Hindu Pilgrimage

In recent years, changes in in general and the study of in particular have drawn more scholarly attention to other forms of the Hindu that are concretely embodied in temples, icons, artworks, , and pilgrimage practices. This book analyses the phenomenon of pilgrimage as a religious practice and experience and examines Shr Shailam, a renowned South Indian pilgrimage site of and Durg. In doing so, it investigates two dimensions: the worldview of a place that is of utmost sanctity for Hindu pilgrims, and its historical evolution from medieval to modern times. Reddy blends , , art history and politics into one inter- disciplinary exploration of how Shr Shailam became the epicenter for . Through this approach, the book examines Shr Shailam’s in uence on Pan- Indian religious practices; the amalgamation of Brahmanical and regional tradi- tions; and the intersection of the ideological and civic worlds with respect to the management of the pilgrimage centre in modern times. This book is the rst thorough study of Shr Shailam and brings together phenomenological and historical study to provide a comprehensive understanding of both the religious dimension and the historical development of the social organization of the pilgrimage place. As such, it will be of interest to students of Hinduism, pilgrimage and South Asian studies.

Prabhavati C. Reddy is an Adjunct Professor of Religion at George Washington University. She is an interdisciplinary scholar with a Ph.D in South Asian Studies from Harvard University, an M.A. in Asian Art History from the University of Texas-Austin, and an M.A and M.Phil in History and Archaeology from Osmania University. Routledge Series Series Editor: , Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies

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The Routledge Hindu Studies Series, in association with the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, intends the publication of constructive Hindu theological, philosophical and ethical projects aimed at bringing Hindu traditions into dia- logue with contemporary trends in scholarship and contemporary society. The series invites original, high quality, research level work on religion, culture and society of living in and abroad. Proposals for annotated translations of important primary sources and studies in the history of the Hindu religious traditions will also be considered.

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Classical and An Indian metaphysics of experience Mikel Burley Self-Surrender (Prapatti) to in Shrivaishnavism Tamil cats and monkeys Srilata Raman

The Chaitanya Vaishnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami When knowledge meets devotion Ravi M. Gupta

Gender and Narrative in the Edited by Simon Brodbeck and Brian Black

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Consciousness in The Advaita doctrine of ‘awareness only’ Sthaneshwar Timalsina

Desire and Motivation in Indian Philosophy Christopher G. Framarin

Women in the Hindu Tradition Rules, roles and exceptions Mandakranta Bose

Religion, Narrative and Public Imagination in South Asia Past and place in the Sanskrit Mahabharata James Hegarty

Interpreting Devotion The poetry and legacy of a female saint of India Karen Pechilis

Hindu Perspectives on Evolution Darwin, , and design C. Mackenzie Brown

Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition Salvi c space Knut A. Jacobsen

A Woman’s Candravati’s Bengali epic Mandakranta Bose and Sarika Priyadarshini Bose Classical Vaisesika in Indian Philosophy On knowing and what is to be known Shashiprabha Kumar

Re- guring the Ramayana as A history of reception in premodern India Ajay R Rao

Hinduism and Environmental Ethics Law, literature and philosophy Christopher G. Framarin

Hindu Pilgrimage Shifting patterns of worldview of Shr Shailam in Prabhavati C. Reddy Hindu Pilgrimage Shifting patterns of worldview of Shr Shailam in South India

Prabhavati C. Reddy ROUTLEDGE Routledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2014 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 Prabhavati C. Reddy The right of Prabhavati C. Reddy to be identi ed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Reddy, Prabhavati C. Hindu pilgrimage : shifting patterns of worldview of / Prabhavati C. Reddy. pages cm. — (Routledge Hindu studies series) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Hindu pilgrims and pilgrimages—India—Srisailam. 2. Saivism— India—Srisailam—History. I. Title. BL1239.36.S72R43 2014 294.5351095484—dc23 2013033981

ISBN: 978-0-415-65997-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-81502-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman by Re neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk For Venkat, Vikas and Pratik For their enduring love, patience, and support on my journey. This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of gures xi Acknowledgments xii Note on transliteration xv Abbreviations xvi

PART I Exploring Shr Shailam: why another book on a Hindu pilgrimage site? 1

1 Introduction 3 2 Theoretical approaches and methods 7 3 Book chapters 22

PART II The sacred mountain of Shiva: The place – idealization, materialization, and sancti cation 25

4 The place in the process of idealization 29 5 The place in the process of materialization 43 6 The place in the process of sancti cation 66

PART III Religious communities making the history of Shr Shailam 79

7 The early history of Shr Shailam 83 8 The emergence of the Shaiva Trtha-Kshetra 96 9 The Crystalization of the Greater Shr Shaila 102 10 The Vra Shaivas and the radhya Shaivas 117 x Contents PART IV The history and development of the pilgrimage center in the modern era 143

11 The pilgrimage center in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 147 12 The Endowments Department of as the custodian of Hindu religious institutions and charitable endowments 158 13 The Endowments Department of Andhra Pradesh and the management of the pilgrimage center 163

Conclusion 193 Glossary 196 Notes 199 Bibliography 208 Index 217 List of gures

All the illustrations in this book are the author’s own, unless otherwise indicated.

1.1 Shr Shailam in Southern India 4 2.1 Shifting patterns of worldview of Shr Shailam 10 II.1 Map of Shr Shailam 26 II.2 Mallikrjuna Temple complex, east view 26 4.1 The Sthalamhtmya stories of Shr Shailam 30 4.2 Mallikrjuna Liga in the Sanctum 32 5.1 The Ptla Gaga Trtha (The Ganges of the Nether Regions) 46 5.2 Site Plan of the Shr Shailam Temple complex 50 7.1 Old Mallikrjun Liga 88 9.1 Great Goddess Durg in the Sanctum 107 9.2 Goddess Durg in her Bhramarmbh form 108 9.3 Naarja, the Dancing Shiva, in the Mallikrjuna Temple Hall 115 10.1 Prkra relief showing the head-offering of Vra Shaivas, east face 128 10.2 Tantric goddess relief, prkra south face 140 IV.1 Mallikrjuna Temple, west view 145 13.1 Reproduced site plan by Longhurst, 1917–18 167 13.2 Marriage ceremony of Mallikrjuna and Bharamarmbh 185 13.3 Shiva’s Night Festival, chariot procession 188 Acknowledgments

Shr Shailam – Shiva’s Sacred Mountain – witnessed many stories of the human condition and for over 2,000 years. It is a very ancient site with a complex history and cultural identity that I have had the privilege to docu- ment and explore. This hill-town has been a life-long fascination of mine ever since my rst visit as a young college student. Since that visit it has become a study in perpetuity. In this book, I explore three dimensions of Shr Shailam, by focusing on the distinctive personality of the hill-pilgrimage center, the plural- istic culture of religious communities, and the idiosyncratic aspects of Telugu regional culture. However, the material I have collected over nearly fteen years has led me to believe that there is much more yet to be examined and written about the site. Thus, my second book (in progress) will be an iconological study of 2,000 art narratives of the Shrî Shailam temple enclosure, and will explore the interplay between the divine and the human worlds with speci c reference to the paths of householders and ascetics as well as their practices which illustrate the ideals of bhakti, yoga, and . I have made repeated visits to Shr Shailam, and every time I return it feels as though I have never left. The site has become my second home and the townspeople who frequently see me there refer to me as “American akka (sister).” I am thankful to many residents of Shr Shailam for their valuable assistance and for sharing their experiences; without them this book would not have been possible. I would also like to thank the many individuals and institutions for their invaluable help along the way in teaching me, guiding me, helping me to collect source material, editing my manuscript, and for supporting my passion on a daily basis. I am grateful to the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the Northwestern University Religion Department for a Post-doctoral fellowship award (2001–03), which was a catalyst for this book and the publication of my article, “Prkra’s Narrative Art: A Visual Pura,” in Artibus Asiae, 2008. My eldwork and research in India and at Shr Shailam temples was funded through a Samuel Kress Foundation Travel grant in 1996; and through an American Academy of Religion research grant in 2001. I received the support and assistance of many from the Shr Shailam Devasthnam. The executive of cers and staff deserve my thanks for their Acknowledgments xiii cooperation and assistance in support of my project. Especially, I would like to thank Raghupati, Krishna Reddy, Gopala Krishna Reddy, and Chandra Sekhar Azad for providing me with photographs from the temple’s archives and for facili- tating photography and video access during temple rituals; To my friends at the Shrshaila Prabha magazine, editor, Chakravarti and assistant editor, Anil Kumar, thank you for sharing insightful information on temple religious programs over the years. I also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to priests and pundits for shar- ing invaluable information and knowledge of temple traditions. I am especially thankful to Purnanandam Aradhyulu, Viswanatha Sarma, and Shri Radhakrishna for Smrta gama traditions and Mallikarjuna Swamy for Vra Shaiva literature, religious practices and temple daily . I wish to thank to Telugu University for providing me af liation and other facilities while I was stationed at Shr Shailam. Particular thanks must go to Krishna Kumari, the former Vice-Chancellor, who opened the university’s housing and library collection; and Murthy, the former Dean of the School of History & Archaeology, who provided me with his invaluable assistance and advice while I conducted my eldwork. I am greatly indebted to Gavin Flood, Series Editor, Routledge Hinduism Series and Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, for his support of my book project and for his invaluable comments on manuscript chapters. I want to thank my three Routledge anonymous book reviewers whose insights were immensely helpful in improving and shaping the direction of my topic. I am also grateful to Dorothea Schaffer, Editor for Asian Studies, for her support of my project and Jillian Morrison for her insightful editorial comments on manuscript chapters. At the George Washington University, where I currently teach, I would like to thank my colleagues: Alf Hiltbeitel for his warm friendship and valuable advice; Robert Eisen, Paul Duff and Dewey Wallace for their support and encouragement. I am greatly thankful to Tracy Pintchman at Layola University Chicago, for many years of warm friendship and for being a pillar of immense support. At Harvard, I would like to thank Professor Diana L. Eck, who served as my dissertation advisor during the last phase of my graduate studies and for our dis- cussions on the issues of Hindu pilgrimage; also thanks to Professor Stephanie Jamison who served as my dissertation reader and for reading Sanskrit Pura texts and discussing textual intricacies with me. I also want to acknowledge several individuals in the preparation of this book. CoCo Massengale edited the initial drafts of my manuscript and offered insightful comments; Ceinwen Sinclair has helped me with the nal drafts of the manuscript during its production. Jessica Dole designed two maps of Shr Shailam; Manoj Kancherla reproduced Longhurst’s temple site plan; and Krishnamurthy Gantu helped in the preparation of the bibliography. In Hyderabad, I thank the Indo-American Centre for International Studies at Osmania University for providing me housing and library access in 2002. My special thanks to the late Professor Velury Krishna Sastry – the former Director of the State Archaeology Department in Andhra Pradesh – for instilling in me xiv Acknowledgments a passion for archaeology when I was a graduate student at Osmania. Thanks to my friend Venkateswar Rao, a former director of the Center for Advanced Studies, for our enriching discussions on South Indian history and culture during our evening walks around the Osmania campus. I am also deeply indebted to my parents. To my father Vanga Mohan Reddy for instilling in me the beauty of Indian philosophy and to my late mother Manikya for her support and love of Parvatam. I would like to thank my brothers and their families for opening up their homes to me, especially my elder brother Purushottam and his family for their moral support and hospitality over many years. Finally, I thank Venkat, my devoted husband, who deserves my gratitude for his unfailing love and encouragement. His support has helped me sustain my passion for over 30 years and has pushed me to do my absolute best. A special thank you to my sons Vikas and Pratik, who supported their mother with a second and third set of eyes on the manuscript; and for being enthusiastic companions on my trips to Shr Shailam. I dedicate this book to them. Hamilton, Virginia P.C.R. May 2013 Note on translation and transliteration

Although the setting of this study is the Telugu-speaking area of South India (Draviian family), I have used the Sanskrit transliteration system for technical terms and words. Many Telugu literary words and religious vocabulary have Sanskrit origins; therefore, I tended to transliterate all of these words using conventional transliteration with a few exceptions. Anglicized spelling was adopted for the modern names of places and persons such as Kurnool, Alampur, Tripurantakam, and Chary. Additionally, for Srisailam and Sriparvata, the present site, I used the simpli ed transliterated form: Shr Shailam and Shr Parvata respectively. For vowels and consonants, I used the simpli ed version so is represented by ri, c by ch, and both and by sh, apart from in the original verses that appear in endnotes. Most words in italics, both Sanskrit and Telugu, were systematically transliterated with diacritical marks throughout the book, with the exception of some Telugu words such as salollu, akka, and Lingalagattu. This was done mainly to preserve the Telugu form. Furthermore, Telugu works such as Srisaila Sthalapuranamu or Srisaila Ksetramu, are transliterated and broken into Shr Shaila Sthala Pura and Shr Shaila Kshetra with the nal mu being dropped. To maintain consistency throughout the book, the word sri appears as shr. Titles, such as Shrshaila Khaa or Shiva Pura, are initially cited in full form and subsequently abbreviated as SKh and SP, respectively. Words appearing regularly in a chapter are italicized only at rst use. All the Sanskrit and Telugu translations in this book are my own, unless otherwise indicated. The Sanskrit verses for some translations of the SKh are provided in endnotes. List of abbreviations

ACITD A Corpus of Inscriptions in the Telingana Districts of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions AITM Ancient Indian Tradition and Mythology AR Archaeological Reports BP Pura DM Dev Mhtmya EC Epigraphia Carnatica EDAP Endowments Department, Andhra Pradesh GSPP Girirja Sryasiàhsana Pañèitrdhya Pøha IAPCD Inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh, Cudapah District LP Liga Pura Mbh Mahbhrata MTBD PC Paitrdhya Caritra PM Pushpagiri Maha SII South Indian Inscriptions ShM Shivartri Mhatmy SKh Shrshaila Khaña SKp Skanda Pura SP Shiva Pura SD Shr Shaila Devasthnam TTD Tirumala Devasthnam Part I Exploring Shr Shailam Why another book on a Hindu pilgrimage site?

Since I was worshiped with white jasmine owers I became known as Mallikrjuna, the Lord as White Jasmine The way devotees adore you like insects captivated by the sound of bee you became known as Bhramarmbha, the Mother Bee. Shr Shaila Kshetram1

On Shiva’s Great Night in March of 2002, the sounds of chanting reverberated throughout Mount Shr Shailam. Echoes of came from the inner sanctum of the Mallikrjuna Temple, where a group of eleven Vedic pundits recited - Shiva hymns as the temple’s priests performed the mahrudra consecration ritual to the liga, the main object of worship. On this auspicious night of the annual festival, the consecration ritual is performed continuously for four hours – from 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. – in celebration of Shiva’s rst manifestation as Jyotirliga, or the “ ery column of light” on the earth.2 Around 10 p.m. all the lights in the temple complex are turned off, submersing the inner courtyards in swaths of darkness; followed by absolute silence from the anxiously waiting devotees. This darkness was created intentionally to facilitate a special act of worship to Shiva to be performed by a community of weavers. This temple tradition is performed every year by the head of a weaver’s family from a neighboring region. Under the auspices of starlit sky, a nude man carries several yards of white cloth to the rooftop of the Mallikrjuna Temple. This cloth is then draped over the main temple tower and the eight statues of bulls sitting along the roof’s edge of the front hall. It is woven speci cally by a weaver to honor Shiva on the Great Night of the festival. While these activities were carried out within the temple complex, devotees, who kept an all-night vigil for Shiva, engaged themselves in different forms of devotion and worship. Speakers transmitted hymns to people in every corner of the town, whether they were sleeping, meditating in their tents and hotels, bathing in the river, or singing . The vibrant atmosphere on the mountain brought the whole town to life as people stayed awake all night. When the lights were nally turned on again at the temple, the main tower and the Nandi Bulls 2 Exploring Shr Shailam were adorned with the white cloth in a turban-like fashion. Thus, Shiva is wor- shipped concurrently in two different settings: inside the sanctum by the priests, and outside at the temple tower by a community of weavers. While temple and local traditions may be perceived as dichotomous, the events at the Mallikrjuna Temple represent a fusion of idiosyncratic practices within mainstream Pan- Hindu Brahmanical tradition with the dimension of local conventions at Shr Shailam – a renowned Indian pilgrimage site and the subject of the present study. 1 Introduction

Shr Shailam (sometimes still referred to by its pre-medieval name of Shr Parvata) sits on the south bank of the Krishna River in the midst of the rolling Nallamala Hills against a backdrop of a variegated landscape. At an elevation of 476 meters (nearly 1,600 feet), Mount Shr Shailam rises out of the earth like a volcanic island due to the generally at terrain and the natural course of the Krishna River, which meanders in crescent-like sweeps in the northerly, easterly, and southerly directions. The topography of the Greater Shr Shaila Kshetra with its eight gateway sites – as described in the medieval Sanskrit texts – constitutes a much wider area of 700 square kilometers (270 square miles), extending beyond the rocky terrain of Shr Shailam and its neighboring plateau. Geographically, Mount Shr Shailam forms the innermost region of the Greater Shr Shaila Kshetra and has been the earthly home of Shiva and the Goddess Durg for many centuries. Atop the mountain, the town of Shr Shailam spans over ten square miles and consists of the main temple complex, religious institutions, residential settle- ments, local businesses, hotels, ashrams, museums, and Telugu University. With a population of about 24,000, life in Shr Shailam revolves around the main temple site, which is situated within a massive prkra (walled enclosure), standing 20 feet (6 meters) tall and running about 500 feet (150 meters) from east to west and 600 feet (180 meters) from north to south. Travel to Shr Shailam, can only be done overland from Hyderabad, which is about 210 kilometers (130 miles) from the site. Hyderabad – a city of more than 5.5 million people – is the capital of Andhra Pradesh1 and is the airport hub used to visit Shr Shailam for residents of Vijayawada, Kurnool, Tirupati, Bangalore, Chennai, Bombay and . Shr Shailam, or the Sacred Mountain, has been Shiva’s Trtha-Kshetra for more than 2,000 years. Locally he is known as Mallikrjuna, or the “Lord as White Jasmine”, and his consort, Durg, is known as Bhramarmbh, or the “Mother Bee.” The site has been acclaimed for its distinctive position as part of the two well-known Pan-Indian traditions that emphasize the theological signi - cance of Shiva and Durg as manifested divinity. The Jyotirliga tradition acknowledges Shr Shailam as one of India’s twelve sacred Shiva shrines because of the site’s participation in the shared ideology of Shiva’s manifestation in the form of the “liga of light” (SP 1.1.8. 1–1). The pilgrimage center has also been a renowned place for representing the two strands of the goddess’s tradition: one 4 Exploring Shr Shailam speaks of Durg’s manifestation in the form of a giant bee, the independent patron goddess (SKh Chapters 13–31), and the other links the site with the shaktiptha ideology of the goddess , who is said to have manifested in the form of or energy (Sircar 1973: 5–7). Analogous to the Jyotirliga of Shiva, Shr Shailam is also considered to be one of the holiest shaktipha shrines of Sati, the consort of Shiva. This representation of two Pan-Indian traditions of the Shaiva (relating to Shiva) and the Shkta (pertaining to Durg) has earned Shr Shailam a

BIHAR Southern India

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19 ANDHRA Krishna River 7.

6. PRADESH

18 5. 4 8 2 1. 3 GOA Arabian Sea 11 Bay of Bengal

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1. Srisailam 12 13 2.Alampur Tungabhadra River 3. Tripurantakam 14 15 4. Nagarjunakanda 5. Umamahesvaram 6. Hyderabad 7. Warangal (Kakatiyas) 16 8. Kurnaal 21 23 9. Siddavatam 10.Pushpagiri New Delhi 11. (Vijayanagara) 20 12. Tirupati 13. Gudimaliam 22 Ganges River 14. Chennai (Madras) 17 15. Kanchi 16. Cidambaram 17. Ramesvaram 18. Draksharamam 19. Kalesvaram Indian Ocean 20. Banaras N 21. 22. 0 100 200 300 400 23. Mt. Kailas Kilometers

Figure 1.1 Shr Shailam in Southern India Introduction 5 distinctive position compared to hundreds of other Hindu pilgrimage places. The contemporary temple practices demonstrate a continuity of the Shaiva and the Shkta traditions in the form of daily worship, liturgy, rituals, and annual festivals; however, these traditions have also been in uenced by regional customs in the synchronization of the ideologies of Shiva, Durg, and her alter ego, Mother Bee. The Sacred Mountain was also known for its many intriguing local traditions and popular religious practices associated with different social groups, but over time the systems, narrative literature, and religious practices of diverse communities were eventually folded into the larger Brahmanical social structure of the Shr Shaila Devasthnam. As a matter of fact, the active participation of these social groups only took place during the temple’s annual festivals and chariot processions. However, the activities of Vra Shaiva social groups are vibrant, as a great number of devotees complete their 40-day vow of the shivadksha ritual, and the Vramushi groups partake in re-walking and body- needle-threading rituals with emotional fervor. Also, the demonstration of a variety of joyous cultural performances during the grand chariot processions of deities conveys how different communities come together irrespective of their caste and socio-economic status. It is only during these annual festival proces- sions that I can imagine a Turnerian “anti-social structure” environment exists (Turner 1969), where people can transcend both the caste and social status barri- ers that are present in daily life. The hundreds of people pulling the chariot on the main streets of Shr Shailam seem like one enthusiastic, homogenous community of pilgrims and natives. But this communal homogeneity is transitory and brief – lasting only a few hours. Overall, the festivals integrate local conventions and religious practices of community groups within the cultural context of the Hindu Brahmanical temple religion at Shr Shailam. Set far from major population centers, Shr Shailam has always been a remote pilgrimage site, deemed a “center out there.” It has been a pilgrimage destination for devotees, wandering ascetics, religious teachers, , and traditional medicine practitioners of yurveda and homeopathy. In the process of motive- driven pursuits, whether for religious or spiritual reasons, ill-health or other mundane causes, these travelers have had to make arduous journeys, trekking hills and valleys and crossing the Krishna River just to reach Shr Shailam. In spite of the laborious trip involved, the Sacred Mountain has become an eminent pilgrimage center, attracting pilgrims from many different regions of India. Subsequently three main pilgrimage routes have developed since ancient times, facilitating the journey of travelers from the northern, eastern and western regions. Numerous literary sources and folklore accounts describe the arduous journeys of pilgrims, saints, and theologians and their experiences traveling to Shr Shailam. A thirteenth century Telugu work, Mallikrjuna Paitrdhya Caritra, contains a lively depiction of pilgrims from different regions making pilgrimage to the Mountain. The work refers to Mallikrjuna Paitrdhya, a prominent Shaiva religious teacher-scholar, who had the vision of Mount Shr Shailam as the liga of Shiva during his pilgrimage (Plkriki 1990: 210–283). Some recurring themes in popular folk songs emphasize both the metaphysical aspects of the “other 6 Exploring Shr Shailam worldly,” such as the strenuous journey and liberation, and the devotional aspects of “this worldly,” such as the worship and ful lling of vows to Shiva and Mother Bee (B. Reddy 1994). Additional accounts describe the pilgrims’ dif cult jour- neys to Shr Shailam, which are often compared to strenuous pilgrimages con- ducted by devotees to Mount Kailsa, Shiva’s most sacred mountain abode that is located deep in the Himalayas. These travel accounts indicate that the journey experience itself had become a kind of penance and ascetic endeavor for pilgrims of Shr Shailam, and perhaps such strenuous experiences may be required of dev- otees, who are, after all, making a journey in the name of Shiva, the paradigmatic, resolute ascetic-. Modern-day pilgrims and tourist travelers now have it easier as they no longer undergo the dif culties that their counterparts experienced. The construction of a railroad and improvements to public transportation infrastructure has facilitated a more comfortable travel experience. The building of a paved road through the hilly ranges to Shr Shailam in 1957 and the construction of the hydroelectric dam over the Krishna River in 1981 have also alleviated many of the obstacles of travel and signi cantly increased the number of visitors to this once inaccessible hill town. What Colin Mackenzie called a sleepy town with a few temples and a priest (Mackenzie 1801:309–314) in 1798 is now a bustling residential town that swells to a population of hundreds of thousands during annual temple festivals. For many centuries, Shr Shailam has been a living pilgrimage center with a captivating history of sacred geography, narrative traditions of Shiva and Durg, temple rituals, and annual festivals. During the medieval period, the Mountain became a prominent religious center for the development of the Smrta and gama traditions, the Shaiva orders of the Atimrga and the Mantramrga Schools, the Siddha Yoga, and the Shkta traditions. Apart from its great medieval past, Shr Shailam also has an interesting modern history lled with stories of revival and transformation. Consequently, the crystal- lization of Shr Shailam’s lengthy history is explored from three dimensions. The rst aspect focuses on the emergence of the Sacred Mountain as the Greater Srisaila Kshetra with its own sthalamhtmya literature and pilgrimage traditions, and the development of distinctive sacred geography embedded within symbolic imagery and spiritual meanings. The second aspect explores the complex reli- gious history of the pilgrimage center in reference to various branches of the Shaiva and Shkta traditions from the seventh to the sixteenth centuries. The nal and third aspect recounts the modern history of Shr Shailam from the eighteenth century to the present day, with reference to the custodial authority of religious institutions in colonial times and the prominent role of the Endowment Depart- ment of Andhra Pradesh (EDAP) in restoring the pilgrimage center to its former glory in the twentieth century. The three facets of Shr Shailam’s story demon- strate the processes of synchronization, transformation, revival, and innovation, and exemplify the way human agency in the form of a religious leader, a social group, a , or a government organization has played signi cant roles in the shifting and the shaping of the Sacred Mountain’s history. Bibliography

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