often design in London, with attributed to their design further annual funding to superiority. establish a network of Feeling their livelihoods at provincial schools in the risk, British manufacturers major industrial centres of lobby Parliament, and in 1835 the country. The Government 1839 a Select Committee is set in School of Design is First patented motion to “Enquire into the established at Somerset photographic best means of extending a House in London in 1837, and process, Louis knowledge of the Arts and Art & Design becomes the Daguerre the principles of Design first form of publicly-funded among the people, especially education in Britain.2

Merchants and The company of Acraman The Bristol, Clifton and i•ronmongers Acraman’s B•ush Castle & Co. is formed W•est of England Zoological acquires the leases of three specifically to take advantage Society opens Bristol houses at the south end of the recent removal of the Zoological Gardens, only the of Prince Street, Bristol. East India Company’s tea fifth zoo in the world, and the Bordered on two sides by monopoly. Designed by first outside a capital city. the dock walls of Bristol’s Richard Shackleton Pope Isambard Kingdom Brunel Floating Harbour, where in local pennant stone, the and Joseph Fry are among the River Frome once warehouse is extended to the 220 original shareholders flowed into the River accommodate expected responsible for raising the Avon along St Augustine’s future trade. Its monumental capital to build the zoo on a Reach, the site is at the heart construction, later described modest 12-acre site in Clifton. of the city’s international by Andrew Foyle as “the Amongst the 40 species on trading quarter. Acraman’s forefather of the Bristol display the zoo boasts a Left: Etching used in the pulls the houses down, Byzantine style”, will attract zebra, a leopard, monkeys, a Acraman’s letterhead, c. 1835. building a new property the attention of architectural pair of sloth bears, fallow deer, Above: Louis Daguerre. Right: described as “warehouses, critic and historian Nikolaus a camel, an elephant and an Boulevard du Temple, 1838, Louis Daguerre, the earliest lofts, cellars and compting Pevsner, in his Buildings of Indian tiger which soon known photograph featuring 1 houses”. England series. becomes the star attraction. living people

2 3 1846 Free trade 1843 formalised SS Great 1844 Britain Bank Charter Act establishes gold standard against which British bank notes are 1846 issued 1841 Warehouse Bristol renamed to London Bush House railway

The first major British Also designed by Brunel, Throughout the 1820s, The various Corn Laws of In 1841 a collection r•ailway, the Great Western t•he SS Great Britain is d•ifferent bank notes secured 1•815 to 1846 were essentially o•f prominent Bristol Railway (GWR), runs for the launched in Bristol for the against different units of import tariffs designed to businessmen, the Society first time between Bristol Great Western Steamship account were issued by protect cereal crop prices in of Merchant Venturers, Temple Meads and London Company’s transatlantic local and regional banks the United Kingdom against established the Merchant Paddington. Facing stiff service. The Great Britain, throughout the United competition from cheaper Venturers Water Works. competition from Liverpool, together with the GWR, Kingdom. This practice foreign imports. Aristocratic Backed by Isambard city merchants have been provides an integrated was restricted in 1826 when landowners who benefit from Kingdom Brunel, the group keen to protect Bristol’s status transport system between the Bank of England was high prices claim that middle- sought to supply water to as the dominant port of trade London and New York. allowed to set up regional class manufacturers want to Clifton and the wealthier with America. The first iron-built ocean branches, and brought to drive prices down so they can parts of Bristol. In 1845 Following an Act of liner equipped with screw a close in 1833 when Bank lower workers’ wages and a rival group of prominent Parliament in 1835 and the propellors, the Great Britain of England notes were increase profits. On the third local citizens is formed, appointment of Isambard is by far the largest vessel made legal tender. The reading of the Bill of Repeal concerned that these plans Kingdom Brunel as engineer, afloat. With her massive Bank Charter Act finally (Importation Act 1846) would not provide water the railway is constructed in 1,000-horsepower engine, establishes Bank of England Members of Parliament vote for the poorer, more six years, terminating at she easily breaks all notes, fully backed by gold, by a majority of 98 to abolish densely-populated areas of Bristol’s beautiful Tudoresque previous speed records on as the national legal standard. the Corn Laws. This landmark the city. The group includes station, the world’s largest her maiden voyage across British finance is now a decision marks a significant William Budd, a pioneer single-span building. the Atlantic. coherent system. step towards the ideology of in sanitation; chocolatier managed free trade between and philanthropist Francis nations, and signals the start Fry; and George Thomas, 1846 of the exponential growth of a Quaker merchant active The Bristol a middle class. in repealing the Corn Laws. Waterworks The government weighs Company The Acraman’s trading up the rival schemes and e•mpire was bankrupt by narrowly comes down 1842, and the business on the side of the new was slowly broken up. group, so on 16th July After several changes of the Bristol Waterworks occupier, the Narrow Quay Company is formally warehouse is bought by established by an Act of bonded warehouse keepers Parliament. Above Brunel’s beautiful, George and James Bush, 1847 wooden, single-span train shed. who rename the building • The Bristol factory of J.S. Fry’s first c. 1843, engraving by John Cooke Bush House. Fry & Sons on Union Street commercial Bourne. Right: View of Harbour produces “Chocolat Delicieux chocolate Docks with Bush House in the a Manger”, the first solid middle distance, c. 1835. Far right: bar Fry’s ‘Five Boys’ chocolate bar chocolate bar for mass advertisement consumption.

4 5 • Samuel Finley Breese “A great people invited Morse, with co-inventor all civilised nations to Alfred Vail, patented a simple dot-dash code and devices a festival, to bring into for encoding, transmitting, comparison the works receiving and decoding of human skill. The human readable text in 1840. organisation of this giant Morse’s code and single-wire enterprise; the inclusion telegraph system (running of every type of process along railway lines to minimise property-rights of manufacture; the negotiations) now reaches a successful appeal to all 20,000-mile network in the classes of the population; United States, and is adopted the stimulation of as standard across Europe – trade, will commend except Britain, which stays loyal to the home-grown this Exhibition to our needle telegraph system of ancestors, as it now William Cooke and Charles does to ourselves.” Wheatstone. Henry Cole

1851 Samuel Morse telegraph system de-facto standard

1851 Great Right: The Great Exhibition of the Exhibition Works of Industry of all Nations 1851, The British Nave. Lithograph by Joseph Nash. Below: Alphabet and numbers in Morse Code

The Great Exhibition of instrumental in organising resounds with the noise of entertainment. During the t•he Works of Industry of all the exhibition of some one machinery and music as following century a tsunami Nations is a spectacular hundred thousand objects manufacturers display their of spectacular exhibitions celebration of modern in Joseph Paxton’s processes; producing and encircle the globe, and the industrial technology, art, prefabricated cast-iron and exhibiting the latest weapons, Great Exhibition is the design and manufacturing. glass Crystal Palace. It is a ceramics, clocks, glassware, template for every museum, Opened by Queen Victoria on temporary building so vast it jewellery, leatherwork, department store, shopping 1st May, six million people, encloses mature elm trees. lighting, metalwork, sculpture, mall and trade fair thereafter. equivalent to a third of the (Isambard Kingdom Brunel textiles, wallpaper, furniture As historian Donald Preziosi entire population of Britain, will use the same technology and much else besides. suggests, “We have never left visit before it closes six to build Paddington Station The Great Exhibition the Great Exhibition.”3 months later. The influential three years later.) merges art, industry and Henry Cole is a driving force In a performance of the commerce in a previously at the Royal Society for the free trade ideal, 14 thousand unimagined space of Encouragement of Arts, exhibitors from all around the exhibition and leisure, as the Manufactures and world competitively display traditional distinctions Commerce, which is their goods. Inside, the air between things dissolve in

6 7 Following the process Charles Darwin’s i•nitiated by the 1835 Select p•ublication of his field Committee to encourage and 1859 research and its analysis, nurture art and design On the Origin changes the world forever. education, The Bristol School of Species, Darwin’s book painstakingly of Practical Art opens at the Charles Darwin introduces the scientific Academy for the Promotion theory that all animal and of Fine Arts on Queen’s Road, 1853 plant populations evolve over Clifton. It later becomes the the course of generations Royal West of England Bristol through a process of natural Academy. School of selection, through which Practical mutations that enhance a Art species’ survival or reproduction become, and remain, more common in successive generations. His research proves that the rich diversity of life arises by common descent, from a single ancestral cell, rather 1858 than from godly creation. Lehman He concludes “There is a Brothers cotton grandeur in this view of life [that] from so simple a bank opens beginning endless forms in New York most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.”

• As one of the prime added exhibiting tools, • In 1844, 23-year-old Henry movers behind the Great handicrafts, artefacts for 1857 Lehman, son of a Bavarian Exhibition, and inspired by instruction and recreation, South cattle merchant, emigrated to new the 1935 Select Committee and building materials. The Montgomery, Alabama, report, Henry Cole is intent on new museum absorbs the Kensington where he opened a dry- using some of the £186,000 collection of the Architectural Museum opens goods store. In 1850, following Great Exhibition profit to Museum of plans, drawings, in London with the arrival of his brothers improve design and art models and plaster casts; and artefacts bought Emanuel and Mayer, the appreciation. Land is finally the collection of the from the Great company is renamed purchased in South Sculptors’ Institute, consisting Lehman Brothers. Kensington and many of plaster casts of exemplary Exhibition During the 1850s, cotton is exhibits from the Great contemporary and historic one of the most important Exhibition are acquired to art works. crops in the United States. form the nucleus of a Officially opened on 22nd Utilising cotton’s high market collection, as Cole (who is June, Cole is the first director value the brothers begin to also Head of the School of and introduces late night accept raw cotton as Design) orchestrates a openings, “to ascertain payment for merchandise, magnificent new museum. practically what hours are and to extend cash loans to The museum is imagined most convenient to the farmers. Within a few years as an ‘educational’ institution, working classes.” cotton trading and banking part of a innovative system of In 1899, Queen Victoria lays become the most significant popular education. It is the foundation stone of a new part of their business. In 1858, initially organised into building that will give the New York City is the centre of departments of Art, museum a grand façade and cotton trading and Lehman Machinery, and Materials- main entrance. To mark the Brothers opens its first bank cum-Manufactory, although a occasion, it is renamed the Above: An early display at the branch in Manhattan, at 119 South Kensington Museum, 4 section on Domestic and Victoria and Albert Museum. c. 1858. Opposite: Portrait of Liberty Street. Sanitary Economy is soon Charles Darwin, c. 1874

8 9 After years spent Five attempts to lay a Karl Marx publishes the e•xperimenting with inherited c•ommunications cable f•irst volume in his analysis characteristics in artificially across the Atlantic are made and critique of the systemic fertilised pea plants, Gregor over a nine-year period, accumulation of capital, Mendel realises that similar before lasting connections through a close study of the characteristics would are finally achieved using technologies dominating the invariably reassert Isambard Kingdom Brunel’s political economy. He themselves across ship the SS Great Eastern. The accumulates evidence by generations. The fact that new cable, transmitting at a which the means of societies’ living things inherit traits from speed of eight words per production are privately their parents has been used minute, is some fifty times owned and operated for since prehistoric times to faster than its 1858 prototype. profit, at the expense of improve crop plants and equality, liberty and wellbeing. animals through selective This analysis, meticulously breeding. Mendel’s work is assembled through concepts key to understanding that like use, exchange and inheritable ‘elements’ (he 1867 surplus value, commodity does not use the word ‘gene’) production, alienation, class, are consistent with, and are Capital, the bourgeoisie, etc., leads indeed the mechanisms by Karl Marx Marx to suggest that only which evolution by natural through a dialectical struggle selection proceeds. Our between classes will society, knowledge of genetics economics and politics begins.5 progress. However the point of Capital for Marx, is not The world’s first postal wine merchant William began the process of raising merely to analyse or s•avings system is initiated by Vick, who had bequeathed the funds to complete the ‘interpret’ the world but to the British government with a sum of money in 1754 project as a memorial to the change it. He agitates for the the aim of enabling workers towards its construction. pioneering engineer. working class to assume “to provide for themselves The competition to find a Now completed, the control of the means of against adversity and ill suitable design was bridge spans 214 metres production, to overthrow health.” It also provides the eventually won by Brunel in across the gorge, 76 metres capitalism with a new system: government with access to March 1831, and the bridge’s above the River Avon. Socialism. The first English 1865 new capital to fund debt foundation stone was laid Brunel made precise 1866 translation of Capital follows repayments. that June. But the Bristol calculations as to the Experiments 20 years later, four years after riots in October knocked minimal gauge required with inherited First permanent Marx’s death. • The Clifton Suspension business confidence within to maintain maximum characteristics, transatlantic Bridge is finally opened, five the city and the project, strength between the 4,200 Gregor Mendel, telegraphic years after the death of its dogged by contractual and links that make up the cable designer and engineer financial difficulties, was bridge’s chain. The chain Germany Isambard Kingdom Brunel. abandoned. Following itself is recycled from his The initial idea for the Brunel’s death in 1859 the bridge at Hungerford, which bridge came from Bristol Institution of Civil Engineers is being demolished.

1864 Clifton Suspension Bridge

1861 Post Office Savings Left: Etching of the Clifton Suspension Bridge, c. 1870. Right: Peas, related to those of Mendel.

10 11 • Partly inspired by, and an • Charles Babbage dies of ‘The analytical engine inspiration for Marx, the Paris kidney failure, aged 79, weaves algebraic 1872 Commune is the first having constructed a small Bristol 1873 experiment in governance by part of his Analytical Engine. patterns just as the a working class during The Analytical Engine is an Jaquard loom weaves Library and Colt 45 handgun industrial capitalism, briefly important incident in the flowers and leaves.’ Museum pioneers governing Paris between 18th narration of machine Ada Lovelace interchangeable March and 28th May. assemblies. The design for a mass-produced After France is defeated in general-purpose mechanical components the Franco-Prussian war, the engine was first described by workers and the lower-middle Babbage, working with Ada classes of Paris seize power. Lovelace, in 1837. Instructions Free elections are held and an to the Engine’s programme is elected council that declares via punched cards, an idea Paris an independent borrowed from the Jacquard 1876 commune, suggesting that loom used for weaving Telephone, the rest of France should complex patterns in textiles. Alexander organise as a confederation The Engine has a ‘store’ 1871 Graham Bell of communes. The where numbers and The Analytical Commune initiates a radical intermediate results are held, Engine, prototype reorganisation of social and a separate ‘mill’ where computer, Charles relations and public services; the arithmetic processing is Babbage and principally they turn factories performed. It is capable of into co-operatives. various arithmetical functions Ada Lovelace On 21st May, loyal and has a variety of outputs, government troops enter the including hardcopy printout, city and engage in seven punched cards, graph days of bitter street fighting. plotting and a bell. The Commune is overthrown The logical structure of the and 30,000 Communards Analytical Engine – the slaughtered. The specific separation of the memory Telegraphic message conditions in which it forms (the store) from the central t•raffic is rapidly expanding, its controversial decrees, its processor (the mill), and and in the words of Western experimental organisation facilities for inputting Union President William and violent end, make the instructions and outputting Orton, has become “the Paris Commune one of the data – influences the nervous system of most important political evolution of all future commerce”. episodes for models of self- computational machine Eminent scientist and organisation. assemblies.6 inventor Alexander Graham 1871 Bell builds a transmitter Below: Communards executed Paris consisting of a diaphragm of by Army of Versailles firing Commune thin animal skin stretched squad during the ‘Bloody Week’ over an armature of of May. Right: Colt Single Action Army revolver magnetised iron. Fixed to its middle is a Faraday-derived As part of Britain’s museum The Colt Single Action made components are electromagnetic circuit. This e•xpansion and following the A•rmy, also known as the manufactured to fine assembly is then attached by merger of the Bristol Colt 45, is a single-action specifications to ensure the a telegraph line to a second Institution for the handgun with a revolving efficient assembly of new membrane-device for use as Advancement of Science cylinder holding six bullets. weapons and the easy repair a receiver. On 10th March Bell and Art with the Bristol It is designed by Colt’s Patent of existing weapons, while is in one room, while his Library Society in 1871, a Firearms Manufacturing minimising both the time and assistant sits with the receiver new combined library and Company, which pioneers skill of the worker. in another. Bell speaks into his museum opens at the top the development of The interchangeability of instrument: “Mr Watson, of Park Street, next to the weapons assembled from standardised components is come here, I want to see you”, army reserve’s drill hall. It is interchangeable parts: crucial to the introduction of and Watson hears the words demolished in 1905 to pre-fabricated components continuous-flow serial clearly. Spoken word has incorporate the new City that are, for all practical production, vital elements in passed through the telegraph Museum and Art Gallery. purposes, identical. Machine- modern manufacturing. and the telephone is initiated.

12 13 Left: The Horse in Motion, Lehman Brothers expand Previously a complicated automatic electro-photograph, i•nto commodities trading. a•nd exclusive practice, the Eadweard Muybridge. One of the founders of the introduction of the Kodak Below: Bristol Rovers Football Club, 1904–5 New York Cotton Exchange box camera, the first simple in 1870, and member of the commercially mass- Coffee Exchange as early as produced camera, turns 1883, the bank is instrumental photography into an easily in convening the emerging accessible artform. The market for railroad bonds in initial model has a fixed- the 1880s. The Brothers grow focus lens, capturing an investment division to circular images 2½ inches facilitate corporations and in diameter on a roll of film governments in raising capable of recording capital by underwriting or 100 exposures. Once the acting as agents in the cellulose film is exposed it is 1883 underwriting of securities. posted back to the company Black They join the New York Stock for processing, they then Arabs FC Exchange in 1887, and return the negatives and founded underwrite their first public prints. Kodak’s camera and offering, the stock of the processing system marks International Steam Pump the advent of popular Company 12 years later. photography.

1878 The Bristol 1881 Mercury and Population 1887 Daily Post of Bristol: Lehman Brothers 206,874 add Investment 1879 Division to High-speed camera Credit and Loan and sequential banking 1888 images, Eadweard Kodak box Muybridge camera popularises “You press the photography button, we do the rest.” Kodak

The rapid rise in the owner and businessman, of large glass-plate cameras Founded in the Eastville p•opulation of Bristol, brought decides to try and settle a placed in a line, each d•istrict of Bristol, the name of about as a result of the city’s popularly-debated question, triggered by a long thread the club derives from a prosperous trading activities, whether all four of a horse’s as the horse gallops past, conflation of the black shirts contributes to the decision hooves are off the ground at and captures a stunning worn by the players, and a to merge the Bristol Daily the same time during a series of sequential images. rugby club known as the Post and the Bristol Mercury, gallop – the so-called The images are later copied Arabs, who play on an creating a new daily ‘unsupported transit’. onto a disc and viewed, adjoining pitch at Purdown. newspaper with a total He hires Eadweard spinning, in a machine They play their first friendly circulation of 25,000. Muybridge, an English called a zoopraxiscope. match against Wotton-under- photographer already The seed of motion pictures Edge on 1st December, losing The former Governor of known for his pioneering is sown, and unsupported 6–0. They are renamed C•alifornia Leland Stanford, work with sequential images. transit verified. Eastville Rovers in 1884, then a railway investor, racehorse Muybridge uses a series Bristol Rovers in 1899.

14 15 Left: Illustration in Harpers An encounter with the Owned by its members, a Sortie des Usines Lumière Weekly of the panic scenes in w•ork of Eadweard Muybridge m•utual organisation or à• Lyon (Workers Leaving the Wall Street on Wednesday appears to have inspired building society is a financial Lumière Factory) is a moving- morning, 14th May 1890, drawn by Schell and Hogan. Right: inventor, scientist, and institution to help individuals image film made by Auguste Kinetoscope Parlor, San businessman Thomas Edison secure loans, especially Marie Louis Nicolas and Louis Francisco, c. 1894–95. to pursue the development of mortgages, to buy property. Jean Lumière that consists of a motion-picture system. On Fraudulent lending societies, a single 46-second scene in 25th February 1888, so-called ‘promoter’ societies, which workers are seen Muybridge gave a lecture emerge with small capital streaming from their that may have included a reserves and few assets, so photographic factory in Lyon. demonstration of his they are dependent upon The Lumières hold their zoopraxiscope, a device for aggressive new mortgage first public screening, viewing sequential images sales and the cash flow they projecting ten short films, on from a spinning disk which provide to keep the society 28th December at Salon produces the illusion of solvent. Once the flow of Indien du Grand Café in Paris. motion. In October, Edison fresh mortgages and cash Each film is 17 metres long filed a preliminary claim, or dries up, societies fail and and hand-cranked through a caveat, with the US Patent members lose their money, projector. This is the moment Office announcing his plans and often their property. The when the apparatus of to create a device that would strengthened Building cinema, its recording and do “for the eye what the Societies Act closes loopholes projecting structure, its actor phonograph does for the ear”. and legislates against and audience relations are The proposed motion-picture ‘pyramid’ selling schemes. crystallised.9 machine, the Kinetoscope, assembles a series of innovations and protocols; principally that of conveying new a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source through a high-speed shutter. The machine is a big box-like 1890 structure, with a binocular The Panic. viewing device. The first film strip for the Kinetoscope, Financial turmoil, Monkeyshines No. 1, depicts Barings Bank rescued an employee of Edison by £17m bailout displaying physical dexterity.8 from the Bank • Barings Bank was founded resign, and the country is of England 1891 in 1762 by three brothers, close to defaulting on its debt The sons of a wool trader from repayments. This exposes the Exeter. Barings gradually vulnerability and indeed Kinetoscope, diversified from wool trading recklessness of Barings’ Thomas into many other positions. Lacking sufficient Edison commodities, eventually capital reserves to make 1895 providing all the necessary good on its promises, the First public financial services to facilitate bank teeters on the brink of film screeening, the rapid growth of collapse. There is panic, and Lumière international trade. fear of possible contagion. An brothers, Barings is increasingly international consortium involved in international assembled by the Bank of 1894 France securities and has invested England scrambles together Building heavily in underwriting the a £17 million fund to Societies Act railway expansion and debt- guarantee Barings’ debts. outlaws ‘pyramid’ bond issues of Argentina. The Without this, London’s entire Argentine economy is in private banking system mortgage recession, president Miguel would collapse, precipitating selling Juárez Celman is forced to an economic catastrophe.7

16 17 Bristol South End turns Italian inventor Guglielmo system. He is granted the p•rofessional and changes M•arconi conducts world’s first patent for a its name to Bristol City FC. experiments, building much system of wireless telegraphy They recruit Sam Hollis of his own equipment, to use in 1896. from Woolwich Arsenal as radio waves to create On 13th May 1897, in a manager, awarding him ‘wireless telegraphy’. This is demonstration for the British a transfer fund of £40 with not a new idea, numerous government, Marconi which to assemble a squad inventors have been broadcasts the first wireless of players to compete in exploring wireless telegraph telegraph communication the Southern League. They technologies for the past fifty over open sea, a distance of continue to play games years; however Marconi four miles from Lavernock at St John’s Lane, Bedminster, assembles and improves a Point in South Wales to Flat until the 1900 merger with number of existing Holm Island in the Bristol Bedminster FC and move components, and adapts Channel. His message reads: to Ashton Gate. them into a coherent working “Are you ready?”

Nearing the end of his life, Penitentiary, a huge prison In response to aggressive S•ir Henry Tate, a sugar near the Thames. It is c•ompetition from James 1897 magnate, philanthropist and demolished and the three Buchanan Duke and his Radio major collector of Victorian acres allocated to the American Tobacco Company, transmission, art, offers his collection as a construction of a new ‘palace William Henry Wills of W.D. & gift to the nation. Parliament of art’. H.O. Wills of Bristol initiates Guglielmo declines. Tate then offers to Alongside Tate’s collection, the amalgamation of 13 Marconi fund a gallery to house his the gallery absorbs 109 British tobacco and cigarette collection and to initiate a paintings from the Chantrey companies. Lambert & Butler, National Gallery of British Art, Bequest and the Turner John Player & Sons and 1897 providing the government Bequest, and soon becomes Franklyn Davey & Co. all Bristol donate a suitable site, and the repository for the national participate in the merger, City FC undertake the gallery’s collection of British painting under the umbrella founded administration. After much of all periods. In 1932 the organisation The Imperial debate, Tate’s offer is name will change to the Tate Tobacco Company. Wills accepted. The site chosen Gallery in recognition of Tate’s becomes the new company’s is the disused Millbank generosity and commitment. first chairman.

1901 Population of Bristol: 1897 330,000 1901 National Imperial Gallery of Tobacco British Art Company opens founded

Right: Marconi’s American patent application. Above right: Wills cigarette cards c. 1912

18 19 In 1881 the vicar of St Jude’s Debonair, charismatic, After Faraday, innate Asked why he entered the i•n Whitechapel, London, a•nd charming, described a•ttractions and repulsions f•ield of synthetic resins, Canon Samuel Augustus as the “most handsome man joined size, shape, position Belgian chemist Leo Hendrik Barnett and his wife Henrietta in the world”, Cary Grant and motion as physically Baekeland answers, “To make organised an art exhibition in would star in over 70 films irreducible properties of money.” In 1907 he sets out to their church hall, believing and marry five times. Born matter, these properties find a replacement for natural that art “would educate Archibald Alexander Leach existing in a flat, resins used in assembly-line people so that they might in Horfield, Bristol, he is homogeneous, isotropic manufacturing by exploring realise the extent and expelled from Fairfield space. In 1905 this essentially the reactions of phenol, fillers, meaning of the past, the School aged 14. He moves 200-year-old ‘Newtonian’ heat and moulding beauty of nature, and the to the US two years later, understanding of our technologies. He produces a substance of hope.” The performing as a stilt walker universe is blasted wide versatile thermosetting hard exhibition proved in a touring stage troupe. open. The Special Theory of ‘plastic’ material, a phenolic astonishingly popular, He adopts the name Relativity proposed by Albert that he called Bakelite. attracting some 10,000 Cary Grant in 1931 at the Einstein demonstrates that Because of its high heat visitors, persuading the request of Hollywood time is linked, or related, to resistance and low electrical Barnetts of the need for a executives at Paramount matter and space. Because conductivity, Bakelite permanent exhibition space. Studios who want to mould space and time are part of becomes synonymous with When land adjacent to the a new movie star. Grant a single physical entity, the electrical devices: telephones, new Free Library in becomes Hollywood’s space-time continuum, you clocks, radios, gramophones, Whitechapel High Street quintessential leading man, cannot move through space toasters, and eventually became available, Barnett starring in films such as without moving through time. televisions. purchased it and Bringing Up Baby, The The measurement of space Moulded plastic objects are commissioned Charles Philadelphia Story, To Catch and time also changes perfect for mass-production Harrison Townsend to a Thief and North by depending on the relative and Bakelite goods soon pour produce a distinctive arts and Northwest. motion of those observing it. from factories into the crafts building. The The only constant is the emerging domestic, Whitechapel Art Gallery, one The Wright brothers, wooden propellers and a velocity of light, even if the consumer market.10 of the first publicly-funded O•rville and Wilbur, develop purpose-built gasoline engine observers are moving toward galleries for temporary the world’s first aeroplane fabricated in their bicycle or away from its source. From exhibitions in Britain, will and make the first powered shop, the Wright Flyer I, flown now on, we inhabit a “bring great art to the people and sustained heavier-than- by Orville, flies 120 feet in 12 relatavistic universe, with few of the East End of London.” Its air human flight on 17th seconds, at a speed of 6.8 fundamental metrics, an first exhibition in March 1901 December 1903 at Kill Devil mph. The historic flight is essentially ‘curved’ spacetime attracts over 200,000 local Hills, North Carolina. recorded in an iconic that allows for the relativity of people. Using thin spruce frames photograph by John T. simultaneity. and stretched muslin for Daniels, one of only five Einstein receives the Nobel surface coverings, carved witnesses present. Prize in Physics in 1921.

Above: First powered, controlled, sustained flight, Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. Orville Wright is at the controls of the machine 1903 1905 and Wilbur runs alongside. First machine Special Theory Right: Cary Grant c. 1932 flight, Wright of Relativity, brothers, Albert Einstein USA

1904 “Henceforth space by 1901 Screen actor itself, and time by 1907 Whitechapel Cary Grant itself, are doomed to Bakelite, first Art Gallery, born fade away into mere mass-produced London shadows, and only synthetic material, a kind of union of the Leo Baekerland, two will preserve an USA independent reality.” Hermann Minkowski

20 21 1908 Model T car, assembly-line production and time-and-motion discipline, Henry Ford

American industrialist and f•ounder of the Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford introduces the Model T car, a tough and versatile vehicle produced through standardised components and assembly line mass production, and sold in astonishing volumes. ‘Fordism’ will come to designate a specifically 20th century organisational regime. On the production side, a vast bureaucratic organisation administers continuous mechanised production. This is allied to the scientific management of time and motion, resulting in deskilled labour, extreme workplace discipline and phenomenal productivity. In turn, increased production demands expanded consumption, which requires higher wages. Hence the significance of Ford’s famous offer of $5 a day to workers who will comply with the alienating, disciplined work conditions at Ford Motors.11

Assembly line workers, Ford Motor Company, 1922

22 23 Following generous Founded by Sir George To pay for the war effort, Following the horrors of e•ndowments provided by the W•hite, chairman of the Bristol B•ritain cashes in its extensive 1917 w•ar, millions of young British Fry and Wills families, and the Tramway and Carriage investments in American October soldiers are returning home, purchase of the Blind Asylum Company, the British and railroads and then begins but are not entitled to vote. for use as a site, Bristol Colonial Aeroplane Company to borrow heavily on Wall Revolution, first This poses a dilemma of University receives its Royal begins production of the Street’s financial markets. socialist state, legitimacy for the Charter. Henry Overton Wills Bristol Boxkite in a former The National Debt leaps from Russia Government and the political III is appointed the university’s tramway shed in Filton. A 25% to 135% of Gross process; how can they deny first chancellor. range of beautiful and Domestic Product (GDP). the vote to men and women The university will come to innovative aircraft will follow, who had fought for freedom, be dominated by the Wills including the Bristol Scout 1914–18 democracy and to preserve Memorial Building, with its and the Bristol Fighter, both First World the British political system? neo-gothic tower designed of which will see action in the As a consequence, all adult by Sir George Oatley. First World War. War, 19 million males over 21 years old who Commissioned by Wills’ sons Reinstituted as the Bristol killed are resident householders George and Harry in 1912 in Aeroplane Company in 1920, gain the right to vote. Some tribute to their father, the the company’s next success 1918 married women over 30 who tower is topped by an is the Bristol Bulldog, which Representation meet minimum property octagonal belfry that houses becomes the RAF’s main of the People qualifications are also ‘Great George’, England’s fighter plane from 1930 to Act, majority enfranchised. sixth largest bell, tolled on the 1937. The company will later of men death of each chancellor. merge into the British Aircraft 1914 enfranchised The university motto is Corporation (1959), British UK debt leaps “Vim promovet insitam” Aerospace (1977), and BAE ([Learning] promotes one’s Systems (1999). from £1 billion to innate power). £7 billion to finance war Formed and led by 1909 V•ladimir Ilyich Ulianov – Bristol known as Lenin – the Bolsheviks are a University revolutionary socialist party committed to the ideas of Karl Marx. Following the overthrow of the Tsar earlier in the year, Russia installs a Provisional Government, which proves 1910 very unpopular, and the first British and Soviet appears in the Russian Colonial capital Petrograd. Inspired by Aeroplane the Paris Commune, Soviets In the first major war used as cannon fodder, are basically rowdy, chaotic, Company b•etween industrialised consumed by machines. self-organised councils founded countries, advanced The long 19th century elected by workers, soldiers technologies and obsession with technological and sailors. mechanised weapons and social progress lies Lenin is convinced the time combine with 19th century abandoned in the bloody is ripe for the Bolsheviks to military strategies with trenches. seize power. On 24th October, horrifying results. There are To manage the war, the units of the Red Guards take unprecedented casualty British Government expands control of key buildings, levels. More than 70 million its influence. New ministries power stations, railway and military personnel are and institutions are created, tram stations in Petrograd. On mobilised, of whom new taxes levied, new laws the night of 25th October, the 9 million are killed and 21 enacted, and rationing Red Guards storm the Winter Above: Bristol Aeroplane million wounded, along with imposed, all in order to Palace and arrest the Company logo. Above right: an estimated 10 million harness society’s creative and Provisional Government. Black Watch marching down Park Street, to War. Right: October civilian deaths. The youths productive power to pursue Lenin proclaims a new Soviet Revolution poster, c. 1920 of nations are literally the war effort. government of Russia.

24 25 The government licenses The Treaty of Versailles B•ritain’s six major radio d•emands 132 billion gold 1919 manufacturers, including Marks from Germany (around The Economic Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph £6.6 billion) in war Consequences Company, to merge into one reparations, an amount in of the Peace, entity, and begin the world’s excess of its total gold John Maynard first national radio broadcasts. reserves and foreign- Keynes The British Broadcasting exchange holdings. Company (BBC), financed by Germany’s currency begins a Post Office licence fee of 10 to devalue. Foreign currency shillings and supplemented is bought to meet the debt, 1920 by royalties on radio sales, which in turn increases the first broadcasts from London speed of devaluation. The League of on 14th November. John, later Government prints more Nations, 1921 Lord, Reith joins a month later Marks. A vicious vortex is precursor to Whiteladies as general manager and produced, in which more and the United Picture oversees its establishment more inflation is created with Nations House under Royal Charter as the each iteration of the ever- British Broadcasting accelerating money printing Corporation in January 1927. cycle: hyperinflation.

In the aftermath of war, Designed by James Henry P•aris is effectively the centre L•aTrobe and Thomas Henry of a world government as new Weston, and combining diplomats from 29 allied elements of Art Deco and countries meet to discuss Bristol Byzantine styles, the 1922 the terms of peace. One of Whiteladies Picture House on German the major outcomes of the Whiteladies Road, Clifton is hyperinflation Paris Peace Conference is opened by the Duchess of the Treaty of Versailles, Beaufort on 29th November. agreed on 28 June 1919. Clifton’s first purpose-built John Maynard Keynes, a cinema also boasts a vast British Treasury ballroom and restaurant. representative drafting the Over 1,300 people gather on treaty, argues that there the opening night to watch should be no punitive ‘America’s Sweetheart’ Mary reparations or that, at worst, Pickford in the silent classic 1922 German reparations ought Pollyanna. to be limited. Continuing In 1978, the large screen will British the war by economic means be removed and the building Broadcasting will inflict long-term harm split into three mini cinemas. Company on Germany, and as a As part of the ABC chain, it is formed consequence harm Britain later absorbed by the Odeon and its allies. He also suggests group and shut down in 1999. that the US Government launch a vast credit At the Paris Peace the settlement of programme to help restore C•onference, the diplomats international disputes Europe to prosperity. declare Germany defeated through negotiation and Keynes advocates planned and guilty: they weaken arbitration. The conference international economic its military, partition the concludes with the inaugural management. His advocacy country, and require General Assembly of the is ignored and he resigns in reparations to be paid to League of Nations. frustration. His resulting the victors. To ensure future The League has no book is a critique and peace, they agree to form military power, and so is warning; if the victors enforce a League of Nations whose dependent on international economic humiliation, then primary goal, as stated in cooperative armed action a world financial crisis will its covenant, is to prevent to enforce its resolutions, Far left: Allies around the conference table producing the ensue, triggering a second war through collective rulings and economic Treaty of Versailles, Paris, 1919. 12 world war. security, disarmament, and sanctions. Left: Whiteladies Picture House

26 27 Architect Frederick Kiesler some six hundred unframed Alexander Dorner museum narrate a c•reates the L+T (Leger und drawings, posters, b•ecomes Director of the chronological history of art. Trager) system, a flexible and marionettes, photographs, Landesmuseum in Hanover. The last room in this independent display designs, and models of avant- In this museum, as in all narrative, devoted to the structure for presenting garde theatre productions museums, the past is most avant-garde art, is objects, images and artifacts. are exhibited. Freestanding displayed in the same designed as an Abstract 1923 Conceived as an alternative structures, some with hinged 1924 monotonous way, salon-style Cabinet by El Lissitzky. The to the rigid constraints of panels, others cantilevered, and disconnected from the Cabinet proposes an Tokyo Frederick Kiesler traditional museum displays, produce an interactive, International present. Dorner sets about interactive exchange with earthquake the L+T system is composed fractured collage-like changing the museum, visitors, and the modern of interconnected vertical exhibition experience that Exhibition of New deciding that each epoch museum is reimagined as a and horizontal battens that Kiesler terms a ‘varied Theatre Techniques, should be exhibited simply dynamic institution, engaged support vertical and transparency’.13 Vienna and clearly within its own in a productive encounter horizontal rectangular panels. specially arranged room, and with the past, through the For the Vienna exhibition, the routes through the present.14

The Great Kantō Throughout the early e•arthquake devastates Tokyo, 1•920s, Florida has an image 1925 the port city of Yokohama, of a tropical paradise, due in Revolutionary and causes widespread part to the publicity paid for reorganisation damage throughout the by audacious developers. As Kantō region. Its power and homeowners and investors of the intensity are astonishing: 7.9 rush to buy properties, prices Landesmuseum, on the Richter scale, and a rise rapidly, developers Hanover duration of between 4 and 10 speculate, and a land and minutes in which time property bubble ensues. By between 100,000 and 1925, Forbes magazine warns 140,000 people are killed and that property prices are cities devastated. based solely upon greed, not 1925 Above: Devastation to Yokohama any actual value. The bubble Florida land City immediately after the bursts: entire new cities lie ‘bubble’ bursts, earthquake, from the hill of abandoned, thousands are Minami-Ohtamachi. Left: bankrupt, and failed USA Frederick Kiesler’s freestanding new L+T display system, International developments are scattered Exhibition of New Theatre throughout the state. Techniques, Vienna

28 29 “Not a minute on • The campaign for women’s bacteria. Once synthesised up in bank loans and share the day, not a penny suffrage, begun in 1872, is and mass-produced, penicillin issues. A network of over- 1927 finally achieved with The is a ‘wonder drug’ saving indebtedness, infectious and off the pay.” Live image Representation of the People millions of lives from reckless speculation, burst Miners’ slogan transmission, (Equal Franchise) Act, common infections. asset bubbles, mass debt- John Logie ensuring women’s electoral defaults and runs on banks equality with men. Women The Wall Street Crash is the slowly unravels. America has Baird over 21 years old, and paying m•ost devastating financial also lent huge sums of rates to a local government, collapse in history, initiating money to South America and 1926 are now able to participate in the Great Depression European countries and the political process. throughout industrialised these loans are suddenly General 1928 countries. recalled, which has a Strike, Scottish biologist and The crash follows an eight- terrifying impact on the Britain Women’s p•harmacologist Alexander year speculative boom in increasingly global economy. enfranchisement Fleming is a specialist in which hundreds of thousands European banks collapse, bacteriology and of Americans are encouraged 25% of people are immunology. Working in his to invest their savings in the unemployed, industrial laboratory, Fleming notices stock market, many of whom production drops by 45%, that an opportunist fungal borrow money to buy the house-building falls by The General Strike called Scottish engineer and of a ventriloquist’s dummy colony has grown on an agar stocks. In October, the market 80%, and the entire global b•y the Trades Union i•nventor John Logie Baird nicknamed ‘Stooky Bill’ in a plate streaked with a finally turns down, panic banking system teeters on Congress (TUC) is in support demonstrates the first 30-line vertically scanned bacterium. Astonishingly the selling starts, and major the brink as 5,000 banks go of striking coalminers in televised images in motion at greyscale image, at five fungal colony inhibits the banks and investment out of business. Wales, the North of England Selfridge’s department store pictures per second. He visits growth of the bacterium. companies buy stocks in an Homelessness, malnutrition and Scotland. Miners are in London. Television consists the Daily Express newspaper Fleming has devoted much attempt to shore up and despair seeps through making a stand against of an assembly of optical, to promote his invention. The of his career to finding confidence. There is a pause, populations as confidence enforced pay-cuts and mechanical and electronic news editor is terrified, saying: methods for treating wound but the panic returns, trust deserts finance.16 detrimental working technologies to capture, “For God’s sake, get rid of this infections, and immediately evaporates, indices nosedive. conditions imposed by a transcribe and display moving lunatic. He says he’s got a recognises the importance of The effects of the crash are coalition of mine owners. images. Baird successfully machine for seeing by a fungal metabolite that can devastating because every In the largest industrial transmits pictures of the head wireless!”15 inhibit disease-inducing sector of the economy is tied action ever coordinated, some two million workers go on strike in sympathy across Britain. In London, dockers, 1928 printers, and power-station, Penicillin railway and transport developed, workers aim to bring the Alexander capital to a halt and force the Fleming government to intervene on behalf of the miners. The government has prepared for the strike over the previous nine months, and does whatever it can to keep the country moving, including deploying armed forces and volunteers to maintain basic services. Slowly the strike crumbles and reluctantly the TUC 1928 General Council announces its decision to call off the Wall Street coordinated action. Quickly, Crash and the the government passes Great a Trade Disputes Act, Depression outlawing the sympathetic Left: John Logie Baird strike action that enabled Above: Diagram of the chemical the General Strike. structure of Penicillin

30 31 The idea for a Museum of The Bank for International Disney brothers Walt The Great Depression M•odern Art is developed by S•ettlements (BIS) is a•nd Roy founded Walt Disney h•its Germany in 1930. three powerful women, Abby established to facilitate Productions in 1923, quickly Unable to agree on counter- Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss and money transfers relating to establishing the company measures the coalition Mary Sullivan. They want to German reparations arising as a leader in the film government breaks up, use their influence to out of the Treaty of Versailles. animation industry with replaced by a minority establish an institution It’s the first intergovernmental the introduction in 1928 of cabinet, the Weimar Republic devoted exclusively to organisation of central banks, Steamboat Willie, a cartoon disintegrates. Lacking a modern art. Together they an über-bank, set up to “foster featuring Mickey Mouse and majority, policies are rent a space in the Heckscher international monetary and the first-ever synchronised implemented by emergency Building at 730 Fifth Avenue financial cooperation” to sound. decrees. This rule by decree in Manhattan, appoint Alfred settle exchanges and loans In 1932, Disney signs becomes the norm over a H. Barr as Director, and open between nations. an exclusive contract series of unworkable to the public on 7th with Technicolor to produce parliaments and paves the November. Innovation follows cell-animation cartoons in way for democratic abuse. Barr is familiar with i•nnovation as the BBC colour, releasing a number Leading German bankers and Dorner’s Landesmuseum and pioneers a range of radio of short films whilst planning businessmen (some of whom Kiesler’s exhibitionary broadcasts across arts, the first feature-length work at the BIS) financially experiments as he embarks education and news, animation, Snow White support the National Socialist on his influential organisation launching the Empire and the Seven Dwarfs, German Workers Party of the museum. As well as Service (forerunner of the which premieres in (NSDAP) and urge the Party traditional departments to World Service) and moving December 1937. Its box- Leader, Paul von Hindenburg, collect and exhibit painting, to a new home at office success finances the to appoint Adolf Hitler to the sculpture, drawings and Broadcasting House. construction of Walt Disney government. Hitler finally prints, he adds architecture With advice from John Studios at Burbank, becomes Chancellor, and in and design, and film and Logie Baird, the BBC California. the elections of March 1933 photography. Under his experiments with TV Aggressive copyright takes effective control of the directorship, the museum broadcasts from Alexandra protection, repetitive party and government. He establishes the popular Palace, finally launching the assembly-line production quickly passes the Enabling conception that modern art is BBC Television Service on processes, tight film Act, allowing him to make a linear progression of ‘isms’ 2nd November 1936, offering distribution contracts and laws without consulting with blockbuster exhibitions “regular programmes continual expansion establish parliament, and after the of iconic modernists like van twice a day, from 3 to 4pm a Fordist approach to death of President Gogh, Gauguin, Matisse, and from 9 to 10pm, except production at the emerging Hindenburg, declares himself Cézanne and Picasso.17 on Sundays.” media conglomerate. the Führer, or supreme ruler.

1929 new Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), New York 1932 First national TV broadcast, BBC, London 1930 Bank for International 1932 Settlements, Disney Switzerland Corporation and 1933 Technicolor Adolf Hitler films becomes Above: Cubism and Abstract Art exhibition catalogue, MoMA, Chancellor of New York, 1936. Right: Adolf Germany Hitler, Chancellor of Germany c. 1933

32 33 German engineer Konrad Adopted by the Nazi The first hospital blood Marcel Duchamp designs Z•use begins construction of r•egime in Germany, Entartete b•ank opens at Cook County a• radical exhibition, where the 1938 the Z1 calculating engine in Kunst (Degenerate Art) is a Hospital, Chicago. Members exhibition itself is conceived André Breton, his parents’ living room in term used to denounce of the community are able as a site-specific, total Marcel Duchamp Berlin from almost 30,000 virtually all modern art on the to give blood, which is installation. Featuring over components. The Z1 is a grounds that it is un-German. preserved and stored at the 60 artists from different International binary mechanical calculator Joseph Goebbels, the Minister hospital, and made available countries, the exhibition Surrealist Exhibition, with limited programmability, of Propaganda, authorises a for transfusion to any person consists of around 300 Galérie des although unlike most commission to ‘cleanse’ and who needs it. paintings, various sculptures, Beaux-arts, Paris calculating engines, the Z1 confiscate from museums Instigated by the hospital’s collages, photographs and 1937 performs all its internal and art collections director of therapeutics, appropriated objects. To enter First public calculations in binary, using a throughout Germany any art Bernard Fontus, the concept the galleries, visitors pass blood bank, floating-point system based deemed modern, degenerate, is soon copied around the through a long corridor lined on a semi-logarithmic or subversive. Over 5,000 country and across the world; with artist-decorated or defiled Chicago representation. This makes it works are seized, and these the coming brutalities of the shop mannequins. The ceiling possible to calculate quickly are presented to the public in Second World War serving to of the main exhibition space is with very small and very large an exhibition intended to reinforce its vital significance. hung with 1,200 coal sacks, numbers, enabling the Z1 to incite further revulsion against “No one acquainted with the and beds in each corner are perform a staggeringly wide the ‘perverse Jewish spirit’. situation constantly arising in brought from Paris brothels. variety of engineering and El Lissitzky’s Abstract Cabinet large general hospitals The floor is covered in sand scientific applications. at the Landesmuseum, doubts its value,” his and autumn leaves, and the The Z1 is the first freely Hanover is destroyed. obituarist LeRoy Sloan MD rooms so dimly lit that visitors programmable, binary, On 19th July an exhibition asserts in 1940. are given torches to navigate 1939–45 floating-point, general- of Degenerate Art, consisting The blood bank initiates a the installed art works. Second World purpose mechanical of modernist art works medical commons; it’s at the Against the rational, War, up to 70 calculator, and its success chaotically hung and heart of the idea of a public planned, accumulative and million dead installs binary as the de-facto accompanied by text labels good, and public health restricted economy of capital, machine standard. deriding the art works, opens provision. In this specialised the exhibition proposes a in Munich, subsequently gift economy, the donor gives surreal general economy of touring several cities in without the expectation of an generosity, waste, loss and Germany and Austria. interested return.18 transgression.19 • Nazi Germany secretly two broad opposing military 1937 re-arms. Adolf Hitler makes alliances. It’s the most it perfectly clear that he will widespread war in history, Exhibition break the ‘unjust’ terms with more than 100 million of Degenerate of the Treaty of Versailles, military personnel mobilised. Art, Munich and that he intends to The entire creative, reunite all Germans into economic, industrial, and one nation. Three years scientific capabilities of all of mounting international the participating nations tension – encompassing are in the service of the war the Spanish Civil War, the effort: a ‘total war’. The Anschluss (union) of distinction between civilian Germany and Austria, and and military resources are Hitler’s occupation of the erased, death is rationalised Sudetenland – culminate and industrialised as on 1st September 1939 in the Fordism finds its inverse 1936 German invasion of Poland. in the Holocaust. Z1 binary The League of Nations In total, somewhere mechanical disintegrates, Britain and between 50 and 70 million France declare war two people are killed. calculator, days later and slowly Konrad Zuse, Europe, and eventually Berlin other world nations are drawn into confrontation. Programme accompanying The Second World War Entartete Kunst, the Nazis’ 1937 exhibition mocking ‘degenerate’ is a global conflict in which avant-garde art the world’s nations form

34 35 • The Pilgrim Trust was set “Working to foster up as a result of a gift of global monetary £2 million by Edward 1944 Harkness, an American Bretton Woods cooperation, secure railway millionaire, to help Agreement. financial stability, conserve the social, Guidelines on financial facilitate international intellectual and material standards and trade, promote high heritage of Britain. At the end managed free employment and of 1939, the Trust appoints a sustainable economic Committee for the trade between Encouragement of Music and 44 nations growth, and reduce the Arts to support the arts poverty.” through wartime with annual IMF mission statement support of £25,000. In 1940 the committee 1945 becomes the Council for the International Encouragement of Music and Monetary the Arts, formally appointed Fund by the President of the Board of Education. When the nuclei of atoms The Bretton Woods The International c•ollide and split, tremendous A•greement establishes rules M•onetary Fund (IMF) is amounts of energy are for trade and financial conceived to supersede the 1940 released. Initiating and relations among the world’s BIS to oversee and manage Filton and controlling a sustained major industrial states. While the new global financial Bristol targeted nuclear reaction leads, World War II is still raging, 730 system. Principally this is to by German through positive feedback, delegates from all 44 Allied stabilise exchange rates, to a self-propagating chain- nations gather at the Mount facilitate the world’s aircraft reaction of apparently Washington Hotel in Bretton international payment 1942 limitless energy. Chicago Pile-1 Woods, New Hampshire, and system, and manage loans Nuclear (CP-1) is a nuclear reactor –a prepare to build a new global to member states with 1940 reaction, first pile of uranium and graphite economic system. temporary payment Council atomic blocks – built under the The delegates, including imbalances. In return for for the bomb abandoned West Stand of the John Maynard Keynes loans, countries are required Encouragement University of Chicago’s sports representing Britain, institute to initiate reforms which stadium, to experiment with a system of rules, protocols generally seek to install the of Music and the harnessing nuclear chain- and institutions – including managed free trade ethos. Arts (CEMA) reactions to produce energy. the International Monetary The role of the state is limited CP-1 achieves criticality Fund (IMF) and International to tax collection, basic on 2nd December 1942, Bank for Reconstruction and public provision and the As a major port city with a people are killed and much of and the technology is Development (IBRD) – to enforcement of private l•arge aviation industry led by the built environment of the commandeered as part of the regulate the financial ownership contracts. the Bristol Aeroplane city centre is destroyed. In the Manhattan Project to develop economy. The main The IMF is formally Company in Filton, Bristol is first raid, during six hours of the first nuclear weapon. instrument of the Bretton organised on 27th December an important target for the sustained attack, many Three years later, on 6th Woods system is an 1945, when 29 countries sign German Luftwaffe. On 25th historic buildings, churches August 1945, American B-29 obligation for each country to its Articles of Agreement. September, 168 bombs are and a quarter of the old aircraft the Enola Gay drops ‘peg’ or maintain the dropped in 45 seconds on medieval city, including the the “Little Boy” bomb on the exchange rate of its currency Filton. 91 people working at main shopping areas around city of Hiroshima. In a split in relation to the US dollar, the aeroplane factory, and Broadmead, are all ruined. second 70–80,000 people and that the dollar is another 69 people living in Much of Park Street and the cease to exist, radiation and convertible to a fixed value of the surrounding area are Triangle, including the city related disease will slowly kill gold. The dollar takes over killed. 900 houses are museum, are gutted by another 100,000. Three days the role that the gold damaged or destroyed. incendiary bombs. 207 later another B-29 drops a standard had played in the There are six major people are killed, 187 seriously second bomb, ‘Fat Man’, on 19th century: to accelerate bombing raids on the city injured, over 10,000 homes Nagasaki, instantly killing at managed free trade, facilitate Above: Atomic bomb detonates between 24th November are damaged and 1,400 least 40,000. Soon after, the flow of international above Nagasaki, 9th August 1945. 1940 and 11th April 1941. made homeless. Japan surrenders and World capital, and increase foreign Far right: IMF logotype During this time over 1,400 War II officially ends. investment opportunities.20

36 37 An idea for a future American engineer and The same year as the U•nited Nations emerged in s•cience administrator U•niversity of Bristol founds declarations from the Allied Vannevar Bush publishes an the first university Drama nations towards the end of essay, “As We May Think”, that 1945 department in the country, World War II. It comes into describes a theoretical United the newly formed Arts being on 24th October 1945, microfilm-based machine Nations Council establishes the first comprising 51 member states. called memex. A “device in regional subsidised theatre The UN, like the IMF, is an which an individual stores all company, sending a group intergovernmental his books, records, and of actors from the London organisation. It works for communications, and which Old Vic to set up home at the global peace and is mechanised so that it may Theatre Royal in Bristol, the development, based on the be consulted with exceeding oldest continually operating principles of justice, human speed and flexibility. It is an theatre in England. dignity and the wellbeing of enlarged intimate all people. The UN is not an supplement to his memory.” A loose group of artists, independent, homogeneous He envisions the ability to p•oets and writers including organisation; it is made up of retrieve several articles or 1945 Roland Penrose, Peter sovereign states, so actions pictures on a screen, and to Hypertext and Watson, Herbert Read, depend on the will of its write comments that could memex data Richard Hamilton and members to accept, fund and be stored and recalled. The retrieval, Eduardo Paolozzi start the carry them out. Especially in ability to create links between ICA as a ‘laboratory’ or matters of peace-keeping and related articles, to save the Vannevar Bush, ‘playground’ for international politics, it links to share with others he USA contemporary arts. With no requires complex, often slow, terms ‘hypertext’.21 permanent collection, the processes of consensus- ICA is a counterpart to the building. • John Maynard Keynes, idea of a Museum of Modern It has five principal organs: Chair of CEMA since 1941, 1946 Art; a multidisciplinary space the General Assembly is the realises the need to extend Bristol Old Vic where artists, writers, main deliberative and support for the arts into musicians, filmmakers and legislative chamber, peacetime. He proposes a 1945 opens at the scientists can exhibit, composed of representatives new organisation, The Arts Arts Council Theatre Royal, perform, screen and debate of all the member states; the Council. Funding for the of Great King Street ideas outside of disciplinary Secretariat provides the arts is to be taken out of Britain confines. research and administration; the capricious influence of The first exhibition, the Security Council is private wealth and made the new entitled 40 Years of Modern charged with maintaining responsibility of government, Art: A Selection from British peace and security among all financed by the Treasury Collections, is held in the countries; the International through grant-in-aid. Keynes basement of the Academy Court of Justice is the does not want to initiate a Cinema in Oxford Street. This primary judicial organ to new government is closely followed by settle international disputes; department, instead he 40,000 years of Modern Art, and the Economic and Social advocates a novel ‘arm’s- which adds an international Council promotes length’ management and ethnically diverse international economic and principle as a defence against context to the original social co-operation and state-supported art used for selection. development. political propaganda. 1947 Institute of Below left: UN logotype. Contemporary Above: Vannevar Bush at his desk. Above right: John Maynard Art (ICA), Keynes (right) greets Harry London Dexter White, Assistant Secretary, US Treasury, at an IMF Board Meeting, March 1946

38 39 The future French Minister At the centre of the United During the Second World o•f Cultural Affairs, André N•ations’ Economic and Social W•ar, Norbert Wiener worked Malraux, publishes Le musée Council is its engine, the on missile technologies, imaginaire, which will be General Agreement on Tariffs specifically guidance translated as Museum and Trade (GATT), a network systems. He developed a without Walls. With the of 23 countries and Free fascination for systems using invention of colour printing, Trade Organisations. Signed feedback such as when a Malraux believes a super- by the majority of the world’s missile adapts its flight museum has been created, a trading nations, these pattern in response to collection comprising any art agreements are documents changing real-time work that could be that provide the legal ground- information fed back into the photographed and rules for international guidance system. He now reproduced. He sees the commerce. They are identifies this ‘circular causal’ musée imaginaire as part of a essentially contracts, binding relationship as ‘cybernetic’ logical progression. Firstly the governments to minimise and notices that cybernetic museum tears works of art barriers to international trade principles are at work in from their sites of origin, and facilitating managed free simple assemblies of energy, severing all connection to the trade policies. Britain’s resources, plants and animals, uses, representations or preferable trading contracts and in super-complex rituals for which they are with its colonies and former ecologies. It also seems to intended. Secondly, through colonies have to be describe our relationship to their endless reproduction dismantled. GATT enables one another, to technology, (in books and lectures; on TV, multinational companies to and us to it.24 postcards, posters, T-shirts, access different regional tea towels, etc.), art works, economies, mineral wealth, whether tiny or colossal, goods and services, and whether ancient or modern, concomitantly those regions are both equalised by the become integrated through 1948 democratising effects of the ribbons of trade into a global Cybernetics, camera, and distributed market; the architecture of Norbert outside of the museum’s globalisation. GATT will be new control: we live in a replaced by the World Trade Wiener permanent exhibition.22 Organization in 1993.

The William Beveridge patients and dispenses over R•eport of 1942 was a 5 million pairs of spectacles. manifesto for cradle-to-grave The government continues 1948 social reform which identified its process of nationalisation, Foundation of the five ‘giant evils’ in British taking crucial industries and Welfare State and society: squalor, ignorance, services into public process of want, idleness and disease. ownership. In principle, this nationalisation Clement Attlee’s 1945 enables people to exercise 1947 Labour government pledges full democratic control over André Malraux to eradicate these evils. In the provision of public goods Le musée exchange for higher taxes, such as electricity, water, imaginaire, the new Welfare State is a transport and healthcare. series of interrelated public Nationalised services are Paris services, embracing a seen to operate efficiently in 1947 commitment to public the public interest, with social General housing, education for all benefits valued more highly Agreement through a comprehensive than financial profit. Having on Tariffs system, social security for brought the Bank of England, those without work via a the coal industry, Cable & and Trade National Insurance Act and Wireless and the central and State Pension, and minimum regional electricity boards Australian delegate, Herbert health standards through into public ownership in 1946, Vere Evatt (left), and Anthony a National Health Service. British Railways, British Road Eden, Chairman of the United Kingdom Delegation at the In its first year, the NHS treats Services, and British United Nations trade 23 some 8.5 million dental Waterways now follow. declarations, Washington, DC

40 41 Inspired by the British The extraordinary life of Below: Alan Turing, 1951. m•odel, many European t•he British mathematician Right: Map of Korea 27th July nations initiate Welfare State Alan Turing involves 1953. 38th parallel reset as boundary between communist systems. In Germany, the contributions to the North and anti-communist South. emphasis is on a social foundations of modern Gen. Mark W. Clark says he has market economy, with mathematics, the theoretical “the unenviable distinction of economic development assembly of a universal being the first US Army identified as the key machine, artificial intelligence, commander to sign an armistice 1948 without victory.” Universal 1949 mechanism to achieve social and participation in the Declaration Europe-wide welfare; the French system is cryptological war against based on solidarity and Nazi Germany. of Human adoption interdependence; while the The famous Turing Test Rights of the Welfare Swedish stresses institutional appears in his paper State care and egalitarianism. “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” published in the philosophical journal Mind. During the peace bloody frontier incidents, the The point of the test is to n•egotiations at the end of North Korean People’s Army suggest that intelligence of World War II, Korea, a sweeps south, overwhelming a human level could be Japanese colony since 1910, all opposition. The South evinced by a suitably was occupied north of the retaliates, Britain and the programmed machine. 38th parallel by Soviet Russia, United Nations enter the war, The test imagines a person and to the south by a US communist China joins the and a programmed machine military administration. North and a bitter conflict 1949 in two separate spaces In the north, Russia and its ensues, that eventually ends competing to convince satellites, the Union of Soviet in a bloody stalemate. This is China an impartial human judge, Socialist Republics (USSR) the first military confrontation declared 1950 using textual messages alone, back a Stalinist regime and between two emerging and Communist The Turing as to which is the human create the North Korean opposing ideological blocs, State being. If the judge cannot People’s Army. In the south, the command economies – Test for Artificial be sure of the difference, America backs an primarily the USSR and China Intelligence, the machine assembly, administration that openly – and the managed free Alan Turing the computer, must be declares a will to impose market economies of the credited with human-like national unity by force. After United States and its allies. We intelligence.25 several years of increasingly enter the so-called Cold War.26

During World War II the After years of war with a•llies adopted ‘Four Freedoms’ J•apan, and immediately as their basic war aims: following World War II, a bitter 1950–53 freedom of speech, freedom civil war had broken out in Korean of assembly, freedom from China. On 1st October, the fear and freedom from want. Chinese Communist leader War The United Nations Charter Mao Zedong declares the “reaffirmed faith in creation of the People’s fundamental human rights, Republic of China (PRC). and dignity and worth of the Continuous war has human person” and ravaged industry, money is committed all member states valueless, the countryside to promote “universal respect is experiencing food for, and observance of, human shortages and towns have 1951 rights and fundamental high unemployment. The Bristol freedoms for all without Communists set out to population: distinction as to race, sex, rebuild Chinese society as 422,399 language or religion.” a modern nation through a “We may hope that The Universal Declaration centrally planned economy: was adopted by the United a command economy with machines will Nations General Assembly government ownership and eventually compete on 10th December 1948 by a administration of distributive with men in all purely vote of 48 in favour, 0 against, markets, industry, agriculture intellectual fields.” with 8 abstentions. and information. Alan Turing

42 43 Architect and writer Theo C•rosby, in collaboration with 1956 1954 members of the Independent This is Racial Group of theorists, artists, Tomorrow, segregation architects and designers who Whitechapel outlawed, meet regularly at the ICA, curates the seminal exhibition Gallery, USA This is Tomorrow. Young and London ambitious, they intend to explore a ‘modern’ way of living using popular media 1951 representations, new technologies, and innovative Festival of 1954 Britain exhibition practices. The 38 90-day treasury participants – artists, 1956 bills issued as designers, theorists and Quantity Ghana moves architects – form 12 groups and are encouraged to theory of towards money, Milton independence collaborate across disciplinary boundaries. Friedman The exhibition marks the first eruption of popular everyday experience, Planned in 1947, the Racial segregation in the so-called ‘Pop-Art’, in Britain.27 F•estival of Britain promises to U•S has been endorsed since provide a cultural counterpart 1896 by the Supreme Court The best way to administer to the social benefits of the ruling that as long as the f•inance, argues economist Welfare State. In a centenary separate facilities for the Milton Friedman, is not as echo of the Great Exhibition separate races are equal, Keynes had done, to plan and of 1851, the festival provides segregation does not violate regulate markets, but rather an opportunity to showcase the Constitution. to think of individuals as the collective achievements This is overturned by making rational choices of Britain. Brown v. Board of Education about how to maximise their Although much of London of Topeka, a landmark wealth and resources. is still war-bombed ruins, the decision of the Supreme Although much of his main South Bank exhibition Court declaring that separate work to date has been done site celebrates history, public schools for black and on price theory – modelling technology, science and the white students are how prices are determined arts as well as various unconstitutional. The Court’s in individual markets – aspects of everyday life. The decision states that “separate Friedman is synonymous exhibition attracts 8 million educational facilities are with the Chicago School of visitors, and in an uncanny inherently unequal”, adding economists and monetarism. premonition of theme parks impetus to the civil rights He proposes to resurrect the to come, most complain movement’s campaign to quantity theory of money, bitterly about queuing. outlaw racial discrimination. which suggests that the price of goods and services The Gold Coast, set to depends on the money b•ecome the Republic of supply. For Friedman, “the Ghana in 1957, is the first sub- elementary truth is that the Saharan African country to Great Depression was develop a constitution, initiate produced by government Left: Festival of Britain shot self-government and force mismanagement.” He glass, gift of Frank Dade. Above: Collage of the Senses, Richard independence from Britain. In advocates managed free Hamilton, from This is Tomorrow preparation, Ghana produces markets, lower taxes, and catalogue, Whitechapel the institutions, laws, markets argues that many of the and confidence necessary to services performed by “A tonic to the nation” issue treasury bills to mark government could be better Gerald Barry, the beginnings of securitised provided by the private Festival of Britain Director finance on the continent. sector.28

44 45 Created by the signing History deviates on 4th Curator Pontus Hultén The 26th of July Foundation expands to o•f the Treaty of Rome, the O•ctober when the Soviet a•nd a few friends organise a M•ovement is a revolutionary become the preeminent EEC (also known as the Union successfully launches small studio for experimental organisation planned and private collection of modern Common Market) is a Sputnik I, the world’s first exhibitions and film led by Fidel Castro. On 1st and contemporary art. The co-operation between machine assembly to leave screenings in Stockholm, January 1959, after years of Solomon R. Guggenheim Belgium, France, Italy, our atmosphere. It’s an Sweden. The friends expand armed struggle, the rebels Museum in New York City, a Luxembourg, the artificial satellite about the into a wide cultural network, overthrow the US-backed landmark spiral structure, Netherlands, and West size of a beach ball (23 inches and in 1956 arrange an dictator Fulgencio Batista’s commissioned from architect Germany to form a common in diameter) that takes about exhibition of Pablo Picasso’s government in Cuba. The Frank Lloyd Wright and market of 185 million people. 98 minutes to orbit the earth Guernica and the 93 sketches Movement transforms into named in Solomon’s honour, The EEC has two objectives. on its elliptical path. The that accompany the painting the United Party of the Cuban opens on 21st October to The first is to transform the launch ushers in new political, in a former drill hall on Socialist Revolution, which in manage, preserve and exhibit conditions of finance, trade military, technological, and Skeppsholmen, an island in turn becomes the the collection. From and manufacture – this scientific developments, and the centre of the city. Their Communist Party of Cuba; a Guggenheim’s initial means ending trade the start of a space race A Museum of Our Wishes socialist satellite in America’s approach to Wright in 1943, restrictions between between the two Cold War exhibition, in which ‘ideal’ backyard. the project evolved into a members, developing a superpowers. works to initiate a national complex struggle pitting the Above: Sputnik 1 common trade tariff towards museum are exhibited and The Solomon R. architect against his clients, commemorative postage the rest of the world, and Feroze Ahmed, originally later bought by the G•uggenheim Foundation city officials, the art world and stamp, USSR. Below: Britain’s enabling the free movement f•rom Sunamgonj in the government, generates the is a charitable organisation public opinion. Both most popular dish, Chicken of labour and capital. The northeastern Assam region impetus to open Moderna founded in 1937 by Guggenheim (November Tikka Masala. Far right: Founding benefactors second is the construction of of the Indian subcontinent, Museet, the first modern art American mine owner and 1949) and Wright (April 1959) recorded in stone, Guggenheim a more politically unified and opens the Taj Mahal in museum in Europe, on 9th philanthropist Solomon would die before the Museum, New York administered Europe. Stokes Croft. May 1958. R. Guggenheim. The building’s completion.

1957 Sputnik earth-orbiting satellite, USSR 1959 Guggenheim 1958 Museum, Taj Mahal, New York first Indian restaurant in Bristol 1958 1957 Moderna Treaty of Rome Museet, establishes the Stockholm European Economic Community (EEC)

1959 Cuba declared a Communist state

46 47 “Not since Frost and Reed tentatively raised their conservative shutters in 1808 has a gallery of such promise and singleness of purpose emerged from this city.” Derek Balmer, Western Daily Press

1961 Arnolfini opens above a bookshop on the Clifton Triangle

Annabel Lawson, Jeremy Rees and John Orsborn in front of Child with Tricycle by Peter Swan, on show in Arnolfini’s inaugural exhibition

In 1954, aged 16, Jeremy Whilst in London, Rees lease on a former joinery Pavilion” at the Festival of Arnolfini during the next five “Our mission”, Director R•ees had been apprenticed meets Annabel Lawson, a workshop above Roberts’ Britain in 1951. Included in the years. Jeremy Rees writes, is “to to Bristol printers Allen textile artist who studied at Bookshop at 42 Triangle Arnolfini show are 18 small Over 200 people crowd seek out challenging, often Davies, who paid for him to the Central School of Art. On West, with the aim of opening pen-and-wash drawings, in into the gallery on the controversial and sometimes study at the London School Rees’ return from National a gallery. which “one is made aware of opening night, 3rd March. relatively unknown artists of Printing and Graphic Arts. Service in Sierra Leone in Arnolfini’s inaugural an acute sympathy for the Within its simple white- and performers, and to In London, Rees pursued his 1960, Rees and Lawson begin exhibitions are by Josef earthy dignity of the cube space, naturally lit from provide a vital showcase for interests in the arts, often living together in Bristol, Herman and Peter Swan. labouring man” (Guardian). above, Arnolfini promises a their work.” visiting theatres, cinemas and marrying on 16th September. Herman arrived in Britain at Shown alongside Josef mix of exhibitions by national, In conjunction with the galleries, especially the ICA, It is also in London that Rees the start of World War II, Herman are nine paintings by international and local artists; New Bristol Arts Club and, which became a particular sets up his own publishing coming from a working-class the young Bristol-based artist many with strong later, poetry magazine The inspiration for Arnolfini. The imprint, the Jan Arnolfini Jewish family in Warsaw and Peter Swan, winner of the connections to the South Resuscitator, a programme ICA was not, however, the first Press, named after Jan van settling amongst the mining William Pratt bequest for West, and to Cornwall in of jazz, poetry, talks, and multidisciplinary arts centre Eyck’s painting The Arnolfini community in South Wales. painting in his final year at particular. The award-winning play-reading events Rees was exposed to; Rees’ Marriage, hanging in the The physical labour of St. Martin’s School of Art. The design of Arnolfini’s publicity commences at the gallery. mother had co-founded National Gallery. workers is central to his paintings, on the theme of and marketing materials is a Laurie Lee, John Sharkey, Bridgwater Arts Centre, Jeremy and Annabel, figurative pictures, and he is “Mother and Child”, are based defining feature of the gallery, Michael Hamburger, John Somerset, the first Arts together with their friend, best known for his mural on observations of his young as are regular shows of McGrath and Derek Moore Council-funded arts centre in painter John Orsborn each Miners which featured in the family. Swan’s work will be contemporary jewellery and are amongst those who Britain. invest £100 to purchase the “Minerals of the Island exhibited several times at prints. feature.

48 49 “We were no • Young social worker Paul “Political control is longer confined to Stephenson leads a boycott a shortcut to boring, of the Bristol Omnibus the boundaries of Company, protesting against stagnant art: there the earth.” its refusal to employ black or must be freedom to Yuri Gagarin Asian drivers or conductors. experiment, to make Inspired by the example of mistakes, to fail, Rosa Parks, who refused to to shock– or there Voskok 1 takes off at move off a “whites only” bus can be no new 6•:07am on 12th April from seat in Montgomery, Alabama, the desert steppes of USA, Stephenson organises a beginnings. It is hard Kazakhstan, and ten minutes 60-day boycott supported by for any government 1964 later leaves our atmosphere. thousands of Bristolians, to accept this.” Jennie Lee Vostok 1 separates from its forcing the company to Jennie Lee appointed first delivery rocket and makes revoke its colour bar. In Arts Minister one orbit of the Earth in September, Raghbir Singh 108 minutes. Yuri Gagarin becomes Bristol’s first non- by Harold is on board, the first man to Arnolfini’s first open white bus conductor. The Wilson leave our planet. During p•ainting competition is following year Stephenson re-entry the craft’s hatch judged by the art critic will achieve national fame for opens, he ejects and George Butcher, who also refusing to leave a public parachutes down to earth, makes the selection of entries house until served, resulting landing slightly southwest for the accompanying in a trial on a charge of failing 1963 of the town of Engels in exhibition. The principal to leave a licensed premises. ASCII language Saratov Oblast, Russia. prizewinner is John Furnival In 2007 Stephenson is translates human 1964 The working-class with Monument to Benny made a Freeman of the readable text into cosmonaut becomes a Soviet Peret. Additional prizewinners City of Bristol, and in 2009 standard INTELSAT hero and an international are John Phillips, Linking awarded an OBE for “services machine code global celebrity, travelling the Shape, Black and Mauve and to equal opportunities and satellite world to promote the Soviet Darton Watkins, Praia da to community relations in system Union’s achievements. Carroeira. Bristol”.

Above: Russian cosmonaut Yuri When writing instructions The Labour Government INTELSAT, the International Gagarin after touchdown, 1961. f•or machines, the instructions a•ppoints the first minister T•elecommunications Below right: American Standard 1962 need to be translated into specifically for the arts, and Satellite Organization, is Code for Information John Furnival Interchange, ASCII a binary code for the although Jennie Lee works an intergovernmental wins Arnolfini machine to process. Many closely with the Arts Council consortium set up to own Open Painting different binary codes are Chairman, Lord Goodman, and manage a constellation Competition in use, so it is difficult and she is adamant that the of communications satellites time-consuming to exchange founding ‘arm’s-length’ to provide an infrastructure 1963 information and instructions principle for funding will still of international transmission Paul Stephenson between the various pertain. Under Lee’s tenure, services. On 6th April 1965 diverse machine assemblies; the Arts Council expands a Intelsat I (nicknamed Early leads Bristol bus and these assemblies are network of core funded Bird) is placed in boycott over proliferating. client organisations across geostationary orbit over racism A standardisation the country, although they the Atlantic to provide direct committee convenes, remain more or less and nearly instantaneous adopts and implements the autonomous in their contact between Europe American Standard Code operation. and North America. for Information Interchange (ASCII). ASCII is the agreed international code for the 1961 binary values for all the First man glyphs of the alphabet, leaves earth’s numbers, and other symbols atmosphere and functions that machines need to process. Its first commercial use is as a seven-bit teleprinter code.

50 51 1965’s solo exhibitions at In 1963 Jeremy and Arnolfini operates an John Latham and Barbara A•rnolfini include Terry Frost, a A•nnabel Rees are introduced i•nnovative Picture Loan S•teveni initiate the Artist member of the Penwith to the collectors of Scheme, enabling the Placement Group (APG) Society of Artists, who is on contemporary art, Peter and public to borrow art works to place artists, as outsiders, the teaching staff at the Bath Caroline Barker-Mill, by on a basis similar to that at boardroom level into Academy of Art at Corsham London gallerist Leslie of a subscription library. industry, business and where Jeremy Rees is Waddington. Although living Once an annual subscription government. They intend currently lecturing; the at Wookey Hole in Somerset, of 10 shillings is paid, their social interventions assemblages by Bridgwater- near Bristol, the Barker-Mill individuals, businesses and to engage and transform born member of artist family have been influential schools can borrow individual institutional structures. collective The London Group, and wealthy Hampshire works from the gallery’s stock At the same time, it’s a Matt Rugg, who will go on to landowners for over 500 of contemporary paintings means to explore contexts be an inspirational tutor at years, and Peter and Caroline and prints for a monthly for art outside of traditional Chelsea College of Art and become generous charge of eight shillings. gallery exhibitions and Design; and Ceri Richards, benefactors of Arnolfini. “An excellent and museum collections. whose paintings are inspired On 28th May 1966, at the inexpensive way in which Artists are placed in the by a love of music and poetry home of Jeremy and Annabel to enjoy in your own Home Office, the National cultivated during his Welsh in Canynge Square, Arnolfini surroundings, pictures which Coal Board, Scottish childhood. Arnolfini is holds its first Council of you have liked,” suggests Television, British Steel and supported by the Arts Council Management meeting where writer Patricia Stokes. other major organisations. for the first time, which acts Peter Barker-Mill is elected as guarantor against financial Chairman. Joining them are loss. Bristolians Ronald Alley, Keeper of the Modern • Arnolfini organises a Collection at the Tate gallery 1966 retrospective to celebrate its and Anne Hewer, Chair of fifth anniversary, including Western Ballet Theatre. The Picture Loan work by Anthea Alley, Gillian other members of the Scheme widely Ayres, Henry Cliffe, Paul Feiler committee are retired plant used and Bryan Wynter. The pathologist Lawrence Ogilvie, Golden Mile: Kinetic and Annabel’s mother Gwen Concrete Poetry is organised 1965 Lawson, and Paul Weychan. by John Furnival and features Terry Frost. James Treen, who is also a Benedictine monk and ex-spy 1966 1966 Matt Rugg. Ceri member of the committee Dom Sylvester Houédard Arnolfini Artist Placement Richards of the Nottingham-based (‘dsh’) from Prinkash Abbey in artist collective The becomes a Group (APG), Gloucestershire. Together Midland Group, is elected limited company John Latham and they founded the Company Secretary. and registered Barbara experimental Openings Press charity Steveni in 1964, where dsh’s celebrated work Frog-Pond- Plop, a translation from the Japanese Haiku of Matsuo Basho (1644–94) was presented in the form of a 1966 child’s origami fortune-teller. Five-year dsh’s practice explores the retrospective: typewriter’s machinistic The Golden Mile, possibilities for generating a kind of visual poetry, the Kinetic and ‘typestract’; Furnival subjects Concrete Poetry the reductive qualities of Concrete poetry to accumulative ‘cut-up’ techniques as used by Surrealist artists in the 1920s, and subsequently by Beat Left and above right: Arnolfini’s writers including William distinctive catalogues and private view invitations, designed by Burroughs and Allen director Jeremy Rees Ginsberg.

52 53 When Arnolfini opened in 1•961 Jeremy Rees had wanted to put a sign up above the entrance declaring, “Enjoy Yourself!” His desire for 1968 contemporary art to be seen Peter Barker-Mill and enjoyed by as many endowment fund. people as possible is realised Jeremy Rees in his daring exhibition New British Sculpture/Bristol, becomes full-time which locates colourful director contemporary fibreglass sculptures by artists, many of whom had taken part in the 1965 New Generation 1967 exhibition at the Whitechapel First human Gallery, in prominent sites in heart transplant, central Bristol. It is the first Christiaan time in Britain that a Barnard, South temporary sculpture exhibition is distributed in Africa such public city-centre locations, and marks a move away from the tradition of sculpture as architectural decoration, or permanent monument dedicated to a 1968 famous individual or event. Arnolfini initiates Most Bristolians are unsure what to make of it, and groundbreaking New although national art critics British Sculpture are excited by the exhibitions’ exhibition, distributed ambition, most recognise it is throughout the city not an unqualified success. In centre The Times, Guy Brett notes: “there is a fatal gap between the [gallery] spaces the sculptures were conceived for and the spaces found for them in Bristol.” This is not to At the Groote Schuur The scheme of investment say that the sculpture cannot H•ospital in Cape Town, South p•repared for the Peter Barker- be shown outside; only that Africa, Christiaan Neethling Mill endowment fund to “the context has to be Barnard leads a surgical team part-finance Arnolfini is considered – not only to perform the first human-to- accepted by the Charity considered, but necessary.” human heart transplant. The Commissioners. Income from Nevertheless, Rees generates patient, Louis Washansky, is a the trust enables Jeremy the impetus for a City 54-year-old grocer suffering Rees to become full-time Sculpture project with eight from diabetes and irreversible director of Arnolfini, and he regional British cities. heart disease; his donor resigns his teaching post at Francis Morland will go on Denise Darvall, a 25-year-old the Bath Academy of Art in to use his sculptures as woman who was fatally Corsham. vessels in which to traffic injured in a car accident. After hashish from Morocco to surgery, drugs to suppress America. Washkansky’s immune system leave him susceptible New British Sculpture/Bristol to infection, and eight days poster wins British design award. Photograph by Derek Balmer, later he dies from double design by Jeremy Rees, and pneumonia. featuring Babar by Garth Evans

54 55 Left: Harold Cohen, Untitled, On Wednesday 10th July Cybernetic Serendipity is Concorde 001 makes its 1969. Computer print-out with o•ver five inches of rain fall on i•nspired by Norbert Weiner’s f•irst flight from Toulouse on coloured pen and ink. Right: Bristol in less than 24 hours. cybernetics and specifically, 2nd March, captained by Concorde mid-flight, c. 1969 Much of South Bristol is the feedback loops between chief test pilot André Turcat. under water. By 5am almost technology and creativity. Powered by four Olympus every stream, brook and river The curator Jasia Reichardt 593 engines, built jointly by in the area has burst its banks, organises the exhibition into Rolls-Royce in Bristol and causing death, devastation three sections: computer- Snecma in France, the test and despair. Seven people generated work: visual arts, flight reaches 10,000 feet and lose their lives, hundreds poetry, music, film and speeds of less than 300mph. more suffer a terrifying ordeal animation; cybernetic The first British Concorde, of hardship and loss, bridges devices: robots, and painting Concorde 002, built at BAC’s that had stood for centuries machines; and machines Brabazon hangar in Filton, will are washed away or severely demonstrating a use of fly the following month, damaged and countless cybernetics. although it will be November houses, shops, factories and Reichardt is clear: “We are 1970 before the Concordes other properties are engulfed. dealing with an exploratory reach speeds of Mach 2, The tobacco factory of W.D. field, all attempts at a twice the speed of sound. & H.O. Wills at East Street is historical perspective or firm brought to a standstill as evaluation are out of place. floodwaters engulf The exhibition therefore, is machinery, destroy stocks, essentially a reportage of cut off power and telephones, current trends and and damage the firm’s developments.”29 £500,000 computer. Large quantities of cartons of flood- damaged tobacco and cigarettes are removed to the Corporation Refuse Tip at Lawrence Weston, from 1968 where they are salvaged by Roger Hilton. local residents. Front parlours and outhouses are quickly 1968 Harold transformed into tobacco Race Cohen warehouses, and for a Relations considerable time afterwards a steady and lucrative trade in Act cut-price cigarettes is carried out in local pubs.

The Race Relations Act Roger Hilton is a pioneer America on a visiting o•f 1965, which outlawed o•f British abstract art. He lecturership at the Visual Arts 1969 discrimination in public moved to West Cornwall in Department, University of 1968 Concorde’s places, is strengthened; 1965 becoming a prominent San Diego in California. Whilst Disaster Day: maiden making it illegal to refuse member of the St. Ives School. there he is introduced to the The Great flight housing, employment or His exhibition fills the Arnolfini work of the computer science Floods, Bristol public services to people on with his large, beautifully department, sparking a “grounds of colour, race, or coloured lyrical abstractions. lifelong interest in cybernetic ethnic or national origins”. Harold Cohen and his art. Cohen will become the The Act extends the powers brother Bernard were both author of the celebrated of the Race Relations Board selected for inclusion in the AARON progamme, an to deal with complaints of British Pavilion at the 1966 ongoing research project to 1968 discrimination, and to Venice Biennale, along with instruct a machine to paint. promote “harmonious Anthony Caro, whose work Cohen’s exhibition will tour to Jasia Reichardt community relations”. had been seen in New British Dartington Hall in Devon, one Cybernetic Sculpture/Bristol. This year, as of many exhibitions which Serendipity, well as showing paintings and Arnolfini arranges for venues ICA, London screenprints at Arnolfini, throughout the region. Harold Cohen travels to

56 57 “As a solution to the In 1961, with the Cold War begins its three-day journey Swiss curator and art Bitterly unhappy with how hearing on museum practice d•ifficulties arising out of a•t its iciest, the Soviet Union to the moon. On 19th July, h•istorian Harald Szeemann h•is art work is exhibited, and reform. They are refused. packing, transporting and launched Yuri Gagarin into Columbia enters lunar orbit, pioneers exhibitions in which Greek kinetic sculptor In response, the AWC insuring works of modern space, and the United States and eventually Neil the exhibited art works are Vassilakis Takis physically question the political art [...] the Compack is an was shocked to find itself Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin assembled to explore a removes one of his sculptures economy of the art world, the aluminium cube measuring second in the race to space. board the Eagle lunar particular curatorial interest. from the Museum of Modern function of artistic autonomy, 75cms that fits exactly into President John F. Kennedy module, detach from Installed at the Kunsthalle Art. In sympathy, a loose-knit and the lack of representation the rear of a Ford 5cwt van promised: “I believe that this Columbia (where Michael Bern, and then at the ICA in group of over 300 artists, of women and those of or a Renault 4L. The box nation should commit itself to Collins remains orbiting) and London, Live in Your Head: critics, writers, and arts different ethnicities in contains a complete show of achieving the goal, before this descend to the moon’s When Attitudes Become administrators form the Art exhibitions and collections. medium-sized pieces decade is out, of landing a surface. On 21st July, Form promises to trace ideas Workers’ Coalition (AWC) to It’s the beginning of the including paintings, man on the moon and Armstrong steps out of the as they find form through a present MoMA with a list of 13 artistic critique of the sculptures, multiples, returning him safely to the lunar module onto the material presence; and demands, including a public institutions of art.31 drawings and prints. Our earth.” moon’s surface, soon to be through its subtitle, Works- intention is to take the box The US subsequently joined by Aldrin. Concepts-Processes-Situations- over the Channel by ferry. unleashed the most intense After 21 hours collecting Information, describes a Each gallery which shows the burst of collective creativity; samples, conducting range of possible methods. Compack repacks and passes with 400,000 people experiments, taking The exhibition introduces the box on to the next gallery. employed in research at photographs – and planting many of the productive The first box was delivered government departments the American flag – the lunar dematerialised machines to a Brussels gallery last and universities, and module blasts off to re-dock of Conceptual Art, and also November and we hope to $24 billion spent in the largest with Columbia, and with all the radical material economy have four of these boxes in long-term investment ever three astronauts and lunar of Minimal Art. It also signals circulation throughout made in peacetime. samples safe, they begin their a profound change in the Europe and the UK by the Just eight years later, at journey back to earth. public role of the curator, end of this year. One box fills 9:32 am on 16th July, a Saturn On 24th July the command from someone who ‘takes an average gallery; more than V rocket launches Apollo 11 module re-enters the Earth’s care’ of existing art works one box can be sent when into the sky from its base in atmosphere, at 24,000 feet in a collection, to a person necessary.” Group One Four Florida. After one-and-a-half parachutes deploy to slow who creates, initiates, (John Berry, Roy Grayson, orbits of the Earth, thrusters Columbia’s descent and it produces, finds funding Mauro Kunst and Brian Yale) flare and the command-and- safely splashes-down in the and intervenes in the Compack exhibition service module Columbia Pacific Ocean, southwest of production of an art work catalogue with three astronauts aboard Hawaii. or exhibition.30

1970 Move to Queen Square

1969 In 1968, Arnolfini’s Council regarding the Casson Harald Szeemann o•f Management had turned proposals, John Pontin of Live in Your down the opportunity to Design-Build Group JT, and Head: When purchase Bush House on member of the Council of Narrow Quay for £50,000, Management, suggests Attitudes Become wary of proposed plans for a Arnolfini temporarily move to 1969 Form, Kunsthalle 1969 new road scheme that would a warehouse on the corner of Group Bern Art Workers’ cut through the corner of the Queen Square, which JT had One Four Coalition, site. They devise a proposal to recently acquired for New York relocate Arnolfini adjacent to redevelopment, and which Compack 1969 a proposed new City could easily be converted for First moon Museum and Art Gallery on a Arnolfini’s purposes. Given landing, Neil large derelict site in Wine the planning delays arising Street, close to Bristol Bridge, from City Dock Armstrong and Anti-Vietnam War poster created as part of a scheme drawn up redevelopments, he is able to Buzz Aldrin by the Art Workers’ Coalition. by architect Hugh Casson. guarantee a tenancy of at AWC members demonstrate in front of Pablo Picasso’s Whilst awaiting the decisions least a year, rent free, and Guernica at MoMA in 1970 of the Bristol Corporation probably longer.

58 59 In October 1969 Jeremy programme to be self- In the Falkland Islands, an R•ees informs the Council of financing. a•mbitious salvage operation Management that there is no Arnolfini Music is officially is launched, and Isambard place or organisation in launched with a concert Kingdom Brunel’s SS Great Bristol concerned with the given by the Fidelio String Britain is refloated using a performance of new music Quartet, Paul Crossley (piano) submersible pontoon and and, anticipating the move to and Mary Thomas (soprano), towed back to Bristol. She the larger premises at Queen in the presence of the had lain abandoned since Square, he feels Arnolfini composer Michael Tippett, at 1937, after spending more could fill this need. At Rees’ the Theatre Royal, King than forty years being used suggestion Richard Hawkins, Street, with wine afterwards as a floating coalbunker. music critic, composer, at the Arnolfini Gallery in 1970 Thousands of people gather accomplished cook, and one- Queen Square. Arnolfini Music along the portway to watch time editor of the Bristol This ambitious programme avant-garde music as the ship passes beneath Evening Post, is elected to the of experimental music will programme. the Clifton Suspension Bridge Council of Management to provide the impetus for the on her way back to the dry oversee its organisation. development of the Inaugural concert, dock where she was built, Established as a club, with Contemporary Music Michael Tippett launched, and now rests. It priority bookings, special Network (CMN) founded by would take 35 years to events and other promotions Annette Morreau in 1971. complete the painstaking and benefits to members, the conservation and restoration. intention is for the

The United States Jeremy Rees is concerned Peter Maxwell-Davies D•epartment of Defense is t•hat there is no art bookshop p•resents a talk/recital/ concerned about the ability in Bristol, and the move to the discussion at Arnolfini. In 1967 of communications networks larger premises at Queen he formed the Pierrot Players to survive a Cold War nuclear Square enables Arnolfini to with Harrison Birtwhistle, to first strike. Research scientists establish a specialist give performances of conclude that the strongest bookshop. Arnolfini Books contemporary music. communication system is a sells exhibition catalogues, Amongst the equipment he distributed nodal network, 1970 monographs, posters and uses during the evening at where each node is capable ARPANET digital prints, artists’ books and Arnolfini are a harpsichord of receiving, encoding and information limited editions. Through and a collection of stone parcelling messages into network Unlimited Press they produce gargoyles. As is customary, small ‘packets’, and then to artists multiples by Takis, many of the audience are send these ‘packets’ along Liliane Lijn, Kenneth Martin, seated on cushions on the any functioning pathway to Lygia Clark and Michael gallery floor. their nodal destination. Here McKinnon. “Possibly the most they can be received, important one-man show of decoded and reassembled the week was not, for a into coherent wholes. The change, in London but in system is implemented as the 1970 Bristol, where the Arnolfini Advanced Research Projects Arnolfini Gallery – who in nine years Agency Network (ARPANET), 1970 bookshop have achieved that sort of the world’s first operational SS Great opens reputation – are showing packet-switching network Britain Howard Hodgkin’s new and the core network of what returns paintings in their spacious is to become a global warehouse premises.” internet. Michael Shepherd, Sunday Telegraph 1970 Peter Maxwell-Davies. Howard Left: Poster advertising an Arnolfini Music event with John Hodgkin Cage. Above right: Arnolfini staff at Queen Square, 1970

60 61 Fascinated by geology, of land on the northern shore Matrix is an exhibition On 15th August, without Financial markets have c•rystalline structures, of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, b•y artists who have a p•rior warning, President e•xpanded. Governments lack monuments, ruins and the he constructs in the blood- particular interest in Richard Nixon announces the regulatory technologies concept of entropy; and red, algae-tinted water, an conceptual generative in a Sunday evening to administer the flows of driven by a desire to locate enormous spiral 460 metres systems, visual art and in televised address that the US finance through transnational art works outside the long and 4.6 metres wide other creative disciplines is abandoning the Bretton markets, and so torrents of commercial confines of a from 6,650 tons of basalt such as music, mathematics Woods agreement, and capital sweep away the gallery network, Robert rocks, earth and salt crystals. and linguistics. Several of removing the dollar Bretton Woods fixed- Smithson installs art works ‘Land art’, ‘earthworks’ and 1971 the artists were included in from fixed-rate convertibility exchange-rate system. As a directly in urban or rural ‘site-specificity’ enter the Bretton Systeemi, an exhibition of to gold. consequence the pound is landscapes. Purchasing a plot lexicon.32 Woods syntactic art from Britain Inflation in the US, the vast floating freely in relation to Agreement at the Amos Andersons expense of the war in other national currencies and collapses konstmuseum, Helsinki, Vietnam, a growing American at this moment the British in 1969. trade deficit and increasingly Government ditches the 1970 In the music event, vast amounts Imperial pound, shilling and Robert medieval vocal music is of finance capital circulating pence system (in use since Smithson heard alongside outside of government 1066) to launch a new, Spiral Jetty, contemporary works for two control, are all pressurising modern, easier to convert, Utah pianos. The music makes use the value of the dollar. With decimal currency with 100 of systems of rhythmic Bretton Woods abandoned, ‘new pence’ to the pound. modes – repeating patterns the dollar is allowed to ‘float’, through which the flow of that is, to fluctuate against Member of the Artists melody is articulated in large- other currencies, and it P•lacement Group, David Hall scale units, or into which promptly recalibrates. The creates seven three-minute 1971 alterations are gradually collapse of the Bretton video art works to be inserted introduced in such a way that Woods system exposes a like adverts as interruptions Matrix exhibition each change is heard as part deepening contradiction into regular TV programming. and programme of of a developing process. between the tendency of They are broadcast generative, conceptual Michael Parsons and finance capital and managed unannounced by Scottish and system-based Christopher Hobbs play their free markets to develop on a Television; the first examples art works and own two-piano works and are global scale, and the nation- of ‘time-based’ art works on music joined in the vocal pieces by state as a system of television, and an equally Howard Skempton and governance and formative moment in the Michael Nyman. administration. emergence of video art.

1971 David Hall Seven Television Pieces, Scottish 1971 Television Britain decimalises and ‘floats’ Spiral Jetty, near Rozel Point on the north-eastern shore of currency Great Salt Lake, Utah. Robert Smithson, c. 1971

62 63 Following the success of enabling “a number of Made by English art critic, t•he New British Sculpture; sculptors to make works in n•ovelist, painter and author Bristol exhibition in 1968, relation to the sites on which John Berger, Ways of Seeing is Rees had proposed to the they were to be shown.” a four-part BBC television Arts Council an exhibition of Inspired by the Sculpture in series and accompanying sited sculpture in regional Environment show in New book. Berger introduces cities. In collaboration with York (1967) and the possibility Marxist cultural studies, a the Peter Stuyvesant that several of the works social history of art, and Foundation, he is finally given commissioned might be feminist criticism to art history the opportunity to organise retained permanently by the and a growing media ecology 1971 the City Sculpture project. cities, Rees suggests that the 1973 of publicity and advertising. Music by Together with Anthony works will be sited for an Ways of Seeing, Seeing, Berger suggests, is John Cage, Morton Stokes, Rees commissions initial period of six months, at John Berger inflected by class, gender, Feldman, Karlheinz new sculptures for locations the end of which the cities will ideology and economics; all Stockhausen and in Plymouth, Cardiff, have the opportunity to the forces traditional art Cambridge, Birmingham, negotiate for their permanent history obscures.33 Christian Wolff Liverpool, Newcastle, retention.” However, few of Sheffield and Southampton, the sculptures are retained.

1972 Peter Stuyvesant 1972 Foundation City Steve Sculpture project Reich coordinated by Jeremy Rees and Anthony Stokes

• “Following the most • In the summer of 1970 including Drumming Part 1 “According to usage successful concert with Kevin Steve Reich studied and Drumming Part 3. and conventions Ayers & The Whole World drumming with a master Judith Serota, now working performing David Bedford’s drummer of the Ewe tribe at with Richard Hawkins on which are at last The Garden of Love in the the Institute of African Studies programming Arnolfini Music, being questioned but Victoria Rooms, Arnolfini in Ghana. Speculating on the is visited by her brother have by no means Music returns to the gallery. future of music, Reich is Nick, who is impressed by been overcome, Electronics, pianos, bells, etc. quoted in the programme Arnolfini’s ambitious plans the social presence will be liberally distributed notes as saying “Electronic to convert a delapidated of a woman is different throughout the gallery and music as such will gradually waterfront warehouse into besides the problem of die and be absorbed into the a new home for the in kind to that of a finding room for the audience ongoing music of people contemporary arts. As he man […] One may there is also that of finding singing and playing would later write, “For those simplify this by saying: time for 12 items of music. instruments ... The pulse and of us working outside of men act and women The solution is to play several the drone will re-emerge as London in the 1970s, Jeremy appear. Men look simultaneously. All through basic sources of new music.” [Rees] was the prime at women. Women the concert a rival attraction, Two years on, in one of only example of someone who Alison Knowles’ Chair Piece three appearances in the showed how to realise a watch themselves for George Brecht will be UK, Reich, with Steve bold vision with an unusual being looked at.” performed, and beyond Chambers, Jon Gibson, combination of conviction, John Berger revealing that it is obviously Russ Hartenberger, Art personal charm and for a chair, the rest had better Right: City Sculpture Murphy and James Preiss, persistence ... He was far commission, Gorilla by Nicholas remain a mystery.” Munro, Birmingham Bull Ring. plays a programme of his ahead of his time.” Arnolfini News, February 1971 Far right: Ways of Seeing, 1973 own music at Arnolfini,

64 65 In the midst of a financial The auction sale realises d•ownturn, and on the eve an astronomical $2,242,900. of their divorce, Robert and Thaw, a combine-painting Ethel Scull decide to sell by Robert Rauschenberg 50 art works from their that the Sculls bought for amazing collection of $900, sells for $85,000; American Pop and Abstract Andy Warhol’s large-canvas Expressionist art at Sotheby’s Flowers, bought for $3,500, auction house in New York. sells for $135,000; and Jasper The Sculls began collecting Johns’ Double White Map, in the mid-1950s, when bought for $10,000, fetches there was virtually no $240,000. The shock is interest or market for not just from the Sculls’ contemporary art, with unbelievable profits, but funds derived from a taxicab also from the realisation business founded by Ethel’s that contemporary art is 1973 father. When Jasper Johns a viable investment vehicle. Secondary first exhibits at the Leo A speculative market for Castelli Gallery, none of the contemporary art is banking art works sell, Robert Scull is launched.34 crisis invited by Castelli and he buys the whole exhibition.

Against a background of Below left: Souvenir catalogue John Pontin’s JT Group Arnolfini Film announces t•he pound losing its value in of the legendary Scull auction, a•cquires a short-term lease i•tself as a ‘critical cinema’, foreign-exchange markets, Sothebys, New York. Above: on W Shed, the last in a series “engaged in an ideological Arnolfini moves to W Shed inflation devaluing the pound 1973 of 19th century transit sheds critique of cinema, a running in people’s pockets, and the Robert Scull linked to Temple Meads commentary on ways of number of people out of work station. The sheds were built seeing, which are produced, and claiming benefit rising Collection sold at to store cargo brought in and reinforced or negated in the above one million (for the first Sotheby’s New York, out of the Floating Harbour. changing relationships time since the Great first speculative The move provides Arnolfini between audiences and films Depression of the 1930s), financial market with the opportunity to past, present and future.” The there is a dramatic property for contemporary extend its artistic programme. first feature is La Salamandre price crash. The crash causes art With support from the (1971, dir. Alain Tanner). many smaller, or ‘secondary’ 1973 British Film Institute (BFI), a In the opening brochure banks to peer over the brink Move to 106-seat cinema is created, for W Shed, Arnolfini’s new into bankruptcy. Banks were W Shed, and the oil-skin trestle table cinema programmer David lending based on the used at Queen Square on Hopkins writes, “the escalating house prices of café/bar Arnolfini Music evenings is overriding characteristic of the 1960s, and themselves opens transposed into a full-blown [film] is the combination of ... borrowing heavily to loan restaurant serving soups, artistic attributes with an against the housing assets. pies, omelettes, special ice- unavoidable, and, at the A sudden downturn in the creams, gateaux and cheeses. present time, imperative housing market, coupled with Everything is homemade involvement with how society hikes in interest rates, leaves wherever possible, with the sees and recognises itself. It is these smaller institutions with exception of proprietary a characteristic that cinema increasing numbers of debt drinks: wines by the glass holds in common with defaults. Unable to meet their and bottle, light beer, aperitifs television. It is within this borrowing obligations, and and spirits from the bar. ideological common ground holding loans secured by between cinema and property with lower asset television that Arnolfini Film values, they enter negative 1973 finds the focus of its critical equity. The Bank of England Arnolfini Film activity ... in the coming bails out around 30 banks, ‘critical cinema’ months [Arnolfini Film will] be and has to ‘assist’ 30 more programme paying particular attention to at a combined cost to the begins two neglected fields: films taxpayer of some £100 made for television, and short million. and animated films.”

66 67 “Something to • The government 1973 get us going again.” introduces pay freezes to offset the effects of inflation, Britain Prime Minister which, since wages were Edward Heath joins the already struggling to keep EEC pace with price inflation, causes widespread Britain is finally accepted dissatisfaction amongst •into the EEC, well over 20 trade unions. The National years since the project of Union of Mineworkers integration first began, and 12 encourages its members 1973 years after they had first to work to rule – and as a First dance applied to join. Politically and result, coal stocks slowly event: Strider economically Britain is dwindle. The government Dance Group spiralling downwards, just as enters into negotiations, and Majorca the six original Common but to no avail. Market countries are 1.6 million workers strike Orchestra consolidating and thriving. in support of the TUC’s call Now, the institutions and for a “day of national protest protocols of Europe are and stoppage”, 290,000 well established, and civil servants and 47,000 unsurprisingly, they have gas workers strike, as do not been developed with 7,000 London dockers. 1974 the British economy in The government announces State of mind. Painful concessions petrol and fuel deliveries Emergency declared have to be made, particularly will be reduced to conserve with widespread over preferential agriculture supply, electricity is limited and trade subsidies with to three consecutive days strikes, power-cuts, the Commonwealth, which each week, and a “Three- and three-day still accounts for nearly Day Work Order” is imposed working week half Britain’s overseas on factories, schools, trade. Ireland and Denmark hospitals, and public services. also join. Military generators keep hospitals functioning and Arnolfini’s first dance event, independent of technical candles illuminate the dark Organised by Independent Hopkins. Work is organised p•romoted by Another Bath ability. The Portsmouth nights. Even motorists are C•inema West, an open into three categories: films by Festival in association with Sinfonia’s distinctive asked to observe a voluntary collective of independent individuals, films by groups, Arnolfini Music, features approach to the classics 50 mph speed limit. filmmakers and enthusiasts and work using ‘expanded Strider, a new dance group recently gained notoriety Eventually the in the South West, the first cinema’ formats, which is that has appeared at the with the group’s discordant Government declares a Festival of Independent shown in the gallery. Ian Edinburgh Fringe Festival, the rendition on an Omnibus state of emergency as the British Cinema’s selection Breakwell, Tony Hill, Derek International Carnival of programme of Richard electricity shortages bite, panel includes Tony Rayns, Jarman, Malcolm Le Grice, Experimental Sound and in Strauss’ Also sprach schools and workplaces Laura Mulvey, William Raban, Liz Rhodes and Peter the ICA’s The Body as a Zarathustra. close, and piles of rotting Peter Sainsbury and Arnolfini Whitehead are among those Medium of Expression. Strider Martin Lewis, the Sinfonia’s rubbish clog the streets.35 film programmer David whose work is shown. has worked with a variety of manager, would later recall, artists, including the sculptor “The Portsmouth Sinfonia Barry Flanagan and pre-dated punk. We used to composer Anna Lockwood. say that it embraces Now the group teams up with musicians of all ranges of the Majorca Orchestra, an competence, from those offshoot of the Portsmouth of symphony-orchestra Sinfonia, whose members standard to those who 1975 include English composer don’t know which end of First Festival of Gavin Bryars. As with the a violin to blow. Four years Independent Ross and Cromarty Orchestra later, you had punk: the and Portsmouth Sinfonia, the same notion of people British Cinema Arnolfini Cinema programme Majorca Orchestra aims to picking up instruments they poster, designed by director make popular music couldn’t play.” Jeremy Rees

68 69 Bernd and Hilla Becher’s After protracted organisations share the seating, lighting rig, sprung f•lat, frontal photographs of n•egotiations JT is finally able building’s service charges.36 dance floor, large projection industrial structures, grouped to purchase Bush House, The design and build work screen, and quadraphonic according to type, are which had been offered for is led by the architects Roger sound system, is designed for exhibited in W Shed. sale again to Arnolfini, this Mortimer and Mike multiple use, including Following its exhibition at the time for £200,000. Outline Duckering, together with cinema, dance and music. ICA, the show tours to the planning consent for the structural engineer Bob The development receives industrial cities of Hartlepool, conversion of the warehouse, Evans. Externally, the widespread critical acclaim. Cardiff, Bristol, Bradford, now a Grade II listed building, building’s pennant stone William Feaver, the Observer Nottingham and Hull. had been sought on the basis façades are cleaned and art critic, calls it “the grandest Jeremy Rees suggests Ed that JT develop the derelict restored, and new window arts centre in the country, and Ruscha as a candidate for the site for mixed use, with frames and glazed doors probably the best appointed.” Arts Council of Great Britain’s Arnolfini occupying 18,000 sq inserted. Inside, the space is The move leads the way in series of one-man touring ft on the ground and first gutted and the old wooden the revival of Bristol’s desolate exhibitions. Edward Ruscha, floors, and the floors above floors and cast iron Doric docklands – one of the first Prints and Publications 1962– fitted out for commercial columns replaced by a examples of how the arts can 74 gets its first showing at office use. reinforced concrete structure stimulate economic and Arnolfini. The show includes a Artists Over Land is the “The exhibition has been Costing over £1 million, of columns and ‘waffled’ social regeneration. A report range of lithographs and f•irst time that the work of organised in order to Arnolfini’s share of the ceilings, all supported on new commissioned by the silkscreens, as well as all his Richard Long, who was born represent the work of artists development costs is concrete pile foundations University of the West of books since 1965. Ruscha and and lives in Bristol, has been who have for some years £431,000, £250,000 of which driven through the river silt. England in 2002 will highlight Mason Williams’ iconic 1969 shown at Arnolfini, and the been working in landscape is made up from donations, A large gallery is created on Arnolfini as “one of the first photo bookwork Crackers is last exhibition at W Shed situations. It attempts to largely from Peter Barker-Mill, the ground floor, together examples in the UK of the on sale for £3.50. before the move to Narrow conjure up a greater with other funds coming with a café/bar and arts being used for Among the films screened Quay. Long is shown awareness of our own from Arts Council, Gulbenkian bookshop, with smaller encouraging inward at Arnolfini in June are Luis alongside Hamish Fulton, ‘presence’, as exemplified by Foundation and British Film galleries and offices investment and economic Buñuel’s The Discreet Charm Marie Yates and Phillippa four artists who have had Institute grants. JT agrees a occupying the first floor. regeneration leading ... to a of the Bourgeoise, and Rainer Ecobichon. particular perceptions of 125-year lease to Arnolfini, An auditorium with raked likely total investment in the Werner Fassbinder’s Fear Eats Arnolfini’s exhibition ‘being’ in the natural with an annual peppercorn seating for over 200 people, site of £600 million and the the Soul. organiser Clive Adams writes: landscape.” rent of 5p a year, and the two equipped with retractable creation of over 3,500 jobs.”

Above left: Artists Over Land exhibition preview card, 1975 featuring an artwork by Hamish Fulton. Below left: Ed Ruscha and Bernd and Hilla Mason Williams’ iconic photo Becher. Ed Ruscha. bookwork Crackers, 1969. Right: The Discreet first Arnolfini programme after the move to Bush House Charm of the 1975 Bourgeoise. Richard Long, Fear Eats the Hamish Fulton, Soul Marie Yates and Phillippa Ecobichon Artists Over Land

1975 Move to Bush House, leased from JT Group, a model of urban renewal

70 71 Arnolfini is reopened on In March, five school Below left: Cortina’s “Fascist David Nash, a British bringing together the head Ian Breakwell describes his F•riday 17th October by Lord f•riends with an average age of Dictator” picture sleeve, 1977. s•culptor working with wood, of a Fine Art department, a p•ractice as including Esher, Rector of the Royal 16 form the loud and raucous Below right: Ian Breakwell, trees and the natural gallery director, an art critic, “collages, visual texts, from the exhibition poster for College of Art and Chairman band the Cortinas. Future Continuous Diary environment shows Loosely an artist, and a representative drawings, photo-collage, of the Arts Council of Great academic Jeremy Valentine Held Grain from October to from the Arts Council, in the events, theatre performances, Britain’s Art Panel. The first (vocals), soon-to-be Clash November 1976: belief that the issues involved film, film performances, tapes, exhibition, sponsored by IBM, member Nick Sheppard “The weight of the trunk in the existing ‘art system’ installations, environments, features paintings by Howard (guitar), Mike Fewings squeezes the cut, pinches the merit serious reassessment. video, objects, photo-text Hodgkin. To mark the (guitar), future Turner prize saw. Wedge the cut open. Despite the new academic sequences, film/slide reopening, Arnolfini publishes nominee Dexter Dalwood Hammer in the wedge, bang status of Bachelor of Arts projection sequences with a new four-colour screenprint (bass), and Daniel Swan it down hard; the trunk lifts up Degrees with Honours in Fine accompanying sound, photo- by Hodgkin, based on his (drums) – son of Peter Swan, and opens the cut. The blade Art, very few graduates are assemblages, writing and painting Artificial Flowers. band manager and Arnolfini's glides through as smoothly managing to continue as full- reading of prose.” Continuous The Grimethorpe Colliery inaugural exhibition artist – as at the beginning. The trunk time artists. This is chiefly to Diary is the first of three Band, founded in 1917 by a burn brightly in the early holds to the last grain, then do with the disadvantageous presentations (the others group of South Yorkshire firmament of Punk. After gives, cut clean through.” ratio of graduate numbers to being the ICA in London and miners, is an acclaimed releasing two classic singles David Nash probable opportunities, but a the Midland Group in exponent of brass band Fascist Dictator and Arnolfini organises the contributing factor is that Nottingham) held in places music. The Band, conducted Defiant Pose they splinter seminar “Art Education, most students are ill-prepared where Breakwell has lived. by Elgar Howarth, performs in June 1978. Galleries and Art Today”, to succeed. Included in the exhibition is at the Victoria Rooms in the film The Journey, made Clifton, a larger venue, to • Patrick Caulfield’s Recent following an assignment with mark the reopening of Paintings and Prints runs 1976 British Rail at the instigation Arnolfini at Bush House. from February to March. of the Artists' Placement Works by Byrd and Holst William Packer, writing in the David Nash. Group. feature alongside Financial Times, notes how Seminar: A collection of 130 of contemporary work by the Caulfield’s paintings are “Art Education, Robert Smithson’s drawings, Australian composer David “extremely simple and Galleries and originally brought together in Lumsdaine and Derek straightforward, but there is Art Today” April 1974 nine months after Bourgeois, who is teaching at the rub; for they are the death of the artist in a Bristol University. disconcertingly so, the paint plane crash near the site of The first concert in flat and unmodulated, the his final ‘Earthwork’ Amarillo Arnolfini’s new auditorium, colour crude and tasteless, Ramp in Texas, are shown held the following month, is the drawing effected by together with the films Spiral four parts from Music in a thick and unvarying Jetty and Swamp. This is the Twelve Parts, performed by black line ... Caulfield leads first time the drawings have the Philip Glass Ensemble. us wryly and calmly into been shown in England. his world of cafés and 1976 1976 hotels, and tourist souvenirs, Patrick Caulfield. making us test responses, Rosemary 1975 The Cortinas, and by extension our Arnolfini reopens. Bristol’s attitudes.” Butcher Dance Howard Hodgkin. first punk Rosemary Butcher Company Grimethorpe Colliery band studied at Dartington before travelling to the USA. Her Band. Philip Glass Bristol performances follow Ensemble her acclaimed performance at the Serpentine Gallery earlier in the year, with a number of the pieces being 1977 worked specifically for the spaces used, including the Ian Breakwell quayside outside Arnolfini. Continuous Diary “It is the influence of the exhibition and environment on movement, readings. Robert and also how moving affects Smithson the environment, that is the basis of my work-in- development,” she writes.

72 73 Canadian artist collective intellectual parasites.” G•eneral Idea performs Marc Chaimowicz, Stuart Glamour at Arnolfini. Since Brisley and The Ting perform 1972, AA Bronson, Felix Partz at Arnolfini as part of a series and Jorge Zontal have of events, films and talks, biannually published File under the title Rites and magazine (an anagram of Roles. Chaimowicz performs 1977 Life, whose cover layout it Doubts, a sketch for video On Site apes). Their Glamour camera and audience, Brisley exhibition of manifesto states: “We knew a four-day durational piece interventions in that if we were famous and entitled Bodyspace, Drawing glamorous we could say we and Context, involving a rural and urban were artists and we would be bodily exploration of the settings ... We knew Glamour was not gallery space “to include an object, not an action, not drawing, sculptural and an idea. We knew Glamour painterly means”, and The Far left: Poster for On Site an never emerged from the Ting performs Going, exhibition exploring site specificity. Below left: Stuart ‘nature’ of things. There are Waterfall 3 and Rape of the Brisley performs Bodyspace, no glamorous people, no Mind. Writing in the Arnolfini Drawing and Context. Above: glamorous events. We knew Review, Sarah Kent describes The Stanford Cart, Stanford Glamour was artificial. We The Ting’s work as “both Artificial Intelligence Laboratory knew that in order to be serious and ridiculous at once (SAIL) c. 1979 glamorous we had to – a macabre mixture of the become plagiarists, everyday and the surreal.” • An exhibition of works and In the year after Marcel 1977 • A primitive autonomous proposals particular to Broodthaers’ death, an Tony Sinden and machine is a robot that is able natural landscape and urban exhibition of his editions, to move in unknown sites in and around Bristol, On books and films are brought David Dye. Jewellery environments, sense data, Site exhibits works by artists together at Arnolfini. Class of ’77. Marcel extract knowledge, calculate, for whom site is indivisible Martin Parr last exhibited at Broodthaers. reason, and finally, act. The from the work itself: site Arnolfini in 1975 with his Martin Parr machine is given simple rules specificity. The featured degree show Home Sweet to obey, and is able to learn artists include Ian Breakwell, Home. Beauty Spots is a through experience. Phillippa Ecobichon, Hamish photographic survey Unassisted, the Stanford Cart Fulton, Tim Head, Richard exhibition of the most famous successfully maps out and Long, Albert Mayr, Peter natural attractions in Britain crosses a chair-filled room. Randall-Page, David Tremlett, and the people that visit The use of computers to Gerry Whybrow and Terry them. control robots introduces Wright. behavioral complexity to the In Oldham General technological domain. Tony Sinden and David H•ospital, Greater Manchester, D•ye take over Arnolfini’s main a human egg is fertilised by gallery to present film an in vitro fertilisation (IVF) installations; Dye using process. In IVF, egg cells are 1978 mirrors as part of the removed from a donor General Idea. projection process, Sinden (although this could also be Marc Chaimowicz, combining projected images the potential mother), and real objects to create an fertilised by sperm, cultured Stuart Brisley environment the spectator until having reached the six 1978 and The Ting 1979 will share. to eight cell stage (zygote) Louise Primitive Continuing the are then transferred to a Brown, first autonomous programme of jewellery future mother to establish a ‘test-tube machines exhibitions that started in successful pregnancy. Louise baby’ 1961, Arnolfini presents the Joy Brown is the first person work of recent graduates conceived and born through Esther Knobel, Gillian IVF, a ‘test-tube baby’. The Sternbach, Ian Burch and most precious act between Victoria Diehl. humans is technologised.

74 75 From Peter Barker Mill’s Britain begins the Filmmaker Peter With “Modern Art in Public Arnolfini presents its own the first British Art Show. s•ubstantial family estates in d•eregulation of its major G•reenaway and composer G•alleries – Who Decides D•ance Umbrella Festival as He describes his brief: Hampshire he makes a gift of financial markets by Michael Nyman present past What?”, Tony Haworth, an offshoot of the London “to travel as widely as agricultural land, cottages, abolishing controls on the and current work arising from curator of Southampton Umbrella which takes possible through England, and other property under purchase and sale of foreign a collaborative investigation Gallery, leads an open place at the same time at Scotland and Wales, and to short-term tenancy, to currency. This is coupled with into the alliance of music discussion accompanying the ICA and Riverside Studios. select from the wide variety Arnolfini. The benefits of the favourable tax incentives to and film. The programme the Bristol Sample exhibition, Dance Umbrella brings of work that I saw whatever gift are transformed into an attract overseas banks and revolves around four projects: in which all the artists have together a selection of I thought to be the best, or endowment. financial institutions, and a 1–100, a music and film been invited to participate on contemporary dance groups the most interesting, of Rents are received from change in legislation making collaboration engineered to the basis that they had been from the USA, Canada and current painting and Ashley Manor Farm and international investment, structure the numbers 1 to part of a Gulbenkian Britain. sculpture. And if it turned Cottages, Hordle Manor acquisitions and mergers 100 arranged chronologically Foundation-funded Enquiry Presented in conjunction out that everything I chose Farm, Becton Farm, easier. The City of London giving no one number more into the Economic Situation with the Bristol Musicians or nothing came from Newlands Manor Farm becomes a major hub for film space than another; of the Visual Artists. Co-op, the festival centres London, or that every artist and Cottages, Sansomes global finance and its Vertical Features Remake, Arnolfini is now around audio installations in was famous and well Cottage, Keepers Cottage, institutions. an attempt to reconstruct coordinating the cinema the gallery by Max Eastley, established or entirely holiday houses and beach a supposedly lost structural programmes at Arnolfini and alongside a programme of unknown, so be it.” huts, as well as monies film featuring 121 images; Bristol Arts Centre, King events. Performers include Already seen in Sheffield earned from grazing and A Walk Through H, a journey, Square. Women and Film is a David Toop, Maggie Nicols, and Newcastle, the British shooting. For the year ended real or imagined, taken on the season of feminist cinema, Alvin Curran, Trevor Wishart, Art Show comes to Bristol 31st March 1981, Arnolfini’s evidence of 92 maps; and including The All-Round Ian and Will Menter and Lily in April, where it is shown at balance sheet lists the net current work on a small area Reduced Personality, The Greenham. the Royal West of England income from the Ashley of a new feature-length Left-Handed Woman, Jeanne Bill Packer, art critic to the Academy and the City Clinton Estate as project funded by the British Dielman and In the Realm of Financial Times, has spent Museum and Art Gallery, £12,087.40. Film Institute called The Falls. the Senses. two years selecting work for as well as Arnolfini.

1979 Peter Greenaway and Michael Nyman 1980 Dance Umbrella Festival, first British Art Show

1979 Britain abolishes 1979 financial market 1979 Peter Barker- controls, London Discussion: Mill establishes “Modern Art in becomes centre of Left: Stills from Peter Greenaway’s Ashley Clinton A Walk Through H, a 40-minute global financial Public Galleries”, Endowment journey, unfolding entirely Women and trading through voice-over and drawn Fund maps, about the mysterious Tulse Film Luper. Peter Greenaway, 1979. Above: Advertising for the 1980 British Art Show

76 77 In a direct and angry The niece of Solomon R. Left: The Western Daily Press r•eaction to the Allen Jones G•uggenheim, Peggy reports the St Pauls riots. Below: retrospective at London’s Guggenheim is a passionate Sony Mavica, 1981: the beginning of the end of 35mm film ICA, which shows fetishistic and knowledgeable collector 1981 images of women inspired of contemporary and MS-DOS by pulp comics and modern art. Exhibiting her operating system pornography, Jacqueline collection at the 1948 Venice Morreau, Joyce Agee, Biennale, artists such as and distributed Catherine Elwes and Pat Arshile Gorky, Jackson computing Whitehead, all members of Pollock and Mark Rothko 1981 the Women’s Art Alliance, were shown in Europe for the organise two exhibitions of first time. The following year First women’s art designed to Peggy bought Palazzo Venier commercial “put history into reverse”. dei Leoni on the Grand Canal, digital Women’s Images of Men where she took up residence, camera features painting, drawing, held exhibitions of sculptures sculpture and photography, in the garden, and began to and About Time includes open her home and artists working in collection to the public each performance, video and summer. installation. Peggy died at the age of 81 Maedee Dupres, a young on 23rd December 1979. She 1980 dancer/choreographer, had given the palazzo and who danced with Rosemary her collection to the St Pauls riots: Butcher between 1975 and Guggenheim Foundation alienation amongst 1978, performs a series of three years earlier, paving the black youth leads solo dance performances way for the Peggy to increasing at Arnolfini, including Sally Guggenheim Collection to racial tension Potter’s Crowd Scenes, to open for the first time under music by Lindsay Cooper. the Foundation’s management. 1980 • Unemployment, poor • Early computers were Women’s housing and the police’s built to perform a series of heavy-handed use of Stop single tasks, like a calculator. Images of Men and Search laws are all An operating system (OS) is and About Time. contributing to rising tension software that enables the Sally Potter’s in the predominantly Afro- same assembly to perform Crowd Scenes Caribbean community of St multiple tasks; managing Pauls. Riots erupt on 2nd April programs, computer when police raid the Black hardware resources and and White Café on Grosvenor peripheral devices. Road in the heart of St Pauls. In July 1981, International After several hours of Business Machines (IBM) disturbance in which fire assigns a company called engines and police cars are Microsoft to develop a 16-bit damaged, 130 people are operating system for its arrested and 25 taken to range of desktop machines. 1980 hospital, including 19 Microsoft Disk Operating Guggenheim policemen and a cameraman System (MS DOS) 1.0 consists Venice, beginning and photographer from the of about 4,000 lines of code of corporate Western Daily Press. and is designed with a museum The Black and White Café modular architecture to run In August, Sony and produces images will be closed for good in on any generic machine a•nnounces the Sony Mavica at a resolution of 570 x 490 experiment March 2005, and assembly. 50 companies (Magnetic Video Camera), pixels written to floppy subsequently demolished to license the proprietary OS, the first commercial digital diskettes capable of make way for new homes. and it quickly becomes a still camera. Its CCD sensor holding 50 still frames. worldwide business and converts optical images The images are viewed on administrative standard. into an electronic signal a television screen.

78 79 First recorded on 5th June, Like most viruses, HIV pass the virus to others With video technology A two-part exhibition Britain’s first dedicated w•hen the US Center for reprogrammes host cells to through the exchange of i•ncreasingly being used by c•o-curated by Lewis Biggs, m•edia centre opens in June, Disease Control (CDC) make new copies of itself. HIV intimate bodily fluids. artists, Arnolfini opens the Sandy Nairne and Iwona in Arnolfini’s old home of reports a cluster of unusual has just nine genes By the beginning of July first library of artists’ work on Blazwick is shown W Shed, on the opposite lung infections in five (compared to more than 500 1982 there are a total of 452 U-matic videotape to provide concurrently at Arnolfini and bank of St Augustine’s Reach. homosexual men in Los in a simple bacterium). Three cases. That December a public access to audio-visual the ICA in London. Objects Watershed’s main focus will Angeles, a new virus is traced of them contain information 20-month-old child who has materials not yet generally or and Sculpture contrasts the be new developments in film to primates in the west of sub- to make proteins for new received multiple blood easily available. Users can strictly formal concerns of and photography. Saharan Africa, probably virus cells. The other six transfusions dies from select, programme and watch much sculpture from the jumping species and control the ability of HIV to AIDS-related infections, a broad range of 1960s and 1970s, by Figurative Jewellery transferring to humans penetrate a host cell, and sparking widespread public experimental tapes, including exhibiting new work that p•resents work by artists during the early 20th century. then code the host to copy concerns about the blood works by independent incorporates modified including Vicki Ambery-Smith, The acronym AIDS (Acquired the virus into the cell’s supply. AIDS slowly becomes filmmakers (transferred onto objects in everyday use. Tom Saddington, Catherine Immune Deficiency nucleus, from where it is a pandemic. Thirty years later videotape) , Artists in the exhibition Mannheim and Lynn Syndrome) is adopted in July spliced into life’s operating there will be 33.3 million Maureen Paley’s include Antony Gormley, Prendergast, whose jewellery 1982, and defined by the CDC system, DNA. From there the people worldwide living with Homework is billed as a “cool Anish Kapoor, Richard miniaturises recognisable the following September. The virus spreads rapidly through HIV/AIDS, with 2.6 million and witty reappraisal of an Deacon, Edward Allington, objects, often with wit and syndrome is caused by the the human body, wrecking new HIV infections per year East Coast ‘home town’, Margaret Organ, Jean-Luc humour. human immunodeficiency the immune system. Once a and 1.8 million annual where the simple presence of Vilmouth and Bill Woodrow. Arnolfini’s Saturday Art virus (HIV). person is infected, they can recorded deaths. ‘mom’ adds a surreal note to As well as traditional Club for Children regularly photographs of typical Javanese music, The English sells out. Katy MacLeod, buildings.” Gamelan Orchestra plays Education & Information As part of the Spring new work commissioned by Assistant, works with artists Festival of Dance and English composers Michael to create workshops in Performance, dancer and Parsons and Mark Lockett. response to Arnolfini’s choreographer Siobhan Moniek Toebosch’s exhibitions. Davies is in residence at Bristolscream performance A selection by Paul Arnolfini, where she delivers for the Festival of Improvised Rodgers of work by nine public classes and Music, juxtaposes poetry, contemporary painters 1981 workshops, school visits and vocalisation, and works with a working in France, The HIV AIDS, first a “day of dance for schools” crackle-synthesiser organ Subject of Painting tours to Below: Digital model of HIV viral pandemic, alongside two evening developed especially for her Arnolfini from the Museum of retrovirus responsible for performances with her dance at STEIM studios in Modern Art in Oxford. Acquired Immunodeficiency identified company. Amsterdam. Syndrome (AIDS). Right: in USA Arnolfini’s Video Library catalogue

1982 Watershed Media Centre opens

1981 1981 1982 Video Library Objects and Figurative opens. Maureen Sculpture. English Jewellery. Paley Homework. Gamelan orchestra. Children’s Art Siobhan Davies Festival of Improvised Club. The Subject Dance Company Music, Moniek of Painting residency Toebosch Bristolscream

80 81 • Savage, graceful, “The source of my 1983 menacing and seductive, work is nature. I use Rational Malcolm Poynter’s sculptures, 1983 on show in Arnolfni’s main it with respect and Richard Long. Theatre/ freedom. I use Malcolm Poynter gallery, are the inspiration for Stephen Willats Orders of Obedience, a materials, ideas, Under Cover. Orders of collaborative production with movement and time Obedience Rational Theatre. Paula Rego. to express a whole 200,000 visitors view of my art in the Started in Bangladesh by M•uhammad Yunus, Grameen world. I hope to make Banks are community-owned images and ideas 1984 1982 Bush House Artificial microfinance organisations which resonate in the and community features on heart imagination, which development banks that mark the earth and postage stamps transplant make small loans (known as celebrating microcredit) to impoverished the mind.” people (particularly women) Richard Long urban renewal without requiring assets as guarantees. Grameen financial organisations Richard Long,Touchstones, believe that charity creates i•s published by Arnolfini on dependency, whereas loans the occasion of Selected 1983 offer people the opportunity Works 1965–1983, Long’s first Grameen Bank, to take initiatives, providing one-man show in Bristol. first microfinance earnings and enabling them Other highlights of the organisation and to pay off the debt. year include Stephen Willats’ Grameen Banks utilise trust Under Cover and Paula 1984 community and peer-pressure to ensure Rego’s first UK exhibition Kate Blacker development bank, that borrowers are obligated outside London, a series of Second Sites. Bangladesh to repay the loan. They also large works containing Geometry of Rage. accept deposits, provide multiple images based on Architecture and Below right: ‘Hand in Hand’ other financial services, and operas; stories that are microfinanced family enterprise run development-oriented extraordinary, absorbing and Continuity. Pandora’s of traditional sari weaving in businesses including fabric, sometimes ridiculous. Box. Jazz Festival Tamul Nadu, India. Far right: telephone and energy Annual visitor numbers workshops Arnolfini’s Bush House features on a postage stamp celebrating companies and agricultural surpass 200,000 for the urban regeneration smallholdings. first time.

On 2nd December, a Kate Blacker’s Second Sites Organised by Women’s s•urgical team headed by i•s a set of landscape Images, Pandora’s Box uses William DeVries at the metaphors about discovering painting, sculpture, drawings, University of Utah performs peace and beauty in nature photography and the first artificial heart and our ability to pollute and printmaking to explore “an transplant. Dentist Barney destroy it. alternative view of cultural Clark is given a second life Bringing together the work history; spotlighting the basis with the Jarvik-7, a of Denis Masi, Deanna of many embedded mechanical pump made of Petherbridge and Michael prejudices and fears affecting plastic and titanium, powered Sandle, Geometry of Rage society at large and the by compressed air. The air is suggests a future of individual psyche” as delivered by a large external The success of the project alienation in which dominant exemplified by the myth of compressor through two b•y Arnolfini and JT Group to images are of conflict, decay Pandora. tubes that pass into Clark’s convert Bush House, which and political disintegration. Accompanying a week- body via incisions in his pioneered the development Four lectures on the theme long festival of evening jazz abdomen. The system leaves of Bristol’s dock area, is Architecture and Continuity, concerts, a programme of Clark open to infections, and recognised in one of a set of accompanied by a small daytime workshops is after surviving 112 days with four commemorative stamps exhibition, are arranged in organised, led by Will Menter, the heart still beating, he on the theme of urban association with the Bristol Roy Asbury, Ben Baddoo and succumbs to a virus. renewal. Society of Architects. John Stevens.

82 83 More than half the Below left: NUM’s Coal Not Dole Inspired by Martha Cooper Savings and Loan banks c•ountry’s 187,000 campaign pin badge, c. 1984. a•nd Henry Chalfant’s (•S&Ls) expanded rapidly in mineworkers are on strike. 1985 Below: Installation view of the photographs of New York the two decades after the Graffiti Art in Bristol exhibition, The dispute began over an Free Software celebrating the vibrant subway graffiti, and the film Second World War, as announcement by the Foundation and the street culture of graffiti, music Wild Style, large colourful servicemen returned to their National Coal Board that General Public and dance graffiti has begun to appear in civilian lives and the resultant 20 ‘uneconomic’ pits would public spaces in Bristol. ‘baby boom’ saw a surge in have to close, putting License (GPL), Working in secret at night, the suburban home construction. 20,000 miners out of Richard Stallman local artists quickly gain a Like UK building societies, work. The government of reputation for being at the S&Ls are specialist banks that Margaret Thatcher had forefront of graffiti culture in use low-interest deposit and prepared against a repeat Britain. Arnolfini commissions savings accounts to fund of the effective 1974 a number of them – 3D mortgages. In a climate of industrial action that 1984 1985 (Robert Del Naja, later of deregulation and risk, the brought down the Edward Miners’ strike, Massive Attack), Z-Boys, slow, dependable, Heath administration by Savings and Bombsquad and the London government-backed and stockpiling coal, and bitter struggle Loan Crisis, based artist Pride – to spray regulated S&Ls are pressured recruiting fleets of road between unionised systemic debt their work directly onto the to become more financially hauliers. The strike is labour and default, USA gallery walls. The show, one profitable. They raise interest a desperate struggle free-market of the first by a public gallery rates to generate more between the remnants of ideology of graffiti art, is hugely capital, start making Fordist unionised labour popular. Alongside the commercial as well as and a government 1985 A Noise in Your Eye is an exhibition are live displays of residential loans, and determined to introduce Graffiti Art i•nternational exhibition of breakdancing in the gallery, speculate with their increased deregulated markets as a in Bristol. The sound-producing sculptures where The Wild Bunch, the capital in other markets. For disciplinary force. For many, Wild Bunch. and installations to be heard Bristol sound system out of example, some work closely the strike is a defining as well as seen. It includes which will come Massive with the investment bank moment for contemporary Late de Chirico work by Ken Gray, Hugh Attack and music producer Solomon Brothers, who Britain. Davies, Peter Appleton, Max Nellee Hooper, also perform. invent, create and sell A year later, the UK’s most 1985 Eastley, Martin Riches, Alvin Covering the period 1940– mortgage-backed bonds or powerful union, the NUM, is A Noise in Lucier, David Keane, Sonde, 1976, Late de Chirico collateralized mortgage defeated, and unionised your Eye sound Paul and Limpe Fuchs, and reappraises Giorgio de obligations (CMOs). labour is broken. The strike the brothers Bernard and Chirico’s later paintings, Essentially they are exposes deep divisions in sculpture François Baschet, two of the sculpture, drawings and repackaging individual British society and causes most important initiators of graphics, and his concern mortgages into variegated considerable bitterness, sound-art, whose approach with Baroque and the neo- bundles, and issuing bonds especially in Wales where to art is summed up in a metaphysical. This is the first offering insurance on the risk whole communities are phrase they like to use: time that much of this work of default, and access to the devastated.37 “Amusez-vous!” has been seen in the UK. interest as a revenue stream. By 1982 these new financial To prevent computer use, modify and share with practices accounted for over o•perating systems and others. He initiates the Free half of S&Ls’ business, and programs from being copied, Software Foundation (FSF) to now 10% of the previously modified or shared, host the GNU project, and solvent banks are technically manufacturers have stopped build awareness about the bankrupt. As more banks go selling human-readable freedoms at risk in the under, fearing a systemic source code and distribute copyright of essential financial collapse, the US only machine-readable languages and processes. To government agrees a bailout binary copies, protected by protect these resources he of $50 billion to close failed patents and copyrights. develops a piece of legal banks and stop further losses. Software engineer Richard code to protect core creative But in the next decade over Stallman worries that private freedoms; the General Public 1,000 banks with total assets property restrictions on License v1. enshrines four of over $500 billion will machine assemblies will stifle core freedoms to run, change, eventually fail, with taxpayers creativity. On several redistribute and release contributing $124 billion in ARPANET mailing lists in 1983 improvements to programs bailouts. The Savings and he announced plans to to fellow users. The free, libre Loans Crisis is the biggest produce a GNU operating or open-source software banking collapse since the system, free for anyone to (FLOSS) movement is born. Wall Street Crash in 1929.

84 85 • Organised to complement • While London is still a the Royal Institute of 1985 global centre of finance, The Philosophy conference on Jean-Francois City’s firms are failing to “Philosophy and the Visual compete with foreign Arts: Seeing and Abstracting”, Lyotard and institutions. The government and specially curated for Thierry Chaput identifies two problems: Arnolfini by Guardian art critic Les Immatériaux, overregulation, and the Waldemar Januszczak, Who’s Centre Georges dominance of a cosy, elitist, Afraid of Red, Yellow & Blue? Pompidou, Paris old boys’ network of specialist takes its name from the financial firms. Inspired by famous painting by Barnett Milton Friedman, they see Newman, in which the three that the solution lies in a free- primary colours boldly market doctrine of unfettered confront the viewer in large competition. They break the vertical bands. The exhibition ancient monopoly of the explores an undercurrent of London Stock Exchange, and abstract art which draws its new universal banks move in. inspiration from the work of These are financial Yves Klein and Barnett 1986 conglomerates, such as Newman, and which explores Big Bang: digitally Deutsche Bank and Lehmann the spiritual and emotional networked global Brothers, offering all types of resonances of colour, seen in financial services. At the same isolation and divorced from financial markets time, building societies are form and content. Works by ‘freed’ from state demutualised and become Alan Green, Gerhard Merz, regulation, banks, some department John Murphy, Anish Kapoor exponential market stores sell stocks and shares, and Zadok Ben-David feature, expansion issue credit cards and lend alongside Adam Barker-Mill’s money, and many Chromat 1 light box, which manufacturing and service demonstrates the magical companies grow investment effects of mixing colour. and brokerage departments Neil Jeffries: Sculpture The so-called ‘Big Bang’ “uses the sheet metal and lays the foundation of bright colours of cheap modern finance, designating imported toys to construct the explosive growth of his distinctive tableaux of finance and trading contemporary life. Getting technologies that are faster, married, a holiday abroad, a networked and ‘always on’. steamy kitchen, or a visit by As a consequence financial the milkman are subjects markets grow exponentially surveyed into great sagas of and penetrate all aspects of jumbled detail.” contemporary life. National frontiers, which once ensured Above: Who’s Afraid of Red, Co-curated by philosopher publications, including an that market management Yellow & Blue? exhibition poster. J•ean-François Lyotard and experimental catalogue would be responsive to 1985 Right: The end of ‘open call’ design historian and theorist produced solely by a government oversight and Who’s Afraid financial trading with the implementation of digital Thierry Chaput, Les computer. supervision, are increasingly of Red, Yellow technology. Chicago Mercantile Immatériaux at the Pompidou Lyotard intends the project permeable. & Blue? Exchange, c. 1985 consists of an exhibition; to be a centre for research, a Neil Jeffries music performances place to practise with including the world premiere philosophical concepts of Karlheinz Stockhausen’s including the role of Kathinkas Gesang; a film technology, time, matter and programme curated by being, and to explore how Claudine Eizykman and Guy these intersect with ideas Fihman; a three-day seminar from the discourse of on the relationship between aesthetics of ‘exhibition’, architecture, science and ‘presentation’, ‘showing’ and philosophy; and five new ‘appearance’.

86 87 Taking over as Chair of United States. The Dow Jones The Charity Commission A•rnolfini, entrepreneur and Industrial Average (DJIA) a•uthorises expenditure from heir to chocolate fortune 1987 plummets by a record 508 the Barker-Mill endowment Jeremy Fry pays tribute to David Chipperfield points, registering a fund of up to £350,000 for Peter and Caroline Barker-Mill refurbishes Bush percentage drop of 22.6%, or the discharging of certain for their “interest, enthusiasm $500 billion lost in single day. liabilities and to modify and generosity”. He informs House, collaborates The crash in confidence is Arnolfini’s premises. Barry Arnolfini’s Council of with Bruce McLean exacerbated by the Barker invites David Management that since 1966, on café/bar networked computers of Chipperfield to remodel Bush the Arts Council has large institutional investment House. Chipperfield brings a contributed £1.3 million in 1987 companies performing warm minimalism to revenue, and £80,000 in Wall Street automatically triggered rapid- Arnolfini’s interiors, with hung capital funding. Peter and Financial market sell executions. The losses are ceilings and beautifully Caroline, through income Crash II: d•eregulation and rapid far worse than the infamous understated finishes using from the £1.25 million trust contagious expansion generates a 1929 crash. The contagion marble and wood. Bruce fund they set up for the global financial widespread belief that jumps previously distinct McLean, whose furniture- benefit of Arnolfini, crisis financial technologies are markets, between stocks, based sculpture has recently contributed £500,000. exceeding government derivatives and bonds, and been exhibited at the The revenue-producing oversight; and as a trading has to be throttled Anthony d’Offay Gallery, trusts set up by Peter and consequence insider trading, back and even suspended to collaborates with Chipperfield Caroline are in perpetuity; but destructive asset-stripping, enable the avalanche of to create a dynamic and Arts Council funding is not. and leveraged buyouts of trades to be processed. By playful café/bar, working Arnolfini has a cash flow viable companies with the end of October, stock McLean’s distinctive graphic problem. Revised Arts borrowed money are markets around the world drawings into welded steel, Council strategy expects any dominating financial have tumbled. floor inlays, the terrazzo- offers of grants to be practices. There is a loss of Although the DJIA is topped bar and the vertical matched locally, and Arnolfini 1986 confidence, trust evaporates, positive for the calendar year glass screen that runs behind is required to find an Jeremy Rees and on ‘Black Monday’, 19th (opening at 1,897 points on the length of the bar. The additional £50,000 for the resigns as October, the world’s stock 2nd January and closing at most important things are, next financial year. For the Director after 25 markets collapse after a 1,939 points on 31st McLean says, “the mood and year ending 31st March 1986, years, replaced by frenzied round of panic December), it takes another the food”. Stylish and the Bristol City Council grant Barry Barker selling. The crash begins in two years to regain its closing sophisticated, the café/bar is is set at £5,400. Hong Kong and spreads west high of 25th August 1987 of enthusiastically received in to Europe and then the 2,722 points. the design press.

The sudden resignation been that the City and 1985 o•f Jeremy Rees comes as County have failed to make a Peter Barker-Mill a shock. The Bristol Evening realistic contribution to what resigns as Chair Post, recognising that Rees has, in effect, been provided of Trustees, has guided Arnolfini to its as a public service. Whatever current status as “an one’s feelings about replaced by internationally-known individual elements of Jeremy Fry showcase for the best in the Arnolfini’s programmes, the living arts”, reports on the important thing is that there tensions between the two have been opportunities to Jeremys; Chair and Director. see this sort of work. If you In its words, Rees wants ask, ‘What do people want?’ Arnolfini to remain “a flagship the answer, as we would all for the experimental” whilst say if we’re honest with Fry wishes “Arnolfini to pay ourselves, is that we want more of its way and to get out the familiar; something that of the never-ending battles doesn’t challenge our with a philistine council which perceptions. Arnolfini is about Above right: Encapsulating the regards anything above challenging perceptions.” ‘greed is good’ ethos of the church-hall drama as elitist Rees is replaced by Barry decade, Michael Douglas as and unnecessary.” Barker, former exhibitions Gordon Gekko in Oliver Stone’s “In all my time here,” Rees officer at the ICA in London Wall Street. Below right (l–r): Jeremy Fry, Barry Barker, David tells Venue magazine, “my and John Hansard Gallery in Chipperfield and Bruce McLean one disappointment has Southampton.

88 89 Moments of the Sun is in scope – nor immediately Richard Wilson radically In an abandoned a•n exhibition of paintings, splendid in appearance. t•ransforms the front gallery D•ocklands warehouse, 16 drawings and watercolours What is unique is that it with an installation using steel young artists participate in an by Maggi Hambling was deliberately given to grilling which brings the floor exhibition organised by celebrating the sunrise and Caroline piece by piece to sloping up to the quayside Damien Hirst, a student from the sunset. build up a miniature archive window. Goldsmiths College. Freeze A stage littered with junk- of his concerns and As part of Feminist Book encapsulates a trend. Unable shop furniture becomes a working processes. It is Fortnight, experimental to enter the tightly controlled space of infinite possibilities. characterised by Beuys’ American novelist, punk poet circuit of commercial Station House Opera’s attitude that there is no and performance artist Kathy galleries, young, ambitious Cuckoo explores beyond separation between art and Acker reads from her new and entrepreneurial artists the boundaries of everyday life, since the process of novel Young Lust. self-organise exhibitions in space; where dark wardrobes, living itself is the most Makonde is a selection of abandoned warehouses or chairs and carpets are a creative art form. individual wood figures and factories. This will become a constantly adjusting masks by the Makonde familiar practice over the framework, and where In part inspired by the peoples of East Africa from following decade, as Hirst and familiar objects have their A•nolfini’s role in regeneration, the Malde collection. the majority of the Freeze own surreal identity. and in co-operation with the Originally used for ritual exhibitors go on to become DV8 Physical Theatre Merseyside Development dances, the playful figures known as the Young British presents Dead Dreams of Corporation, the ‘Tate of employ themes such as 1989 Artists (YBAs). Monochrome Men, loosely the North’ opens in May in spirits and demons, family Tim Berners- based on Brian Masters’ the previously abandoned and sexual relations, politics While consulting for The Lee designs book Killing For Company, but now regenerated and colonialism. E•uropean Organization for exploring the actions and Albert Dock, one of the Part of the Bristol Print Nuclear Research (CERN) in architecture and motives of serial murderer largest groups of Grade I Festival, Electronic Print is Switzerland, British computer releases protocols Denis Nilsen. listed buildings in Britain. an exhibition of computer- scientist Tim Berners-Lee of web 1.0 Bits & Pieces was Tate Liverpool becomes generated prints from over realises the need for a assembled by Joseph Beuys the northern home of the 30 contemporary artists and network “to link and access 1989 for Caroline Tisdall, from the ever-expanding national printmakers worldwide who information of various kinds Freeze, 1970s until his death in collection of modern art, draw on a mixture of as a web of nodes in which London January 1986. It is neither with a remit to attract a new, traditional and new creative the user can browse at will.” large in scale – though it is younger audience. techniques.. He designs and installs the world’s first web server, writes new the first web browser, and makes the first web page. In the process, he develops three essential technologies, which are to become the 1988 architecture of web 1.0: the Tate Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a system of globally Liverpool unique identifiers for resources; the publishing language Hypertext Markup 1989 Language (HTML); and the Richard Wilson. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Kathy Acker reading. (HTTP) to enable Makonde sculpture communications between clients and servers. He Top: Tim Berners-Lee, architect from East Africa. refuses to claim property of the world wide web at CERN, 1988 Electronic Print rights over his innovations, Switzerland. Above: Freeze Maggi Hambling. and donates his work for exhibition catalogue Station House others to utilise. The world wide web (www) Opera. DV8. is a system of interlinked Joseph Beuys hypertext documents accessed via a global system of interconnected computer networks, the internet.

90 91 “The world is leaving • Barry Barker resigns, one epoch and moving briefly to the South 1989 Bank Centre before entering another. We Cold War ends: becoming a director at the are at the beginning of collapse of Lisson Gallery. With the a long road to a lasting, European support of Arnolfini’s Chair, peaceful era. The threat Communist states, Jeremy Fry, Valerie Lloyd of force, mistrust, dissolution of becomes interim Director. psychological and Lloyd had previously worked the USSR on the Green Park Station ideological struggle project in Bath, a property should all be things of development which invested the past.” all profits into the arts. Mikhail Gorbachov 1989 Turner Prize winner 1990 Richard Long returns to show Barry Barker work at Arnolfini. Other artists resigns. Richard shortlisted included Richard Wilson and Giuseppe Penone, Long. Adventures both of whom have recently Massive Attack’s debut Standards Institute (ETSI) in Motion shown work at Arnolfini. a•lbum Blue Lines, released on to describe technologies Pictures Barry Barker was on the five- 8th April, is generally for a circuit-switched digital person jury. considered the first ‘trip hop’ mobile phone network. Commissioned by Arnolfini album, though the term The first network is built by Live!, resident company wouldn’t be coined until Telenokia and Siemens, and Adventures in Motion several years later. A fusion of the first GSM call is made on Pictures presents The Infernal electronic music, hip hop, 1st July 1991 by Finnish Prime Galop choreographed by dub, 1970s soul and reggae, Minister Harri Holkeri to the new Matthew Bourne, a piece ripe the album establishes mayor of Tampere, Kaarina with sexual innuendo, stylised Massive Attack as one of the Suonio. The system will also romanticism and sleazy most innovative British bands enable the short messaging backstreet encounters, and founder of the ‘joyfully service (SMS or ‘text together with a new dance melancholic’ Bristol Sound. message’). piece by Jacob Marley. The rise in mobile phone Global System for usage as a result of GSM is Bruce McLean challenges M•obile Communications explosive. Four years later the t•he traditional areas, both (GSM) is a standard network accounts for 80% of Left: Fragment of the Berlin Wall. spatial and stylistic, in which developed by the European the global mobile market, Right: Massive Attack’s Blue Lines album; birth of the Bristol Sound an artist makes an exhibition. Telecommunications some 10 million users. Not limiting himself to the Since the mid-1980s Czechoslovakia and East and the ideological divide of galleries, McLean takes over P•resident Gorbachev has Germany, mass protests Europe. Arnolfini’s entire building from 1990 managed dramatic unseat entrenched On 3rd December, the bookshop to café/bar to Bruce McLean convulsions in the USSR, Communist leaders; the leaders of the two world cinema. Vertical promoting liberalisation of regimes in Bulgaria and superpowers, the USA and Award-winning dance the political landscape Romania also crumble. the USSR, declare the end of company the Cholmondeleys Balcony. The (glasnost) and enabling Several Soviet republics seek the Cold War after two days are in residence for five Cholmondeleys. competitive markets in the greater independence from of summit talks in Malta. On weeks rehearsing their new Rachel previous command economy Russia’s rule: agitation for board the Soviet cruise ship production, commissioned by Whiteread 1991 (perestroika). Waves of reform independence in the Baltic Maxim Gorky, Presidents Amolfini Live! and premiered GSM mobile ripple throughout the states leads to first Lithuania, Bush and Gorbachov as part of Dance Umbrella ’90. Communist bloc, grassroots then Estonia and Latvia announce big reductions in On tour from Chisenhale phone organisations such as declaring their troops and weapons in Gallery, Rachel Whiteread’s network, Poland’s Solidarity movement independence. The tidal wave Europe. Ghost is a monumental cast Finland rapidly gain popularity and of change is encapsulated The Treaty on of an entire room taken from 1991 influence. The Communist with the fall of the Berlin Wall Conventional Forces in a deserted house in Archway. governments in Poland and in November, which Europe is signed in Also included in the Massive Hungary are the first to symbolises the collapse of November 1990, establishing exhibition is a series of new Attack negotiate the organisation of Eastern European parity between East and works cast in plaster from Blue Lines free democratic elections. In Communist governments West, baths and doorways.

92 93 Frieze magazine is Political activist and During renovations and as the Atlantic slave trade, l•aunched in June by Amanda i•nstallation artist Fred e•xpansion of the Frank Lloyd Third World exploitation and Sharp and Matthew Slotover Wilson takes social justice Wright building, the the diaspora of black with artist Tom Gidley. as his subject and the Guggenheim opens a small communities are explored. Published eight times a year, museum as his medium. satellite branch in a 19th The first opportunity for it includes essays, reviews Artists, such as Wilson, century Soho warehouse British audiences to see a and adverts by writers, artists, associated with ‘institutional remodelled by architect Arata comprehensive exhibition curators and galleries. critique’ examine, question, Isozaki. Installed in two floors of work by the French artist deconstruct and intervene of the building, the museum Annette Messager, Telling Tessa Jackson arrives at in the traditional display features a Prada store, as well Tales brings together a A•rnolfini from her role as of art and artifacts in as galleries exhibiting the coherent body of her work Visual Arts Officer for Left: front cover of the pilot issue museums. Mining the collection, and temporary from the past 10 years Glasgow City Council during of Frieze magazine, Summer 1991 Museum, commissioned exhibitions. The enterprise alongside significant earlier its highly successful 1990 City Above: Tessa Jackson. Below by The Contemporary, closes in 2002. pieces and a new site-specific of Culture programme. right: Trophies of Empire poster Baltimore and installed at wall drawing. The notion of designed by Tony Arefin the Maryland Historical A collaboration between fragmentation is omnipresent Society, gives Wilson his first A•rnolfini, Bluecoat Gallery, in her work, reflecting the opportunity to intervene in Liverpool and Hull Time- diversity of demands that she an actual museum and its Based Arts, Trophies of feels disjoint a woman’s life. display practices. He invites Empire presents new Using irony and humour, visitors to question the commissions by 15 artists, Desperate Optimists’ limitations of cultural investigating the legacies of Anatomy of Two Exiles 1991 institutions, to reflect on their empire. Using a range of art examines the transient nature 1991 role in the interpretation of forms including sculpture, of contemporary Irish life and Frieze Jack Butler Yeats. history, and recognise the photography, video and interrogates the stereotype of magazine Art & Language. rhetorics of display. mixed media, issues such the typical Irish emigrant. Keith Khan. Shobana Jeyasingh 1992 Guggenheim 1991 Soho, New Tessa York Jackson becomes Director

The younger brother of Conceptual Art, Art & fuses contemporary and p•oet W.B. Yeats and a close Language was formed in traditional aspects of friend of Samuel Beckett, 1968 and has continuously celebration. During the 1992 Jack Butler Yeats is the most questioned the role of art residency Khan works with Fred Wilson: highly regarded Irish painter and revolution, modernism local artists, groups and Mining the of this century. Yeats' and the museum. Celebrated schools to create the Museum, The paintings are based on years by galleries around the world, costumes. Contemporary, of observation of life in the group deconstructs Shobana Jeyasingh Ireland. His art is a poetry of the art institution from within presents New Cities, Ancient Baltimore memory that encapsulates its walls. Lands, a vibrant triple bill the breadth and spirit of the Keith Khan is in residence featuring work by Jeyasingh Celtic peoples and in July, devising Flying and Chandralekha, India’s landscapes. This solo show is Costumes, Floating Tombs, foremost contemporary his first exhibition in a British his latest public extravaganza female choreographer. 1992 public gallery since 1960. combining dance, sculpture, Spanning three cities, new Trophies of Touring from the ICA, costume and music. Derived ideas and ancient traditions, Empire. Annette Art & Language 1987–1991 from the Trinidadian festival the programme juxtaposes is an opportunity to see four of Hosay, a Caribbean revolutionary dance work Messager. major new series of work. manifestation of the Shia with pristine traditional Desparate Considered fundamental in Muslim Remembrance of Bharathanatyam Optimists the development of Muharram, the performance choreography.

94 95 Several recent works by In 1939, with the outbreak “The practices currently One of Britain’s most M•ona Hatoum are brought o•f war, Ben Nicholson and c•haracterised as ‘project e•xciting sculptors, the together, including two Barbara Hepworth settled in work’ do not necessarily cornerstone of Cathy de large-scale installations. picturesque St Ives in share a thematic, ideological Monchaux’s work is her Commissioned by Arnolfini Cornwall. Soon joined by or procedural basis. What skeletal superstructures of Light Sentence, consists of Naum Gabo and other they do seem to share is the metal built up with intricate two double rows of wire- émigré artists, they founded fact that they all involve bolting, folding, overlapping mesh lockers of more than an outpost for the expending an amount of and latticing of sumptuous human height which run international abstract avant- labour which is either in velvet, rich leather and down the centre of the room. garde, strongly rooted in the excess of, or independent of, lengths of silky ribbon. Bobby Baker presents local landscape. any specific material Commissioned by Matt’s How to Shop: The Lecture, a After her death in 1975, production and which cannot Gallery in London, Willie complete guide to the art of Hepworth’s home and studio be transacted as or along Doherty’s The Only Good successful shopping. Packed were gifted to the nation. with a product. This labour … One is a Dead One is about with handy hints and tips, When Tate took over the in economic terms would be living with the fear of being How To Shop prepares us for management of The Barbara called service provision.” assassinated, presented the ultimate shopping Hepworth Museum and Helmut Draxler and through a video installation experience – shopping for life. Sculpture Garden in 1980, Andrea Fraser’s Services is an combining fiction and Curated and selected by art works from the Tate evolving exhibition and documentation. Doherty 1991 Sunil Gupta as his first project Collection were used to ongoing working group draws on the current affairs of Linux for the Institute of New curate themed and discussion organised by Northern Ireland, forcing the International Visual Arts, complimentary exhibitions. Draxler and Fraser, viewer to choose between operating system, Disrupted Borders invites The success of Liverpool originating at the Kunstraum innocence and guilt, Catholic core component 15 artists from Britain, Asia, encouraged Tate to consider der Universität Lüneburg, or Protestant. of the fledgling Europe and America to a Western expansion of the and then touring to Stuttgart, “History of Arnolfini” invites Linux version 0.01, one of knowledge illustrate a range of political ‘family’. The site of a former Munich, Geneva, Vienna, and Jeremy Rees, founder and t•he most prominent commons and cultural issues using gasworks overlooking Hasselt, Belgium. The first director, to talk about examples of FLOSS software, photography and other Porthmeor Beach was resulting publication how Arnolfini came about. is a complete operating media. chosen and architects Eldred becomes a manifesto for the The present director and system released under the Evans and David Shalev second generation of artists programming staff also share General Public License Jonathan Harvey, a commissioned to design a working with institutional their ideas for the future. version 2 (GPLv2). Inspired by f•ounder and co-director of sensitively-appointed new critique. It suggests that it is Selected from an exhibition the GNU project of Richard Acme Studios in London, building. “You can see the no longer productive to by Oriel 31 gallery, Five Voices Stallman, Linux is conceived becomes Arnolfini’s new landscape at the same time attack an arts institutions from Spain includes work by by Finnish computer science Chairman. Acme was set up as the painters’ visions of it,” from without (as the Art Eva Lootz, Angeles Marco, student Linus Torvalds and in 1972 as a not-for-profit says Eldred Evans. “The plan Workers Coalition had Jaume Plensa, Manuel Saiz rapidly accumulates 1993 organisation providing low- of the gallery,” she says, “is attempted). What’s necessary and Antonio Sosa. In their thousands of developers and Mona Hatoum. cost studios and living spaces reminiscent of a Ben now is working critically different ways they each users around the world, who Bobby Baker for artists. Nicholson painting.” and homeopathically with reflect current Spanish adapt code from other FLOSS How to Shop. Tate St Ives opens in June their practices, protocols, sculptural as well as historical projects to expand and Disrupted 1993, attracting 120,000 organisation, and social and cultural improve the new operating visitors in the first six months. management.38 preoccupations. system. Borders A software commons is emerging, powered by a gift 1993 economy of distributed 1993 1994 innovation, and protected by Jeremy Fry Tate Cathy de the GPL. Linux is ported to stands down as St Ives Monchaux. Willie many different platforms and Chair, replaced Doherty. “History adapted to multiple uses. It by Jonathan becomes the OS of choice for of Arnolfini”. many mission-critical Harvey 1994 Five Voices from machine assemblies. Spain Through mutating into Helmut Draxler Apache server software, the and Andrea FLOSS ethic produces and Fraser Services, manages the majority of the Top: Poster advertising Bobby Lüneburg hardware infrastructures of Baker’s performance lecture the world wide web. “How to Shop”. Left: Linux logo

96 97 As part of the Chicago One of the leading O•h Chicago season of a•rtists of his generation, performance, video and Patrick Heron’s Big Paintings music from the Windy City, consists of large canvases mesmerising performance produced in his studio in St group Goat Island give a Ives in 1994. Suffused with survey presentation of work colour and dynamism, the from the past five years, works evoke and reflect the reflecting the tumultousness 1995 visible, the world we know, of those years in the United through colour and a States’ relationship with the Barings, Britain’s calligraphic play of line world. They perform We Got oldest investment across canvases ranging a Date, Can’t Take Johnny to bank, is ruined from 11 to 17 feet in length. the Funeral and It’s Shifting, by trading in Arnolfini commissions Hank. Over a period of obscure futures Heron to produce a design 20 years, Goat Island 1994 for Arnolfini’s brochure. will perform all their touring UK National Organised by and works in Bristol. Lottery, first shown at the South London Gallery, sponsored percentage of by Beck’s Bier, and curated profits funds by Carl Freedman, Minky ‘capital’ cultural Manky brings together work 1994 projects by Gilbert & George from Goat Island the 1970s with new work retrospective by Sarah Lucas, Tracey Emin, Gary Hume, Damien Hirst and Mat Collishaw – the Freeze generation of YBAs. Private company Working for Barings in substantial profits. When the Organised by Arnolfini C•amelot Consortium wins S•ingapore, head derivatives Kobe earthquake in January Education and Bristol the contract to run Britain’s trader Nick Leeson is seeking 1995 sends the Asian financial 1995 University’s Continuing first national lottery, which to profit from differences in markets into a terrifying Patrick Heron. Education Department, starts in November. The the prices of Nikkei 225 spiral, Leeson bets on a rapid Minky Manky. “Postmodernity and its group predicts it will generate futures contracts in the Osaka recovery of the Nikkei that “Postmodernity Discontents” is a series of a total of £32 billion during Securities Exchange in Japan fails to materialise. and its lectures that present a variety the seven years of its licence. and the Singapore By December 1994, Leeson of critical perspectives on 50% of income is returned International Monetary had already lost Barings over Discontents” key controversies in to players as prize money, Exchange. Such arbitrage £200 million, yet had posted postmodernist theory. while 28%, or £9 billion, will involves buying futures a £102 million profit. The be divided between the contracts on one market and following February, Barings lottery’s five ‘good causes’: simultaneously selling them Bank auditors finally discover charities, the arts, sport, at a higher price in another. the error account, and its national heritage projects The margins are thin, and £827 million (US$1.3 billion) of and a Millennium Fund. consequently the volumes losses: twice the bank’s The share for the arts is traded to gain a meaningful available trading capital. £1.6 billion. profit are enormous. Similar to the Great Panic of Lottery funding initiates Through an absence of 1890, The Bank of England a remarkable transformation oversight, Leeson is able to attempts a bailout, although in the arts in general, and open an ‘error’ or ‘hidden’ this time it fails. Barings is museums in particular. It is account to prevent the declared bankrupt and sold, the greatest investment in London office from receiving while Leeson is sentenced to the fabric of existing public the standard daily reports on six-and-a-half years in prison Left: National Lottery winner museums and the building trades, prices and profits or in Singapore. While the Victoria Jones promotes a triple of new regional galleries losses. Using the hidden catastrophe is recorded as a rollover draw, 2004. Above: since the expansion planned account, Leeson is ‘rogue’ event, there is a Ewan McGregor as Nick Leeson by the select committee of aggressively trading, lingering suspicion that it in James Deardon’s Rogue 1835, and delivered by Henry routinely losing substantial evidences a systemic Trader. Right: Installation view of Minky Manky featuring Cole and others during the sums, hiding the results, and weakness in financial works by Damien Hirst (left) Victorian era. reporting back to London institutions.39 and Gilbert & George

98 99 Produced between 1993 Initiated by Richard a surrogate mother. The DNA Between 1917 and 1934 Left: The first cloned mammal, a•nd 1995, Michael Simpson’s S•almon Gallery in London of the nucleus dominates, H•arlem became the centre Dolly the sheep, on display at Bench Paintings are large, and touring to Arnolfini and making an exact genetic for a resurgence of black National Museums Scotland. Right: Guggenheim Bilbao, measuring up to 18 feet in New Art Gallery Walsall, copy, a clone of the somatic cultural activity. Alongside designed by Frank Gehry, length. As well as being a Plastic is an exhibition which cell’s donor. cabarets, clubs and parties, initiates the ‘museum effect’. fixed coherent form for explores the polyvalent Although rudimentary and Harlem blossomed with new Below: Blues, Archibald J. Motley grounding the painting, the nature of this most wasteful – there were 277 art and writhed with political Jr., 1929, part of the Rhapsodies bench acts as a metaphor for ubiquitous category of failed attempts in producing debates and divisions. The in Black exhibition human forbearance, manufactured materials. Dolly – the astonishing voice of the New Negro provoking Beckettian images potential of cloning is self- emerged in the work of many of endless waiting, suffering In April 1997 Dolly the evident. Prized livestock can artists, musicians and writers and death. A foundation of s•heep, previously known be copied to optimise from Aaron Douglas to Bessie these works is the death of as 6LL3 and born nine efficiency, useful plants Smith to Langston Hughes. poet and philosopher months earlier at the Roslin reproduced, and species The Rhapsodies in Black Giordano Bruno, who was Institute at the University of facing extinction revived. exhibition is organised by the burnt alive for heresy in 1600. Edinburgh, is introduced to Logically, cloned humans Haywood Gallery in London, Louise Bourgeois: the world as the first mammal are a possibility, although the and co-curated by Richard J. Sculpture brings together to have been successfully legal and ethical issues are Powell and David A. Bailey. work from the late 1940s to cloned from an adult cell so thorny this seems unlikely In “How to Be Your Own Art the 1990s. Two recent works through somatic cell nuclear in the short term. More likely Dealer”, Jacob Sutton leads a in the exhibition are transfer. In this process a are experiments with cloned problem-solving and Mamelles, a sensuous, cell’s nucleus is placed in a procedures for human confidence-building curvaceous wall relief in pink de-nucleated ovum, the two medicine, including disease, workshop for artists, covering rubber, fibreglass and wood; cells fuse and develop into an disorder and virus what they can do to be their and Spider, a giant looming embryo, which is implanted in management. own dealer/agent, obtain creature nearly three metres funding and sponsorship, in height, anticipating the attract media interest, In the late 1980s, in later nine-metre Maman. motivate audiences, and sell c•ommon with many other In her recent work Bible, and market their work, all on industrial centres, the port 1997 1997 Dorothy Cross drilled a a low budget. Guggenheim city of Bilbao was dilapidated perfect hole through the Dolly the sheep, “Art and Psychoanalysis” is and unemployment rampant. body of a leather-bound, gilt- first cloned a lecture series looking at the Museum The Basque authorities edged family bible. The hole mammal relationships between Bilbao embarked on an ambitious interrupts the biblical psychoanalytic theory and redevelopment program, etchings at poignant points performance, cinema, and including a new airport and and reintroduces physicality visual imagery in literature; subway system. The to this potent religious icon. ACE! is a diverse selection of centrepiece of the plans is the Even focuses on confusing new purchases made by the invitation to the Solomon R. accepted patterns of Arts Council Collection Guggenheim Foundation to inheritance authority. between 1989 and 1995. bring a new Guggenheim Museum to Bilbao. On 19th October 1997, the spectacular museum 1996 structure made of titanium, Plastic glass and limestone, hailed as the most important building of its time, opens to the 1997 public. Frank Gehry’s Rhapsodies in Black: innovatively designed architectural landmark Art of the Harlem initiates the ‘museum effect’: Renaissance. a new funding model for 1996 “How to Be Your Own cultural institutions whereby Michael Simpson Art Dealer”. “Art and public money pays for the Bench Paintings. Psychoanalysis”. design, building and running Louise Bourgeois. of a museum, a private ACE! institution curates exhibitions, Dorothy Cross and a city is regenerated Even through cultural tourism.

100 101 Less than a month after educational programming The Russian financial crisis t•he Bilbao opening, on 7th and commemorated by i•s triggered in August. November, the Solomon R. a limited-edition art work, Contagion from the Guggenheim Foundation produced and sold in continuing Asian crisis results and Deutsche Bank celebrate conjunction with every in a sharp decline in world the public opening of the exhibition. commodity prices. A decade Deutsche Guggenheim. In of rapid reforms, from a contrast to the spectacular The newly formed command to a managed- new build at Bilbao, the D•epartment for Culture, market economy, means new museum is hosted in a Media and Sport (DCMS) aims petroleum, natural gas, single 350-square-metre to improve the quality of life Asia is attracting almost metals and timber account gallery space designed by for all through cultural and h•alf the total capital for more than 80% of Russian architect Richard Gluckman sporting activities, to support investment of developing exports, leaving the country on the ground floor of a the pursuit of excellence, to countries as local market vulnerable to adjustments in Deutsche Bank building champion tourism, and expansion, high productivity world prices. On 13th August constructed in 1920 on nurture the creative and and attractive interest rates the Russian stock, bond and 1998 Unter den Linden, in what leisure industries. Its suck in international capital. currency markets collapse as Banking was formerly East Berlin. responsibilities include the As a consequence, asset a result of fears that the Each year Deutsche listing of historic buildings, prices inflate, especially land government would devalue crisis, 1998 Bank’s curators organise the scheduling of ancient and property. the rouble, default on Russia Tracy Moffatt. one exhibition from its monuments, management of But national economies domestic debt, or both. When Shobana Jeyasingh extensive collection, and the the Royal Parks, export slow. Suddenly Thailand has a the market closes, it’s down Dance Company. Guggenheim three from the licensing of cultural goods, foreign-debt burden it cannot 65%. On 17th August, the Jo Stockham. Foundation’s. These then national telecommunications repay. The country is rouble is devalued, the Eija-Liisa Ahtila. travel to other museums in policy and delivery, press effectively bankrupt, and in a government defaults on the global Guggenheim freedom and regulation, and desperate measure the domestic debt and declares John Hilliard network. The exhibitions management of the government floats the a moratorium on payment are complemented by Government Art Collection. currency, which swiftly loses to foreign creditors. half its value. The crisis spreads: Indonesia, South “I like to create my version truth and fiction in media Korea and Thailand are o•f reality, the work comes reportage. The gallery infected, Hong Kong, from me, what I know. Things becomes a Victorian Malaysia, Laos and the I have seen and experienced, playground for shadows Philippines see plummeting and things I think I have seen produced by small figures currency evaluations, and experienced. Maybe it's cut from newspapers. devalued stock and asset just an exaggerated version In Eija-Liisa Ahtila’s austere 1997 markets, and a precipitous of my reality,” says installation Me/We; Okay; Deutsche 1997 rise in the cost of debt. photographer and video Gray, the audience is invited Guggenheim, Asian financial Foreign debt-to-GDP ratios artist Tracy Moffatt about her to sit and experience a short Berlin collapse, had risen from 100% to 167% first major UK show. fiction film trilogy which contagious in 1993–96, and now shoot Shobana Jeyasingh returns alternates on three screens. national beyond 180%. The IMF to Arnolfini with a new piece, Experimental narrative and bankruptcies initiates a $40 billion loan Intimacies of a Third Order, storytelling techniques leave programme to stabilise the taking its inspiration from the no doubt about the economies of South Korea, northeast Indian tribal martial ambivalent relations between Thailand and Indonesia. dance form Chhau, and technology and subjectivity Widespread rioting follows a accompanied by live music in the late 20th century. sharp increase in food prices, specially composed by John Hilliard works growth slows, stutters, and Michael Gordon. It is methodically to question then stops amid fears of a performed as part of a double the limits of photographic worldwide economic bill with Intertense, created by technology and analyse the 1997 contagion. The breadth, guest choreographer Wayne problems and possibilities speed and impact of the crisis McGregor. of representation. This Department directly impacts on the Jo Stockham’s installation retrospective exhibition for Culture, livelihood of millions, and it all No News develops from an includes works from 1969 Media and Sport unfolds within a mere few ongoing series of works that to more recent work that months, while international Above left: The Department play with light and shadow, frequently uses montage and (DCMS) for Culture Media and Sport institutions seem powerless logotype. Above: Freshly printed photographic and projected explores voyeurism and 40 to intervene. 100 rouble notes imagery, and notions of pornography.

102 103 Peter Doig paints artificial The growth of information John Frankland’s dramatic Far left: Caroline Collier. Left: l•andscapes by the most a•vailable on the world wide t•ransformation of the Installation view of Liam Gillick’s conventional means, oil paint, web – the sheer volume of downstairs gallery plays with exhibition Renovation Filter: Recent Past and Near Future which have a handmade data – is making navigation notions of building quality yet are inescapably difficult, even impossible. development, as Arnolfini influenced by the various People, algorithms and new starts to look forward to its technologies of the 20th software develop into ‘search next refurbishment. His century, including cinema engines’ which crawl, index installation You Can’t Touch and photography. His work is and search to help users find This elegantly suggests a shown alongside Udomsak things. ‘Web crawlers’, also plush lift lobby, the swanky Krisanamis’ paintings, which known as ‘spiders’, reception of a top hotel or range from the small to the automatically browse the bank. It confuses our cinematic in scale. His all-over web. They find every page, Accelerator brings immediate perceptions of concentration of energy. Gillick’s first major UK solo compositions consist of and follow every link on every t•ogether an international surface and space, and Including the work of over show, offers audiences the thousands of strips of cut-up page to another page, and so group of contemporary challenges assumptions of 100 artists, architects and opportunity to explore the US newspapers, and more on. Endlessly. The contents of artists concerned with the importance and permanence, filmmakers, much of it subtle logic and rigour of recently, Korean newspapers, each page are analysed, data transient fashions of modern parodying how institutions unfamiliar to a European Gillick’s conceptual practice supermarket receipts, extracted, then indexed and life. The only sure thing about choose to present public, it explores themes of that falls between art, design, blankets and transparent stored in vast databases in the issues that concern these themselves. communication, ecology, architecture, literature and cellophane noodles, bound server farms. artists is that they are subject migration, speed, traffic, politics. “I am interested in art onto the canvas and Conventional search to continued and No region in the world has density, growth, boom and as provisional constructions painstakingly coloured out. engines return search queries unavoidable change. Each g•one through such profound bust in a new global that project a space where Peter Lord and Brian Sibley, by counting how many times responds to the visual and and rapid economic and economy. The exhibition has ideas can be reassessed,” he authors of Cracking the requested terms appear cultural impact of the latest cultural change as Asia in the multiple iterations – in Vienna, says. Animation, come to Arnolfini on a web page. Google musical sensation, the newest last decade. Torn between Bordeaux, New York and Lie of the Land offers a to talk about the history and initiates an algorithmic page- catwalk label or glossy tradition and modernity, Copenhagen – before coming particular perspective upon a achievements of Bristol’s ranking system that evaluates magazine. Hilary Lloyd, Sylvie extreme poverty and to London, mutating at each subject explored over a long Aardman studios within the the links to the pages Fleury, Karen Kilimnik, supreme wealth, Asia’s cities venue.41 period within Arnolfini’s tradition of 3D animation, and containing the search Graham Dolphin, Ako Sasao, epitomise the concept of exhibitions and live about the processes involved request. In no time at all Jeremy Deller, the Bernadette ‘urban chaos’, responding Paul McCartney has been a programmes: the intimate in its creation, from character, google becomes a default Corporation and Regina constantly to technological c•ommitted painter for two and difficult relationship storyboard and sets, to navigation tool, and ‘google it’ Möller are among the artists innovations and economic decades. Arnolfini hosts the between human beings, the shooting the film. The talk is becomes a common whose work is shown. challenges. This rapid growth launch of his new book, material world and the followed by six animated injunction. Tessa Jackson leaves is reflected in an anarchic Paintings, hangs a selection organic environment. Against shorts: Going Equipped, Rex Arnolfini to become Director proliferation of new cities in of his work in the downstairs a backdrop of the developing the Runt, Pib and Pog, Wat’s “Google’s mission of the Scottish Arts Council. countries including China, gallery, and McCartney cultural and political impacts Pig, Angry Kid and Creature is to organize the She is replaced by Caroline Japan, Hong Kong, Thailand comes to Arnolfini for a of feminism and Comforts. Collier, who leaves De La and Singapore. discussion with Brian Clarke. environmentalism, the world’s information and Warr Pavilion in Bexhill-on- Cities on the Move at the The event makes the front exhibition spans a period in make it universally Sea having just completed a Hayward Gallery presents the page of the Daily Mail. art pervaded by the influence accessible and useful.” major renovation project of Asian city as a force of Renovation Filter: Recent of conceptualism and of lens Google this modernist icon. disruption and an intense Past and Near Future, Liam and computer media.

1998 1999 Google You 2000 Search Can’t Touch Paul McCartney. released This Liam Gillick. Lie of the Land 1998 1999 Peter Doig and Accelerator. 1999 Udomsak Krisanamis. Caroline Collier Hou Hanru and Aardman replaces Hans-Ulrich Obrist book event Tessa Jackson Cities on the as Director Move, Hayward Gallery

104 105 • On the south bank of the • Often referred to as • Launched by Jimmy Wales • Influential American artist 2000 Thames opposite St Paul’s biology’s moonshot, the rapid and Larry Sanger on 15th Vito Acconci has recently Cathedral and the City of acceleration in the pace of January, Wikipedia fuses worked with a team of Tate London, Tate Modern opens DNA sequencing results in a FLOSS ethic of open, free architects, artists and Modern, in a vast, abandoned, former the compilation of the first and distributed production engineers to design London electricity power station ‘working draft’ of more than with specialist software to proposals for town squares, originally designed by Sir 90% of the human genome. devastating effect. It runs on pedestrian malls and other Giles Gilbert Scott. Swiss The Human Genome Project FLOSS software that supports public spaces. Para-Cities: architects Herzog & De (HGP) is an international the collaborative production Models for Public Spaces Meuron convert the building, scientific research project to and editing of pages, archive includes architectural and the stunning former sequence the 3 billion DNA every edit and use the models, audio components, turbine hall, 35 metres high letters in the human genome, GPL to protect the software photographic materials, text and 152 metres long, the ‘software of life’. Following and the content it enables panels and projected images. 2000 becomes a dramatic centuries of scientific from property restrictions. The Reading Room is an Javier de Frutos entrance, as well as an tradition, and in keeping with Wikipedia quickly dwarfs opportunity to see Arnolfini’s Dance Company, exhibition space for large the FLOSS ethic, all of the proprietary encyclopedias, unique archive of artists’ Bristol Poetry installations. Former boiler sequence data is deposited and will expand in the books which date from the Festival houses on three levels are into public domain databases next decade to include 19 present back to the 1970s, converted into galleries. and made freely available to million articles in over 200 along with selected old and A decade earlier it was scientists around the world, languages, written by millions new titles from art publisher clear that the Tate National with no restrictions on its use of users and countless Book Works. Collection had outgrown or redistribution. anonymous contributors Herbert Spencer’s 1960s 2000 the original Tate Gallery on The ‘working draft’ of the worldwide. Typographica magazine was Sequenced Millbank, and a new genome is finished and a boundary-blurring human genome exhibition space was needed announced jointly by US investigation of modernist ‘working draft’ to display the expanding president Bill Clinton and experimentation, typographic released international contemporary British Prime Minister Tony history, visual poetry and component of the collection. Blair on 26th June 2000. street photography which into public Now for the first time Ongoing sequencing leads anticipated many of the domain London has a dedicated to the announcement of concerns of contemporary museum of modern art the essentially complete designers, artists and image- which, by attracting some genome in April 2003, two makers. Rick Poynor, founder five million visitors in the first years earlier than projected. of Eye magazine and author year and generating an In May 2006, another of Typographica, shows how estimated £100 million in milestone is passed, as the this material fused to form Below: View over the City of economic benefits to London, sequence of the last a publication which soon London from the Tate Modern initiates its very own chromosome is published established itself as a ‘work’ restaurant. Right: Cover of Typographica by Rick Poynor ‘museum effect’. in the journal Nature. in its own right. Javier de Frutos returns to “Biology is being “Hello World” A•rnolfini with his company to Jimmy Wales’ first present his latest work transformed into Wikipedia entry Montana’s Winter, inspired by an information the life and work of science, able to take 2001 Tennessee Williams. “The way comprehensive Para-Cities I am pushing the dancers is global views of the way that Tennessee’s Vito Acconci. The world would push people – biological systems. Reading Room. on the sexual, on the With knowledge of Typographica, emotional, on the physical, on all the components 2001 Rick Poynor the extreme ... Montana’s of the cells, we Wikipedia, Winter deals with the will be able to tackle popular impossibility of relationships.” precursor of Tom Paulin, Ralph Hoyte, biological problems Rosalyn Chissick, Glenn at their most iCommons Carmichael and Evan Evans fundamental level.” project are among those who Francis S. Collins, perform at Arnolfini as part of leader of the Human the Bristol Poetry Festival. Genome Project

106 107 • Arnolfini has the • Peer-to-peer (P2P) opportunity to purchase networking is a system 2001 Bush House from property architecture that distributes developer Ivory Gate for resources to, or enables War on £5.4 million, cashing in contributions from, each Terror £2m of its endowment in node on the network. Each declared order to raise the match node is equally privileged: a funding required by National peer. In contrast to the Lottery awards. The purchase traditional server-client model will enable Arnolfini to of social organisation, peers On 11th September, expand its gallery spaces are equally able to both t•errorists hijack four across a third floor, and supply and consume . commercial passenger provide an income stream P2P ecologies are airliners after take-off from from the letting of the popularised in digital file- Boston, Newark and upper floors. sharing systems and open Washington, DC. Two crash Redevelopment pushes knowledge projects like into the Twin Towers of the the total cost to £12m. wikipedia, but not restricted World Trade Center in New Responding to the palazzo- to digital environments. P2P York City, killing everyone on like exterior, architect Robin dynamics facilitate multiple board and thousands of Snell introduces a central social processes including those working in the circulation space, like an micro-loans, blood banks, buildings. Both towers internal courtyard, from co-operative building projects, collapse within hours. A third which the public spaces educational initiatives, time- plane crashes into the of Arnolfini are accessed. banks, environmental justice Pentagon, and the fourth is His design will also see movements and much more brought down in a field in the introduction of a besides. Theses are not new rural Pennsylvania en route to double-height gallery social phenomena, but their Washington, DC after uninterrupted by pillars on scale and effectiveness are passengers attempt to retake the first floor. amplified by digital networks. control. There are no survivors from any of the flights, and nearly 3,000 victims in total. 2001 The US claims that Osama Purchase of bin Laden and the terrorist freehold of Bush group al-Qaeda were behind House, major the attacks, and makes an 2001 ultimatum to the Taliban in redevelopment Web 2.0, Afghanistan, demanding the peer-to-peer handing over of all of the networks leaders of al-Qaeda. The Taliban insists there is no evidence linking bin Laden to the attacks. On 7th October, a ‘War on Terror’ begins as US and British forces start aerial bombing campaigns against Taliban and al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan. Ground forces, “Our ‘War on Terror’ backed by massive US begins with al-Qaeda, air support, subsequently but it does not end oust the Taliban regime there. It will not end from power in Kabul and until every terrorist most of Afghanistan in a matter of weeks, although group of global reach the War on Terror continues. has been found,

stopped and defeated.” Ground Zero, New York City, President George W. Bush 17th September, 2001

108 109 Michael Snow is a cult The Guggenheim Above left: Detail from Almost • • Cover to Cover catalogue. figure for many with an Hermitage Museum opens in 2001 interest in film, photography Las Vegas. A partnership Below left: Guggenheim Hermitage Museum in Las Guggenheim or conceptual art, whose between the Guggenheim Vegas. Below: Former Enron Wavelength (1967) is one of Foundation and the State CFO Andy Fastow in a still from Las Vegas the most influential Hermitage Museum in St Alex Gibney's film Enron: The experimental films ever Petersburg, its distinctive Smartest Guys in the Room 2001 made. Snow’s primary mission is to present works Enron, seventh concern is with perception, from the permanent largest global which is evident in the collections of both corporation, enormous variety of his institutions which together production, including trace the trajectory of art 2001 declared bankrupt painting, photography, from prehistoric times to the Guggenheim after derivative sculpture, installation and present. Hermitage trading fraud music. Serious consideration Designed by Rem Museum, of his work is long overdue in Theatre, the Cube and other Koolhaas and adjacent to the Las Vegas Britain given the surge of sites around the city of Bristol main entrance lobby of The renewed interest in time- over four days of action, Venetian Resort-Hotel-Casino, “America’s Most based work, cross-art-form performance, publication, the exterior façade and Innovative Company” exploration, narrative and the installation, intervention, film interior gallery walls are Fortune magazine nature of film. Almost Cover and sound. Highlights include made of Cor-Ten steel, a to Cover focuses on the Quizoola! by Forced material with a rusted surface ‘filmic’ aspects of Snow’s Entertainment, a comic evocative of the velvet- work, while giving an interrogation composed of covered walls in the overview of his artistic 2,000 questions; The Ball 18th-century classical practice since the 1960s. Key Show by Markus and Seppo galleries at the Hermitage. works are also shown at Renvall, in which hundreds of Four symmetrical galleries Station, Phoenix Wharf and mirror balls turn home each measure 1,500 square Bristol Industrial Museum. movies and CCTV into feet. Paintings are hung on Arnolfini presents the first dazzling projections; Film by the steel wall surfaces by Inbetween Time Festival of Uninvited Guests, a live means of a sophisticated The Guggenheim Las live art and sound, a packed reconstruction of ill- series of magnets. The first V•egas opens simultaneously weekend of experimentation remembered movie scenes in exhibition is Masterpieces with the Guggenheim and entertainment exploring a world where film is banned; and Master Collectors: Hermitage Museum, also at the chemistry, mystery and and SET by Plane Impressionist and Early The Venetian. It presents pure anarchy of live art. Performance, a deeply un- Modern Paintings from the special exhibitions ranging Performances take place at English reworking of Brief Hermitage and Guggenheim from contemporary painting Arnolfini, the Wickham Encounter. Museums. and sculpture, to architecture and design, and new-media art works. Again designed by Enron Corporation started On 8th November, Enron Rem Koolhaas, the 63,700- a•s a gas pipeline provider in publicly admits to having square-foot exhibition space Nebraska, later moving to overstated earnings, and to 2001 opens with The Art of the Houston, Texas where, having created hidden Motorcycle, with more than encouraged by financial offshore limited partnerships Michael Snow 130 motorcycles on display. deregulation, it evolved into to hide $3 billion of losses and Almost Cover to The exhibition is designed by an energy broker that traded debt. Institutionalised Cover. First Frank Gehry, whose building- supply and futures of gas, accounting fraud is Inbetween Time within-a-building features electricity, water, broadband uncovered, investors lose Festival enormous, curved polished internet services and other confidence and Enron stock, stainless steel walls, towering commodities. Enron, whose which had been worth $90 chain-link curtains, and glass corporate strategy was to be per share in 2000, plummets floors and partitions. In a light in assets but heavy in to less than $1. The company gesture to the Las Vegas innovation, became hyper- is bankrupt. Thousands of aesthetic, Koolhaas covers successful, employing 21,000 employees lose their jobs, the underside of the skylight people in more than 40 retirement savings and with a large-scale facsimile countries and posting pension funds, while of the central scene from revenues of over $100 billion, investors and lenders lose Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ranking as the seventh millions of dollars through ceiling. largest global corporation. defaults on loans.42

110 111 Co-curated by Barry Victor Burgin has Jonathan Monk generates S•chwabsky and Catsou stimulated critical debate a• humorous brand of 2001 Roberts, Shimmering about photography and the conceptualism. His work, Jeremy Deller Substance is an international moving image. His early work such as his film versions of group exhibition investigating explored relations between well-known art books, or his “Battle of the substance of art: its image and text, first using re-enactments of seminal Orgreave” physical properties, surface photography, then video. images by post-war artists, and material quality. This is Burgin combines both media are a gentle poke at the the first in a series of shows to produce spectacular Modernist canon and an exploring the practice of projections that examine attempt to demystify the 2002 painting. The title is taken relations between personal creative process. Nostalgia Population from a 1946 painting by and social history. This solo and romanticism also play a of Bristol: 2002 Jackson Pollock. Investigating show, coinciding with Burgin’s strong role in Monk’s practice 400,000 Shimmering properties particularly return to Britain after 13 years as the artist draws on his own associated with painting but in the US, is his first in a UK history, incorporating Substance. The also including work in a gallery since 1986, when he snapshots and mementos Multiple Store. variety of media, it is an was nominated for the Turner from the family archive. He Victor Burgin. exhibition about the “ecstasy Prize. A new work, Listen to works with a range of media, Dance Live! of matter”, which is expressed Britain, is presented along including film, sculpture, not just in paint, but in the with a selection of older video, photography, water, foam, clay, glass and works. installation and performance. On a sloping field on the choreographed violence labour and a government glitter present in the You dancin’? We’re askin’ … While Monk has exhibited e•dge of a village in Orgreave, leaves bloodied and injured determined to introduce exhibition. Dance Live! Bristol is an extensively across Europe South Yorkshire, hundreds of men scattered along the road. deregulated markets as a From June to December a opportunity for residents of and the US, he remains people are shouting. There 20 years ago, during the disciplinary force. range of new, limited-edition Bristol and visitors to the city largely unknown in the UK. are charges, chanting, the miners strike, 4,000 miners Jeremy Deller’s The English multiples are displayed in the of all ages and abilities to Arnolfini hosts his first major throwing of surrogate stones, from across the UK tried to Civil War Part II, colloquially Arnolfini bookshop. All the art enjoy and participate in a solo exhibition in England. skirmishes, dogs are used stop coal being delivered known as the “Battle of works are commissions from month-long celebration of David Musgrave and Anna and protestors arrested. The to a coke works and were Orgreave”, recreates this The Multiple Store, an dance. Visitors are invited to Barriball share an interest in confrontation becomes confronted by a force of defining moment for a independent company set up salsa with the penguins at drawing, but use this means violent, a terrifying battle 3,000 police brought in by de-industrialised Britain, and in 1998 to provide new Bristol Zoo, watch the cyclists of working in different ways. rages, cars are overturned the government. The pitched in so doing fuses some of the opportunities for emerging ‘dancing’ in the Lloyds Their modest approach to art- and set on fire, mounted battle that ensued was one of legacies of institutional and established artists; and to Amphitheatre, boogie in making involves the use of police gallop down the road the most bitter of an already critique with art works that encourage new collectors of Broadmead, and see their diverse media, including followed by a hail of thrown desperate struggle between engage directly in social high-quality contemporary favourite dance films at graphite, perspex and light, rocks and debris. Beautifully the remnants of unionised processes.43 art at affordable prices. Arnolfini. and it results in work that is minimally present; the quiet product of intensive labour. In Recognition: Part One, Musgrave’s anthropomorphic forms tantalise our desire to find the human in what we see. They often result from a process of visual translation: a figure made in tape is deformed and then rendered in paint; putty becomes photocopy, becomes biro marks. Anna Barriball’s drawings arise from 2003 interactions with everyday Jonathan Monk. objects, from kitchen tables Anna Barriball and to rubber balls, in which she David Musgrave uses drawing as a form of Recognition: physical communication. Her dialogues result in works that Police charge striking miners Part One question the objects that in a scene from Jeremy Deller’s The English Civil War: Part II, surround us whilst revealing 2002 – the “Battle of Orgreave” previously ignored histories.

112 113 With a faint echo of the A major new project “This show marks G•reat Exhibition, the p•resented at Bristol Industrial publishers of Frieze Museum’s L Shed during a moment – for the magazine, Amanda Sharp Bush House’s closure for building and Arnolfini. and Matthew Slotover, part- refurbishment, Wonderful It’s a celebration and funded by the European emerges from the a commemoration. Union’s Culture 2000 discussions and realisations We chose and installed programme and Arts of artists and scientists Council, England, open the working together the works in a way four-day Frieze Art Fair in collaboratively. The project that was very a temporary bespoke strands explore the specific to the new structure designed by languages and assumptions spaces… the building architect David Adjaye in of art and science, and look itself is integrated into Regent’s Park, London. It at what happens when the heart of it.” features 124 internationally these research interests Martin Clark, renowned contemporary art fuse. Rather than addressing Curator, Exhibitions galleries, attracts over 27,000 science-fiction utopias and visitors, and reports sales of dystopias, Wonderful £20 million. presents visions of the The first exhibition to mark Frieze differentiates itself future as it may be in 5, 10 A•rnolfini’s reopening explores from other art fairs through or 30 years as it is informed themes of progress, history, the Frieze Foundation, by today’s developments. memory and loss. It includes which oversees Frieze Investigating science within paintings, photography, Talks, a programme of panel a broad cultural and drawings, installations, film, discussions and lectures; philosophical framework, video and sculpture, many of Frieze Projects, a curated it invites visitors to consider which have never been seen programme of site-specific their own position in relation in the UK before. This Storm projects by artists in and to ethical issues emerging Is What We Call Progress asks around the fair; Frieze from transformations in how, why and what we Music; Frieze Education; technology and scientific remember. Invoking ghosts, and Frieze Film. research. spectres, phantoms and angels, these works explore our complex relationship to Visitors encounter Julie Mehretu’s the past as well as our Renegade Delirium (left) and Jyll Bradley’s panoramic installation 2005 responsibility to the present. (above), both from the exhibition Arnolfini reopens The title comes from This Storm Is What We Call Progress. Walter Benjamin’s response Below: Tom Trevor after refurbishment. to a small painting by Paul This Storm Is What Klee. Writing about this We Call Progress. painting, Benjamin conjures 2004 Caroline Collier up the image of the “Angel of Wonderful: replaced as Director History”. For him this figure by Tom Trevor symbolises the inevitable and Visions of the irrepressible drive of Near Future progress, the storm in which we are all caught up, which propels us blindly forward and leaves a traumatic and cataclysmic wreckage in its wake. With Arnolfini’s refurbishment complete, Caroline Collier joins Tate, becoming Head of National 2003 Initiatives, and later Director First Frieze Art of Tate National. She is Fair, London succeeded by Tom Trevor, who moves to Arnolfini from Spacex in Exeter.

114 115 With It is You, Mark An influential five-yearly Far left: Enthusiasm exhibition T•itchner presents a survey survey of British art, the sixth catalogue, Whitechapel Gallery. of work from the last 10 British Art Show opens at Below left: It Is You I Love the 2007 Most limited edition print, Mark Molecular years alongside two new Baltic, Gateshead, before Titchner commissions produced for travelling to Manchester, reproduction, Arnolfini. On the evidence of Nottingham and Bristol. The UK Stem Cell the exhibition the artist is exhibition, curated by Alex Bank nominated for the Turner Farquharson and Andrea Prize. Schlieker, is presented at Led by artist and curator Arnolfini and various other Mark Beasley, “A Rough Guide sites throughout Bristol. 2007 to... Linguistics” is a study day Material City is programme Foreign examining the role that artists of interdisciplinary play in the development and conversations and fieldwork Exchange market deconstruction of the written led by Claire Doherty’s reaches $516 and spoken word. Situations in partnership with trillion, nine Beck’s Futures, launched in Arnolfini and the Department times world Black Mountain College 2000 by the ICA and Beck’s of Archaeology and GDP w•as one of the most exciting Bier as Britain’s most lucrative Anthropology at the experiments in the arts, contemporary art prize, University of Bristol. The education and community closes. The final prize is programme includes of the 20th century. Starting awarded to Matt Stokes for performance-lectures, at Zero: Black Mountain his 16mm film about northern conversations, symposia College 1933–57 is the first soul fans, Long After Tonight. and screenings. UK exhibition on this subject. It traces the emergence of The Triennial Central 2006 The UK Stem Cell Bank is avant-garde art in post-war B•ank Survey of Foreign Mark Titchner e•stablished to provide a America, when many now Exchange and Derivatives It is You. repository of human well-known artists, composers, Market Activity, published “A Rough Guide to... embryonic, foetal and adult dancers and writers gathered by the Bank of International stem cell lines for research. Its at the college. Settlement, suggests that Linguistics”. role is to provide quality $3.2 trillion is traded daily in Beck’s Futures. controlled stocks of these Neil Cummings and global foreign exchange British Art Show 6. cells, and to prepare stocks of M•arysia Lewandowska, in markets. Growth in turnover Situations ‘clinical grade’ cell lines as collaboration with 51% studios, is broad-based across all Material City seed stocks for the transform the lower galleries instruments, although development of therapies. of the Whitechapel Gallery especially in foreign In order to avoid conflicts into a social club, three exchange swaps, which of interest, the Code of cinemas, and an archive rose 80% compared with Practice developed by the lounge showing Polish 45% over the previous Steering Committee amateur films made by factory three-year period. Notional specifically states that the workers in the Communist era. amounts outstanding went Bank will not conduct The amateur, enthusiast up by 135% to $516 trillion discovery research on stem or hobbyist works invisibly at the end of June. cell lines deposited in the within the relentless flow of 2005 The aggregate value of Bank. This is interpreted as ‘official’ culture, frequently all goods and services requiring the Bank to avoid adopting a counter-cultural Enthusiasm, produced globally (Global research in basic molecular tone of tactical resistance and Whitechapel GDP, or Gross World reproduction and ‘near- criticism. Through curating the Art Gallery, Product/GWP), is estimated market’ commercial research. films into themes of Love, London at around $60 trillion. So Longing and Labour, the volumes on just one of the programme explores both the big five financial markets, ethusiasms of the filmmakers, 2005 Foreign Exchange, dwarfs and how cinema can be Starting at Zero: the annual production of represented in a gallery Black Mountain all material goods on the context.44 planet. College

116 117 In 2003, just before the On 11th May, after seven Damien Hirst’s For the The 20-year house price c•oalition invasion of Iraq, y•ears, the Guggenheim L•ove of God, a life-size cast b•ubble peaked in 2006 2007 independent film producer Hermitage Museum at of a human skull in platinum, and began a steep decline; Ken Stanton Michael Burke purchased The Venetian, Las Vegas, covered entirely by 8,601 refinancing mortgages Archive satellite time from the closes its doors. Thomas flawless pavé-set diamonds, became more difficult and Recording Iraq. Reuters news agency and Krens steps down as the is displayed for sale at the defaults soared. Securities Free Noise made an open request for Guggenheim Foundation White Cube gallery, London backed with mortgages, video recordings made director, although he in the exhibition Beyond collateralised mortgage during the first weeks of the continues as Senior Advisor Belief. The published obligations (CMOs) including ensuing war. As the conflict for International Affairs, $50 million price tag is subprime mortgages, and continued Burke travelled to developing and overseeing apparently met on 30th their evolution into 2007 Iraq, meeting contacts and all aspects of the projected August by an anonymous collateralised debt obligations Port City: On establishing a network of Guggenheim Abu Dhabi, hedge fund consortium (CDOs) and other extensions Mobility and paid and volunteer sources. the Foundation’s largest which includes Hirst himself. of debt by financial Ken Stanton Archive (KSA) and most complex project instruments, lose most of Exchange. Manuel followed the development to date. their value. In fact, there are no Vason Encounters. of the recordings; Krens had overseen the mechanisms to value them. The Ghosts of researching and cataloguing Solomon R. Guggenheim In August, financial Songs tapes, and considering how Museum in New York, the institutions around the globe 2007 the material might be seen Peggy Guggenheim write down their holdings of Guggenheim or displayed outside Collection in Venice, the subprime-related securities Hermitage conventional formats. Guggenheim Bilbao and by $501 billion. These losses Museum, Las Recording Iraq presents the Deutsche Guggenheim wipe out much of the capital over 200 hours of unedited in Berlin as well as the of the world banking system, Vegas closes footage – recordings made Guggenheim Hermitage which impacts on the money by civilians, human shields, Museum. markets. With no liquidity, the doctors, aid workers and Guggenheim Las Vegas credit freeze brings the global photojournalists – as a rolling had already closed after financial system to a sudden programme of projected just 15 months, citing lack of halt, and governments are video and as a searchable funds and low attendance. forced to intervene. In July, archive on computer. The Art of the Motorcycle two giant Savings and Loan Displayed alongside are tape was its only exhibition. banks in the USA, Fannie Mae logs, a newspaper archive, and Freddie Mac, are taken notes on translation and a into government ownership. transcript based on recorded To coincide with the 200th emphasise the experience of interviews with Burke. “Enormous sums, Far left: Taped material from • Michael Burke’s Recording Iraq. anniversary of the looking as a performance in Free Noise is a first-time especially for parliamentary abolition of the itself. Collaborating artists Arnolfini collaboration with Left: For the Love of God, Damien Hirst slave trade in Britain, Port include Franko B, Kira O'Reilly, music programmers Qu contemporary art, City: On Mobility and Stuart Brisley, Miguel Pereira Junktions, featuring major have invaded this tiny Exchange consists of an and Ron Athey. names from the Noise and market from investors exhibition, off-site projects The Ghosts of Songs is Free Jazz scenes on both disillusioned with the and a programme of talks, curated and produced by sides of the Atlantic. Over far slower returns on symposia, performance, Kodwo Eshun and Anjalika two sets, and through a the stock markets. music, walks, film and Sagar of The Otolith Group. It series of improvised literature. The project is the first exhibition devoted combinations, these two They have pushed some artist prices to “explores the port city as an to the work of the Black Audio unorthodox music forms 2008 interface between a physical Film Collective (BAFC). Until converge. The line-up previously unimagined ‘homeland’, the place where the collective dissolved in includes Evan Parker, who Hedge fund heights.” workers and consumers 1998, BAFC produced performed with the Music consortium pays Oliver Barker, Sotheby’s reside, and the ‘non-place’ of internationally acclaimed, Improvisation Company $50m for Damien 2008 global capitalism.” award-winning films, in April 1970 at the first Hirst’s For the Twenty-year Encounters is an exhibition photographs, slide works, Arnolfini music event to Love of God debt bubble of photography by Manuel videos, installations, posters be held at Queen Square, Vason, where the body is and interventions. The space Paul Hession, Yellow Swans, bursts with threat heightened as a means of is divided into screening John Weise, C. Spencer Yeh, of systemic expression. Theatrical-style chambers designed by Metalux, John Edwards global financial lighting and a red carpet Adjaye Associates. and Culver. collapse walkway around the gallery

118 119 Defying classical economic In the wake of the Lehman British taxpayer has the t•heory, historically the art B•rothers bankruptcy, following investments in four market has two distinct parts. governments move to prop banks: 100% of Northern The primary market offers art up the ailing financial sector. Rock (£20 billion); 100% of works as they emerge from With public ‘sweeteners’ Bank Bradford and Bingley (£37 artists’ studios, that is, they of America agrees to billion); 84% of Royal Bank of are on sale for the first time. purchase Merrill Lynch; and Scotland (£45.5 billion); and Access to the primary market American International Group 41% of Lloyds Banking Group is via ‘gallerists’ who nurture, (AIG) is saved by an $85 (£20.3 billion). promote, exhibit and billion government capital In total, the US Federal represent artists and art injection. Reserve, the European 2008 works. The secondary As the contagion from Central Bank and other Michael Stevenson market, by contrast, involves arcane debt instruments central banks purchase Persepolis 2530. the resale of art objects, spreads, most large British US$2.5 trillion of ‘toxic’ private either through private dealers banks – also known as assets and place them in Far West. 2008 or auction houses. This ‘universal banks’ – are quarantine. This is the largest Semiconductor Lehman Brothers, market is perceived to have implicated through complex injection of public money into Brilliant Noise. largest global very little interest in artists, debt-linked instruments the financial markets in world and high prices, acquisitions, which recklessly increase history. And it’s not over: as Goat Island The financial institution, Lastmaker investment and profit are an exposures. Barclays and contracts and obligations fails, leading end in themselves. HSBC obtain generous unwind, the IMF estimates to global credit This historic division funding from the Bank of losses will top $2.8 trillion in crisis collapses when secondary England’s special liquidity 2009 and cumulative losses market giant Christie’s scheme to stay afloat during globally are predicted to auction house buys ‘blue- the crisis. By October, the exceed $4 trillion. chip’ primary market gallery • Michael Stevenson’s Semiconductor’s stunning • The collapse of the 158- Haunch of Venison in Persepolis 2530 revisits the sound and video installation year-old Lehman Brothers is London. The two 2008 site of an infamous three-day Brilliant Noise investigates the biggest corporate default monopolists of the party held in 1971 by the Shah our perception of the natural in history. Lehmans has secondary market, Sotheby’s Christie’s buys of Iran for invited monarchs world via the data vaults of incurred unprecedented and Christie’s are taking commercial gallery, and heads of state among solar astronomy. After sifting losses in the continuing very different approaches to blurring the division the ruins of the ancient through hundreds of subprime mortgage crisis, market consolidation. While between primary Persian city. Reconstructing thousands of computer files, reporting losses of $2.8 billion Christie’s acquires a gallery, and secondary art part of the temporary lavish made accessible via open in the second fiscal quarter Sotheby’s presents a ‘primary markets architecture built for the access NASA archives, Ruth and the forced liquidation of auction’, Beautiful Inside My celebrations (itself now a Jarman and Joe Gerhardt $6 billion in assets. As a Head Forever, which sells ruin), Stevenson looks at this bring together some of the consequence, Lehmans’ work by Damien Hirst straight pivotal moment in Iranian sun’s finest unseen moments. shares lose 73% of their value. out of his studio for record- history which led towards the These images are kept in Rumours of a buyer (the breaking prices. The two-day subsequent cultural their most raw form, Korea Development Bank) auction begins the same day revolution. revealing the energetic rallies the market’s evaluation, Lehman Brothers implodes. Far West is an experimental particles and solar wind as but the deal falls through. project that transforms a rain of white noise. Investor confidence Arnolfini from an arts venue After 20 years of creating continues to erode, the Dow into a distinctive ‘concept challenging and highly Jones slides 300 points, and store’, exploring the shifting acclaimed performance, although Lehmans is 2008 of the economic centre of the much of which has appeared considered “too big to fail”, Banks propped world to the East. The store at Arnolfini, The Lastmaker is the US government declines provides customers with the Goat Island’s ninth and final to assist the struggling up by massive experience of interacting piece, a fitting conclusion to institution. state injection of with, producing and then the company’s journey. The On 15th September, public funds purchasing a selection of performance is structured Lehmans files for Chapter 11 specially branded products, around the form and bankruptcy protection designed by artists or iconography of the Hagia following the massive exodus inspired by artists’ projects Sophia in Istanbul, a site that of most of its clients, drastic Above left: Goat Island’s final from ornaments to music, has been a Byzantine church, stock losses, and devaluation performance, The Lastmaker. Left: The Royal Bank of comics, food, toys and art a Mosque and a museum of its assets by credit rating Scotland becomes 84% owned works. over its history. agencies. by British taxpayers

120 121 On the occasion of its Conceived by Christiane In October, Iceland WikiLeaks is a non-profit 5•0th anniversary, Moderna B•erndes and Director Charles n•ationalises its three largest o•rganisation dedicated to Museet Stockholm Esche, and curated by banks, which are defaulting publishing submissions of commissions a series of Berndes and guests, Plug In on $62 billion of foreign debt. private, secret, and classified special artists’ projects. aims to reimagine the At the height of the global media from anonymous Concerned that the collection of Eindhoven’s Van debt bubble the banks had news sources, news leaks, celebration could be viewed Abbemuseum. For eight accessed $100 billion in debt and whistleblowers. Using as a task of mourning, Neil months the collection’s 3,000 to finance foreign acquisitions. distributed funding and Cummings and Marysia art works will be shuffled, When the global credit crisis organisational structures, and Lewandowska fast-forward curated, reinstalled and throttles lending, the country a FLOSS ethos that to the museum’s centenary. reanimated through a series is unable to service the debt “information wants to be free”, Museum Futures: Distributed of independent, unitary repayments, and foreign it provides an innovative, is a machinima record of the exhibitions in the galleries, investors flee Icelandic bonds, secure and anonymous way centenary interview with each representing a specific prompting the value of the for independent sources Moderna Museet’s executive ‘episode’. Artists and guest króna to drop 50% in one around the world to Ayan Lindquist in June 2058. curators are invited to week. The four international Arnolfini presents a The artist/activist group contribute information to the It explores a genealogy for participate. Plug In refers to credit rating agencies which r•etrospective exhibition of Platform presents C Words: public domain. contemporary art practice the modular structure of the monitor Iceland’s sovereign Angus Fairhurst (1966–2008), Carbon, Climate, Capital, Although launched in and its institutions by series of presentations, and is debt all lower their ratings one of the most challenging Culture, a two-month 2006, WikiLeaks comes of reimagining the roles of also an invitation to visitors to and the country is effectively and thoughtful members of collaborative investigation age in July 2010 when it artists, museums, galleries, participate by negotiating a bankrupt. An IMF-led the Freeze group of Young into issues around climate releases the Afghan War markets, manufactories and self-initiated route through $10 billion bailout keeps British Artists (YBAs). change and social justice. Diary, a compilation of more academies. the museum. Iceland’s finances afloat. Futurology is a research C Words is part of Arnolfini’s than 76,900 ‘secret’ and exhibition programme 100 Days programme, documents about the war in exploring projections of the marking the countdown to Afghanistan. In October, it future through the role of the 15th UN Conference of releases almost 400,000 architecture and the the Parties on Climate documents entitled the Iraq infrastructure of the built Change in Copenhagen on War Logs, a cache of environment. The 7th December, and is part of previously secret US military 2008 programme starts with The the Artist/Activist season. field reports of the war in Iraq, Iceland Good Life, in which Belgian Also part of Artist/Activist and in November WikiLeaks artists Katleen Vermeir is the exhibition Craftivism, begins releasing US State bankrupt, and Ronny Heiremans consisting of projects Department diplomatic largest national propose a future landmark developed by artists and cables. The radical default building for the Arnolfini site, collectives that work with transparency and continues with Tommy craft-based traditions and accountability encouraged Støckel’s Art of Tomorrow, activist practices to question by P2P networks throws into and finishes with the group and disrupt the prevailing contrast the dark-pool exhibition Sequelism, Part 3: codes of mass consumerism. practices of many Possible, Probable or governments and other Preferable Futures. apparently public organisations.

2009 2008 Angus Fairhurst. Museum Futures: Futurology. 2010 Distributed, 2008 Artist/Activist WikiLeaks, division Moderna Museet, Plug In, Van season: C Words, of information Stockholm Abbemuseum, Craftivism into ‘dark pools’ Eindhoven and the public domain

Left: Still from Museum Futures: Distributed, Neil Cummings and Marysia Lewandowska. Above: The Problem with Banana Skins Divided/Inverted, Angus Fairhurst, 1998

122 123 • Me Myself and I brings together Otto Zitko’s 2010 2010 expansive wall-drawing Lehman intervention, made in situ by Procesos de Archivo research Brothers’ art the artist in the central collections sold circulation areas of Arnolfini, project, and a set of intensely Intermediæ, at auction to personal, psychologically Madrid repay creditors charged drawings by Louise Bourgeois entitled JE T’AIME 2010 (2005). Before the end of the Otto Zitko and exhibition, Louise Bourgeois dies of heart failure aged 98. Louise Bourgeois. The Old Media season at Old Media season: Arnolfini includes a series of Fun With Software. 2011 exhibitions along with film Kerry Tribe Dead The Apparatus. screenings, events and Star Light performance. The season Cosima von Bonin. focuses, from various Magical Consciousness. perspectives, on the impact Museum Show of technology in relation to • Intermediæ is an • Two years after Lehman Parts 1 & 2. Self ‘progress’, consumerism and experimental programme for Brothers became the biggest Portrait: Arnolfini globalisation. contemporary creative victim of the financial crisis, Old Media includes the practice developed by the PricewaterhouseCoopers exhibition Fun with Software, Cultural Department of the (PwC) appoints Christie’s to curated by Olga Goriunova, Madrid City Council with the hold an auction of art work which looks at the history of aim of constructing an and memorabilia from the software art and its relation to immanent institution. Its company’s London office. play; and Kerry Tribe’s solo work is based on three Works by Gary Hume, Lucian show Dead Star Light, which fundamental ideas: creation Freud and Gabriel Orozco are continues the artist’s as a means of exploration, offered for sale. £1.6 million is philosophical enquiry into research and raised, a small dent in the memory, presenting three experimentation; and process estimated $22 billion being new commissions and a and participation as formulas sought by Lehmans’ selection of older audiovisual for development. Procesos de European creditors. works. The exhibition is part Archivo is a set of artistic In the same week an of the 3 Series: 3 Artists, 3 projects that explores the auction of fine art from Spaces, 3 Years, a construction of a radical, real- Lehman Brothers’ New York collaboration between time, generative and office raises more than Arnolfini, Camden Arts Centre participatory archive of $12 million (£7.6 million) at and Modern Art Oxford. Intermediæ’s activities. Sotheby’s.

Having spun off to become belief and valuation, its role Artist-in-Residence Neil a•n independent production within society, and its Cummings undertakes company, the Inbetween relationship to the wider a year-long project entitled Time Festival returns to political economy. The Self Portrait: Arnolfini – Arnolfini after a hiatus of Apparatus is about the a series of ‘data portraits’ of nearly five years. Over 75 “makings of' artists, of art the organisation developed events involving 130 artists works, of institutions, and in response to the archived make up a programme of live of a culture infrastructure”. past, living present, and art, dance and theatre works. Exhibitions include the first projected futures of Arnolfini. Arnolfini begins its 50th solo presentation in the UK Produced in collaboration Above: Core researchers at anniversary programme, of work by Cosima von with designer Stephen work on the Proceso de Archivo investigating the Bonin, the group exhibition Coates, the project consists project, Intermediæ, Madrid. philosophical notion of The Magical Consciousness of a relational timeline, a Left: Detail of Dead Star Light Apparatus. The programme co-curated with Runa Islam, map, an index of people and exhibition installation, Kerry focuses on the conditions of and the historical survey money flowchart installed Tribe. Right: Installation detail of Self-Portrait: Arnolfini, the art world today, exhibition Museum Show throughout the public spaces Neil Cummings particularly its systems of Parts 1 & 2. of the building.

124 125 Governments servicing all subject to ‘market restraint’ t•heir borrowing in the as the cost of their borrowing sovereign debt markets are soars. Then on 5th August, for coming under systematic the first time in history, the US attack by bond market loses its AAA credit rating. vigilantes. These vigilantes Some $14 trillion of sovereign disagree with the social debt becomes dramatically policies of the elected more expensive. World governments – usually financial markets plunge, welfare and public panic ensues; almost £150 infrastructure provision, billion is wiped off the value although lately bank bailouts of the FTSE 100 in a single account for much of the day. The European Central borrowing – and in protest Bank intervenes by spending short-sell bonds, driving up €22 billion (£19.4 billion) the cost of borrowing. In April, shoring up targeted nations, rating agency Standard & principally by buying Spanish Poor’s slashes Greek debt to and Italian bonds, and also 2011 the first levels of ‘junk’ status. introduces restrictions to As a consequence Greece’s restrain destructive ‘shorting’. Haegue Yang five-year bonds are jacked up The 150-year-old practices of and Felix 280 basis points higher to financial markets Gonzalez-Torres 6.35%, which chokes the unrestrained by social The Sea Wall. economy and causes social responsibility, where profit is M Shed opens unrest. In turn, Ireland, privatised and risk socialised, Portugal, Spain and Italy are start to be reined in.

The Sea Wall is conceived a•s a conversation between 2011 the work of Felix Gonzalez- Bond vigilantes Torres and Haegue Yang. in sovereign Gonzalez-Torres’ Untitled debt markets trigger (Water), 1995, is an iridescent tighter financial blue beaded curtain presented throughout the market controls galleries, in dialogue with a selection of art works by Yang from the last 10 years. The exhibition is titled after 2011 the novel The Sea Wall by Guggenheim Marguerite Duras, which Second Life recalls the author’s childhood paywall in colonial-era French experiment Indochina during the 1930s. In June, the M Shed opens on the dockside in the extensively renovated The Solomon R. components installed at building that had housed G•uggenheim Foundation the various Guggenheim Bristol Industrial Museum commissions the New York locations. Typical museum from 1974 to 2006. A grant of architects Autostrade to services: exhibitions, talks, £10.27 million was obtained design and implement a new events archives, collections from the National Lottery, Guggenheim Second Life. and commerce; as well as contributing to the estimated This is the first phase of a its objects, spaces, and £25 million development. three-year initiative to buildings, will be constructed, M Shed is managed by Bristol construct a navigable three- navigated, experienced, City Council, to “tell the story dimensional spatial entity and manipulated through of Bristol” from prehistoric accessible online in tandem a paywall-protected global times to the present day. with real-time interactive network.

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