College 2 Career (C2c) and Traditional Higher Education Pathways for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder (Asd) and Intellectual Disability (Id): a Comparative Study

COLLEGE 2 CAREER (C2C) AND TRADITIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION PATHWAYS FOR YOUTH WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD) AND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY (ID): A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Alina Avila Sala B.A., California State University, 1993 M.S., California State University, 2005

DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO

SPRING 2015

COLLEGE 2 CAREER (C2C) AND TRADITIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION PATHWAYS FOR YOUTH WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD) AND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY (ID): A COMPARATIVE STUDY

A Dissertation

Alina Avila Sala

Approved by Dissertation Committee:

Caroline Sotello Viernes Turner, Ph.D., Chair

Frank Lilly, Ph.D.

Daniel L. Melzer, Ph.D.

SPRING 2015

iii

COLLEGE 2 CAREER (C2C) AND TRADITIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION PATHWAYS FOR YOUTH WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD) AND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY (ID): A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Student: Alina Sala

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this dissertation is suitable for shelving in the library and credit is to be awarded for the dissertation.

, Graduate Coordinator Dr. Caroline Sotello Viernes Turner Date

DEDICATION

First and foremost, this dissertation is dedicated to my mother whose unconditional love, acceptance, support, and strength will forever be embedded into all that I do. You are the strength beneath my wings. I will continue to draw strength from her self-determination and love for life. I am grateful beyond words for this priceless gift.

To my loving and amazing daughter Dominique who supported and loved me through this experience. Your patience and endless encouragement showed me new levels of love and appreciation for the gift you are in my life.

This dissertation is also dedicated to the most important people in my life…my family: My brother, sisters, and their families. Thank you for keeping me grounded, continuously supported, and always loving me through the challenges.

If it were not for the above-mentioned people, this dissertation would not have been possible.

Antes que nada, esta disertacion esta dedicada a mi madre quien siempre me ha inculcado amor incondicional, aceptacion, animo y fuerza en todo lo que hago. Tu eres la fuerza bajo mis alas. Su fuerza, determinacion y amor estaran siempre en mi vida. No hay palabras para decribir lo agrecida que estoy por este precioso regalo. Para my adorada hija, Dominique, quien con su apoyo y amor siempre estuvo conmigo. Su paciencia y apoyo me ensenaron el verdadero signicado del amor, la aprecicion y lo importante que es ella en mi vida.

Tambien me gustaria dedicar esta desirtacion a la gente mas importate en mi vida….mi familia: Mi hermano, hermanas y sus familias. Gracias por todo su amor y su constante apoyo que recivi durante este reto. Si no fuera por las personas mencionadas, esta disertacion no hubiera sido posible.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor and dissertation chair Dr.

Caroline Turner who has provided unwavering guidance and support during the preparation of this dissertation and throughout the better half of the past four years. I owe my deepest gratitude and appreciation to Dr. Turner for having faith in me, taking me under her wing by stepping in as my advisor and committee chair. I am thankful for the valuable advice and critique of committee members Dr. Frank Lilly and Dr. Daniel

Melzer who also believed in me. I will be forever grateful for sharing their expertise and service as members of my dissertation committee.

I want to thank my family for their patience, love, support, and understanding during this long arduous journey. I will forever love you for your beautiful spirits. I also owe my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my very special friend Dr. Miguel Molina for his persistence, encouragement, time, insight, and encouragement to write. Thank you for being a sounding board, technical advisor, editor, and always willing to help and give suggestions. The endless hours of coaching and conversation, mentoring, and support are priceless and for which I am forever indebted.

I acknowledge my friend, coach, and trainer TJ. You serve multiple roles in my life. You opened the door to exploring this experience in an emotionally safe place.

Through this experience I FOUND ONLY LOVE in every person. I am grateful for those mentioned and the many unmentioned who brightened the cloudy days with a smile and kindness.

vii

In addition, I would like to thank the EDD faculty for being my teachers and mentors, especially Dr. Nevarez for believing in me and challenging me to be a transformational leader.

Cohort 5 – you will always hold a special place in my heart. You are my cohort family and you all gave me a reason to laugh and a way to enjoy the doctoral journey.

You’re the best cohort. Viva El Cinco.

With admiration and respect to all parents of children with special needs who continue to educate others while tirelessly supporting their child to reach their greatest potential.

viii

CURRICULUM VITAE

Education

B.A., Government, California State University of Sacramento, 1993

M.S., Vocational Rehabilitation Counseling, California State University of Sacramento,

2006

Professional Employment

Rehabilitation Counselor; Manager with the State Department of Rehabilitation

Adjunct Professor, American River College.

Adjunct Counselor (DSPS), Sacramento City College

Field of Study

Community college, equity in education, human capital, equality for all students and adults with disabilities, social justice

CERTIFICATIONS and TRAINING Certificate: Adult Learning Disability Certification, California State University of Sacramento, 2008

National Certified Rehabilitation Counselor (CRCC)

National Certified Life Care Planner (CLCP)

AWARDS CAPSES Fellowship

Carlos J. Vallejo Research Fellowship

California Association of Bilingual Education

Abstract

COLLEGE 2 CAREER (C2C) AND TRADITIONAL EDUCATION PATHWAYS FOR YOUTH WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD) AND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY (ID): A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Alina Avila Sala

The purpose of the study was to examine factors identified as significant in preparing individuals who fall on the autism spectrum and have intellectual disabilities for postsecondary experiences. The study was exploratory in nature and designed to identify perceived critical program elements needed to create successful postsecondary transition programs for students with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or an

Intellectual Disability (ID). This study utilized a qualitative comparative study interview methodology to explore the transitional pathways to postsecondary education and first- year postsecondary educational experiences of eight students with Autism Spectrum

Disorders (ASD) and/or Intellectual Disabilities (ID). More than likely, due to an overall increase in the prevalence of ASDs, many more students with ASD and/or ID will be attending a postsecondary educational setting in the near future. Understanding expectations and particular challenges faced by students with an ASD and/or ID will be necessary if colleges are to meet the unique needs of this population.

This research explored the ecological factors that impacted the students’ first-year postsecondary experiences through analyzing the students’ perspectives and their

experience with the College 2 Career (C2C) program and the students entering college in the traditional pathway through which the general population enters the community college which typically consists of an application and placement assessments without support from a program similar to C2C. It also investigated how students’ prior experiences and perceptions of ASD/ID influenced their educational experience.

Parental support, C2C and DSPS support were perceived to have positively impacted the students’ experiences. The study also found that the students perceived their diagnoses of ASD/ID as both positive assets and hindrances to their experiences.

Recommendations for policy, practice, and further research are also provided.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Dedication ...... v

Acknowledgments ...... vii

Curriculum Vitae ...... ix

List of Tables ...... xv

List of Figures ...... xvi

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Autism Spectrum Disorder ...... 2

Educators and Students with ASD ...... 5

College 2 Careers (C2C) ...... 11

Challenges with Transition ...... 15

Statement of the Problem ...... 17

Nature of the Study ...... 22

Theoretical Frameworks ...... 25

Operational Definitions ...... 27

Limitations ...... 37

Significance of Study ...... 39

Conclusion ...... 42

xii

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 45

Introduction ...... 45

Historical Perspective on Disabilities ...... 46

Legal History of Disability Legislation ...... 48

Vocational Rehabilitation Services ...... 63

Transition as an Ongoing Research Priority ...... 68

Best Practices for Preparing Students with ASD/ID for PSE ...... 69

Academic Success versus Leaving Higher Education ...... 76

Self-Determination and Self-Advocacy ...... 77

Theoretical Framework ...... 80

Campus-Based Inclusion ...... 85

Summary ...... 86

3. METHODOLOGY ...... 88

Introduction of Qualitative Methodology ...... 88

Phenomenology ...... 89

Role of the Researcher ...... 90

Research Questions ...... 93

Setting, Population, and Sample ...... 94

Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Data Analysis ...... 97

Protection of Participants ...... 102

Summary ...... 103

xiii

4. FINDINGS ...... 104

Description of the Participants ...... 108

Reporting of Findings – Within Case Analysis ...... 115

Reporting of Findings—Cross-Case Analysis ...... 146

Conclusion and Summary ...... 185

5. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 188

Discussion ...... 190

Methodology ...... 192

Results ...... 192

Interpretation of the Findings ...... 194

Limitations ...... 220

Recommendations ...... 221

Conclusion ...... 226

6. APPENDICES ...... 231

Appendix A. Informed Consent Form ...... 232

Appendix B. Interview Protocol ...... 234

Appendix C. Coding Data for C2C Participant Interviews ...... 237

Appendix D. Coding Data for Traditional Pathway Participant

Interviews ...... 239

REFERENCES ...... 241

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Enrollment, Retention, Transition and Graduation Total Enrollment ...... 20

2. DSM-V Summary Table ...... 30

3. Connection Among Findings, Research Questions, and Theoretical

Framework ...... 106

4. Demographic Characteristics of Participants ...... 109

5. Social Characteristics of Participants ...... 110

6. Participant Interviews ...... 111

7. Themes by Participant Group ...... 146

8. Cross-Case Analysis Findings ...... 186

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Transitional Pathway to Success ...... 10

2. Evidence-based practice ...... 40

3. Comparison among Rehabilitation Act, ADA, IDEA 2004, and Section 504 ...... 51

4. Existing Transitional Descriptive Model ...... 84

5. Cross-Case analysis of themes and sub-themes ...... 148

6. The Awareness and Empowerment Model ...... 199

xvi 1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Discrimination against people with disabilities is one of the greatest social injustices in our country today. Unfortunately, it is also one of the least publicized and most neglected social issues in recent history. More than 370,000 school-aged children receive special education and related services under the category of autism (U.S.

Department of Education [USDE], 2011). People with disabilities are generally looked at and talked about in a negative way and are subsequently treated differently than people who are not seen as disabled. It is hard to pinpoint the source of many stereotypes because the issue of disability rights transcends the borders of race, ethnicity, education level, economic standing, and class issues. In fact, people who have been diagnosed with a disability are generally invisible to the public. Out of sight and out of mind is the way people tend to deal with the injustices endured by the disabled community. The only way to confront the issue of discrimination against people with disabilities is through social awareness, education, and tolerance of those who have a disability. The phenomenological study in which Denhart (2008) engaged students enabled the researcher to delve deeply and personally into what the students may experience.

According to Denhart, “Disability theory demonstrates how social intolerance of human variation creates disability and such disability is imposed upon students who out of fear of stigma refused to ask for accommodations that would have eased their workload and improved their performance” (p. 493). To eliminate stigma, students must feel

2 comfortable with seeking assistance from faculty, staff, and peers. These individuals must then strive to be willing and flexible to accommodate a variety of students’ different learning needs.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

ASD refers to a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that affect development in the areas of social interaction, communication, and behavior. ASD affects each individual differently and with varying degrees of severity. Because the symptoms of

ASD fall along a spectrum, symptoms can occur in any combination and can range from very mild to severe. In addition, individuals may differ significantly in their overall language and cognitive abilities, with approximately 50% of individuals falling within the average range or higher on intelligence tests (California Department of Developmental

Services, 2003). Such individuals are often referred to as having high-functioning ASD, which includes diagnoses of high-functioning autism (HFA), Asperger syndrome (AS), and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). The focus of this research is mild to higher functioning autism.

Disabled Students Programs and Services (DSPS), Student Services staff, and faculty need to be familiar with this diagnosis so students have equal access and are offered effective and appropriate accommodations. The number of students with ASD will increase and their characteristics and abilities will be varied (Wisconsin Technical

College System [WTCS], 2009). This increase is supported by data from WTCS data that identified 4,361 children with autism in 2004-2005 who received special education.

Specifically, “the increase was 19% more than the previous year. It will be a challenge to identify students and communicate in such a way that encourages them to pursue postsecondary education and obtain assistance to be successful” (WTCS, 2009, pp. 2-3).

These students have significant difficulties independently navigating through campus life.

Their difficulties are heightened by the differences in which individuals on the autism spectrum perceive social situations and communication needs. As public awareness grows and increasing numbers of children complete secondary education and prepare for their futures, professionals in higher education will need to be knowledgeable and trained on this topic.

Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are part of a larger group of students with this diagnosis who are frequently transitioning into postsecondary educational programs (Camarena & Sarigiana, 2009; Sanford et al., 2011). ASD refers to individuals who have been diagnosed with autism, Asperger’s Syndrome (AS), or

Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), lifelong neurological conditions that impact an individual’s social interaction skills and ability to communicate and cause individuals to exhibit stereotyped and patterned behaviors (Klin,

McPartland, & Volkmar, 2005). Although definitional criteria typically emphasize deficits, youth with high functioning ASD possess considerable strengths and positive qualities that can be drawn on and strengthened to promote successful career preparation.

Moreover, many defining characteristics associated with ASDs can actually be considered strengths in particular employment contexts. Although this study is focused

4 on students with ASD, due to the interchanging medical terminology I use the terms ASD and ID interchangeably; ID stands for intellectual disability. For example, the National

Autistic Society (2004) noted that some individuals with high-functioning Autism

Spectrum Disorder (HFASD) may be particularly attentive to details; be meticulous about rules, accuracy, and routines; be highly reliable, conscientious, persistent, and technically savvy; retain detailed factual knowledge; and evidence excellent long-term memory.

Such qualities, if channeled correctly, could allow young people to be successful in jobs that require such skills (e.g., programming, engineering, accounting, library science, mathematics, drafting, journalism, and lab technical tasks) (Grandin, 1999).

The unique world-view of the individuals on the autism spectrum is often different from that of the majority of the population and they think outside the box. Thus, the source of the difficulties they encounter is educational and other environmental factors. Many of their unique talents are useful in the detail-oriented world of technical systems from which our society may benefit if we cultivate those talents. Furthermore, some individuals who are on the autism spectrum believe it is more appropriate that ASD stand for Autism Spectrum Difference rather than Autism Spectrum Disorder. The reduction of negative stigma fosters positive peer relationships, which can contribute a reduction of loneliness, depression, and disengagement from school (Prinstein & Dodge,

2008). The importance of fostering peer relationships should not be overlooked.

Educators and Students with ASD

Educators working with students with disabilities, especially students on the autism spectrum, should be respectfully aware that their unique neurology makes for a very different, but equally valid, reality. This unique form of intellect brings with it some profound skills and wisdom. When educators presume competence, believe the student is trying their best, and approach those who are different with kindness, the results can be extremely positive for all concerned. The struggle to understand people with differences is definitely a two-way street. Those who are not on the autism spectrum have as much to learn about communication as those who are not diagnosed. When true understanding is coupled with respect, everyone wins and all of us can fully benefit from the unique talents of those on the autism spectrum.

The dearth of resources and services for youth with ASD who graduate from high school limits future educational options. Policies, systems, and services tend to be uncoordinated or fragmented, and youth with disabilities along with their families lack the information needed to navigate the transition successfully (Committee on Disability in America, 2007; Learning Disabilities Association of Canada, 2007). The transition from adolescence to adulthood is often difficult for youth with disabilities ages 18-24.

Practitioners and family members who have developed programs and services have typically done so in isolation, on a case-by-case basis, and without the benefit of lessons learned from evidence-based practices that support students. Thus, there is a need to

6 identify programs and services on state and national levels that support youth with ASD in postsecondary education settings.

A true test of any educational system is how well students fare, not only in classrooms, but in employment and community life long after they have left school. For many professionals who work with college students with a medical diagnosis (i.e., disabilities), ASD is a puzzling and a unique one. Students with ASD can be intelligent, have excellent academic skills, be highly verbal (especially those identified with

Asperger’s), and be very focused on attaining goals in their areas of interest (Autism

Spectrum Disorder Guide, 2009). Their differences are not obvious, so they may appear to be shy, quiet, odd, rude, lazy, normal, bright, slow, clumsy, strange, crazy, unmotivated, irresponsible, awkward, unappreciative, verbose, and/or gifted. This spectrum of diagnosis has been unrecognized or misunderstood by DSPS and campus staff. The students have fallen through the cracks or have not sought assistance. Those who have requested help have not always benefited from traditional delivery methods of support services (Autism Spectrum Disorder Guide, 2009).

Postsecondary transition is not only difficult for adolescents on the autism spectrum but is also extremely stressful for parents and caregivers. Worries about what the future holds for their child with ASD often burden parents, who are frequently life- long primary advocates for individuals on the spectrum and often the main financial resource (Baskin, 2008; Hendricks & Wehman, 2009; Hubert, 2009; Volkmar &

Weisner, 2009). It is vital to incorporate a section on the explanation of ASD diagnosis and the impact on students’ postsecondary educational transition and experience.

The need for creative options for youth with ASD is evident when examining the large number of individuals experiencing poor postsecondary outcomes. In the 2000-

2001 school years, 8.8% of the population (approximately 6 million 6- to 21-year-olds) received special education services under Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), Part

B (Office of Special Education Programs [OSEP], 2002). The 24th Annual Report to

Congress cited that 29.4% of students with disabilities dropped out of high school in the

1999-2000 school years (OSEP, 2002), compared to 10.9% of all 16- to 24-year-olds

(National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2001).

The research conducted by Cimera and Cowan (2013) showed that providing transition services early, even by only two years, seems to significantly increase rates of employment for young adults with ASD while decreasing the cost of services the individuals require. If correct, these findings have significant repercussions for not only federal policy but day-to-day practice in schools across the United States. This may be a growing problem since the diagnosis of students with ASD is on the rise. Youth with disabilities are likely to face greater challenges than their peers without disabilities as they transition from high school to independent living, postsecondary education, or employment.

Failure to complete high school is associated with a variety of negative consequences for youth with disabilities in their early school years. Transition from

8 primary to secondary school is a vulnerable time for all students and research suggests many pupils show a drop in their academic levels during the first term at secondary school (Anderson, Jacobs, Schraumm, & Splittgerber, 2000; Peterson & Crockett, 1985).

Programs and services offered through the State Department of Rehabilitation (DOR) offer support for individuals with a wide spectrum of medical conditions.

DOR is state and federally funded with offices strategically located in each state.

DOR in California works with approximately 1,600 transitional age youth with medical diagnoses in 38 communities across the Northern Sierra District (NSD) through the

Transitional Partnership Program (TPP). Initially, the classroom instructor or special education coordinator select and refer the student to the TPP/DOR partnership. The school districts I considered for this research include the local unified school districts.

These school districts are part of the TPP contracts with DOR and we have a collaborative relationship. DOR provides services to transition-age youth with disabilities who are still in secondary education, vocational rehabilitation (VR) agencies collaborating with local education agencies (LEAs), and institutions of higher education

(IHEs). The collaboration that occurs is based on meeting statutory requirements governing the vocational rehabilitation (VR) services program, the methods of ensuring services and transition services requirements in the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act, and the implementation of specific agency operations or initiatives.

The changing diversity of our nation and state is reflected in the backgrounds of these youth. Determining how to best serve the diverse population of youth with medical

9 diagnoses is paramount to the success of both the youth themselves and transition service providers like DOR’s transitional age youth program (TPP). The students participating in the TPP may be selected and/or referred to the C2C program for further assessment to ascertain the individual student’s academic interests and abilities. One component of the assessment is the individual student’s academic desire and career interests based on informed choice. The student, DOR, and C2C become an integral part in the decision to proceed forward with community college. According to a report from the National

Longitudinal Transition Study (Cameto, Levine, & Wagner, 2004), students who drop out are significantly less likely to be engaged in school, work, or preparation for work shortly after high school than are students who complete school. For example, students who quit school and have a medical diagnosis are 18% less likely to enroll in a 2- or 4-year college shortly after high school than are other students without disabilities. Furthermore, the study indicates that 8% of dropouts have attended vocational, business, or technical schools, and 1% attended a 2-year college at some time since leaving high school

(Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005). A transitional program, such as

College 2 Career (C2C), provides a transition pathway into higher educational opportunities for youth with ASD and/or ID (coexisting diagnosis). Figure 1 provides a visual diagram designed to demonstrate the interagency integration of transitional services.

Figure 1. Transitional Pathway to Success.

Collaborative TPP start with high school students (11th or 12th grade) and the students who participate in TPP activities are identified by special education instructors.

Each participating high school develops an interagency student support team (SST) composed of a wide range of individuals including college staff, teachers, family members, students, C2C guidance counselors, and a DOR vocational rehabilitation team

(VR team). The role of the SST is twofold: (a) identify individual services and (b) support participants and develop solutions to systemic barriers. The SSTs may meet as often as monthly to brainstorm the array of services that could best support individual students in reaching their goals and cost-sharing arrangements that could be used to provide services. For example, DOR might pay for transportation, an educational coach at the college, initial job coaching, assistive technology and possible costs for tuition, books and supplies (if not covered by FAFSA).

Transition services for youth with disabilities are specified in the Individualized

Education Plan (IEP) and must contain transition goals and activities no later than the

11 first IEP to be in effect when the child is 16 and must be updated annually. Special education and related services are intended to prepare students for employment and independent living, which makes it clear that educators, parents, and students must consider adult outcomes as they plan for students’ school experiences (Wehman, 2006).

College 2 Careers (C2C)

The last decade has illustrated an increasing trend of people with intellectual disabilities (ID) (including autism and epilepsy) seeking a postsecondary education (PSE) experience as part of their transition to employment and independent living. The growing need for PSE has emerged partially in response to the historically poor employment outcomes of students with ASD or ID as well as increased expectations by parents and their young adults to go to college. While there are numerous advantages to the pursuit of PSE, students with ID who have attended any PSE are twice as likely to be employed as those with just a high school diploma (Gilmore, Bose, & Hart, 2001). In addition,

National Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) data support this statistical reporting that youth with ID who have had a postsecondary education experience are 26 times more likely to be successfully employed upon completing vocational rehabilitation

(VR) services and earn a 73% higher weekly wage than their peers without a PSE experience (Migliore, Butterworth, & Hart, 2008). Such outcomes are, therefore, achievable with proper educational and vocational preparation, employment opportunity, and support services. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, together with the Education for All

Handicapped Children Act of 1975, set in motion policy changes that have allowed

12 children and youth with disabilities in the United States the opportunity to gain the educational and vocational skills needed to transition to living, working, and participating as adults in community life. The debate continues as to whether these laws have gone far enough in making the changes needed to enable youth with disabilities to leave high school, attain postsecondary education and training, and achieve employment rates and levels of wages comparable to their peers without disabilities.

The California Department of Rehabilitation (DOR) collaborates with high schools in Sacramento county and California Community Colleges (CCC) DSPS Offices to develop vocational services through the provision of on-campus inclusive instruction, job development and placement, and other related support services for students with ID and/or ASD. Provisions of the Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) (2008) address the development, expansion, and affordability of PSE. Accordingly, HEOA allows for students with ID to be eligible for the first time for federal financial aid if they are enrolled in a comprehensive transition and postsecondary program. The College 2

Careers (C2C) program is designed to serve individuals who have ID as defined by

HEOA (Title VII, Part D) as follows: “Intellectual disability is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of him or herself, and social skills” (sec. 760).

A student with an ID means a student:

1. With mental retardation or a cognitive impairment characterized by significant limitations in: a. Intellectual and cognitive functioning; b. Adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical

c. adaptive skills; 2. Who is currently, or was formerly, eligible for special education and related services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (20 U.S.C. 1401), including a student who was determined eligible for special education or related services under the IDEA but was home-schooled or attended private school (Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1091, 1140). (HEOA, 2008, Part D, sec. 760)

In addition to meeting the above definition, C2C participants must be consumers of and receive services from DOR and the local Regional Center due to the following diagnoses: mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism, and epilepsy.

The C2C programs offer degree, certificate, or non-degree options offered by an institution of higher education to support students with ID or ASD who are seeking to continue academic, career, and technical and independent living instruction to prepare for gainful employment. An additional requirement is the students with ID participate at least half time with students without disabilities in such academically related activities as credit and non-credit courses, internships, or work-based training. Participating colleges design their C2C programs to meet the requirements of the HEOA and be prepared to apply for status as a Comprehensive Transition Program (CTP), which allows students with ID to attain federal financial aid. Both the California Community Colleges (CCC) and the DOR have been serving students with ID for many years. In addition, the CCC and DOR have a long history of managing cooperative programs between the two agencies known as WorkAbility III programs. These programs support successful employment outcomes for shared DOR consumers. Some community colleges have developed vocational skill programs for students with ID within Workability III, and

14 other colleges have developed similar opportunities through other program models.

Some of these programs are in segregated settings and others are in integrated settings.

Agencies have experienced a change in the needs and choices of consumers/students with ID in that a postsecondary education environment has become the place where they secure their self-advocacy and self-determination; improved academic, social, and functional skills; and work/career-related skills. Moreover, the

C2C programs, in collaboration with the Chancellor’s Office of the California

Community Colleges, provide vocational instruction, job development, and placement services that will result in the workforce preparation and competitive employment of students with ID in a career area commensurate with their DOR Individual Plan for

Employment (IPE). The C2C programs are designed to serve students with ID who are eligible for services by California Regional Centers, serving persons with intellectual/developmental disabilities, and the California Department of Rehabilitation.

According to DOR facts, preference will be given to colleges with a proven track record of providing vocational training, support services in basic skills, general academic courses with nondisabled students, or integrated internship or work opportunities to students with ID.

Supporting students with ASD and/or ID in developing a good life after high school is the overarching goal of secondary special education services and supports.

Transitions can be difficult for any youth; in fact, the early years after high school have been dubbed a floundering period (Halpern, 1994). They can be particularly difficult for

15 youth with disabilities, who may encounter additional challenges in negotiating the transition to young adulthood successfully. For example, youth whose disabilities significantly affect social adjustment or interaction, such as emotional disturbances or autism, can find themselves left out of the kinds of interpersonal relationships common for most teens and that are a crucial foundation for successful employment, healthy friendships, and romantic relationships in young adulthood (National Longitudinal

Transition Study-2 [NLTS2], 2003).

Challenges with Transition

When considering high school redesign and students with challenges, secondary transition plays a key role in this effort and has changed considerably since the implementation of IDEA (USDE, 2004) and with the implementation of transitional services and support. The purpose of secondary transition is to prepare students with medical diagnoses for positive post-school success in the areas of education, employment, and independent living. IDEA (USDE, 2004) defined transition services as follows:

A coordinated set of activities for a student with a disability that is designed to be within a results-oriented process that is focused on improving the academic and functional achievement of the child with a disability to facilitate the child’s movement from school to post-school activities, including postsecondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation. (300.42[a][1])

The specific challenges faced by students with ASD include difficulty with academic content, organization, time management, and study skills. These difficulties

16 are exacerbated by several issues, including proper identification of students in need of services, the hidden nature of the disability, students’ reluctance to disclose their disability, larger class sizes, and more limited teacher–student contact in college settings

(Janiga & Costenbader, 2002). Transition literature focuses less on postsecondary education than on employment and independent living (Wilson, Hoffman, &

McLaughlin, 2009). However, the available literature identified three essential factors impacting the transition of students with disabilities to postsecondary education: academic and social skills preparation, effective transition planning, and student self- determination development (Brinkerhoff, 1996; Kochhar-Bryant, Bassett, & Webb, 2009;

Kohler & Field, 2003; Morningstar, Kleinhammer-Tramill, & Lattin, 1999; Sabbatino &

Macrine, 2007; Webb, Patterson, Syverud, & Seabrooks-Blackmore, 2008).

Furthermore, the literature suggests individuals with higher-functioning ASD are likely to face similar challenges. Specific areas to consider and address for individuals with ASD planning for the transition to college include:

• deciding what type and size of college to attend and where the student is going

to live,

• assessing/teaching independent living skills,

• discussing when and how to disclose one’s disability,

• identifying appropriate academic supports and accommodations,

• identifying necessary social supports, and

• identifying strategies to assist in adjusting to the college environment.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was to research and expand society’s foundational understanding about the educational pathways of transitional youth with disabilities from adolescence to adulthood. The transition from adolescence to adulthood is often challenging for youth with disabilities ages 18-24. Youth with disabilities (specifically with ASD) are likely to face greater challenges than their peers without disabilities as they transition from high school to independent living, postsecondary education, or employment. These challenges are often even greater for youth with disabilities of low socioeconomic communities. It is important to investigate students’ entire postsecondary experience, but the first year has been acclaimed as a critical period for determining all students’ postsecondary retention and success (Kuh, Cruce, Shoup, & Kinzie, 2008;

NCES, 2002; Seidman, 2005; Tinto, 2004). Specifically, student engagement and academic performance in the first year of postsecondary education is considered an important factor for determining whether a student will continue to the second year of postsecondary education (Kuh et al., 2008).

The need for creative options for youth with ASD is evident when examining the large number of individuals experiencing poor postsecondary outcomes. In the 2000-01 school year, 8.8% of the population (approximately 6 million 6- to 21-year-olds) received special education services under IDEA, Part B (Office of Special Education Programs

[OSEP], 2002). The 24th Annual Report to Congress cited that 29.4% of students with disabilities dropped out of high school in the 1999-2000 school year (OSEP, 2002), as

18 opposed to 10.9% of all 16- to 24-year-olds (National Center for Educational Statistics

[NCES], 2001). In terms of postsecondary outcomes, individuals with disabilities aged

18-64 experience an employment rate of 32%, compared with a rate of 81% for their nondisabled peers (National Organization on Disability, 2000). The second NLTS (Wagner,

Cameto, & Newman, 2003) revealed that youth with disabilities from higher-income households are more likely to work than those from lower-income households and that

“improvements in employment outcomes over time were least apparent for lower-income youth with disabilities” (Wagner et al., 2003, p. 3). Thus a cycle of low employment, reduced independence, and a lower standard of living is perpetuated, especially for lower income youth with disabilities compared to peers without disabilities.

A successful college transition was associated with integration into the college environment, leaving college with a degree, and possibly securing employment (NLTS2,

2005; Pritchard & Wilson, 2003). As such, it was understandable that the transition from high school to college presented an important phase for adolescents in learning how to navigate the academic, social, and independent living demands of higher education.

According to NLTS2 (2004), a relatively large percentage of students with learning disabilities, speech or other health impairments, or emotional disturbance have goals of both attending college (44% to 57%) and participating in vocational training (43% to

58%). Furthermore, current data suggested college enrollments to be reaching record highs (Ewell & Wellman, 2007). For youth with disabilities, 45% were reported to have continued on to postsecondary education within four years of leaving high school, and

19 more than half of those with autism (approximately 58%) were reported to have continued their education beyond high school (NLTS2, 2005). Studies have been conducted to identify programs correlated with post-graduation outcomes for students with disabilities.

The most recent of these studies was the Ohio Longitudinal Transition Study/OLTS

(Baer, Daviso, McMahan Queen, & Magee, 2010). The study, compatible with the

National Longitudinal Study, measured post school outcomes and the services and goals of students with disabilities who exited high school. In relation to postsecondary education, the study found that of the 70% of students with disabilities who planned on attending a 2- or 4-year college or vocational/technical programs, only 36% were enrolled in such program one year after graduation, and of the nearly 60% of students who planned on living independently, only 20% were living autonomously a year subsequent to graduation (Baer et al., 2010).

As more colleges focus on enrollment management, retention plays an increasingly important role. The data compiled by California Community College Chancellor’s Office

(CCCCO; 2012) in the Disabled Student Programs and Services Report 2012 shows that students with disabilities served by DSPS are underrepresented in the college population compared to their nondisabled peers.

Table 1

Enrollment, Retention, Transition and Graduation Total Enrollment

FY 2010-11 FY 2009-10

# of Students % of # of Students % of

Population Population

DSPS Students 99,852 4.04 98,014 3.73

Non-DSPS 2,370,244 95.96 2,528,563 96.27

Students

All Students 2,470,096 100.00 2,626,577 100.00

Source: CCCCO (2012)

Students with disabilities increased from 3.73 to 4.04% from 2009-10 to 2010-11.

However, they remain underrepresented in the CCC student population when compared to United States Census data taken from the 2006 Disability Status Report, which estimates California’s disability rate for ages 16 to 64 to be approximately 11%. Some

CCC students with disabilities may not request services from DSPS, but this alone is not likely to account for the significant degree of under-representation (CCCCO, 2012).

On February 1, 2001, President George W. Bush announced the New Freedom

Initiative–a comprehensive program to promote the full participation of people with disabilities in all areas of society by increasing access to assistive and universally designed technologies, expand educational and employment opportunities, and promote increased access into daily community life. The purpose of this initiative is to improve

21 opportunities for individuals with disabilities so they can live, work, and learn in their communities. Creatively designed postsecondary education is one way that people with

ID or ASD can improve their ultimate employability. Postsecondary education is one of the best ways for individuals to enhance their employability, in general (Horn &

Berktold, 1999; U.S. Department of Labor, 1999). Traditionally, individuals with

ID/ASD have been excluded from postsecondary education, despite the fact that persons who do participate are more likely to become competitively employed in the community

(Gilmore, Schuster, Zafft, & Hart, 2001; Hart, Zafft, & Zimbrich, 2001). In fact, completion of any type of postsecondary education (e.g., one college course or a certificate program) significantly improves the chance of an individual securing meaningful employment (Zafft, Hart, & Zimbrich, 2004).

Tinto (1988) suggested parallels between Van Gannep's (1960) notion of rites of passage as a three-stage process (separation, transition, and incorporation) and the processes by which students become integrated into the academic and social systems of a college. While there are substantial personal challenges such as physical, sensory, cognitive, and communicative limitations, environmental barriers often present the most significant challenges for transition (Committee on Disability in America, 2007; Stewart,

2006). (1988)

As a result of challenges and the difficulty youth experience in accessing supports, many transitions are not successful (Wagner et al., 2005), thus limiting opportunities for full participation in adult life (Stewart et al., 2006). Comments from

22 youth and parents indicate the youth feel as though they "have been dropped off a cliff" once they reach adulthood (Stewart et al., 2001). My interest is to promote the development and implementation of effective policies for transitional programs and services for students with ASD within CCC.

Nature of the Study

This study is designed to determine student perceptions of the accommodation process and its possible effects on participation for students with disabilities in postsecondary education. This phenomenological study contributes to filling the gaps in literature by providing a comprehensive understanding of students with ASD transitioning into institutes of higher education (IHEs) and/or of their experiences while participating in the C2C educational program at Northern Community College. The literature gaps pertain to tracking best practices for transitional age youth with ASD/ID exiting high school and entering higher education, the statistics of students with ASD/ID successfully entering college and completing college, and transitional services provided to students in the college environment. This study explored the holistic factors impacting the students’ educational experiences through analyzing the perspective of the students who have been referred to and are participating in the C2C program in comparison to those students with ASD who enter Northern Community College through the traditional application process (i.e., pathway). I investigated how students’ prior experiences and their perceptions of the characteristics of ASD influenced their first-year postsecondary experience.

This study utilized a qualitative multiple study approach. A case study, according to Merriam (2009), is “an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system” that allows the researcher to search for in-depth insight, meaning, and understanding of a particular phenomenon (p. 40). Case studies are particularly appropriate for answering how a particular individual experiences a contemporary phenomenon in a naturalistic setting through developing a thick, rich narrative (Yin, 2009). Multiple types of data were incorporated, including the audio taped interview, descriptive field notes, and a review of literature to enrich the data and enable data triangulation. The students with

ASD/ID were drawn from the collaborative contract between the community college and the DOR. The participants for the collaborative contract consisted of 20 students; however, only eight voluntarily participated in this research.

Specifically, this study was guided by the following principle research questions:

1. What are the factors that facilitate college students with ASD and/or ID in

making the transition into the C2C postsecondary program?

a. From their perspectives, what factors hinder college students with

ASD and/or ID from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary

program?

2. What are these college students’ perceptions of the usefulness of either the

C2C pathway or traditional pathway?

3. How did the answers to the questions above differ between college

students in the C2C program and college students entering community

college through the traditional pathway?

Youth eligible for assessment during the data collection ranged from 18 to 24 years old. This age range was selected to limit the variability in performance that could be attributed to age differences among the participating youth. Participants were drawn from the C2C collaborative contract between Northern Community College and the

Department of Rehabilitation (DOR). Students who participated in this study are those who disclose their disability as having a diagnosis of ASD or ID to DSPS at the study site, Northern Community College. The students were not selected for this research.

They voluntarily participated based on their desire to advocate for themselves and others in similar situations. Students who participated had the opportunity to provide other students with ASD/ID the occasion to learn strategies and best practices for a successful transition.

The sources of data for each variable included in this report are the primary focus of this study. The level of participation in the TPP while in high school may be considered, and the number of college units earned in the higher education institution may also be considered. The examined data determined the purpose of the study and interview questions, the population described, the sample surveyed, data collection methods, and the focus of questions and variables related to students with disabilities. I evaluated the data and studies for methodological rigor as well as determined the extent

25 to which the data were used to offer a regional perspective on students with ASD/ID in higher education. Research consisted of a face-to-face interview completed by each sample participant. My study was based completely on qualitative methodology because

I believe it is the only way to holistically capture a phenomenon with depth and rich descriptions.

Theoretical Frameworks

Social Model of Disability

The social model of disability is a frequently used framework for analyzing a plethora of disability issues (Barnes & Mercer, 1997; Shakespeare, 1997). Developed by

Oliver (1990; 1996), the social model of disability posits that disability is a socially constructed concept and attributes any difficulties or limitations encountered by individuals with disabilities not to the individual, but to barriers that have emerged within society. Rather than attributing difficulties encountered by individuals with disabilities in a particular setting or situation to the individual’s neurological or physical functioning, the social model of disability ascribes that disability is a consequence of society consciously or unconsciously erecting barriers that ultimately prohibit individuals with disabilities from accessing a variety of aspects of society (Oliver, 1990; 1996). For example, if an individual with a physical disability cannot enter a building due to the building’s architecture, the barrier is attributed to the building’s lack of accessibility, not the individual’s disability (Barnes & Mercer, 1997). Therefore, this model reframes disabilities as the outcomes of an individual’s interactions with elements within society

(Dewsbury, Clarke, Randall, Rouncefield, & Sommerville, 2004). In addition, this model views society as the entity that must alter its way of viewing disability instead of altering the individual with the disability (Oliver, 1996). The social model of disability is often contrasted with the medical model of disability, which attributes disability to a particular individual’s neurological and physical functioning and seeks to fix the individual with the disability (Oliver, 1990). Therefore, similar to ecological model, the social model of disability recognizes the influence the external environment has on shaping the individual’s experience. This study imbeds the social model of disability within the context of the ecological human performance model to analyze the ecological elements within the caused barriers for students or that have contributed to students’ positive postsecondary experiences. Therefore, it adds an anti-deficit-specific lens to the ecological human performance model.

Ecology of Human Performance

This study is designed to determine student perceptions of the accommodation process and its possible effects on participation for students with disabilities in postsecondary education. The hope is the findings will aid DSPS and other college faculty and staff in their efforts to ameliorate barriers to participation in postsecondary education for students with medical diagnoses.

NLTS2 data (Wagner et al., 2007) reveal that positive views dominate the self- descriptions of youth with disabilities. These youth consider themselves to have a variety of strengths and enjoyable personality characteristics and are confident in their abilities.

Further, students become optimistic about their futures.

Serving students with ASD or ID necessitates communication and collaboration among professionals from several disciplines, including professors and family members.

Efforts to promote self-determination of youth with disabilities are a component of high quality special education services in secondary education and transition services

(Wehmeyer, Abery, Mimaug, & Stancliffe, 2003; Wehmeyer & Field, 2007). Self- determination may make a difference in the lives of individuals with disabilities.

Operational Definitions

Assistive technology

AT is available to assist individuals with participating in activities as

independently as possible. This can include low technology (i.e., things typically

found by the general population like timers, Velcro, and calculators) to more

advanced technology (e.g., wheelchairs, computers, and talkers).

Benefits Counselor

A worker in an organization (varies by state) who assists SSA disability

beneficiaries with making choices about work

Comprehensive Transition Programs

Degree, certificate, or non-degree programs for students with intellectual

disabilities.

CTP

Comprehensive Transition Programs are degree, certificate, or non-degree

programs for students with intellectual disabilities that:

1. Are offered by a college or career school and approved by the USDE;

2. Are designed to support students with intellectual disabilities who want to

continue academic, career, and independent living instruction to prepare for

gainful employment;

3. Offers academic advising and a structured curriculum; and

4. Require students with intellectual disabilities to participate, for at least half

of the program, in: Regular enrolment in credit-bearing courses with

nondisabled students, Auditing or participating (with nondisabled students) in

courses for which the student does not receive regular academic credit,

Enrolment in non-credit-bearing, non-degree courses with nondisabled

students, or Internships or work-based training with nondisabled individuals.

If students with intellectual disabilities are attending a CTP, they are able to

use federal financial aid to help pay the cost of attendance. CTP were initially

described and defined by the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008.

Developmental Disability

Disabled Students Programs & Services (DSPS) Office

Responsible for supporting students with disabilities enrolled in the college

DOL

Department of Labor

DSM 5

Among the most noticeable revisions to the Fifth Edition of Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric

Association [APA], 2013), it is the inclusion of dual codes for every mental

disorder for both children and adults. The DSM uses a multi-axial or

multidimensional approach to diagnosing because rarely do other factors in a

person's life not impact their mental health. It assesses five dimensions as

described in Table 2.

Table 2

DSM-V Summary Table

Axis 1: Axis 2: Axis 3: Axis 4: Axis 5:

Clinical disorders Personality/ Relevant physical Psychosocial and Global developmental disorders Environmental Assessment of disorders problems Functioning Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:

• Anxiety • Paranoid • Infectious & • Problems with • 100 = disorders personality parasitic primary support Superior • Mood disorders disorder diseases group functioning in • Antisocial • Endocrine, • Problems related a wide range • Dissociative of activities disorders personality nutritional, to social disorder metabolic, environment • 50 = Serious • Substance- immune symptoms or related • Narcissistic • Educational personality diseases problems impairment in disorders social, disorder • Diseases of • Occupational • Schizophrenia nervous system occupational, • Borderline problems or school • Sexual & personality & sense organs gender-identity • Housing or functioning disorder • Congenital economic disorders anomalies • 10 = • Dependent problems Persistent • Eating personality disorders danger of disorder severely hurting self or others Source: APA (2013)

Dual Enrolment

Enrolled in postsecondary education and secondary education simultaneously;

usually done by secondary students to use local education funds to pay for

postsecondary education.

Educational Coaches

These people support (coach) students in the typical role of a college student,

including appropriate classroom behaviour, study skills, test-taking skills, time

management, organizational skills, and how to access resources on campus; may

assist students in arranging for tutors and/or accommodations from disability

services.

Entitlement

A legal right, typically used in the context of Ch. 766 where children are entitled

to services written in the IEP that are provided and/or monitored by the school

system, or in the context of Ch. 688 where a person is entitled to a plan, but

receiving services is not an entitlement (i.e., services are not guaranteed).

Facilitator

Leads meetings to address various topics including person-centered planning

meetings, resource mapping, etc.

Financial need

In general terms, financial need is defined as the difference between what it costs

a student to attend school and what they and their family can afford to pay.

Student resources are the amounts a student and family are expected to have

available for school and is calculated based on the information on the Free

Application for Federal Student Aid, or FAFSA. A standard government formula

is used to determine the family's contribution. It takes into account the family

size, number in college, total income from the previous calendar year, and assets.

Functional Vocational Assessment

Identifies individuals’ vocational interests and potential using actual job tasks in a

variety of environments

Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA)

Enacted on August 14, 2008 reauthorizing the Higher Education Act (HEA) of

1965. This law covers a wide variety of issues related to higher education. New

in 2008 were several provisions related to students with intellectual disabilities,

including defining Comprehensive Transition programs for students with ID and

funding model demonstration projects with a National Coordinating Center for

those projects.

Intellectual disability (ID)

A disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual

functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and

practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.

IDEA Act

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is a Federal law mandating free

and appropriate public education for all students. Included in this law are specific

requirements for transition planning.

Individual Training Account (ITA)

Funds set aside by the One-Stop Career Centre’s to help individuals pay for

training that will lead to obtaining employment.

Interagency team

Local group representing different constituencies meeting regularly and working

together toward common goals

Natural supports

Natural supportive relationships fostered and developed among individuals with

disabilities and non-disabled co-workers, classmates, activity participants,

neighbours, etc.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act

Federal legislation that mandates every state to conduct testing for all students in

reading and math and graduation requirements and for teacher and school

accountability

Neurotypicals

Generally assumed to have certain qualities in common, including strong social

and communication skills, a lack of sensory issues, and an ability to navigate new

or socially complex situations

One-Stop Career Centers

Federally sponsored community centers created to serve individuals seeking

employment

Plan for Achieving Self Support (PASS)

Allows a person with a disability to set aside otherwise countable income and/or

resources for a specific period of time in order to achieve a work goal

Person-Centered Planning

Planning that focuses on the individual and his/her interests, strengths, and needs.

There are numerous models of this type of planning available (e.g., Whole Life

Planning, MAPS, Essential Lifestyles Planning, COACH, etc.).

Reasonable Accommodation

Changes in an environment to meet the access needs of an individual in

accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 2009), maintaining

civil rights legislation for individuals with disabilities.

Resource Mapping

A method used to link community resources with an agreed-upon vision,

organizational goals, strategies, or expected outcomes

Satisfactory Academic Progress (SAP)

An IHE policy used to define successful completion of coursework to maintain

eligibility for student financial aid. Federal regulations require the universities to

establish, publish, and apply standards to monitor student progress toward

completion of their certificate or degree programs. If students fail to meet these

standards, they will be placed on financial aid warning or suspension.

School to Work

Process of going to work (and being trained) in a community setting while still

receiving services from the school—a way of assisting in the transition process

for those individuals interested in having a job immediately following high

school. It should begin no later than two years prior to graduation.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

Federal law guaranteeing students with disabilities "reasonable accommodations"

in higher education unless those accommodations would constitute an "undue

burden"

Self-determination

The skills needed to understand and address one's wants and needs through

decision-making, problem solving, and goal setting.

Self-identify

The process by which a student entering college identifies him or herself as

having a disability at the Disabled Students Programs & Services (DSPS)

Service learning

Educational model in which learning opportunities are derived from structured

service activities rather than traditional classrooms

SSA

Social Security Administration

Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

A Federal income supplement program designed to help people who are aged,

blind, and disabled, who have little or no income. It provides cash to meet basic

needs for food, clothing, and shelter.

Supported education

Individualized assistance that helps students with disabilities achieve their goals

in college. Support education services may assist students to identify and access

reasonable and appropriate accommodations and coordinate with on and off

campus disability support services.

Supported employment

The provision of ongoing supports from an external source (e.g., state agency) to

an individual in a paid, community-based setting, where the majority of the

workers do not have disabilities, directed at teaching the tasks of that specific job

as they occur.

Traditional Pathway

This is the traditional process through which the general population enters the

community college which typically consists of an application and placement

assessments without support from a program similar to C2C.

Transition services

A coordinated set of activities for a child with a disability that:

Is designed to be within a results-oriented process, that is focused on improving the academic and functional achievement of the child with a disability to facilitate the child’s movement from school to post-school activities, including postsecondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported employment); continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation; Is based on the individual child’s needs, taking into account the child’s strengths, preferences, and interests; and includes instruction, related services, community experiences, the development of employment and other post-school adult living

objectives, and, when appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and provision of a functional vocational evaluation. (Partners Resource Network, 2013, para. 3)

Vocational Rehabilitation

Work-study program

Federal financial aid program in which participating students are able to make

money to pay college tuition and living expenses by working on campus

Limitations

There are several limitations inherent in this study. Current research literature does not reflect current practice or current statistical data for the C2C programs in

California. Some are pertinent to review work in general; some are unique to review work with general disabilities; and some are unique to my particular interest. A common criticism of review work is the possibility of the existence of “file drawer” or “fugitive” literature not captured in my literature search parameters, as well as “publication bias” or the tendency of journals to publish only studies with reported positive results (Hunt,

1997).

Second, evaluating the quality of research and calculating meta-analyses represent both strength and a limitation in my review, at least theoretically. For example, my inclusionary criteria inadvertently may exclude a sizeable body of literature due to a lack of reported information pertaining to students with ASD or ID participating in the C2C program. The scope of my work prevents me from contacting individual authors to request additional data or ask specific questions.

Third, I have mentioned that more evidence exists with students labeled with more significant cognitive disabilities, yet a comparative study on the importance of transitioning from high school to secondary education for students diagnosed with

ASD/ID has not been presented. I need more research analyzing the efficacy of various interventions with youth with other disabilities.

Fourth, the interventions and outcomes may vary enormously depending on various factors. I was constrained by the parameters of my original study to address both intervention and outcome areas. I also want my work to be useful to practitioners and others who might not readily search for results by such intervention terms as “evidence- based practices” or “C2C,” so I want to organize this study by both curricular areas and interventions.

Finally, Cimera and Cowan (2013) only examined the vocational outcomes achieved by young adults with other disabilities, and findings cannot be applied to individuals with ASD. This is a growing problem since the diagnoses of students with autism (ASD) are on the rise. Another limitation, which may lead to biases, is the researcher has a working relationship with the Department of Rehabilitation. Limitations are inherent to qualitative research using interviewing as a method because such factors as the emotional state of the interviewee at the time of the interview, personal bias, and the researcher’s close role in the interview process can affect a participant’s response

(Patton, 2002).

Significance of Study

Many youth with disabilities are likely to face greater challenges than their peers without disabilities as they transition from high school to independent living, postsecondary education, or employment. These challenges are often even greater for youth with ASD/ID disabilities. Parents often view transition difficulties as some of the most challenging behaviors to address in their children on a daily basis (South, Ozonoff,

& McMahon, 2005; Stoner, Angell, House, & Bock, 2007). As classroom environments are not always predictable and structured, and unexpected changes in daily routines and activities are likely to happen, students with ASD/ID may engage in a range of challenging behaviors and noncompliance and may require extensive prompting to complete the transitions. I am hopeful the findings of this study will aid DSPS and other college faculty and staff in their efforts to ameliorate barriers to participation in postsecondary education for students with disabilities. Identifying and examining effective interventions to address transition difficulties of students with ASD/ID becomes an important goal for research and educational practice. One suggestion is to implement an evidence-based practice (EBP) methodology. EBP is a teaching method used to teach a specific skill that has been shown to be effective based on high-quality research (Cook,

Tankersley, & Landrum, 2009; Odom et al., 2005). Evidence-based practices apply to secondary transition planning and instruction in the following ways:

• Evidence-based practices provide teachers information about what teaching

methods in secondary transition have been effective in helping students with

disabilities learn specific skills.

• Evidence-based practices can be used to support educational goals and

objectives as well as skill development.

Source: Twyman and Sota (2008)

Figure 2. Evidence-based practice.

EBP is an intervention method for implication of best practices for students with disabilities transitioning into adulthood. Intervention literature on transition difficulties of students with ASD is, however, limited (Sterling-Turner & Jordan, 2007). A small

41 resource of studies examines the effects of antecedent interventions aimed at increasing educational predictability, with promising results. It is my anticipation that C2C interventions mirror the EBP methodology as another strategy that may be used to address transition difficulties in ASD/ID students. C2C may be an intervention of choice when addressing transition difficulties of students with ASD in the school settings

(Kokina & Kern, 2010).

However, research examining the use of C2C in transitions in almost nonexistent; only a few studies to date addressed the use of C2C in transitions, both unpredictable

(i.e., introduction of novel events) (Ivey, Heflin, & Alberto, 2004) and predictable (e.g.,

Schneider & Goldstein, 2010). None of the previous studies, however, specifically or systematically focused on the effectiveness of C2C in transitions. Therefore, given a general lack of intervention research to address the transition difficulties of students with

ASD/ID, and the gaps in the C2C literature, it is important to study the use of C2C methodology to assist youth with ASD in transitions. Due to an overall increase in the prevalence of ASD/ID, many students with an ASD/ID will be attending a postsecondary educational setting in the near future (Adreon & Durocher, 2007; Centers for Disease

Control [CDC], 2005). Understanding the diagnosis and the particular challenges faced by students with an ASD/ID will be necessary for colleges to meet the unique needs of this population. The purpose of this study was to examine factors identified as significant in preparing individuals who fall on the autism spectrum or have an intellectual disability for postsecondary experiences. This study was exploratory in nature and designed to

42 identify perceived critical program elements to be included in designing successful postsecondary transition programs for students with an autism spectrum diagnosis and to be done in an effort so postsecondary institutions can better accommodate and serve what is a growing influx of students from this population. Additionally, this study will enlighten policy and practice for educational leaders and add to the body of research in the area of individuals with medical diagnosis and postsecondary education.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to examine key components of promising transition services and supports that might enable students with ASD and/or ID to successfully transition into meaningful employment experiences during and after high school.

Although the educational needs of students with ASD/ID have received burgeoning attention in the empirical literature, policy discussions, and the popular media, surprisingly few rigorous studies have examined high-quality secondary and transition experiences for the group of young people with ASD and/or ID (Carter, Sisco, Chung, &

Stanton-Chapman, 2010; Hendricks & Wehman, 2009; Moxon & Gates, 2001). Indeed, the knowledge base remains unacceptably lean. Therefore, I drew on relevant and related research to identify promising elements for enhancing the educational outcomes of this group of youth. Such elements contribute to a framework for designing transition interventions specifically for these youth. Meaningful collaboration and interagency involvement is ongoing; thus, an effective collaboration among formal and informal service and support systems provide for more efficient and effective service delivery and

43 can be essential to the success of transition-age youth in accessing and maintaining meaningful educational experiences (Noonan, Morningstar, & Erickson, 2008).

Cultivating strong links between students and needed services—as well as among various service providers themselves in a given community— ensures that the needs and opportunities identified during transition planning are adequately addressed and delivered in coordinated ways. For example, the individual and collaborative work of vocational counselors, job coaches, and/or special educators can help connect students and their families to relevant education-related support services, such as vocational assessments; career counseling benefits counseling; transportation, independence living resources; and an array of other guidance, resources, and referrals (Chappel & Somers, 2010). When designed thoughtfully, such linkages promote greater continuity in services and supports as young people and their families’ transition across service systems. Yet studies suggest that a sharp decline in access to services takes place for many young adults with ASD/ID in the years after exiting high school (Shattuck, Wagner, Narendorf, Sterzing, & Hensley,

2011). In addition, transition planning teams should explore avenues for deepening connections between students and more informal, natural supports available within most communities (e.g., workplace mentors, job clubs) that deepen the social capital of students and their families (Carter, Swedeen, Cooney, Walter, & Moss, 2012; Trainor,

2008).

The subsequent chapter provides an in-depth literature review, which is divided into several key areas of focus: historical Perspective on disabilities, legal history,

44 preparation/professional development for staff in terms of awareness of ASD/ID, strategies and techniques for accommodations, self-determination and self-advocacy on the part of the student, and academic success versus leaving higher education. The research design, qualitative design through a phenomenological study, is then explained in Chapter 3.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

This study focuses on exploring the experiences of students with autism in the higher education system through the use of a phenomenological methodology. For this topic, professional and academic research-based literature, books, and personal accounts of individuals with autism spectrum disorders were considered. This information is presented in themes beginning first with a historical perspective on disabilities and an overview of ASD/ID concept/diagnosis. Next, the legal history specific to legislation of adaptation and perception that has been documented is explored to give an overview of the challenges faced by individuals with autism spectrum disorders and the persistence of these challenges into adulthood. The discussion progresses into considering historical articles that discuss adult outcome in autism. This is followed by a discussion of more recent articles and books that have addressed adult outcomes after an autism spectrum disorder is detected. Finally, the specific challenges brought to the higher education system by students with autism spectrum disorders are discussed. The professional literature and books with published personal accounts of adults on the autism spectrum that have experienced the higher education system are cited. The decision to combine two very different types of accounts was made to highlight the frequent similarities in the issues discussed but also to highlight several stark differences between the professionals’ view of adults with autism spectrum disorders and the experience of the adults

46 themselves. The campus-based inclusion model (CBIM) is a unique program and is presented. Next, researchers using a qualitative methodology when exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorders and/or intellectual disabilities in higher education are discussed. While the concepts presented in these articles are included in the previous discussion of the experience of students on the autism spectrum in higher education, their use of a qualitative methodology warrants further discussion of the articles to highlight the benefits of a qualitative inquiry in exploring this research topic. An overview of my theoretical framework is presented. The review of the literature concludes with a brief summary and restatement of the need for an additional study exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorders.

Historical Perspective on Disabilities

In the 15 years since the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA;

2009), more and more people with disabilities have been brought out of their homes and institutions and into the larger community. People with disabilities have increased their employability, earnings, and, consequently, quality of life by attending college and completing a postsecondary degree (National Council on Disability [NCD], 2003). First- time, full-time freshman with disabilities attending college increased fourfold (from 2.6% to 9.2%) between 1978 and 1994 (Henderson as cited in Leyser, Vogel, Wyland, &

Brulle, 1998). More recent statistics report that students with disabilities make up approximately 9% of the total U.S. college population (Horn, Peter, & Rooney, 2002;

USDE, 2000, 2003). Nevertheless, people with disabilities are still underrepresented in

47 the postsecondary student population, 13.4% (USDE, 2003) and 19% (Waldrop & Stern,

2003).

Overview of Autism Spectrum

The terms Autism Spectrum and Intellectual Disability (ID) are interchangeable according to the revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual from DSM IV to DSM-

5 (APA, 2013). Furthermore, in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the diagnosis of intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) is revised from the DSM-IV diagnosis of mental retardation.

The significant changes address what the disorder is called, its impact on a person’s functioning, and criteria improvements to encourage more comprehensive assessment

(APA, 2013). To further explain the revision of the DSM, the American Psychiatric

Association (2013) stated, “The revised disorder also reflects the manual’s move away from a multiple axial approach to evaluating conditions” (p. 1). In other words, a mental disorder classification schema used with the DSM provides a more comprehensive evaluation of the whole person. The DSM is best used for treatment planning and prognosis because it reflects the interrelated complexities of the various biological, psychological, and social aspects of a person's condition. Additionally, all mental disorders are included under multiple axials (McGraw-Hill, 2002).

Therefore, the DSM-5 categorizes all mental disorders on a single axis and claims to give equal weight. Researchers have found that as the rate of ASD diagnosis go up, the rates of ID and learning disability diagnosis goes down (Shattuck, 2006). IDs and

48 autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) co-vary at high rates. Similarly, one of the two disorders appears to have effects on the other disorder on several factors. For example, according to the APA, ID involves impairments of general mental abilities that impact adaptive functioning in three domains, which determine how well an individual copes with everyday tasks.

• The first domain is conceptual, which includes skills in language, reading,

writing, math, reasoning, knowledge, and memory.

• The second domain refers to empathy, social judgment, interpersonal

communication skills, and the ability to make and retain friendships.

• Third is the practical domain, which centers on self-management in areas such

as personal care, job responsibilities, money management, recreation,

and/organizing school and work tasks.

Hurley and Levitas (2007) speculated that much of the recent advance in ASD has been with persons who are intellectually normal. They further posit that as a result, many persons with ID may be overlooked with respect to co-occurring ASD. This situation is the case despite the knowledge that has existed for several decades regarding the fact that considerable overlap in ID and ASD exist (Bartak & Rutter, 1976).

Legal History of Disability Legislation

Section 504 and ADA are the two acts that provide special education services to students with disabilities at the postsecondary level (Madaus, 2005). Section 504 and the

ADA are civil rights acts that provide access to education. As such, most of the lawsuits

49 involving postsecondary students with disabilities in higher education are related to access issues. Further, lawsuits under ADA may increase, as a 2004 U.S. Supreme Court ruling has brought the legal requirements of the ADA to the forefront again (see

Tennessee v. Lane, 2004). The ADA was enacted to expand the prohibition against disability discrimination in the private sector. Title II of ADA is similar to Section 504 in that it applies to public entities. In fact, Congress requires the regulations promulgated under Title II be consistent with the regulations adopted under Section 504 (Denbo,

2003). Thus ADA, like Section 504, prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities. Title III of ADA prohibits disability discrimination in places of public accommodation, including private schools. The ADA requires postsecondary institutions to make course modifications as long as such modifications do not fundamentally alter the program (ADA, 2009).

Even though ADA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 have granted students the legal right to equal access to postsecondary education, people with disabilities do not appear to access it in equal proportion to others. One possible reason for this lower access may be the shift of responsibility for identifying disability and requesting disability support services from the school in the K-12 settings to the student in the postsecondary settings (Richard, 1995). This may lead to underreporting due to various contextual reasons such as concerns about social stigma, or a universally designed campus that makes additional services, and thus self-identification, unnecessary rather than actual underrepresentation of students with disabilities. Previous research

50 showed that young adults with disabilities were experiencing poor post-school integration, high dropout rates, high unemployment, low rates of postsecondary education, and low-quality independent living and community participation outcomes

(Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Chadsey-Rusch, Rusch, & O’Reilly, 1991; Edgar, 1987;

Haring, Lovett, & Smith, 1990; Hasazi, Gordon, & Roe, 1985; Retish, 1989; Roessler,

Brolin, & Johnson, 1990; Scuccimarra & Speece, 1990). In turn, the research resulted in

IDEA initiating the requirement that public schools develop a transition plan for students with individual education programs (IEPs) aged 16 or older (IDEA, 1990). Far less is known about the transition process for individuals with an ASD; therefore, educational professionals are faced with a distinct disadvantage in their efforts to address the needs of this particular population.

However, the best data available thus far indicate that people with disabilities are not participating in postsecondary education to the same degree as their nondisabled counterparts. Furthermore, the research frequently cites a lack of appropriate and effective accommodations and knowledge of and attitudes toward disability as the barriers discouraging full participation. McCarthy and Campbell (1993) asserted that institutions of higher education needed to do more to increase their support services and staff development as a means of increasing programmatic access to education for students with disabilities. More recently, others (e.g., Kruse, McKinney, & Rapaport, 1998;

Pacifici & Elacqua, 1997) have noted that faculty and staff exhibit a lack of knowledge and limited understanding of disability issues and their manifestations in the

51 postsecondary setting, negatively affecting the manner in which faculty interact with students with disabilities. Figure 3 provides a visual comparison of regulations.

Figure 3. Comparison of Rehabilitation Act, ADA, IDEA 2004, and Section 504.

The following is a timeline of the history of Disability Laws (USDE, 2012).

1972

The U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia in Mills v. Board of

Education ruled that the District of Columbia could not exclude disabled children from the public schools. Similarly, the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of

Pennsylvania, in PARC v. Pennsylvania struck down various state laws used to exclude disabled children from the public schools. (Significance: These decisions inspired advocates to work toward the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975.)

1973

The (American) Rehabilitation Act of 1973 became law; Sections 501, 503, and

504 prohibited discrimination in federal programs and services and all other programs or services receiving federal funds. Key significance in the Rehabilitation Act found in

Section 504 states:

No otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States, shall, solely by reason of his [sic] handicap, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. (29 U.S.C. 794, para. 2)

1975

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act, PL 94-142 (renamed

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990) became law in the U.S., and it declared that handicapped children could not be excluded from public school because of their disability and school districts were required to provide special services to meet the needs of handicapped children. The law also required that handicapped children be taught in a setting that resembles, as closely as possible, the regular school program, while also meeting their special needs.

1975

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Pub. Law 94-142) was passed, establishing the right of children with disabilities to a public school education in an integrated environment. The act was later renamed the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act (IDEA).

1976

Amendments to The Higher Education Act of 1972 provided services to physically disabled students entering college.

1977

Disability rights activists in 10 cities staged demonstrations and occupations of the offices of the federal department of Health Education and Welfare (HEW) to force the

Carter Administration to issue regulations for implementing Section 504 of the

Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The demonstration in San Francisco lasted nearly a month.

On 28 April, HEW Secretary Joseph Califano signed the regulations.

1990

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed by President George

Bush on 26 July. Disability rights activists attended the signing ceremony on the White

House lawn. The law mandated that local, state, and federal governments and programs be accessible, that businesses with more than 15 employees make “reasonable accommodations” for disabled workers, and that public accommodations such as restaurants and stores make “reasonable modifications” to ensure access for disabled members of the public. The act also mandated access in public transportation, communication, and in other areas of public life. The Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act (IDEA) is a federal law enacted in 1990 and reauthorized in 1997 and

2004. It is designed to protect the rights of students with disabilities by ensuring that everyone receives a free appropriate public education (FAPE) regardless of ability.

Furthermore, IDEA strives not only to grant equal access to students with disabilities, but to provide additional special education services and procedural safeguards. Special education services are individualized to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities and are provided in the least restrictive environment. Special education may include individual or small group instruction, curriculum or teaching modifications, assistive technology, transition services and other specialized services such as physical, occupational, and speech therapy. These services are provided in accordance with an

Individualized Education Program (IEP), specifically tailored to the unique needs of each student.

1992

Amendments to the (American) Rehabilitation Act of 1973 were infused with the philosophy of independent living.

2008

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Amendments Act of 2008 became law, and it broadened the scope of who is considered disabled under the law such that when considering whether a person is disabled, the law required that people ignore the beneficial effects of any mitigating measures (except ordinary eyeglasses and contact lenses) the person uses. Furthermore, when considering whether a person is substantially limited in a major life activity, that would make them disabled under the law, the law required the consideration of bodily functions as well as other major life activities, and having one major life activity substantially limited is enough; when considering whether a person whose condition is episodic or in remission is substantially limited in a major life activity, the law required the consideration of the person's limitations as they are when the condition is in an active state; furthermore, determining someone is disabled under the law does not require individuals to meet the substantially- limited-in-a-major-life-activity standard, but does not include impairments that are transitory and minor. (ADA, 2008, section 223(a), para. 3)

2014

The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) supersedes the

Workforce Investment Act of 1998 and amends the Adult Education and Family Literacy

Act, the Wagner-Peyser Act, and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. WIOA authorizes the

Job Corps, YouthBuild, Indian and Native Americans, and Migrant and Seasonal

Farmworker programs, in addition to the core programs. President Barack Obama signed

WIOA into law on July 22, 2014.

Impact of Legislation and Litigation on the Education of Students with ASD

The basis of special education came from a case that had little to do with disabilities. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) was heard to determine whether schools could segregate their population based on student race. This seminal case found that separate is inherently unequal and led to other cases more specific to students with disabilities. In the most general terms, the evolution of the education disability law, P.L. 94-142, into its current state, the Individuals with

Disabilities Education Improvement Act [IDEIA] (2004), shifted its focus from access to equity. The equity inherent in IDEIA came from the emphasis on accessing not only education but the general curriculum as well as the integration of students with disabilities with their nondisabled peers. IDEA required a general education teacher to attend and participate in designing the individual education program. IDEIA strengthened that requirement by highlighting collaboration between general and special education. The law also called for improving and developing collaborative personnel

56 preparation activities around scientifically based research and the incorporation of best practices for teachers of special and general education as well as administrators and related services personnel. These personnel preparation activities are designed to effectively support students with disabilities in seven areas:

1. Collaboration between general and special education;

2. Accommodations/modifications;

3. Implementing research-based instructional practices;

4. Parent involvement;

5. Employing positive behavioral supports;

6. Individualized Education Program planning and implementation; and

7. Participation in alternate assessment programs.

The law was additionally written to complement the ideas of NCLB while still stressing the individual. In essence, NCLB centered on achievement for all students while IDEIA used this focus but mandated individualized education programs for students with disabilities, including students with ASD. Children and youth identified with an ASD, one of the disability categories, are eligible to receive special education services. According to IDEIA (2004), the purpose of special education is to provide

“specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability” (p. 2657). To receive special education services to meet such individual needs, an individualized education program (IEP) must be designed and implemented. An IEP has been defined as “a written statement for each child with a

57 disability that is developed, reviewed, and revised” by the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA, 2004, p. 2707).

The IEP is the program designed to meet the unique needs of students receiving special education services. The IEP was an assurance in IDEIA 2004 and has a set of components that must be included: present level of performance, measurable annual goals, progress monitoring, services, least restrictive environment, testing, accommodations/modifications, transition plan, age of majority, and progress toward annual goals. Despite, or perhaps due to, the specific language in the federal law governing students with disabilities, conflict has occurred between school officials and families in many areas regarding students with ASD/ID. This conflict may stem from disconnect between IDEIA (2004) and No child Left Behind (NCLB; 2001). This disconnect may become especially problematic for administrators when developing specific programs for students.

In 2006, the Combating Autism Act was passed by the United States Congress.

The intent of the legislation was to support the creation and implementation of systems of care for children with ASD. Such systems of care were meant to include educational entities. The Act also allowed for funding for the Centers for Excellence, which research various areas related to children with ASD. The research was intended to explore the causes, diagnosis, early detection, prevention, intervention, and possible cures for ASD.

In the past decade, there has been a considerable increase in the amount of litigation surrounding the education of students with ASD (Yell, Katsiyannis, Drasgow,

& Herbst, 2003; Zirkel, 2002). IDEIA (2004) called for evidence-based practices to be used with students with disabilities. However, it has not been entirely clear what this means for students with ASD. Simpson (2003) noted the variety and sheer amount of interventions that have been used with students with ASD. Simpson stated that although a plethora of interventions has been created for students with ASD, the effectiveness of these interventions were typically either unproven or unknown. This is another area of potential conflict for schools and families, for there is no one particular intervention that has been proven to be effective. In view of the complexity of ASD and the cost of litigation, autism “has become a high-stakes issue for parents and school districts” (Yell et al., 2003, p. 182). Since the Combating Autism Act was passed in 2006, potential for conflict has increased and may affect how students receive their educational services as well. Yell et al. (2003) highlighted the call for requiring the use of evidence-based instruction in the NCLB Act (2001), and he suggested collecting meaningful data to illustrate progress made by students with disabilities. Students with disabilities, including those with ASD, have not always had access to public education.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, as amended, and Section

504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are major federal legislative acts designed to protect the civil rights of individuals with disabilities and have begun to have a major impact on schools across the United States (ADA, 2008). Section 504 of the

Rehabilitation Act (Smith, 2001) created and extended civil rights to people with

59 disabilities, prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability, and applies to entities that receive federal funds.

An important aspect of the transition from high school to higher education concerns understanding law and policy. The laws that apply to students with disabilities and the provisions they offer are different in higher education compared to those that apply in secondary education (Scott, 1991). At the secondary level, the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004 mandated the provision of assistance for students with disabilities, which is available in middle school and high school.

IDEA applies to the public school system and is usually geared around services.

IDEA no longer protects these students once they graduate or leave the school system or if they become ineligible at age 22. Services being provided in high school will not automatically carry over to the postsecondary setting (IDEA, 2004). At the postsecondary level, the American with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (1973) are the primary mandates for the provision of assistance, usually in the form of accommodations and services (Graetz & Spaminato, 2008). The

American Disabilities Act of 1990 and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are intended to prevent any form of discrimination against individuals with disabilities and ensure that persons cannot be discriminated against in obtaining higher education simply based on their disability. Any university or college receiving federal support is required to provide services for individuals with disabilities. Most personnel in college or

60 university offices of disability support may not understand the complexities of the ASD diagnosis and although the academic supports may provide some assistance, the greater issues of social and emotional well-being and coping with feelings of fear, anxiety, and excessive stress may go unaddressed, especially for those with an ASD (Graetz &

Spaminato, 2008).

Students with disabilities, including those with ASD/ID, have not always had access to public education. The Brown case opened the gateway for other cases based on segregation of specific types of people. Specifically, the Brown case eventually led to cases that were more specific to students with disabilities such as Pennsylvania

Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972) and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia (1972). These cases caused the United States to examine its educational practices and for advocacy groups and parents to press for their children with disabilities to receive access to public education.

Eventually, in 1975, the Education of All Handicapped Children's Act, or PL 94-142 as it was more commonly known, was passed. Its original intent was to provide access to public education for children with disabilities.

As a result of the increased prevalence of ASD/ID, more and more children are entering school with ASD/ID. This increase in ASD/ID in the student population has affected many changes in the United States federal law over time. In the field of education, students must qualify for special education in one of the identified disability categories. Autism was added as a separate disability category in the Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act [IDEA] (1990). From its initial incorporation as a separate disability category in IDEA, ASD was considered a low incidence disability.

Consequently, states were asked to explain the large increase in the enrollment of students diagnosed with ASD/ID by the United States Department of Education. For example, an increased awareness and the inclusion of other developmental disabilities such as Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder were most frequently cited as the cause for the increase (USDE, 2006). In response to the addition of students with autism in the federal educational legislation, students with ASD began receiving special education services and were counted in the official federal counts on a national level in 1991. That year, students with ASD accounted for only 0.57% of the special education population (USDE, 1991). This prevalence increased to 2% by

2002 (USDE, 2006). This is the most current statistical data available.

NCLB (2001) concentrated on all students, including students with ASD, achieving high academic standards in reading and mathematics; highly qualified teachers; safe, drug-free schools and classrooms; and all students graduating from high school.

This includes a focus on all students having access to the general education curriculum.

Additionally, NCLB proclaimed students should receive instruction scientifically proven to improve their achievement. In 1973, Congress passed Section 504 of the Vocational

Rehabilitation Act and the subsequent Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990.

This law pre-dates both IDEA and the Americans with Disabilities Act. It established the precedence that any program receiving federal funding may not discriminate against

62 individuals with disabilities. The law emphasized equal treatment in federally funded programs whereas IDEA emphasized adequate access to a free and appropriate education

(FAPE) (Walker, 2006). In 1990, Congress re-authorized and re-named the Vocational

Rehabilitation Act as the Americans with Disabilities Act. Walker (2006) cogently argued that IDEA and ADA are complimentary laws that should be used in tandem to secure students’ educational placements, especially given the Supreme Court’s decision in Shaffer v. Weast, which reversed the burden of proof requirement. Historically, the burden of proof was placed upon the school districts to demonstrate that the student’s placement met his or her educational need, i.e., the placement was free and appropriate.

Now it is incumbent upon the party bringing forth the legal action (typically the parents) to demonstrate that the current educational placement is not meeting the student’s needs.

The implication is that this Supreme Court decision will make it more difficult for parents to obtain services for their children.

IDEA provides funding for special education services to local educational agencies. This funding covers a student until he or she receives a high school degree.

For the students unable to earn a high school degree, IDEA provides funding for the provision of independent living and vocational skills training until he or she reaches the age of 22. ADA (1990) shapes how universities provide services to students with ASDs and prohibits any public institution from discriminating against individuals with disabilities. The rationale for provision of academic supports appears to be self-evident given that a university’s primary mission is the education of its students and the failure to

63 do so would severely limit major life activity of disabled students. However, according to Glennon (2001), “the overall goals of any university experience include developing skills for adulthood, forming life-long relationships, identifying a vocational pathway, and/or participating in extracurricular activities” (p. 185).

Vocational Rehabilitation Services

Title I of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 authorizes the U.S. Department of

Education’s Rehabilitative Services Administration (RSA) to provide federal grants to states to administer vocational rehabilitation (VR) services to support individuals with disabilities who are seeking employment (RSA, n.d.). Such programs are applicable to students with disabilities transitioning from high school to postsecondary education because state VR agencies can provide comprehensive assessments and financial assistance to students entering postsecondary education (RSA, n.d.; Stodden & Conway, n.d.). As a student prepares his or her transition plan, collaboration between high schools and state VR agencies is viewed as an essential component of effective transition planning for students with disabilities (NCD, 2008). However, the type and extent of the services depends on individual state policies (RSA, n.d.).

Autism spectrum disorders are a social disability and the failure of colleges to provide social supports would substantially impair the student’s ability to reach their goals. Furthermore, the failure to provide supports in the social realm for students with

ASDs would exclude these students from being successful in academic achievement, which are a major life activity and the primary focus of colleges. To be in compliance

64 with ADA, colleges must learn to address the social and/organizational difficulties of this population. Over recent years, there has been an increase in the number of self-help resources made available by parents of children with ASD/ID and adults with ASD/ID addressing the college/university application process and tips for academic and social success. A growing number of reports within the pedagogical literature are helping develop awareness of this anticipated demand on postsecondary education. For example,

Taylor (2005) outlined a series of recommendations for teaching, evaluating, and supporting students with ASD within higher education. Glennon (2001) identified important issues to be addressed by campus support services for college students with

Asperger Syndrome. Prince-Hughes (n.d.) described ASD-related challenges for students as they related to college life. However, in the helping disciplines, there continues to be a dearth of information addressing the needs of this college-bound population.

The 2001 report of the National Research Council, Educating Young Children with Autism, emphasized that times of transition are critical times in the lives of youth with ASDs. This would include transition from high school to young adulthood as another critical juncture for individuals on the autism spectrum. Among a neurotypical sample of students, Pancer and Hunsberger (2000) found an indirect relationship between students’ stress level prior to enrolling in a university and their adjustment six months later. Students with ASD/ID have tremendous difficulties with transitions. Without preparation, students with ASD/ID would predictably fare far worse than neurotypcial

65 students during their transition to university life. Preparing young people with an

ASD/ID for the transition to postsecondary education is the next logical step.

One of the most important aspects of the transition to higher education is the compatibility of the student to the educational institution. When undertaking this decision process, the student should draw upon the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) developed with school personnel during the high school years. A well-developed IEP serves as a blueprint for the individualization of services at the university level. The IEP should identify the student’s areas of relative strengths and weaknesses. The subsequent

Individualized College Plan should outline academic modifications, independent living skills, socialization skills and goals, vocational goals, and mental health supports.

IDEA requires school districts to develop a transition plan for students as a part of the IEP. The transition plan must be in place by the time the student reaches the age of

14. The transition plan typically identifies whether or not the student will graduate from high school or continue in a special education placement emphasizing vocational and independent living skills. For the higher functioning students on the autism spectrum, the transition plan should include exposure to the college curriculum while the student is still in high school. Matriculating in one or two college courses at a local community college exposes the student to the academic and social demands of the college environment.

Careful attention should be paid to the selection of these courses to maximize the student’s chances of success. The courses should be the student’s choice in his or her areas of strength. For example, creative school districts in the New York area have

66 designed IEPs for these students that include a “Grade 13.” During the 13th year, the students take courses at the local community college in the morning. In the afternoon, the students return to their high schools for academic and social support. In addition to exposing the higher functioning students to the college curriculum and environment, this intervention decreases the stress the students face by reducing the number of college courses they have to take each semester.

As with neurotypical students, the size of the school will impact the adjustment process of the student with ASD/ID. Small colleges offer familiarity and a personalized learning environment. The smaller setting for some students represents less of a transition from high school where the classes range in size from 15 to 30 students. The likelihood that small colleges will offer smaller class sizes is greater than that for large state institutions. Smaller colleges may be appropriate for students with ASD/ID who are easily over-stimulated by large groups of people and become increasingly anxious in unpredictable social situations. Smaller schools, however, may not be familiar with the unique educational needs of students on the autism spectrum. College staff may approach the student as though he or she has a specific learning disability and provide academically based interventions only.

Large universities offer students on the autism spectrum the possibility of finding their niche both socially and vocationally. The student that may have been described as

“odd” in high school because of narrow and particular interests has the possibility of finding a community of peers with similar interests. Larger universities also offer a

67 curriculum that is typically more diverse than what is offered at smaller colleges. This gives the student with an ASD/ID the opportunity to excel in an academic area and plays to his or her strengths. Harris, Harris, and Homewood (2005) described three basic models of educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum. These are home-based, center-based, and school-based programs. Although there are significant developmental differences between young children and college-aged young adults, their tri-modal approach is useful when considering how to implement college-level educational and social supports. Home-based services in college settings would place services in the student’s current residence, typically a dormitory. Given the less structured and more socially complex nature of communal living, such home-based services may play a critical role in the student’s success at college. Center-based programs in a university setting would assist students in learning requisite classroom social skills in a systematically monitored environment that specializes in providing services to ASD/ID students. A school-based program at a college level is different from the center-based program in its approach to how and where the services to the students would be offered. In a school-based program the services are provided to the student in his or her classroom settings and general education environment.

Peer training and support models have been shown to be effective among college- aged students on campuses (Krohn & Goetz, 2005; Tevyaw, Bosari, Colby, & Monti,

2007). The major advantage of this approach is that it allows the student to enjoy the full extent of the college life experience. When selecting a potential college, the student and

68 his or her family should evaluate this “goodness of fit” (Schalock, Keith, Hoffman, &

Karan, 1989) between the student with an ASD and his or her environment as well as identify the models of intervention the university uses to assist students on the autism spectrum.

Transition as an Ongoing Research Priority

In my review of the relevant literature regarding the transition from school to adulthood for youth with ASD/ID, I paid significant attention to the NLTS-2 dataset and the recent research literature pertaining directly to social communication, employment, college, and high school curricula. I found few intervention studies and even fewer studies that are carefully controlled or prospective in nature. Despite evidence that the high school transition represents a point of heightened vulnerability for students, few programs designed to facilitate transitions have been evaluated for their efficacy.

Transition programs are considered effective if they improve student attendance, achievement, and retention (Cauley & Jovanovich, 2006) despite growing evidence from student perception research identifying social and/organization competencies as critical elements for student success (Zeedyk et al., 2003). Clearly there is a desperate need for an aggressive research objective to inform practice and improve post-school outcomes for youth with ASD/ID. The increased research efforts are essential to demonstrate and document the potential of youth with ASD/ID. Current knowledge pales in comparison with the research questions, addressed in this study, that await further exploration. There is much more work to be done. It is also clear these young people have tremendous

69 potential waiting to be recognized and unleashed. While there is potential for students with ASD/ID to be successful members of their communities, colleges, and workplaces, a greater understanding of the best way to unlock these skills by educators, parents, and other professionals is necessary.

Best Practices for Preparing Students with ASD/ID for PSE

Data from the second NLTS-2 indicated that youth with ASD have transition goals for PSE and are significantly more likely to enroll in PSE than are youth in several other disability categories (Wagner et al., 2003). Chiang, Cheung, Hickson, Xiang, and

Tsai (2012) found that students who attended “regular” high schools and performed at an above-average academic level were more likely to participate in PSE. In addition, students who participated in their transition plans were also more likely to participate in

PSE as long as their primary transition goal was participation in PSE (Chiang et al.,

2012). Undoubtedly, students with ASD and their families will require considerable information, transitional support, and preparation for the demands of PSE environments to be successful (Hewitt, 2011; Roberts, 2010). Hart et al. (2001) identified in the literature a number of promising practices for assisting students with ASD in transitioning to PSE, including the following:

1. Instructing students with ASD in natural environments from Grades K

through 12

2. Using Person-Centered Planning models in transition planning

3. Developing local, regional, and/or state-level cross-agency coordinating

teams

4. Incorporating universal design principles in developing postsecondary

courses and materials

5. Providing peer mentoring for students with ASD

6. Providing educational coaching

7. Providing concurrent engagement in employment

8. Enhancing social pragmatics and communication skills

9. Enhancing self-determination and self-advocacy skills.

However, Hart et al. also noted that research evidence in support of these practices is lacking.

Two articles examining PSE supports for students with ASD have been published.

VanBergeijk, Klin, and Volkmar (2008) offered a descriptive paper with a case study to illustrate the types of supports and services college students with ASD require. Zager and Alpern (2010) also provided a selected literature review of college supports, with special emphasis on the Campus-Based Inclusion Model (CBIM). Both articles emphasized the need for PSE students with ASD/ID to receive coaching and support in communication, social interactions, and/organization of coursework and recreation. They also emphasized the need for students with ASD/ID to receive intensive vocational supports in the transition from college to work. Indeed, even college-educated students

71 with ASD struggle to gain and maintain employment commensurate with their abilities and training (Schall, 2012).

For example, in a survey of 761 college students with disabilities, West et al.

(1993) found that 86% of respondents had encountered barriers to education because of their disabilities, most of them disability specific and directly related to the accommodations they did or did not receive. Additionally, Mull, Sitlington, and Alper’s

(2001) synthesis of the literature from 1985 to 2000 concluded with a recommendation for researching accommodation effectiveness and supports for students with disabilities at the postsecondary level. Studies hypothesized that ineffective and inappropriate transition accommodations result from an accommodation selection process that focuses on disability type rather than students’ contextual and functional needs. The aspect of contextual resources is essential for the foundation of understanding the contextual level factors integrated in the transition to higher education for individuals with ASD.

Social Integration

To be successful in college, researchers suggest that students need to demonstrate not only academic skill, but also competence in a myriad of other areas such as social, communication, self-management, self-determination, independent living, community, and employment skills (Fullerton, 1995; Halpern, 1985; Hendricks & Wehman, 2009).

Social integration is defined as the ability and desire to interact with peers and develop relationships appropriate to the individual’s developmental level (Attwood, 2000).

Brooks and DuBois (1995) found that emotional variables influenced a student’s transition to college and his or her academic success.

Contextual Resources

The effects of context-level factors on the vocational and educational activities of individuals with ASD/ID are far less studied than person-level factors. Family income might play an important role in the vocational and educational opportunities available to adults with ASD/ID. Shattuck and colleagues (2011) found that, relative to young adults with ASD whose families had higher incomes, those whose families had lower incomes were less likely to receive any formal services and more likely to have no educational or vocational activities in the years after high school exit. Taylor and Seltzer (2010) found that individuals with ASD whose families had lower incomes were more negatively impacted by the transition out of high school relative to those with higher incomes, perhaps because of limited access to appropriate daytime activities.

Disability support services for postsecondary students vary considerably from institution to institution (Mull et al., 2001). Thus, the accommodation process frequently consists of selecting from a list of accommodations, or a “menu of services” typically associated with a disability with little regard to other contextual factors, albeit selection is made on a case-by-case basis (Richard, 1992). For example, Smith (1993) drew a distinction between accommodations that are adaptive/assistive, which help compensate or substitute for a human function that has been lost (e.g., orthodics, prosthetics, and wheelchairs) and those that are rehabilitative/educational, which improve the function of

73 an individual (e.g., biofeedback, cognitive retraining, computer software programs, and passive range of motion machines). The critical concept underlying the differentiation is the trade-offs that often must be made between immediate and long-term costs and benefits of each. For example, adaptive/assistive accommodations such as a scribe or a reader, while immediately powerful, are expensive over the long run, do not develop the individual’s skills in dealing effectively with such tasks, leave him or her dependent on someone else, and create a distinction in a social setting (Mellard, Hall, & Parker, 1999).

On the other hand, rehabilitative/educational interventions that enable the individual to write or read without assistance are less immediate but result in greater independence, generally at a lower overall cost. Therefore, when selecting an accommodation in the postsecondary educational environment, the students themselves should participate in these trade-off decisions.

Strategies and Techniques for Accommodations

Some of the available literature focuses on specific strategies for students with

ASD to achieve academic success in higher education. Stodden and Mruzek (2010) stated:

Recent re-authorization of the Higher Education Act as the Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) of 2008 (Public Law 110-335) further delineates support for persons with autism and intellectual disabilities to participate in postsecondary education opportunities and thus experience improved employment outcomes as contributing adults within their communities. (p. 131)

Their research delved into which is currently available at colleges and universities nationwide, including disability and academic skills offices (e.g., the Academic Resource

Office, Study Skills Office, Disability Services, and/or Academic Support), peer tutoring, and writing support centers. Much of the research explored accommodations within the classroom setting, including extended time on assessments, recorded and/or scripted lectures, use of laptops and computer aids, and access to professors online as well as in person. Finally, research identified what is known as modified curriculum, or a similarly named variation of one’s curriculum, depending on the institution. Stodden and Mruzek

(2010) sought to identify what students with ASD were utilizing as well as how their overall experience in higher education is enhanced.

The research site, Northern Community College, has a fully staffed DSPS accommodations and support department available to students, as the kind noted by

Stodden and Mruzek (2010). To receive academic accommodations and support, students must provide documentation of their disability to the Office of Disability

Services at the onset of their studies. At the time of this research, services available from

DSPS include but are not limited to ancillary support materials such as copies of lecture notes or a classmate’s notes (volunteer note takers receive a bookstore stipend), digitally recorded material, extended time on assessments/assignments, alternative assessment environment, altered format of assessments, etc. (Davies, Schelly, & Spooner, 2013).

According to the Office of Disability Services Website, Consumes River College (CRC;

2014) is committed to and concerned with meeting the needs of students challenged by physical, sensory, psychiatric and/or learning disabilities with regard to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act.

Preparation/Professional Development for Staff

Within the context of higher education—as opposed to secondary schools with structured support systems—there is support available for students with ASD/ID, but not necessarily to the extent that it is present in secondary school. However, as programs come to light (accommodations are made and instructors are trained, among various elements) students with ASD/ID have greater aspirations to experience higher education, knowing they will be supported in their academic success. The contextual implications generally have to do with staff, professors, and advisers working within the realm or context they have traditionally known, without knowledge of how to support a student with ASD/ID and/or without lack of professional training. As noted by Hart et al. (2010),

“Strategies such as universal design, person-centered planning, the use of technology, and slight modifications to the culture of the classroom have been effective in facilitating the inclusion of students with ID [intellectual disabilities] in academic settings” (p. 132).

With proper training and professional development, faculty and staff may be better prepared to work with students with ASD and other intellectual and learning disabilities.

The extent to which academic advisers and professors are contributing to support in this area and whether or not they know what to do, or are aware of the need for assistance, is essential to research. There is a wide range of ASD/ID knowledge and accompanying support from advisers and professors (some of whom are more familiar with ASD than their colleagues), and their training through extensive professional development is crucial to both the academic and social support of students with ASD/ID.

There should be consistency in programming to ensure that professors are able to support and provide what students with ASD/ID need, within reason. Leblanc, Richardson, and

Burns (2009) and Hammig (2009) concluded that professional development training should be provided for advisers and professors within higher education settings to best serve the learning needs of their students. Furthermore, LeBlanc et al. (2009) provided research demonstrating that, with training, an individual’s perceptions about students with ASD/ID would change, and he or she would become more knowledgeable and prepared to teach individuals with ASD/ID.

Academic Success versus Leaving Higher Education

Although this study focuses specifically on students with ASD, the literature review is expanded to include studies on students with different Intelligence Disabilities

(ID) as well and aspects of why students might choose to leave the college setting. Due to the fact that little research was conducted on why a student with ASD/ID might discontinue his or her studies, some insight was gained from general research in this area.

Referring to his own work on retention within the college, Tinto (1982) noted the following in reference to why students (of all abilities) discontinued their studies: “As to the causes of leaving, evidence continues to mount that students’ decisions to withdraw are significantly affected by the degree of their intellectual and social integration into the life of the institution” (p. 697). Although Tinto speaks in general terms of all students, there is much to be said for services and accommodations to support all student ability levels, and even more so for those with ASD or ID. The Disability Compliance for

Higher Education (2006) bases its work on the theoretical framework that self-identifying and self-advocating will enhance the academic success of a student with ASD/ID in higher education. As stated by Wessel, Jones, Markle, and Westfall (2009), “Many colleges and universities have disability services offices to facilitate access to higher education and the academic success of students with disabilities, reducing the number of students with disabilities that drop out of college” (p. 116). The authors also cited the work of Belch in considering why students with LD are dropping out and if these students were utilizing disability services and accommodations not only to adapt academically but socially to the campus life as well. Wessel et al. (2009) noted:

The same reasons for dropping out were provided by both students with and without disabilities (financial problems, personal problems, work); however, the students with disabilities said that stress of school, health, problem with medications, and weather conditions also impacted their enrollment. (p. 117)

All the above factors should be taken into account when considering not only academic support for all students but social and personal support as well within the college community.

Self-Determination and Self-Advocacy

Recent research has focused on providing advice for professional staff working with students with ASD in higher education (Wolanin & Steele, 2004). There is a need for instructors, advisers, and general staff working with students with ASD to encourage and to promote self-advocacy among the students. The support available is significantly different from that which the students are accustomed in the high school setting.

Regardless, the impetus falls on the student to seek needed support. Graetz and

Spampinato (2008) affirmed the following: “For individuals with Asperger’s syndrome

(Asperger is on the spectrum), the academic support such as increased time for test taking and note-taking may be useful, but other support services, especially those within the societal/relationship domain, may not be addressed” (p. 23). Relationship and social skills can be a struggle for most students with ASD, but these often can be supported through peer assistance and/or mentoring groups.

In the area of student self-advocacy, literature was explored to determine how and when students with ASD access needed services. Taylor (2005) and Camarena and

Sargiani (2009) extensively researched the concept of self-advocacy for students with

ASD. From an early age and, more significantly, in secondary school, the student with

ASD/ID typically followed his or her parent’s or guardian’s lead in advocating for services and support. Parents generally modeled this behavior consistently and thoroughly to prepare the student with ASD/ID to do this on their own in higher education. It is probable that some students with ASD/ID are not accessing the services they need, or likely not to the extent they should. This may be due to various reasons, such as the student not wanting to disclose information about his or her disability or perhaps he or she is unable to access the services and support due to lack of communication from the educational institution.

Students with ASD/ID often struggle due to long-held stereotypes or perceptions some people maintain on the subject of how they learn or about their disability. Very often a student feels the stigma of having a disability, and he or she does not want to be

79 perceived as different from his or her peers. May and Stone (2010) conducted a study in which students both with and without learning disabilities were surveyed to identify their general perceptions about individuals with learning disabilities. Unfortunately, this author could not identify research literature or information specifically relating to ASD and stereotypes. Therefore, the author utilized the research conducted by May and Stone

(2010). Students need to be encouraged to advocate for assistance and to be supported in their efforts by a knowledgeable and understanding educational community (by staff, peers, etc.). In this way, the cycle of seemingly negative perception of and stigma identified by students with disabilities may lessen so they can succeed academically. The research is based on the theory that, with significant educational aspirations and support, students with ASD/ID may be successful in higher education. In addition, they theorized that linking support with one’s social skills would positively affect student academic success.

Camarena and Sargiani (2009) conducted parallel semi-structured interviews (for both students and parents involved), with both qualitative and quantitative methods incorporated. During the interview process for their study at Southern University,

Camarena and Sargiani posed questions regarding both academic and social functioning and sought information about the students’ perceptions of their overall experience.

Results of the Camarena and Sargiani (2009) study demonstrated that both adolescents and parents had significant postsecondary aspirations and goals but were concerned with

“readiness” of their adolescent and the social challenges the student would face.

Moreover, the authors demonstrated significant results regarding the students’ self- awareness. Students with ASD/ID and their parents viewed the following supports as necessary as they anticipated higher education: academic accommodations and support

(e.g., assistive technology), transition planning and/orientation skills and social skills support. The study was limited by the small sample (with limitations in gender and social-class representation due to voluntary participation), but results could be generalized to students with ASD/ID in general. In addition, prior to the study, the nature of the students’ diagnoses in relation to the extent of ASD was not known. However, the strengths of this type of study are related to the in-depth interview process and the ability to triangulate responses via multiple familiar perspectives. With respect to seeking accommodations and self-advocating, students with ASD/ID consistently fear stigma concerning their disability.

Theoretical Framework

In an effort to better understand students and their educational functioning and influence, the conceptual frameworks and theories that contribute to the understanding of how expectations of students, peers, and educational professionals develop and impact decisions and outcomes are examined. The conceptual frameworks reviewed in this study include ecology of human performance (EHP) and the theory of social model of disability, consisting of consciousness and competence. All the theories presented both challenges when transitioning into IHEs and support the idea that changing or influencing

81 how an individual learns behaviors, especially in the early stages of transitioning into adult life, may have a large impact on his or her educational pathway to success.

Ecology of Human Performance

The purpose of this framework is to explore the Ecology of Human Performance

(Dunn, Brown, & McGuigan, 1994) and apply it to educational transitions for individual students with ASD. A description of the transition process and potential educational interventions using the Ecology of Human Performance framework is explored and developed. The Ecology of Human Performance serves as a framework for considering the effect of context. Context is described as a lens from which an individual views his or her world. The interrelationship of a person diagnosed with a disorder, specifically

ASD, is a context and determines which tasks fall within the person's performance range.

The Ecology of Human Performance framework is founded on and synthesizes the work of scholars in several disciplines who have considered the interaction between person and environment. In environmental psychology, persons are considered to be interdependent with their immediate environment: the focus of research is on the interaction of the physical elements of a person's immediate environment with behavior (Holahan, 1986;

Wicker, 1979).

Dunn and her colleagues (1994) further contributed to this study regarding the accommodation process in their discussion of the Ecology of Human Performance.

These authors emphasized the need to factor context into disability evaluation and intervention processes because “ecology, or the interaction between person and the

82 environment, affects human behavior and performance, and that performance cannot be understood outside of context” (Dunn et al., 1994, p. 598). The context for students with disabilities in postsecondary education is very individualized, with each student having his or her own educational, employment, and personal goals; personal circumstances; financial resources, etc. Therefore, accommodation needs not only differ from student to student, but from one circumstance to another for each student.

Social Model of Disability

The social model of disability is a frequently used framework for analyzing a plethora of disability issues (Barnes & Mercer, 1997; Shakespeare, 1997). Developed by

Oliver (1990, 1996), the social model of disability posits that disability is a socially constructed concept and attributes any difficulties or limitations encountered by individuals with disabilities not to the individual but to barriers that have emerged within society. Rather than attributing difficulties encountered by individuals with disabilities in a particular setting or situation to the individual’s neurological or physical functioning, the social model of disability ascribes that disability is a consequence of society consciously or unconsciously erecting barriers that ultimately prohibit individuals with disabilities from accessing a variety of aspects of society (Oliver, 1990, 1996). For example, if an individual with a physical disability cannot enter a building due to the building’s architecture, the barrier is attributed to the building’s lack of accessibility, not to the individual’s disability (Barnes & Mercer, 1997). Therefore, this model reframes disabilities as the outcomes of an individual’s interactions with elements within society

(Dewsbury et al., 2004). In addition, this model views society as the entity that must alter its way of viewing disability instead of altering the individual with the disability (Oliver,

1996). The social model of disability is often contrasted with the medical model of disability, which attributes disability to a particular individual’s neurological and physical functioning and seeks to fix the individual with the disability (Oliver, 1990).

Schlossberg’s theory has been applied to many types of students, including adult learners, undergraduates, and athletes (Evans et al., 2010); however, to the best of this researcher’s knowledge, Schlossberg’s Transition Theory has not yet been applied to students with ASD/ID in higher education. Therefore, this theory will not be incorporated.

Similar to the ecological model, the social model of disability recognizes the influence the external environment has on shaping the individual’s experience. This study introduces the Existing Transitional Descriptive model within the context of the ecological human performance model to analyze barriers or positive experiences for students in postsecondary education. It, therefore, transcends a pathway for students transitioning out of high school and into institutions of higher education. Components of the Ecology of Human Performance and Social Model of Disability are integrated into the existing transitional descriptive model consisting of the theories and components of the C2C program (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Existing Transitional Descriptive Model.

The foundation of this model is based on four guiding principles: (a) individual student vision and choice drive the model, (b) all options for students are inclusive and occur in settings that reflect a natural proportion of the students strengths and ability not their disability, (c) one size does not fit all and the development of supports emphasize individual needs and preferences, and (d) collaboration and communication are necessary. Each of the key elements is essential to the pathway of success. Person- centered planning should start at age 14 or earlier in the transition and transformative process because it is an especially useful vehicle to encourage students to start thinking about life after high school. Through this facilitated process, the student (with the

85 support of friends and family) identifies likes and dislikes, strengths and weaknesses, preferences, and areas of potential interest for the future.

Integrated learning with supports is about how to integrate learning as a process of instruction in a general education classroom and it refers to the curriculum. So when the curriculum is discussed, it is primarily about four aspects: goals, methods, materials, and assessment. Those four components really comprise the entire curriculum. One of the difficulties, particularly with students with disabilities, has been the inflexibility of the materials and methodologies used in the general education setting. In reference to accommodations, the colleges participating in the C2C project have a strong system of academic accommodations and supports. The use of educational coaches for students is essential for successful access to and support in the college learning environment.

Educational coaches are college staff who work directly with students in the classroom and assist them in developing a plan to complete assignments and prepare for exams.

Coaches assist students in accessing and locating the professor’s office hours or assisting students in signing up for tutoring and other campus resources.

Campus-Based Inclusion

A unique program was revealed in the research of Zager and Alpern (2010) is entitled the Campus-Based Inclusion Model (CBIM). This program/partnership between a public school and a local college has various benefits for students with disabilities and provide them with access to the college campus experience. Students are technically enrolled in high school, yet they complete their coursework on a college campus in order

86 to work alongside their peers. The college setting enables the students to experience their peers involved with job training, gain crucial socialization skills, and make the transition more smoothly into higher education. Zager and Alpern (2010) noted, “The mission of the CBIM is to educate students with autism and intellectual disabilities alongside their peers to provide a positive, age appropriate postsecondary option that will prepare them for adult living” (p. 153). Although this is not a program currently in existence at the research site, it is one that sheds light on the importance of students with ASD/ID and other learning disabilities working and studying alongside their same age peers in order to enable them to adapt to the higher education environment.

Summary

The literature reviewed here has documented a significant number of limitations that youth with ASD/ID experience as a result of their disability. At the same time, there is evidence indicating that youth with ASD/ID have potential for success in adulthood.

These conflicting conclusions beg the question: Are these limitations immutable or are they really lost opportunities for these young people with ASD/ID to show their potential? A major finding of this selected literature review is that youth with ASD have significant untapped potential that has been underappreciated. In reviewing research articles and papers related to program demonstrations, one can look at findings from a deficit-driven approach or a more positive constructive approach. Educational experience combined with this literature review leads to the conclusion that youth with

ASD have substantial untapped potential. Young adults with ASD/ID are increasingly

87 enrolling in higher education and training following high school. However, there is also evidence to indicate that in many PSE options, services for students with ASD are insufficient and uncoordinated (White, Ollendick, & Bray, 2011). Not only does PSE typically lead to more employment options and earnings, it can also increase the individual’s self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-determination (Hart, Grigal, & Weir,

2010). Evidence suggests that individuals with ASD enroll in and complete postsecondary education and training programs at rates far below that of students with other disabilities (Newman, 2005) due to inadequate education transitional planning/services.

There is limited information about the transition to postsecondary education for students with ASD/ID. A comprehensive search of the literature located one unpublished dissertation that focused on the opinions of experts related to college readiness and transition supports for students with ASD/ID and one published study that focused on transition aspirations for students with ASD/ID. However, it revealed no published studies that focus specifically on the experiences of students with ASD/ID transitioning into postsecondary education. In fact, a significant majority of the current information available on students with ASD/ID transitioning into the postsecondary educational setting is anecdotal in nature and provides very little solid guidance for effectively supporting students with ASD/ID. Therefore, there is a need to explore this vital yet overlooked process in the postsecondary experience of students with ASD/ID.

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction of Qualitative Methodology

This chapter describes the research approach used in this qualitative descriptive study. The purpose of this research was to gather data related to the experiences of higher education students with ASD/ID enrolled in the C2C program and compare them to those of students with ASD/ID entering community college through the front door. It is intended to provide information that will be valuable to improving the effectiveness of learning experiences of students with ASD/ID in higher education settings. The focus of this study was to understand how students with ASD/ID experience the transition entering the community college setting. The interview protocol asked for descriptions of the quality of services received pre-graduation (IDEA planning), the experience of entering the community college, and the learning environments they experienced. A phenomenological research methodology was chosen because, according to Giorgi

(2012), “phenomenology wants to understand how phenomena present themselves to consciousness and the elucidation of this process is a descriptive task” (p. 6). This study was multifaceted in that the results are ultimately used for three purposes: to (a) present an accurate portrait of the shared experiences of the participants; (b) identify factors for the successful navigation of the academic, social, and independent living demands of

IHEs for students with ASD/ID; and (c) offer insights to the higher education community

89 that will deepen its understanding of those factors identified by the stakeholders as influential in the success of students with ASD/ID.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology may refer to either a research method or a philosophy (Creswell,

2003; Morse, 1991). Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) is credited with founding phenomenology (Zolnierek, 2011). Departing from scientific tradition, Husserl believed that subjectivity of the immediate experience to be the source of knowing (Koch, 1995).

He wished to “return things to themselves” through description (Husserl, 1970, p. 252).

There are several schools of phenomenology and Cohen (1994) identified three: (a) eidetic or descriptive, guided by the work of Husserl; (b) hermeneutics, also referred to as interpretive or existential phenomenology, guided by the work of Heidegger; and (c) the

Dutch (Utrecht) school of phenomenology, which combines descriptive and interpretive phenomenology and draws on the work of van Manen and others (Dowling & Cooney,

2012). As a research method, phenomenology is an approach that attempts to understand the hidden meanings and the essence of an experience as well as how participants make sense of their experiences.

For this research study, I chose a descriptive phenomenological methodology as defined by Giorgi (1989). In descriptive phenomenology, Giorgi combined the philosophy of Husserl with the methodical, systematic, and critical criteria of science to produce a methodology that assists the researcher in identifying and understanding the psychological essences, patterns, and structure of an experience. Giorgi (1997) concisely

90 stated, “Phenomenology thematizes the phenomenon of consciousness, and, in its most comprehensive sense, it refers to the totality of lived experiences that belong to a single person” (p. 2).

In this study, I uncovered the “experienced reality” of a sample of higher education students with ASD in relation to whether they experience C2C or the traditional pathway into the community college. Through the interview process, I delved into their experiences, particularly seeking to understand their perspectives on the interaction they are encountering with other students, with their professors, and factors for success or barriers in the learning environment. Also, I understand the students’ experiences of how supports are offered and given by instructors, DSPS, and other educational professionals charged with providing services to students with disabilities.

Throughout the interviews, I observed students’ verbal and non-verbal responses and use follow-up questions to gain a deeper understanding of their experiences.

Role of the Researcher

In this study, the researcher made initial contact with potential participants, conducted interviews and recorded data, organized data, and conducted the final analysis of the data. A second contact may be made with the participants for the purposes of member checking. The major data collection method was interviews, an area in which the researcher has extensive experience. The researcher completed over 6,000 hours in counseling and setting and conducting evaluations during the course of attaining her

Masters of Education in Vocational Rehabilitation. In addition, the researcher has been

91 involved in several projects with minority groups in the past that involved extensive interviewing and data collection for the purpose of research at both the federal and state levels. Finally, the researcher is employed as an adjunct instructor and adjunct DSPS counselor at Los Rios community college district. This employment setting required a type of interviewing while designing individual educational plans for students.

During the course of the study interviews, the past achievements and future goals of students were discussed. The discussion of achievements and goals lent itself to the qualitative interview process. For the integrity of the data collection, this researcher utilized Moustakas’s (1990) suggestions. He stated the researcher should use both journaling and self-dialogue to understand the experience of the phenomenon being investigated, with the assumption that this exploration process will both allow any biases to be brought to light and the data to be produced during self-exploration to be used in subsequent data analysis. This process was followed by the researcher to understand the biases the researcher’s experience may produce in trying to understand the experiences of college students with ASD/ID in higher education. These biases were explored and this exploration ensures that biases did not color the researcher’s encounter with the participants.

I believe students with disabilities may engage in higher-level thinking when exposed to academic support, accommodation, advocacy, and support from the educational community. The old notion that those with disabilities are “defective” and

“in need of fixing” should not be perpetuated within institutions of higher learning.

Many individuals with disabilities have been denied the full menu of educational benefits through programmatic barriers that have been created via these dominant beliefs. They are beliefs Hedlund (2000) described as “collectively shared notions and normatively expressed expectations” (p. 769) of minority cultures through the devaluing of opposing ideas. As a result, opinions and needs within the community of students with a disability may go unheard by higher educators and administrators operating from a mainstream paradigm. It seems critical that higher education institutions restructure their academic counseling and guidance to meet the diverse need of students with disabilities.

Technology, as an accommodation, can now connect people beyond the limitations of time and space to promote interactions among people who might not otherwise have the opportunity. I believe the development of smart phones and tablet computers, for example, suggests a desire for greater portability than is afforded by a desktop or laptop computer. I think this has, in turn, fed the current popularity of social platforms such as Facebook or Twitter. This seems to suggest that students now desire instant access, to be able to interact anywhere, anytime with those in their academic or social environment. Such recent technological developments may provide opportunities for students with disabilities to be positively engaged with other learners. I am inspired by the determination and diligence my students demonstrate to overcome a simple assignment or task. I enjoy engaging with my student throughout the semester as I observe horizontal learning and depth of knowledge being formulated.

I became interested in this topic for my research study while observing students with disabilities, specifically ASD and ID, encounter challenges and barriers during the transitional phase of their educational experience. Specifically, I observed Deaf students who have people signing for them in class; generally there are two signers, one to provide relief to the other over the course of a two-hour class session. Witnessing what my students with disabilities have to overcome in order to function in my class gives me pause while observing the greater degree of difficulty these students experienced with regard to such seemingly routine activities as taking accurate notes, communicating with others, and getting clarification on difficult questions. As a vocational rehabilitation specialist/counselor, I understand and appreciate the possibilities accommodations affording greater interaction and connection to those with physical, mental, and/or cognitive disorders.

Research Questions

Two models of accommodation for students with disabilities proposed by Smith

(1993) and Dunn et al. (1994) lead me to the following hypothesis: Ineffective and inappropriate accommodations result from an accommodation process that focuses on disabilities rather than students’ contextual and functional needs. In the reporting of qualitative research, the initial domain of inquiry and aims of the study, or research questions, were clearly and unequivocally articulated. In light of the hypothesis, this study was specifically be guided by the following principle research questions:

1. What are the factors that facilitate college students with ASD/ID in

making the transition into the C2C postsecondary program?

a. From their perspectives, what factors hinder college students with

ID/ASD from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary program?

2. What are the ID/ASD college students’ perceptions of the usefulness of

either the C2C pathway or traditional pathway?

3. How did the answers to the questions above differ between college

students in the C2C program and college students entering community

college through the traditional pathway?

Setting, Population, and Sample

This study was conducted in the state of California and specifically in the city of

Sacramento. All participants and IHEs are located in Northern California. The community college located in a suburban setting with a diverse population and has an enrollment of over 22,000 students.

Qualitative sampling is concerned with information richness, which requires locating participants who can best inform the study. Merriam (1998) recommended that when looking for the best cases to study, it is necessary to begin by establishing the essential criteria to guide the selection of the participants and select cases based upon the criteria. The criteria set for establishing the sample is directly related to the study to lead to a rich body of knowledge. “When the objective is to achieve the greatest possible amount of information on a given problem or phenomenon a representative case or a

95 random sample may not be the most appropriate strategy” (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 229). This phenomenological study focused on data obtained from a purposeful sample of students with ID/ASD enrolled in the C2C program at Northern Community College in

Sacramento in comparison to students with ASD/ID who enrolled through the front doors of the community college. A common approach within education research, purposeful sampling is often used when the characteristics of a specific group of individuals matches the attributes of the phenomenon being studied (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006).

Consequently, it is more appropriate to select some few cases chosen with a purpose in mind, which is referred to as purposeful or purposive sampling. A purposive sampling strategy involves the selection of respondents based on what they can contribute to the researcher’s understanding of the phenomenon under study to build a rich description

(Merriam, 1998). The identification of participants for a study of students with ID/ASD requires special attention to protecting the privacy of the participants. This researcher investigated appropriate procedures through contact with the DSPS offices in both campuses.

The anticipated participant group was a small sample of students (eight) enrolled either full-time or part-time in the college, ranging in age from 18 to 24 years old. Each student had the option to voluntarily register with and seek assistance from DSPS at the college site. Prior to the study, the specialists with DSPS approached the students privately. The specialists then introduced the students to the project to ascertain their interest level for participation in the study. Students could either be male or female and

96 of any race, nationality, and socioeconomic class. These students received an introductory explanation from the researcher regarding the purpose of the research and time commitment. Students were not obligated to participate in the research, as it was entirely voluntary. Students who expressed interest in pursuing the research were provided with, and had to sign, an informed consent form provided by the researcher.

The informed consent form (see Appendix A) explained, in detail, why the student was chosen for the research and what the research entails. The involved students were asked to participate because they identified themselves as individuals ASD/ID and they sought accommodations and services from DSPS. The primary goal of this research was to determine how students with ASD/ID achieve academic success and how they perceive and describe what they experience in higher education.

There were several assumptions underlying this study. The researcher assumed:

(a) the responses of all participants were forthright and honest and (b) information gathered was reflective of the participants’ perceptions of the issues and challenges encountered and the supports and accommodations students with ASD/ID needed from the community college.

This researcher considered that, in many cases, labels are simply an expression of a lack of awareness and understanding of ASD/ID on the part of neurotypical instructors and others. What may appear as unwillingness of a student to engage may be a reflection of the difficulties the student may have in a social setting. Social rules are possibly the most complex of all rules—generally neither codified nor taught—so to

97 expect a student with ASD/ID to conform to societal standards is to expect the impossible. Social reciprocity deficits are a core feature of ASD/ID.

Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Data Analysis

Data was collected during the fall 2014 semester and the spring 2015 semesters.

The researcher’s primary instrument for data collection consisted of techniques from multiple sources frequently used in qualitative studies for the purpose of developing a more complex portrayal of the phenomenon being studied (Merriam, 1998). Information gathered during data collection was accounted for in a manner that enables the researcher to analyze the data and extract meaning and context from the data. Overall, the methods were logically linked to the topic and were justified (Morse, 2003).

In this study, one major data source was used to gain information related to the research questions: individual interviews with student participants from Northern

Community College. Individually, this method of data gathering provided insight into the participants’ beliefs, impressions, experiences, and ideas about a specific topic.

Moreover, the selection of data collection methods was based upon the best way to elicit information specific to the research questions and report the research. Data collection occurred over an 8- to 10-week period. The participant interviews were transcribed by the researcher.

After the data were collected and analyzed, results were emailed to the participants to the email address they provide the researcher to elicit their feedback about

98 the accuracy of the findings, or member check. Upon completion of all member checking of this study, and within 30 days, the researcher provided all participants a gift card.

Interviews

A semi-structured interview protocol was developed for use in conducting face- to-face interviews with study participants who consented to be interviewed (see

Appendix B). The interview protocol consisted of 10-12 questions. These questions were developed to guide the interview, addressing the main areas of accessibility, interaction, presence, satisfaction, structure, and support. The interview questions were developed to gain deeper insight into students’ experiences when engaged with the community college environment. Merriam (1998) stated the goal for interviews was to obtain specific information often not attainable through direct observation. All interviews were audio-taped with handwritten notes taken during the face-to-face conversations. The individual interviews were scheduled at a mutually agreed upon place, time, and date. Audio-taped interviews were transcribed within a week of the interviews in order to review the shared information and begin to identify any possible themes and/or patterns.

As recommended by Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieth (1996), the interviewer/researcher succeeded at putting the respondent at ease by stating the purpose of the interview and starting the interview with fairly simple, nonthreatening questions.

The researcher also incorporated ice breakers for the participants to feel at ease and comfort. The interviews conducted in this study consisted of questions focused on

99 answering the research questions while encouraging the participants to share and elaborate on their lived experiences. The questions were posed using both a closed- ended, highly structured format, and an open-ended, less structured format, depending on the information needing to be elicited. Highly structured questions were used when necessary to gather demographic or specific information from the participants. Less structured, open-ended questions were utilized permitting the respondent to freely answer questions without restriction (Ary et al., 1996; Merriam, 1998). The interview questions serve as a guide rather than a fixed protocol for each interview. The phenomenological interview was structured enough to focus the conversation on the participant’s experience with the phenomenon of interest, and it was open enough to allow free expression of all relevant elements (Smith & Fowler, 2006). Furthermore, interview questions were developed from a review of themes within the literature related to educational professionals, course structure, instructor support, and departmental (i.e., DSPS) support within the educational community. The participants were asked to reflect and report on recommendations they have for improving support and services for students with disabilities.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is a systematic search for meaning that is ongoing and requires the researcher to simultaneously review, synthesize, and interpret data to describe and explain the phenomena or social worlds being studied (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, &

Davidson, 2002; Merriam, 1998). According to Spickard Prettyman (2008), “Data

100 analysis is the search for patterns, identification of themes, discovery of relationships, and development of explanations and is a means of processing qualitative data so that what has been learned can be communicated to others” (p. 1). To accomplish this task, this study utilized multiple data gathering techniques and multiple levels of analysis to illuminate different facets of the phenomenon and portray them in their complexity. As

Zussman (2004) stated, “Multiple levels of analysis and multiply data gathering techniques make for good qualitative research” (p. 361).

Additionally, the data analysis for this phenomenological study was conducted using the descriptive phenomenological method as defined by Giorgi (1989). Giorgi

(1997) stated, “Phenomenology thematizes the phenomenon of consciousness, and, in its most comprehensive sense, it refers to the totality of lived experiences that belong to a single person” (p. 2). The researcher began the data analysis process by reading all the interviews before beginning the process to reduce some of the data by coding it into topics specific to the research questions. Because the research questions are the guide for what to code, those questions were coded. Coding enabled the researcher to locate and bring together similarly labeled data for further examination and to look for patterns, such as similarities or differences among the data, which allowed the researcher to explore their underlying and implicit meanings, patterns, or connections. Data considered by the researcher as “co-creating a story with the data and not from it” (Spickard Prettyman as cited in Ciccantelli, 2011, p. 76). The researcher used coding of the data to identify evidence of the development of relationships, patterns, or themes. This analysis of

101 themes is called thematic analysis and uses a constant comparative method, “a process of classifying, comparing, grouping, and refining groupings of test segments to create and clarify the definition of categories, or themes within the data” (Fossey et al., 2002, pp.

278-279). Merriam (1998) suggested, “categories should be reflective of the research, exhaustive, mutually exclusive, sensitizing and conceptually congruent” (pp. 183-184).

Consequently, constant comparisons of data assisted the researcher understand the data and gives credibility to the research (Merriam, 1998). This method allowed the researcher to note where similarities and differences exist in the data, thus fostering the development of phenomenology theory.

This researcher then utilized a coding program, QDA Miner 4 to assist with the coding analysis. QDA Miner 4 is an easy-to-use qualitative data analysis software package for coding, annotating, retrieving and analyzing small and large collections of documents and images. QDA Miner qualitative data analysis tool may be used to analyze interview or focus group transcripts, legal documents, journal articles, speeches, even entire books, as well as drawings, photographs, paintings, and other types of visual documents. Its seamless integration with SimStat, a statistical data analysis tool, and

WordStat, a quantitative content analysis and text mining module, gives unprecedented flexibility for analyzing text and relating its content to structured information including numerical and categorical data. QDA Miner qualitative data analysis software can be used by anyone who needs to code text or pictures, annotate, search, explore and extract

102 information from small or large collections of documents and images, retrieved from http://provalisresearch.com/products/qualitative-data-analysis-software/

Protection of Participants

Provisions were made to maintain anonymity and/or confidentiality. All identifying information and data collected was kept in a secure location in the home of the researcher where only the researcher has access. Participants were not individually identified in any publication or presentation of the research results and only aggregate data was used. Signed consent forms were kept separate from participant data to eliminate the chance of linking participants’ responses to them. Prior to beginning the individual interviews, the researcher requested that all participants maintain confidentiality of information shared and that they not discuss what occurred in the interviews outside the interviews/research study. In addition, participants were assigned a pseudonym of their choosing which is used during the individual interviews. During transcription of the tapes, completed by the researcher within two weeks of the audio- tapings, the individual’s real name was replaced with an assigned pseudonym. The audiotapes will be kept for three months after the research is complete in a secure location within the home of the researcher where only the researcher will have access to the data. After three months, the audiotapes will be erased and destroyed by the researcher.

To maintain anonymity and/or confidentiality of data and records, coding of data was used and pseudonyms were applied to identify the participants.

103

Summary

This study gained an understanding of the perceptions of critical factors needed by students with ASD/ID to successfully navigate the academic and social demands of institutions of higher education (IHEs). This study explored these factors through the reflective lens of students with ASD/ID.

104

Chapter 4

FINDINGS

The purpose of this research was to gather data related to the experiences of higher education students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)/intellectual disorder (ID) enrolled in the College 2 Career (C2C) program and compare them to that of students with ASD/ID entering community college through the traditional pathway, without the support of a special program such as C2C program. This dissertation is an in-depth exploration of the students’ transitional pathway experiences so the post-secondary goal development for each student may be better understood. Within the C2C learning community, extensive consideration is focused on student strengths and most significantly on student success. By focusing on the student strengths and success, students can be helped to better develop post-transition goals for academic, life-long learning, and career development. The goal is to gain the perspectives of the students while participating in the C2C program. The Disability Services Program for Students

(DSPS), C2C, and the Department of Rehabilitation (DOR) work collaboratively through contracts to provide services to student and adults with disabilities. The DSPS furnished the researcher with the information for the students who self-disclosed their disability to the agency.

This section provides an overview of each student’s case, including a narrative and an analysis of each student’s experience. Following the individual case analyses, the researcher presents common themes that emerged during the cross-case analysis. Eight

105 students participated in an individual face-to-face interview, along with follow-up email exchanges.

A case analysis was conducted to individually report the experiences and perceptions of the eight participants. Here, “each case is first treated as a comprehensive case in and of itself” (Merriam, 1998, p. 194). This is important because each participant’s narrative draws attention to his/her unique individual features and experiences, as individuals on the spectrum and or ID do not necessarily experience the same social and academic strengths and challenges as each other. Then, an inductive cross-case analysis was conducted for further in-depth comparisons and analysis of the impact of the experiences and perceptions of students with ASD and or ID on their collegiate persistence as they relate to the three research questions that guided this study.

With the research questions, the researcher attempted to gain insight into participants’ transition postsecondary outcomes and how students with ASD and or ID navigated through the community college experience and embarked upon their young adult lives as well as found college experiences that were predictors for successful outcomes. The research questions are:

1. What are the factors that help facilitate college students with ASD and/or

ID making the transition into the C2C postsecondary program?

a. From their perspectives, what factors hinder college students with

ASD and or ID from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary

program?

106

2. What are these college students’ perceptions of the usefulness of either the

C2C pathway or traditional pathway?

3. How did the answers to the questions above differ between college

students in the C2C program and college students entering community

college through the traditional pathway?

Table 3

Connection Among Findings, Research Questions, and Theoretical Framework

Finding Research Questions Theoretical Framework

Academic Preparation R1: What are the factors that Ecology of Human facilitate college students Performance with ASD/ID in making the transition into the C2C postsecondary program? Social Capital R2: What are the ID/ASD Social Model of Disability college students’ perceptions and Ecology of Human of the usefulness of either the Performance C2C pathway or traditional pathway? Intra-Agency R1 - Sub-question: From Ecology of Human Collaboration their perspectives, what Performance factors hinder college students with ID/ASD from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary program? Transitional Shift in R3: How did the answers to Social Model of Disability Awareness the questions above differ and Ecology of Human between college students in Performance the C2C program and college students entering community college through the traditional pathway?

107

The data analysis process included transcribing two sets of interviews, including follow-up email exchanges. The researcher then coded the interviews into interview question themes. The data were then coded into the four narrower conceptual domains

(Academic Preparation, Social Capital, Interagency Collaboration, and Transformative &

Awareness), as outlined in the research questions. The QDA Miner 4 qualitative software was utilized to analyze the data. Several codes and themes were initially identified (see

Appendices C and D). The researcher personally read and listened to the interviews while identifying common words and/or phases.

The research questions were guided by the tenets of The Ecology of Human

Performance and the social model of disability and connections between them, the research questions, and the findings are illustrated in Table 3. The Ecology of Human

Performance is a framework for considering the relationships among persons (i.e., their skills, abilities, and experiences), what persons want and need to do (i.e., their desired task performance), and where they need to conduct their daily lives (i.e., the contexts for desired performance). Persons and their contexts are unique and dynamic. It is impossible to understand the person without also understanding the person's context (i.e., persons are imbedded in their contexts). Persons influence contexts and contexts influence persons as task performance occurs.

The social model of disability is a frequently used framework for analyzing a plethora of disability issues (Barnes & Mercer, 1997; Shakespeare, 1997). Developed by

Oliver (1990, 1996), the social model of disability posits that disability is a socially

108 constructed concept and attributes any difficulties or limitations encountered by individuals with disabilities not to the individual but to barriers that have emerged within society. A constant comparative method (Merriam, 1998) was used to continually compare and contrast the findings that emerged. This analysis revealed that some of the parents and young adults with ASD and or ID did agree in their responses and share beliefs that opportunities for post-secondary transition programs are of interest.

Description of the Participants

This section presents the collected data through a brief profile of each participant

(see Table 3). Education level as well as living accommodations is reported in Table 4.

Participants lived at home with their parents or other family members in an apartment or house, and a general discussion of findings based on themes. The researcher is not a clinical psychologist or psychiatrist and the descriptions are not meant to imply a diagnosis. Rather, they represent the researcher’s observations made to depict the students’ strengths and challenges in the context of the interactions during the interviews.

The research sample consisted of eight young adults with ASD and or ID. The participants ranged in age from 19 to 25 and included seven males and one female. The sample included participants with varying degrees of ability, as the intelligence quotient was not a determining factor for participation.

109

Table 4

Demographic Characteristics of Participants

Pseudonym Gender Race Age College Pathway

1. Dino M Korean 24 C2C

2. Ramon M Hispanic 21 C2C

3. Dave M Caucasian 19 C2C

4. Daniel M Caucasian 21 C2C

5. Ryan M Caucasian 25 Traditional

6. Gulliver M Caucasian 24 Traditional

7. Leeshia F Caucasian 21 Traditional

8. Robert M Caucasian 24 Traditional

110

Table 5

Social Characteristics of Participants

Number Diagnosis Level of Ed Residence Employed

1. Dino PDD Graduate with parents Yes

2. Ramon ID/ASD Graduate with parents Transfer

3. Dave ASD/LD 1 ½ yrs. Cert. With parents No

4. Daniel ID/ASD Graduate with parent Yes

5. Ryan ASD Drop-Out with parent No

6. Gulliver ASD/ADHD Drop-Out with parent No

7. Leeshia Autism/Anxiety 5+yrs college with parent No

8. Robert Asperger/Depression BA Independent No

Some parents accompanied the participants into the interview to provide support.

The parents offered their perspectives regarding their observations about the program.

However, this researcher did not interview the parents. Some of the interviews were conducted in the participants’ home and the parents were present only for support and made comments and provided their perspective (see Table 6).

111

Table 6

Participant Interviews

Number Location Parent Voice

1. Dino Campus office

2. Ramon Campus Office

3. Dave Home X

4. Daniel Home X

5. Ryan DOR Office

6. Gulliver Home X

7. Leeshia Campus Office

8. Robert Campus Office

The C2C model encouraged student independence, which, in turn, helped create individualized supports for the students. It was easier to help students exploit their strengths while learning ways to develop strategies for coping with challenges. Parents are often excellent judges of which academic and behavioral approaches are working for their students. The C2C approach really engendered collaboration amongst the students, families, and staff. Participation at this intimate level provided an opportunity for growth amongst the families in support of community building. The school districts that grew from C2C provided social contexts and opportunities for friendships to be developed

112 while attending the community college. Several C2C families are still in contact today.

C2C coordinator and staff created a nurturing yet demanding environment for the students in the program.

The conversation icebreaker used to establish rapport and ease into the interview, was: “Tell me what it is like to have ID or ASD.” The icebreaker presented an opportunity for reflections on having ASD and or ID before the main questions began.

Challenges with communication and relationships were common threads in the lives of those with ID/ASD and most described themselves as different. Several participants described that society did not treat them as equals and that others did not understand what made them different. Participant responses to the icebreaker question follow.

Each participant is identified by a pseudonym and their words are identified in quotes. Leeshia communicated, “Having autism means not seeing if someone is frustrated and not understanding if someone is joking,” as she recalled a situation in which she was in danger because she did not understand that the statement being made to her was sarcasm. As she questioned another bus passenger about the unusual stopping time and location, she was told that a fatal shooting had taken place and everybody needed to get off of the bus. She did not understand sarcasm, body gestures, or movements and the fact that no one else was leaving the bus. Lesshia said, “Okay” and attempted to leave the city bus. She said she was used to people making fun of her and tried to cope with it, but covered her ears and began to rock back and forth. Stress overtook her body and she heard people laughing and calling her names, such as “weirdo” under their breaths.

113

One participant described the sadness expressed by his parents upon his diagnosis as a child. Ramon described feeling as if everything in his life changed that day. Each of his responsibilities was taken away, one by one. “You realize your parents don’t treat you the same and then that kind of like makes you lose faith in a lot of family life. That was huge for me.” Although this young man had experienced difficult years in school, he eventually found strength in autism and wonders why society cannot focus more on the uniqueness in it, rather than on not fitting into the guidelines and as being looked down upon as a bad thing. Ryan found that having ID/ASD had advantages and success depended on realizing potential and what he could accomplish. He cited famous people who have or may have had ASD and other challenges, such as Einstein and Bill Gates.

Gulliver described ASD as having a different way of thinking about things, a blank facial expression, anxiety, and problems with communication. He was unable to have friends, except for one, and was easily manipulated by the friend. “Beginning at age six, I would come home from school, sit in my room and think about all the mean things people had said to me all day and I would just cry.”

One participant, Daniel, disclosed his severe issues with communication and interacting when younger, but he stated that after many years of working on the concerns with the help of others, most people probably do not realize he has ASD. “I think people see the difficulty communicating and they just can’t quite pin what the cause is,” Daniel revealed. As he shared his thoughts, he disclosed that people may think there is something different, but they do not ask. Daniel recognized his differences and has

114 worked hard to control what he labeled self-stimulation or fetishes, which included self- talk about specific topics that he may have learned from movies. He admitted that these were irritating to other people and misinterpreted. For Daniel, having autism meant trying to figure out why people were mad at him. He reported that he might have said the wrong thing, but did not understand the problem with what he had said. Robert was bullied and described it as heartbreaking to watch peers high-five each other as food was thrown at him. It was especially hard because it took place without any intervention from teachers nearby.

Dave explained ASD as a spectrum of different levels. He described his day, “I like to play video games a lot and I read some,” although he reported that he felt he had difficulty concentrating on reading. He talked about difficulty in eye contact when talking with people and how this affected attention to the conversation; therefore, communication and interaction were affected. “So I don’t make eye contact a lot cause I can’t concentrate on one thing for a long time, so. So I kind of like make a few seconds of eye contact and look away, so.”

Dino’s responses were short phrases without descriptions, but he attempted to respond to questions and prompts. His response to the icebreaker was “fine,” and he also listed the sequence of what a day consisted of through prompts. Dino explained that he liked to listen to music, eat breakfast, and get ready to go somewhere. He did not expand on challenges or supports through the interview, but responded to questions and each prompt with a phrase, which made it possible for the researcher to extrapolate basic

115 information regarding those areas. Communication and interaction challenges appeared through his verbal output and his emotional state appeared calm.

One of the younger participants Dave, who is 19, described his way of thinking to be simple and felt that other people think more deeply. He described that having autism affected his ability to understand more abstract thinking, such as algebra and sometimes the use of a computer. Hope and a positive outlook was demonstrated by this young man who said, “It’s that really, so basically we’re all just people here and we all have to work together and nobody’s really useless and once people with autism are given a chance people can really be amazed.” The following sections further detail the perceptions and experiences of college students with ID/ASD regarding their transition and persistence at

Northern Community College.

Reporting of Findings – Within Case Analysis

C2C Pathway Participants

Dino. Dino is a 24-year-old Korean male who reported being initially diagnosed with ASD/PDD. Dino demonstrated difficulties in his expressive language, as he repetitively used phrases when attempting to answer questions. He was aware of this and expressed that his ASD affects his communication. Dino indicated that he was first diagnosed with autism between the ages of two and three. He indicated that he is quiet and it takes him time to learn. Additionally, he reported that he feels, due to his autism and learning challenges, he needs more time than his peers to understand and learn new

116 information. His older sister and parents are both professional and supportive, and attending college was something that was naturally expected of him and his siblings.

He reported successfully transitioning from high school to the C2C program at

Northern Community College. He graduated and obtained his certificate of completion in Library Information Technology. Dino indicated that the education coaches, support, and encouragement he received from C2C “helped greatly to plan” for his future. When first enrolled, Dino was anxious about attending college and unsure of his career interest or educational goals. He stated, “I love reading books and books helps me to understand and it helps me to study,” and he switched his education goal to Library Information

Technology. He has aspiration and hopes to work as a librarian. Dino successfully graduated and was seeking employment at the time of the study. He is interning at the public library as part of the work experience offered in the C2C program. His parents and siblings are his biggest supporters.

C2C and the DSPS office have been positive resources for Dino. According to

Dino his mother first learned about C2C and its available services during high school while participating in the Transition Partnership Program (TPP). Dino indicated that the services and support he received in C2C were more supportive than those in high school.

“I think it is a little different because they have counselors. They didn’t have counselors and programs to do homework [in high school].” The supports and services utilized by

Dino include priority registration each semester, education coaches, tutoring as often as needed, and extra time on tests as needed. Dino also recalled, “I experienced the need for

117 accommodations and I needed to work on passing my classes.” He uses the library to do his homework and has previously used the learning resource center and the writing lab.

Additionally, Dino felt his education coaches were helpful and he finds the faculty supportive.

Although he is not involved in any campus clubs or activities, his social experiences on campus was as so: “at first I was uncomfortable but I tried my best.”

Now, he is comfortable with the college culture. However, he would become stressed when taking tests or keeping up with his assignments. “I sometimes…I was like scared.

So sometimes in class I just start writing what I had to do…But most of the time the assignment was already written in the syllabus.” During his first semester, Dino talked to his education coaches about his stress, but indicated that he was able to calm himself down and get himself together. “I sometimes have to like take a break and like relax and watch TV to cope with it and then go…and then go back to work.”

Dino’s time management system included developing a routine of completing assignments in due date order. He considered taking tests as his biggest educational barrier. “I didn’t like taking tests…I start stressing out, I am like, ‘oh great, now I gotta study hours or days.’…I try to memorize and remember everything and read, read, read.”

The accommodation of extra time on tests is a positive education benefit to him. Dino is proud of his accomplishments thus far. He feels his greatest success is challenging himself to complete the goals. He indicated he gets this from his father. He feels his accomplishments come from his choice of giving up socializing to study. Additionally,

118 the support from his parents, siblings, C2C supports, and DSPS have assisted and encourage his persistence to succeed at Northern Community College.

Ramon. Ramon is a small-framed 21-year-old Mexican American male who was diagnosed with ASD and PDD during his seventh-grade year, around age 12 or 13. He has currently completed his certificate of completion in Computer Information Science and he is taking additional courses to transfer to a university for his BS. He completed four semesters at Northern Community College and hopes to transfer in two semesters.

At the time of the study, he was taking nine units a semester. Although Ramon was friendly and appeared to want to participate in the interviews, at times it was difficult for him to articulate himself. The researcher allowed him ample time to respond; the interview lasted an additional 30 minutes. During the interview, he appeared to despairingly search for answers. His eyes mostly focused on the floor, making occasional eye contact. He seemed to lack interest in his surroundings, and he appeared to have isolated himself from some academic interactions but described himself as an advocate.

College, talking to people was very difficult and now I’m comfortable talking with people.” Ramon shared overcoming social challenges by becoming an advocate:

I also want to share information that was helpful to me. I belong to a support group called Family for Early Autism Treatment (FEAT) and Fiesta Educativa. I know Angie Rivera and they have been very supportive by helping with talks with other students and sharing information about Autism and ID. I listen to Dr. Joaquin Fuentes at Mind Institute and the information was very helpful and useful for me on how to communicate and how to become more independent. I volunteer with these organizations to give other students advice, talk to the parents and advocate for others. I talk with other students about options and serve as a role model to younger individuals.

119

Ramon indicated his mother and sister attend the same college, and attending college was something he also wanted to do. He indicated his parents and siblings influenced and supported his dream to attend college. His parents support him financially, although he received financial aid to attend a 4-year university. He also receives financial support from DOR. Even though high school prepared him for college though the Junior Rise program offered at his Charter school, he does not feel anyone in particular supported him. When asked about his transition to Northern Community

College, Ramon replied, “I was lucky that we met the coordinator for the C2C program or I would really be panicked…maybe not even attend college.” He believes the staff and education coaches at the community college helped him first locate the DSPS office and navigate the college campus during his first semester. The C2C staff subsequently informed him about the DSPS office and student resources at Northern Community

College. He considered the registration process difficult.

With regard to accommodations and support, Ramon found the education coaches, extra time on tests, and tutoring the most useful. He indicated that this semester he would not use a note-taker, as lectures are posted online. With respect to his learning,

Ramon indicated it is difficult to process what he is listening to and take notes. Ramon shares, “I learned visually and auditor[il]y” and he was thinking about getting a tape recorder. Ramon also uses the library to study, and he has been to the counseling center and the career center. Regarding his community college experience, Ramon indicated he

“took some easy courses and electives that would transfer.” Most of his courses will

120 successfully transfer to the university. He said, “I feel like I’m maxed out and stuck here.

I can’t take anymore at the community college.”

Ramon considered passing his classes the greatest barrier to his current college persistence. This is noteworthy because he considers his greatest success his GPA and being on the Dean’s List in community college. He lived with his family, but has aspirations to secure employment and live on his own in an apartment across the street from the university campus. Ramon learned time management and organization skills from his education coaches. Managing coursework causes stress for Ramon so he uses his computer calendar and phone to help keep track of his assignments. However, he continues to struggle to keep up with everything that is due. Ramon’s experiences with the C2C staff and education coaches have been positive. He feels the support team at the

Northern community college has been helpful. Ramon is very grateful for their support, guidance, and encouragement.

In general, Ramon feels he has had negative experiences with his professors, stating, “Professors don’t respond to me.” For example, he indicated that he has sent emails to professors who do not reply back. He indicated that his class schedule does not allow for him to meet with professors during their office hours. He hopes to do a better job selecting his classes for next semester to allow for this. He wishes professors would be clearer in their assignments and grading, like presenting a grading rubric for him to understand. Socially, Ramon is not part of any study group or campus club. He

121 indicated he has thought about it, but does not really know of any. When asked if he would like to be part of a group, Ramon replied:

I have friends that are part of the advocacy groups and I like hanging out with them. I’m make connection with community organizations and feel giving back is important to me. I go to the meetings at the MIND institute regarding peoples with disabilities. I talk to everyone about my experience and my college experience.

Having little contact with students on campus and not being able to manage his schoolwork has created a great deal of stress for Ramon, in his first semester at Northern

Community College. When asked how he copes with it all, Ramon replied, “I really don’t know what to do sometimes, but I apply what I learned from my education coaches.” He gets involved with the organizations serving the ASD/ID community.

Dave. Dave is a tall 19-year-old Caucasian male with short dark hair. He had adequate speech but had difficulty sustaining a conversation. As an interviewer I realized that Dave needed time to collect his thoughts and I maintained silence to foster acquiescence. The icebreaker described above allowed for the interviewer to create a level of comfort and trust; thereby maintaining his engagement. Dave answered the questions, which further allowed for the collection of rich and in-depth information. He reported having an intense academic focus on math. According to Dave, he was diagnosed with ASD and a learning disability between the ages of 5 and 6. Although at the time he did not understand what his diagnosis meant, he feels he has a better understanding now that he is older. He has learned by trial and error which accommodations work for him and which do not. “In English I have a tough time…But,

122 because I consider myself high functioning, I found math easier. I also have a hard time with friendships.” Dave indicated that his mother researched the local community college and its disabilities resource center. Subsequently, in the 10th grade, he started the

TPP program at his high school and met the coordinator of the C2C program. The TPP is a contract established between DOR and the local education agencies (LEAs) to foster transition supports for youth with disabilities graduating from high school. His transition to college was different from that of the other participants in this class, as he started the

TPP program during high school. Dave feels several high school teachers helped prepare him for college and he cannot recall the implementation of the Individual Education Plan

(IEP) process. His mom stated the IEP was beneficial in getting him the supports he received in high school. Dave received support from his family, guidance about educational opportunities; discussion about the educational requirement for college, and academic assessments. mDave also received tutoring for academic success.

Dave does not have his driver’s license and lives at home with his family. He uses public transportation or his mother to get around. He selected Northern Community

College because, according to him, it is near his home so the commute is easy. In addition they have a great certification gaming program. Dave currently takes six units a semester. The certificate in gaming will prepare Dave to enter into an occupation as a video game designer. Dave attributes much of his persistence to enjoying the career he selected and the supports he receives from his parents, the C2C staff, his education coaches and DSPS. Again, at Northern community college, Dave’s mom helped him get

123 started with the C2C program. He currently utilizes the services and supports of priority registration, education coaches, tutoring, note-takers, and extra time on tests. Dave additionally finds the following services helpful to his education: the library; the recreation center because it is cheaper than an off-campus gym; the writing lab because they help with writer’s block; and the learning resource center, which helps with tutoring.

Dave describes the transition from high school to the community college seamless yet he found the first semester at Northern Community College stressful.

It was very hard for the first few weeks and then it settled down…towards the end (of the semester) it also got pretty stressful because I had to sign up for new classes and I had to juggle tests and homework and schooling.

Dave indicated that after his first semester his life, has settled down, but remains stressful.

At the time of this study, Dave was using three systems to manage his coursework. He used a standard calendar on his wall to remind him of certain dates and exams, and he used a little whiteboard to remind him of homework and appointments.

Lastly, he used his phone to remind him of upcoming events that he could potentially forget. Even with these systems, Dave was still having a difficult time keeping track of his course work. He advocated for himself and received assistance from his education coaches. Dave reported having positive experiences with his education coach. He described the C2C advisors at Northern Community College as being well informed about the curricular programs relevant to his career and graduation requirements stating:

She helps prioritize classes and discusses the assignments. Program offers books on audio – but I don’t them to use them. C2C is helping with transitioning into employment with job skills and participate in an internship with working on with company website and gaming.

124

Interactions with faculty members, for the most part, have been positive experiences. Dave indicated that one professor has had an issue providing the required support services. He indicated he had to file a grievance, as the professor would not allow him extra time on a quiz. “He doesn’t quite believe I have a disability.” However, most of the faculty has been inviting and supportive during their office hours, according to Dave. While Dave has historically experienced qualitative impairments in social interactions as defined by ASD, he indicated that his peer interaction skills have improved. “I try not to stand out as much, which I do pretty good. I have study buddies…Pals that I do hang out with before and after class to study or just chat.” Dave additionally has a private tutor who helps him with English concepts and grammar. He considers being able to improve on his English skills is his greatest success. However, passing his classes, in general, remains his greatest barrier. For example, he had to take one particular English class three times before he passed it. Dave needed to repeat the course three times to learn English composition He learns best through repetition and taking the course three times helps him to understand the rules and principle of English composition.

Daniel. Daniel is a 21-year-old Caucasian male who resides with his family.

Similar to Ramon, Daniel too was expressively articulate, freely and openly discussing his college experiences. During the face-to-face interview, Daniel was quick to point out that the researcher did not provide a morning muffin as was discussed on the phone. This

125 appeared to cause some adjustment to the interview routine he had set in his mind, as preference for routines or rituals is a symptom of ASD.

He indicated that his parents are together but he wishes his dad was more of a role model than friend. Daniel said that although his mother supports him, he is not always nice to her. He has attended Northern Community College for six semesters and strives to graduate in two semesters. His vocational goal is a career in computer science.

According to Daniel, at around age three, he was formally diagnosed with ASD.

Daniel has had three different diagnoses. The doctor diagnosed Asperger’s then later it was Autism Spectrum and at one point Alta said retardation and then they changed it and then the doctor said Asperger’s and the school said Autism and Alta said PDD. He was in language classes.

He articulates that his ASD affects his ability to socialize with other people, perform tasks, and learn material. Throughout elementary and secondary school, he had a one-on-one paraprofessional who worked with him. During his senior year, he was embarrassed and no longer wanted the attention and support from the paraprofessional, and that person was removed from his IEP. He indicated that the IEP paperwork was more of a required formality and did nothing to prepare him for or help him transition into college. He indicated they were just meetings between the counselor, his teachers, and his parents where everyone talked about him. He did not feel there was a direct link between the paperwork and his attendance in college.

126

Daniel credits his mother’s involvement in advocacy groups (FEAT and MIND

Institute) with his attendance at Northern Community College. He also credits the support he has received from his parents as a primary motivation to attend college.

Daniel is the only member of his family with a known disability. He indicated that attending college was always part of his plan; he always wanted to be as normal as possible. He views attending college as following the “American Life” that everyone else is trying to achieve. Daniel’s passion is revealed with the following statement:

The people that were helping at school first of all they real like me for one and two that the people at school that were helping me career coordinator, education coach –some job developer that were able to help me. I guess another counselor that was behind my back would be DSPS Coordinator sometimes.

In high school, Daniel indicated that having a disability caused him to be victimized or bullied by other students. Eventually, Daniel said he started to bully other students himself, as he got tired of being picked on. He does not feel high school prepared him adequately for college. “In high school there is structure, organization, and rules for behavior. In contrast, college offers the opposite. There is no structure, disorganization, and college students are more radical.” Daniel has had to adapt to this new type of environment, and did so through the supports and encouragement of the C2C education coaches and staff.

The main reason Daniel selected Northern Community College is because he lives within 10 miles of it. This makes it easy for him to commute to the campus. Currently,

Daniel does not have his driver’s license; he indicated he has taken the test several times; however, he has not passed it. Additionally, he feels his sensory issues cause him to be

127 too distracted by his surroundings. In the future, he would like to earn his license just to prove he can do it. When in dire straits, Daniel uses public transportation or relies on his family to take him to class or home. Additionally, Daniel indicated, “They feared that if I moved away to a dorm I would have some sort of…I would freak out with a roommate because I have issues with strangers.” However, one day Daniel would like to live in

“some sort of living space where I can sort of be the king of my own castle, master of my own domain.”

At the moment, Daniel is unemployed, and he takes nine units a semester and feels that over nine hours of work a week would be too much. This semester, he has class twice per week and would like to find a job on the weekends. Daniel is currently working with the C2C program, Regional Center, and the Department of Rehabilitation to coordinate employment services. He indicated he is having difficulties finding employment but is participating in an internship. In reflecting back over his first week at

Northern Community College, Daniel said:

The campus is so big, it was not crowded, per se, but a couple of people. Then, when I went the first day, it was very chaotic. Everyone was driving through…very uncomfortable in the beginning. I have sort of gotten used to it now. But back then it was a bit too much.

Daniel said he arrived to his first class early and waited outside, not realizing he was supposed to go inside and find a seat. “I had no idea I was supposed to go in there and just sit down, find a seat. No seating chart, no roll sheet.” He additionally remembered being very eager to go to college. “I finally felt like I was a real member of society by going to college and taking courses.” In selecting a career, Daniel indicated he switched

128 from computer science to Gaming because computer science was too stressful for him.

He feels this decision has contributed to his persistence at Northern Community College.

“Gaming was definitely something I wanted to shift into after I stressed and freaked out and almost tried to kill myself.” He indicated that his change of major was due to a combination of things including his computer breaking, losing his homework, and the stress of the program. He indicated that his Asperger’s is the reason he fixates on gaming and the gaming world. Daniel is comfortable with games and videos because he is not required to interact with people or socialize with others.

Daniel mentioned that someone from his high school informed him and his mother about C2C. They went to DSPS and spoke with the coordinator of the C2C program and he enrolled in it. Although he did not initially utilize the services, he quickly discovered he needed the support from the C2C program. When he started taking tests in class, it was challenging. Additionally, “early essays were very long, so I needed double time. Didn’t need to start taking a note-taker until…I started taking Biology cause those notes go at you fast.” Daniel utilizes the following support services and considers them valuable resources in passing his classes: education coaches, priority registration, tutor, note-taking, and extra time on tests. He also utilizes the library, which he considers a quiet and calm environment; the student union; the counseling center; the career center; the writing lab, which helps him with his essays and with passing the upper division writing exam; and the learning resource center, which provides tutoring.

129

Daniel also attended the new student orientation. He said his first semester was all

“study, study, study.” He now “slacks off a little” and is somewhat more able to manage his stress and time. However, he has no formal system in place to relieve the stress, outside of biting his nails, talking to his dog, and playing video games. In relation to C2C staff and faculty, Daniel indicated he has not had any issues with the C2C support. They all have listened to him and helped him. Faculty members, on the other hand, were a different story. “Some are cold and distant and some are warm and likeable.”

During our interview, Daniel recounted the same personal experience he had in one of his courses his first semester at Northern Community College. He was in a classroom full of students and the professor made a statement to the effect, “black or white, I don’t care if you pull the race card, if I cut you, you will bleed red.” Daniel said he then asked the professor if he would really pull out a knife. Subsequently, the professor pulled out a pocketknife and showed it. He put it in his face and said, “Would

I?” Although the entire class laughed, Daniel said he did not think it was funny. He did not think the professor was going to kill him, but it was shocking, to say the least. Daniel recounted the story with lingering feelings of disgust for the professor. Daniel has worked hard to develop his social skills and fit in; sometimes socializing is extremely difficult for people with ASD. This hard work appears to have paid off for him. He is in a study group and is a member of a campus club. He considers making friends his greatest college success thus far. “My father always consistently tells me that he is proud of me.” His biggest barriers include financial support and his disability in general.

130

Traditional Pathway Participants

Ryan. High school and the gap year between high school and college were the main prior experiences that impacted Ryan’s postsecondary experience. Overall, he was disappointed with his high school experience. He often felt he needed more academic support and ultimately believed his courses did not adequately prepare him for college.

He also struggled socially in high school and had limited social connections. However, he felt like the gap year he took prior to starting college positively influenced his social skill development. Ryan was diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome in the eighth grade, which made him the oldest student at ASD diagnosis in this study. Ryan’s family was primarily responsible for initiating his evaluation for ASD. Sarah, Ryan’s mother, recounted that she noticed he was experiencing social issues in the eighth grade, which concerned her. She remembered that in “eighth grade he started sort of de- compensating.” Ryan found the parties overwhelming. He ended up turning down most invitations. These observations led her to seek out a private psychiatrist to evaluate Ryan, who diagnosed him with ASD that same year. Following his diagnosis of ASD, Ryan’s family submitted the evaluation to the public school system, which developed an IEP for him. His parents also arranged for him to receive private behavioral intervention services. The behavioral therapy sessions helped him learn how to read facial expressions and social cues. Ryan attended a large public suburban high school and graduated in spring 2007 with a diploma.

131

Of the eight participants, Ryan had the most difficult high school experience. He recounted that his overall high school experience was “not good,” but, in the end, was glad he had the opportunity to have experienced that particular high school. He was bullied verbally and emotionally.

I was bullied – but not physically, just emotionally. I was bullied in high school. I only had 2-3 friends but they were not around when the bullying occurred. The bullying in high school was rough and my memories of high school are fading away and it’s a good thing.

Ryan struggled in many of his academic courses, most notably math and science, but excelled in language courses. Ryan’s opinion about the support system at his high school differed from his mother Sarah’s opinion. While he received special education support, he believed he would have benefitted from more intensive classroom support and believed his guidance counselor provided him with the most valuable academic and transition support. Overall, he did not believe his high school courses prepared him for college. However, Sarah believed the support he received was adequate and met his needs. Additionally, Ryan had the quietest social life of all of the participants. His experiences proved to influence his transition to his first year in postsecondary education.

During the interview, the researcher allowed Ryan time to express his thoughts. He stated he felt accepted and comfortable.

Throughout high school, Ryan reported that he received minimal special education services through an IEP. Specifically, he received classroom accommodations, which included extended time on exams, permission to hand in assignments late, and the ability to take tests in a quiet location. He did not receive direct instruction from a special

132 education teacher either within the general education classroom using the inclusion model or in a separate resource room.

Ryan was not entirely satisfied with his special education support. He wished he had received direct support from a special education teacher in his classroom so he would have been able to grasp the academic concepts with which he was struggling. Sarah’s opinion differed, and she believed the support services at her son’s high school were adequate and met his needs. She stated that the school offered plenty of resources, and she could not recall any additional academic resources from which Ryan could have benefitted. However, Ryan believed that his limited support influenced his academic performance in high school and college. In fact, he did not remember discussing transitioning from high school or developing a transition plan with his special education teachers. Ryan also had support from his family during the college decision process, which was a trend across participants.

Ryan’s high school academic experience was mixed. Although he was gifted in languages, he reported having the most academic difficulty of all the participants. Ryan’s most prevalent issues were organizational problems and weaknesses in math and science.

For one, he experienced organizational challenges in high school that impacted his performance in all his academic subjects. Ryan had a quiet social life in high school but participated in some extracurricular activities. His peer interaction and extracurricular involvement was the most limited of the study’s participants, and his social life was largely influenced by feeling uncomfortable in social groups. Ryan remembered he had a

133 small group of friends in high school that he saw frequently during school, but noted that their relationships were limited to socializing at school. He elaborated on their relationships, stating, “I didn’t see them outside of school really. I just hung out with them at lunchtime. We ate lunch together.”

His mother described her son as “not terribly social.” Of all the participants, Ryan had the most difficult academic experience during his first year of college as well. Ryan struggled in most of his courses first semester, which caused him to be placed on academic probation for the second semester. Ultimately, he dropped out due to anxiety and depression. Ryan’s social experiences were slightly more positive than his academic one, but were also mixed. He reported having more positive social experiences than academic ones, especially with his friends on campus, but expressed that he struggled considerably with making other friends. Supports from his family were crucial in helping him persist through his first year. Despite his difficulties, he still plans to return someday.

Overall, Ryan was satisfied with his support system and believed it was essential for navigating and completing his first year of postsecondary education. Ryan had the least support of all the student participants. He was the most enthusiastic participant in

DOR for services and assistance to secure employment.

Ryan’s academic performance throughout the year was inconsistent. Primarily, he struggled the most during his first semester and received a 1.7 GPA. He struggled a great deal most significantly with his psychology course, where he received a failing grade,

134 which was mainly due to excessive absences and struggles with completing the assignments and exams. Ryan was aware of his academic struggles throughout the first semester. He recalled that midway through the first semester, he thought, “Academically,

I’m not doing as good as I hoped I would. You know, in some of my general education classes, [I’m getting A’s]. And in the others — you know, there’s one that I’m failing right now, psych.” Ryan’s issues with organization were his main skill deficit that impacted his academic performance. Ryan admitted he had issues with organization, which included keeping track of assignments and handing them in on time.

Gulliver. Gulliver is a 24-year-old Caucasian male diagnosed with ASD

(Asperger’s) in second grade and later in high school diagnosed with ADHD and depression. Gulliver struggles with determining whether some of his behavior patterns are due to his Asperger’s or ADHD. Gulliver’s father commented:

The first doctor who diagnosed him with Asperger’s moved and then my insurance changed and we went from Davis to Kaiser so we had inconsistent medical care. They changed the diagnosis. You end up with conflicting diagnoses. We’ve done a lot of work with him the eye contact is better, socialization is better.

Throughout the interview, he spoke softly, quickly, and, at times, animated. He is currently looking for employment. Gulliver enrolled in Northern Community College for one semester and dropped out after his first semester. “I dropped out of the English class because I was too slow and then I dropped out of art because I didn’t like it because I was slow and so so so many lines needed to line up perfectly.” Both of his parents are college graduates and his biggest supporters. He indicated that going to college was always

135 expected of him. “For me, it was required, don’t ask.” He was expected to go to a top university and he commented, “I felt like it was expected of me because I did real well in school. I felt like my parents, teachers, and peers expected me to go to college. Having to drop out feels like one of my greatest personal failures.” He was living with his parents and brother.

Gulliver selected Northern Community College for several reasons. First, it was near his home and he could drive to school and live at home, as he felt unprepared to live on his own. Second, he thought highly of the computer program. Gulliver indicated that he was no prepared for college.

They had college prep courses but they didn’t talk to me about it. I had to ask for it. But back then I didn’t know what I wanted to do. They pushed college pretty hard but not so much for me. I didn’t care too much. I didn’t get the assistance or guidance about college options.

He attributes his continued persistence to his choice to find employment. He describes his disability as a “social disorder… and not being attuned to the real world…and living in their own imaginary world where they’re in control of everything and everything is the way they want it to be.” Gulliver described his first semester at

Northern Community College:

I kind of felt relieved. I felt I stepped into a whole new world. More freedom; I could do whatever I wanted. I don’t have to report to class at every hour. I don’t even need to show up. There is more freedom, flexibility and more for me to do what I want during my time. I adjusted to that fine. I felt locked up and chained up so use to restrictions and limitations…feels wonderful to be let loose and not have to be caged up like that. Little nervous. I wasn’t really familiar with the campus. I constantly had a map with me. I could not adapt to college life. The first semester I felt more stress and anxiety. I could get up, get my homework done, and…I remember during my first semester that I didn’t have to be

136

somewhere at a certain time. There were several days where I had to leave campus and come back at different times.

He further elaborated:

I asked the teacher for help but she was not helpful, because I think college you’re supposed to be more independent. I don’t think she knew that I had challenges mentally. I dropped out and I just don’t like the school environment. I don’t like being in school. I find it boring the teacher talks forever and then send you home with a ton of homework and I feel like I could have just done it in class without the lecture because I have to refigure it all out at home away.

It was not until his high school years that Gulliver began having difficulties in his classes. He had been seeing different doctors over the years without a clear diagnosis other than ASD. Gulliver said:

I feel like an anomaly. With Asperger’s you’re supposed to be wick smart. I feel like filler an extra. I feel like everyone can do it much better than I can do it. I see myself as a pessimist. It looks like everyone is a super hero. My dad was indestructible. This causes me depression with the thought of inadequacy. I see my doctor for Asperger’s. I take Paxil for my depression and anxiety. I don’t know if it helps me.

Gulliver did not disclose to any of his professors that he is eligible for services or that he has ADS. His father commented:

The reason we picked Northern Community College was because we heard that they work with handicap. But it was more for physical handicap the blind, wheelchair the hearing to guide them. They weren’t prepared for him. It was like fill this out do this do that not too much happened.

Gulliver got into classes late and he took classes in the annex. He did have extra time for exams. “I don’t really use the extended time because I was kind of afraid of…of like letting the professor know.” Gulliver was concerned about how he would be perceived by the faculty. “I mean there are some professors who are just um bias and grade of

137 personal prejudices.” It is possible that Gulliver’s choice to not disclose his disability with his professors hindered his academic performance.

He indicated he does not have a current system to manage his work at the voluntary job site. He occasionally looks at a calendar and his mother reminds him of items due. He is currently struggling with this, as one manager keeps adding work tasks.

He deals with the stress by resting, watching television, browsing the Internet, or playing computer games. He also talks to his father.

His biggest barrier to his college success was not passing his classes the first semester. “I would say the greatest challenge was stressing about whether I would pass classes or not.” With regard to successes, Gulliver credits his education in general. He is proud of what he accomplished in high school.

I made the honor roll in high school but not in college. I had an easier time with taking test instead of book reports. For a time I didn’t need to study because I focused on my homework so hard that I learned the information that was on the test.

He also learned:

that having ASD, ADHD or depression has nothing to do with someone’s intelligence or their…or how hard they study because I was always taught that when I was younger. But, after failing college I realized that that the two aren’t really connected. And then I would say…what I learned in college is everyone is pretty much the same where we all want to be smart, we all want to make a lot of money, we all want to, well care about something and do something to live our life.

Although Gulliver has not disclosed his disability to any of his professors, his experience varies among professors. For example, he has a good rapport with one professor and has had a bad experience with a professor whom he feels is unreasonable

138 and unfair. Gulliver indicated it is strange for him to interact with professors outside the classroom setting.

He has had little contact with DSPS and he did feel supported by them. With respect to peers, Gulliver indicated he has not told anyone about his disability; however, he knows some peers pick up on his odd behaviors. He commented:

I’ve gotten better with the eye contact thing but I still don’t like it when someone brushes up against me unexpectedly. I don’t like the idea of sex because I don’t like the idea of a naked body rubbing against mine. It’s an uncomfortable thought for me. I don’t have a girlfriend.

Leeshia. Leeshia is a petite 21-year-old Caucasian woman diagnosed with

ASD/Asperser’s at eight years old, and later in life, she was diagnosed with anxiety. As mentioned in Asperger’s clinical descriptions, Leeshia does not appear to have a general delay in her language or cognitive development. She is verbally articulate both in person and in emails and perhaps talks excessively. Her tone was consistently negative, as her experiences in college all focused on social isolation and lack of acceptance by her peers, another area of concern for people with ASD. In her high school years, Leeshia knew there was something different about her, but she could not quite figure out what. During her sophomore year in high school, she was tested for a learning disability, and although she cannot recall what her exact diagnosis at the time was, she was sent to a non-public school (NPS) where she completed her junior and senior years. Leeshia indicated that the

NPS did not provide her with an adequate education and felt it was more like “baby- sitting.”

139

After graduating from the NPS, Leeshia enrolled at Northern Community College.

She indicated that her SAT scores were not high enough for a university at that time.

She also said she met her foreign language requirement by taking two years of French at the community college. While attending the school, Leeshia again struggled with her academics. Leeshia and her mother requested assistance from the college DSPS office.

Leeshia was in the process of being tested and diagnosed when she requested a different assessor, as she felt sexually objectified by the counselor working with her. She stopped seeking services and continued to attend the community college without any academic assistance.

Disappointedly, she said she has dropped out of college a few times but is now determined to finish. As her mother graduated from a prestigious research university and her father from another prestigious university, she has always felt this sense of duty to attend college—not only from them but also from society. She indicated that although her father graduated from a prestigious institution, he did not pressure her into attending the same university. Rather, she is attending Northern Community College because it is close to her home, and it is cheaper than the UC system. Leeshia has attended the school for seven semesters and is considered a senior. She is majoring in English but may shift majors to speech pathology. “I love writing but it’s hard and the academic is rough.” To her, having a diagnosis of Asperger’s means “never having normal/reliable interpersonal relationships, a position of power in (a) society, being misunderstood, treated poorly, never having a well-paying job/career, being thought of as robotic/inhuman/ uncreative,

140 and being alone.” These views have been consistently realized throughout her college experience.

When Leeshia transitioned from high school to Northern Community College, she had a conflict with one of her professors. She said that when she did not understand an assignment and spoke to the professor, he stated, “If you would register with the DSPS office I would help you. But, well, since you are not, too bad.” This then motivated

Leeshia to once again seek a diagnosis and support from the DSPS office. Leeshia further stated that she has been seeing a private psychologist for about three years.

The supports and services utilized by Leeshia include priority registration and extra time on tests. She previously used a note-taker; however, she disagrees with the way the system is set up. According to Leeshia, the student must find his/her own note- taker. Leeshia additionally expressed a concern for the way note-takers take notes.

Although the note-takers take legible notes, there is no uniform standard to the requirements of how much or what kind of notes to take. Because Leeshia feels her personal preferences are not being met, she feels this service is not a benefit to her. She also utilizes services around campus such as the library, student union, and campus involvement center. She does not feel she needs the writing lab or learning resource center services at this time. As for her experiences on campus, Leeshia explained that attending Northern Community College was not that unfamiliar, as she grew up in the neighborhood and had previously been on campus to use the library. However, when she became an official student on campus, it was “a little weird” and took two to three weeks

141 to settle in. Leeshia felt she was a little more academically prepared regarding what to expect with further explanation:

In terms of preparation I know I was not prepared for college. I don’t remember the details. I went to career center but on my own. I remember that the counselor and/or teacher encouraged me to not take certain classes. I didn’t have a lot of support.

In her communication with advisors and faculty, Leeshia has also had negative experiences. She indicated that she feels they are disengaged, and she stated, “Honestly, you better know what you want in order to get anything done in school. From what I have heard, advisors can give conflicting information and it is just better to find out stuff on your own.” Leeshia said she has not met with her English advisor yet.

Her experiences with faculty members range from feeling unsupported during her first semester to feeling somewhat supported at the present.

Right now I am taking a class with a professor for the second time around. She seems to understand like my problems and everything, but, at the same time, since she is an English professor and not a psychologist, she doesn’t.

Although she feels somewhat intimidated, Leeshia has gone to see her professors during their office hours to discuss her disability and/or course assignments. Again, her experiences are conflicted. Her impression is they have attempted to understand her but

“at the same time they are like, ‘you really need to adjust to the school.’”

Leeshia’s involvement with campus clubs and peers has also been hindered by her

ASD and anxiety. Leeshia said it is hard to engage or connect with peers.

I mean I get the impression they see me…they might see me struggling with something and they find that a turn off. Because people…apparently expressing

142

anger and frustration in our society is frowned upon and you will be labeled as mentally ill if you do so.

Although Leeshia is aware of her social faux pas, she is unable to change having

ASD/Anxiety and, therefore, unable to fully connect with peers in social situations. It is a constant struggle in her life and college transition. This lack of feeling connected with peers has impeded her activity and decreased her job duties within the Multi-Cultural

Club on campus. She indicated she is a board member and has had to “hang in there by the skin of my teeth.” She feels the other members are trying to get rid of her and ignore any suggestions she makes. She feels the same thing happened in another club in which she was briefly involved. Outside of the club, Leeshia has little contact with her peers.

She said her mom is her only friend, as “nobody else will do things with me…because I am weird and a freak.” Thus, Leeshia considers the people and the bureaucratic system to be her biggest barriers to success.

It was difficult for Leeshia to acknowledge her successes; she simply stated, “I don’t really know if I have done anything that can be considered a great success besides just staying here.” Perhaps that is her greatest success; she continues to persist, semester after semester. She considers herself to be “more responsible, more accountable—and I do well in school. I’ve had to repeat some classes like English and Journalism. I was dealing with personal challenges and could not focus on class and homework.”

Robert. Robert is a soft-spoken, 24-year-old Caucasian male who grew up in a foster home. He was removed from his parents at around age five and was diagnosed with ASD at age 23. “I was in special education in elementary because I had a speech

143 delay. I didn’t fully speak until I was 4 1/2 years old.” Robert clarified, “At the time that

I received this diagnosis and throughout my education I was considered a neotypical. I went through school without any special assistance at least not by the high school.”

Robert selected Northern Community College to be near his foster family. He is in his seventh semester at the school and is considered a junior. The interview with Robert was extremely difficult to conduct due to communication barriers manifested by his autism.

Robert’s inability to sustain a conversation and delay in expressive communication led the researcher to conduct the interview slowly, allowing for sufficient time to elapse before prompting more in-depth responses. Robert had excellent body posture throughout the interviews; however, he made little eye-to-eye contact or facial expressions.

He indicated that his autism affects his ability to learn in many ways. First, he knows he should ask more questions during class. “I don’t ask questions that I should.”

He knows he needs to talk more and is trying to work on that. He indicated it is sometimes difficult to take notes and listen to the professor at the same time.

Additionally, he prefers to read and write responses versus talk directly to people.

Although he could not remember anyone in particular, he feels his high school prepared him for college and supported his pursuit of higher education. Robert explained, “I attended a conventional high school for the first year and a half but I had problems and needed to go to independent studies.” He had a one-on-one paraprofessional in middle

144 school that helped him, and he took French in high school to help meet his A-G requirements.

This year, Robert plans on graduating with a Bachelor’s of Arts degree in Political

Science from a prestigious university. He would like to be in political science, although he does not know what type of employment that degree will lead to, and this is his major source of stress. He currently does not have any work experience and is not aware of the current job market or occupations available for him. Although he has not visited the career center, he is aware that they provide help with internships and planning for a future career. Robert is the only participant to live in an apartment with roommates, where he has lived for the past three years. When asked why he chose to live in an apartment, he quietly replied, “I wanted to be close to school. I wanted some independence.” His foster mother picks him up on the weekends and takes him home.

He does not currently have a driver’s license but feels it would be important to have one in the future. When asked if he thought he could drive a car, Robert replied,

“not too well.” Robert indicated that he sometimes uses public transportation, as his uncle taught him about the bus. On Sundays, Robert attends a local church by himself.

Each year he has had different roommates; he currently has three. He reported that they play video games together and get along. Although growing up near campus and living in an apartment has helped Robert transition into the university, his first semester was filled with challenges. He recalled, “I know I was late for my first class…because I

145 didn’t know where the room was.” He was nervous and ended up 30 minutes late that day. It took him a few days to adjust to his schedule and a year to adjust to the campus.

Robert started receiving services from the disabilities office right way. He thinks his mother first came with him to the office to complete the paperwork. He utilizes priority registration and extra time on tests. He also uses the library to study and print out his assignments, and gets food at the student union. Robert was reading a book one day when he got the idea to use the calendar system on his computer to keep track of all his course assignments and due dates. He indicated this system is working well for him.

With regard to his advisor and faculty, Robert said he feels supported and has not had any issues with anyone. He also said he has not met with any of his professors outside of class or during their office hours. Although Robert is not currently involved in any study groups or campus clubs, he is thinking about joining a new robotics club he read about online. He has also attended a campus theatre show. Thus, Robert considers making friends his greatest barrier to persisting at college; he thinks he had more friends in high school. He indicated he needs to speak up more and would be willing to attend a social skills workshop. In contrast, Robert considers his greatest college success, thus far, “passing my classes.” He attributes this to the support he receives from his foster parents and the support services from the disabilities office, such as extra time on tests.

He indicated it would be a bit harder to pass his classes without those services.

146

Reporting of Findings—Cross-Case Analysis

Table 7

Themes by Participant Group

C2C Pathway Overlapping Themes Traditional Pathway

Participant Experiences Participant Experiences

Agency Collaboration Family supports Lack of Agency Support

Self-advocacy Community Navigational

connections Uncertainty

Persistence External factors Little to No Persistence

To begin the cross-case analysis, the researcher reviewed the transcripts of the face-to-face interviews with the eight participants as well as the follow-up email exchanges. After continuous review, the data were coded into narrower categories based on the three research questions guiding this study:

1. What are the factors that help facilitate college students with ASD and/or ID

make the transition into the C2C postsecondary program?

a. From their perspectives, what factors hinder college students with ASD

and/or ID from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary program?

2. What are these college students’ perceptions of the usefulness of either the C2C

pathway or traditional pathway?

147

3. How did the answers to the questions above differ between college students in

the C2C program and college students entering community college through the

traditional pathway?

This allowed for individual perceptions and experiences to be linked into common categories for further in-depth analysis. This strategy, commonly referred to as thematic analysis, entails comparing “one unit of information with the next in looking for recurring regularities in the data” (Merriam, 1998, p. 180). Upon emergence of the four main categories, further in-depth cross-case analysis also produced subcategories based on participants’ perceptions and experiences. Primary categories and subcategories are listed below:

1. Academic Preparation: Learning Challenges, College Navigation, and Community

Resources;

2. Social Capital: Communication and Environmental Factors;

3. Intra-Agency Collaboration: College 2 Career; DSPS; Parental Support

4. Transitional Shift in Awareness: Self Perception; Self-Advocacy; Self-

Determination.

Figure 5 provides a visual of the themes and subthemes described above.

148

Figure 5. Cross-Case analysis of themes and sub-themes.

The following sections further detail the perceptions and experiences of college students with ASD regarding their transition and persistence at Northern Community College.

Academic Preparation: Theme 1

What are the factors that help facilitate college students with ASD and/or ID make the transition into the C2C postsecondary program?

Guided by initial questions, the first overarching conceptual theme to emerge derives from what Dudley-Marling (2004) conveyed in his article, “The Social

Construction of Learning Disabilities.” Accordingly, the underpinning technical assumption dominating learning disabilities theory and practice is that learning disabilities are a pathology residing in the heads of individual students. Dudley-

Marling’s critique of the ideology of individualism situates individual success and failure in the heads of individuals as a means of introducing an alternative perspective—ecology

149 of human performance and the social model of disability—that locates learning and learning challenges in the context of human relations and activity. The primary argument developed is that one cannot be learning challenged on one’s own. It takes a complex system of interactions occurring in just the right way at the right time on the stage we call school to make a learning disability. This is reflected in how the participating students have come to identify and see themselves from the context of the socially constructed disabled learning environment and the impact of this perception on performance outcomes. The perceptions and experiences shared by the eight participants regarding their academic experiences generated the following three common subcategories that were found to be essential contributors to the students’ persistence each semester:

Learning Challenges, College Navigation, and Community connection with Community

Resources.

Learning challenges. Students with ID/ASD face numerous learning challenges depending on the severity of their disability. Although all the eight participants had been formally diagnosed with ASD and/or ID, their academic strengths and weaknesses varied according to how their diagnosis impacted the way they learned. Three participants received their ASD/ID diagnosis before entering kindergarten, with two others receiving their diagnosis soon after starting school. Having matriculated through the P-12 education system, the five students who were diagnosed at an early age were able to reflect on their high school IEP and special education services received in high school.

Although these five students had years of supports and services in school, they too

150 struggled to define and articulate how having ASD/ID and other diagnoses impacted their learning. For example, Gulliver, diagnosed at age eight, stated, “It has been explained to me numerous times, but from where I stand, it affects my ability to socialize with other people, it affects my ability to perform tasks, and it affects my ability to learn material.”

Dino mirrored his beliefs, stating, “I am a very slow learner.” Daniel indicated he struggles with English, yet math is easy for him. Leeshia and Robert, who find it difficult to process the information they hear, would rather read information. Further, Ramon stated that when in class, “I don’t ask questions that I should.”

C2C pathway. Although all participants had a response to how they felt their diagnosis impacted their learning, few of them were able to give concrete examples of and explanations about their learning styles. One participant was able to provide a little more insight into the supports he received from the C2C program. Ramon integrates his learning style: “I learned visually and auditory—before college, talking to people was very difficult and now I’m comfortable talking with people” when completing assignments. Dino as well as Gulliver had one-on-one education coaches who supported them in their coursework, time management, and social integration. Because Dino was used to his education coaches providing academic prompting, he had to learn how to become independent and stay focused in class on his own. He is currently successful in college. He explained the difference between high school and college this way: in “high school you had basically no structure. It was all about structure and order…College is more organized/structured…You can basically have a one day a week class. So high

151 school didn’t prepare me for that.” He stays focused, organized and manages his time with support and guidance from the C2C staff. The exit IEP is essential to the persistence of student with ASD/ID in college because the participants did not learn how to advocate for themselves in the K-12 setting based on their academic and social strengths and weaknesses. A good example of this was provided by Daniel who stated that his IEP meetings “felt mandatory…It was tedious. I didn’t quite understand it. I still don’t understand my diagnosis as much as I should. But the meetings were basically a counselor, a teacher, and my folks, who argued what, were best for me.”

Traditional pathway. The four students, Leeshia, Gulliver, Ryan, and Robert, received mediocre support in high school also indicated that although the IEP process was mandated and probably had something to do with them getting into college, they could not articulate the connection between their IEP and college acceptance. They did, however, state that the services they received in high school, such as extra time and help with tests, helped them pass their classes. Only two participants were able to provide names of educators from high school who supported their college dreams. Gulliver described these services: “Well, I had education coaches that basically kept me on focus, kept me alert on certain things, helped me with things like homework assignments, and writing was a big issue because I couldn’t do writing well.” By the time both of them entered high school, the one-on-one paraprofessionals were removed from their IEPs.

Gulliver explained why he was glad his one-on-one paraprofessional was interacting with

152 him: “I just wanted to become dependent on myself, more independent. When people saw me with a paraprofessional they thought, is this your mom?”

Although Robert was not identified as being on the autism spectrum until his college days, he struggled to express how ASD impacts his learning. Robert indicated that he has seen different doctors over the years and has struggled to find a consistent diagnosis. He feels his ASD is more of a social disorder.

As stated in Chapter 2, the law changes for students with disabilities who leave the K-12 education setting and transition into college settings. Students must self- identify with the disabilities office and collaborate with a counselor regarding their academic strengths and weaknesses. This allows students to receive appropriate supports that create the greatest opportunities for academic persistence in their classes. As noted above, this continues to be a struggle for the participants, regardless of whether they had received supports throughout their entire education experience or not. These issues are further explored throughout this chapter.

College navigation. As the participants struggled to articulate how ASD/ID or the other diagnosis impacted their learning, they also struggled to specifically identify the strengths and challenges they experienced in the classroom and with education practitioners. The following sub-themes that emerged as contributing to their persistence each semester included their semester class load; selecting a college major; passing their courses; and interactions with faculty, staff, and advisors.

153

Course load.

C2C pathway. The four participants in the C2C program, Daniel, Ramon, Dino, and Dave, all of whom averaged 6-9 units per semester, credited the number of the units they chose as contributing to their persistence each semester and guidance from the education coaches.

Traditional pathway. The other participant from the traditional pathway, Robert, realized that taking too many units each semester made it too stressful and difficult for him to pass his courses; however, receiving financial aid required him to be a full-time student. “They required me to take a full-time student load if I wanted to receive financial assistance and…I wanted to take less…but they kept insisting that I take that much.” He requested accommodations and a reduced caseload and now he feels less stressed with the lower caseload units.

Career options.

C2C pathway. The C2C students credited their career selection as another factor in their persistence each semester. The guidance and encouragement they received from the C2C staff was empowering. Dave expressed his joy, “once I looked through the certificate program and saw that break and found the game design it was like ‘Shangri la’ yay right it was great, and once I can find something I knew I can do it. I was excited.”

Daniel stated, “The choice was that I wanted to be a computer technician. I am pretty stubborn and I am going to do that until I can’t.” Daniel, however, is the only participant who has switched his major due to the stress associated with it. He stated:

154

I picked computer science believing that I could make video games. That is a lie. The thing I learned in computer science was everyone copies off each other. So you are not learning anything except how to be a code monkey cause you are just practically “code left and right” if you’re going to be in computer science. And, it is very stressful.

Unlike Dave, who is determined to finish in his major, Daniel realized the stress was not worth it. He was unhappy in the major and it was placing negative hardships on his mental and physical health. Now that he is in a major about whom he is passionate, he is healthier and persisting in college.

Traditional pathway. Two of the students from the transitional pathway dropped out of college. Leeshia wants to swift her major from English to Speech Pathology and

Robert transferred from the community college to university. He will complete his BA in

Political Science this year. They all indicated they selected Northern Community College because of its positive reputation in these fields of study.

Academic persistence. Although Ramon has increased the number of units he is taking, he, along with five other participants, indicated that the greatest barrier to persistence in college was their ability to successfully complete assignments and pass their classes. Dave mentioned that he struggles to pass his tests and he spends hours reviewing information to prepare. He explained the importance of having an education coach, “When I have challenges with classes I talk with my education coach.”

Ramon simply stated, “They are hard.” Dave asserted, “The greatest challenge is stressing about whether you will pass class this semester or not.” Daniel further explained how his ASD/ID interfered with his concentration during class time. He stated,

155

“it is hard to focus on certain things or courses cause it tends to get boring and I will start off into space, which I can’t afford to.”

Because a majority of the participants indicated passing their classes was a barrier to their college persistence, the supports they received through the C2C and DSPS office becomes vital to their persistence. Although this will be further explored in the DSPS subcategory, it is important to note here that all participants credited the extra time they receive for tests as a valuable support in passing their courses and persisting in college each semester.

Although a majority of the students indicated passing their classes was their greatest barrier to their persistence in college, they also indicated it was their greatest success in college thus far. Ramon, who is academically struggling at Northern

Community College, felt proud of being on the Dean’s List. Leeshia said that just persisting each semester and not giving up is her greatest success. Dave and Daniel both said challenging themselves and learning new material was important to their persistence.

Faculty support. In relation to their interactions with faculty, staff, or advisors supporting their academic persistence, all eight participants felt intimidated by visiting their professors during their office hours. Additionally, the four participants in the traditional pathway group indicated they only go when it is extremely relevant to them passing the assignment or course. According to Leeshia:

It did seem a little intimidating because you are like, “Oh, do I want to bother them with this or am I going to be interrupting them from something else?” “Do I want to take up that much of their time?”

156

Similarly, participants in the C2C group related. Daniel indicated he only goes to see faculty members “when I really desperately need help on a certain assignment.” Dave indicated that he has met with professors in the past and feels supported by them; however, “I usually have a routine,” and the professor is not always available during her office hours. He further explained, “My education coach guided me on how to ask the questions and get the information I need.” The students indicated that feeling supported by their professors depended on the individual professor. They shared the following examples in relation to feeling unsupported in their persistence by individual professors.

Leeshia indicated that although she has disclosed her disability to many of her professors, she does not always feel supported. She was currently dealing with a female professor and described her situation thus:

I have told her about…you know…I’m on the spectrum and since she has a granddaughter on there she seems to be understanding, but at the same time, not exactly. I mean cause that class I am kind of having some issues with as well.

The issues Leeshia described relate to her experience with an internship assignment. She, along with the other students in the course, was assigned to mentor or tutor middle school students. Leeshia indicted she was assigned a 13-year-old boy and had no idea what her expectations were. She stated that the professor gave her “little to no guidance on what to do with these students…they said…just talk to them, find out their interests, and try to help them with their school work…I am like I need a more coherent script then that.” For the other students in the course, engaging in ongoing dialogue may be an easier task than for students with ASD/ID who struggle with it.

157

Thus, having concrete or less abstract information is important to students with ASD.

Ramon, who has struggled academically since coming to Northern Community College, stated, “The professors need to be a bit clearer on their assignments. Professors need to be clearer on their grading and expectations. They don’t explain their grading.” When asked if he spoke to his professors about their grading policies during the semester,

Ramon replied, “Professors don’t respond to me.” He indicated that when he did email them, they did not return the emails. He further indicated that due to his schedule, he was not available during their office hours. Ramon explained that he wishes professors would use a formal grading rubric so he would understand why he is receiving the grades the professors give him on his assignments.

Dave concurred with Ramon on the desire for a more objective grading rubric and indicated that he reluctantly meets with his professors when needed to ensure he understands the assignments. Dave further stated:

The only person who I can…who I am moderately disgusted with would be my current English professor. He doesn’t quite believe I have a disability. I fought with him to get the extended test taking for a quiz, which he did not grant me. And he will not change the grade I got on it, which was an F.

Additionally, Gulliver indicated he felt unsupported by his art professor. “I would say it is not such a great experience because…because he doesn’t seem like a reasonable and fair guy that listens.” When asked if he would attend office hours with this professor,

Gulliver replied, “I do go but I kind of feel nervous because I feel like…I feel like I don’t know what is going to upset him more or what he is going to do.” It is important to reiterate that Gulliver has never disclosed his disability to any of his professors.

158

One of the characteristics of ASD/ID is preference for a specific routine or particular pattern. For students with ASD/ID, regardless of whether they have disclosed their disability, deviating from the routine or pattern can become stressful. For Gulliver and other students with ASD/ID, having to meet with a professor can be intimidating, as previously discussed. This stress, coupled with not knowing how to effectively communicate with a professor, may lead the student with ASD/ID to avoid the situation entirely, which could be detrimental to that student’s persistence in college.

Within this study, students with ASD/ID indicated they were academically challenged in their courses. A majority of the students felt that passing their courses was the greatest barrier to persisting each semester. The extra time on tests provided by DSPS and guidance from the C2C staff played the greatest role in overcoming this barrier.

Although they know professors are available for help during their office hours, most felt intimidated by requesting assistance and or guidance.

Community resources. All eight participants attended Northern Community

College and their transition into a 4-year institution appears to have been plagued with greater academic challenges hindering their persistence. Specifically, connecting with

C2C or DSPS staff and others in the students’ social learning community was a transformation paradigm shift. Students become cognizant that they are experiencing learning, community, and the world through constructs developed in language. A significant amount of research reports social isolation within the Autism community.

Rather than focus on the reasons for social isolation, or the complex set of individual

159 circumstances for each participant, findings in this study report best practices as determined by the research for developing community. As previously stated, in the C2C community environment within college context, students relate to each other as an extension of living community due to meaningful connectedness.

C2C pathway. Ramon is uncertain if he can maintain the academic demands currently being placed on him. Therefore, it is important to note their experiences at both the community college and university levels. Ramon stated the community college prepared him for transferring to a 4-year institution. He started at the community college level because he did not meet the requirements for a state university at the time, and

Robert started community college immediately after he graduated from high school because he had completed all the math courses his school had to offer. These participants appeared to have transitioned academically into their local community colleges. They all received supports from the C2C staff and or DSPS and felt their community college semesters were more successful. It appears this perception might be due to the participants feeling the community college was less academically rigorous than a 4-year university.

Ramon and Daniel connect with community advocacy organizations for continuous support and education on issues related to their diagnosis. Daniel stated:

Think of how we found out about College 2 Career—not sure if they came to the school. I heard about it during the meeting with FEAT (Family with Early Autism Treatment) so I think I heard about it there—at those meetings and looked into it or they (C2C) may have come to the school.

Ramon is proud of his connection with community organizations. He shared:

160

I belong to a support group called FEAT and Fiesta Educativa. They have been very supportive by helping with talks with other students and sharing information about Autism and ID. I listen to Dr. Joaquin Fuertes at Mind Institute and the information was very helpful and useful for me on how to communicate and how to become more independent. I voluntary with these organizations to give other students advice, talk to the parents and advocate for others. I talk with other students about options and serve as a role model to younger individuals. I make connection with community organizations and feel giving back is important to me. I go the meetings at the MIND institute regarding peoples with disabilities. I talk to everyone about my experience and my college experience. I’m succeeding in college and I’m also involved with DOR.

Traditional pathway. Leeshia has been continually enrolled or persisting in college the longest of all the participants. According to her, her college days started because of “my mother pushing me.” Although she excelled in English during high school, she is now struggling with courses at the community college. She has taken one particular English class three times in order to pass it.

Leeshia’s experience at the community college has contributed to her determination to graduate from Northern Community College. In reflection, Leeshia stated, “maybe again, I should have been a little more focused in the beginning, so I didn’t end up dropping out and staying adrift for several years.” Now, years later, she views her persistence in college as one of her greatest successes. Robert, who is the only participant to be living away from home, is academically struggled his first semester at the 4-year institution. In reflection, he feels the classes at the community college were easier and he feels “stuck” at the university, as he maxed out his transfer units. He views his community college GPA as his greatest success; however, he views his classes at the university as his greatest barrier. Thus, his grades were once an academic strength

161 leading to his persistence, and now they are an academic weakness leading to the possibility of him dropping out.

Social Capital: Theme 2

The perceptions shared by the eight participants regarding their social experiences revealed two common subcategories found to be essential in affecting the students’ persistence each semester: Communication and Environmental Factors. This theme is connected to the Ecology Human Performance (EHP) and the Social Model of Disability.

Ecology is concerned with the interrelationships of individuals and the effect of these relationships on performance. The EHP framework is founded on and synthesizes the work of scholars in several disciplines who have considered the interaction between the individual and their environment. Social Model of Disability impacts social context in which misrepresentation, social exclusion, and discrimination combine to disable people with impairments. Barriers are not just physical. Attitudes found in society based on prejudice or stereotypes deny individuals with a medical diagnosis from having equal opportunities to be part of society.

Communication. Research indicates that students with ASD/ID have difficulties with communication and interactions. Several of the characteristics of ASD, as outlined in the DSM-IV-TR guidelines list the following descriptors of qualitative impairments in social interactions for people with ASD, including: (a) marked impairments in the use of nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye contact and facial expressions, (b) failure to build peer relationships, and (c) lack of social or emotional reciprocity (APA, 2013). While the

162

ASD/ID diagnoses may explain why these students have specific challenges, it does not articulate how (within the learning community) student identities are constructed within this struggle. The following representative interview provides supporting evidence of social variance and atypical experiences, which were also associated with students’ self- perception of isolation.

C2C pathway. The aforementioned challenges were also evident in the shared social experiences of students with ASD/ID as they transition into and persist at a 4-year institution. Daniel provided a glimpse into his high school experiences.

In high school it was very hard…everyone kept picking on me until the time I decided to become a bully and verbally abuse people…I think I suppressed that entire senior year into my head and I don’t remember any of it.

He now not only wishes he had been nicer to people in high school, but also considers his greatest success in his college persistence to be making friends and being involved on campus.

Mixed feelings were echoed throughout the experiences of the other participants.

Although Dave indicated he felt more anti-social his first semester, he reported becoming more social each semester. “I don’t still have anyone who I kind of really hang out with.

I have, I guess, pals here on campus, but not really friendships. It has gotten a little bit better but I am still quite socially inept.”

Ramon, who lives alone in an apartment across from campus, is struggling to make friends, like Gulliver. He is unfamiliar with the area and does not really feel he has

163 a lay of the campus yet. Ramon acknowledges that his disabilities make it difficult for him to develop friendships.

Traditional pathway. Gulliver indicated that during the time he is in classes, he draws people together and he considers his classmates to be more like co-workers.

Although he has not disclosed that he has ASD/ID to any of his “co-workers,” he indicated that some of them have caught on to the behaviors he exhibits.

I think it is kind of like they just joke about it or they say, what are you doing…what’s that? But then like they don’t…they don’t really care…I have that feeling like they might not seriously be concerned about it.

Three participants appeared to be more socially isolated than the others. Although

Robert has lived in an apartment, he has very little interaction with roommates. He indicated that he has played video games with his three roommates, but does not talk to or socialize with any of his current or previous roommates. He considers his lack of friendships his greatest barrier to his college persistence. He indicated he had more friends in high school and wishes he had more friends now. When asked how he attempts to make more friends, Gulliver replied, “Um…Just…(long pause)…I speak up a bit more.”

Leeshia summed up her feelings, “Sometimes I feel like having Asperger’s means never having normal/reliable interpersonal relationships, a position of power in society, being misunderstood, treated poorly, never having a well-paying job/career, being thought of as robotic/inhuman/uncreative, and being alone.” Although all eight participants echoed these sentiments in one way or another, Leeshia was the only

164 participant to straightforwardly articulate those feelings. She is aware of the stigma associated with having ASD and, like the others, continues to struggle with the strain of building and maintaining social relationships. For students with ASD/ID, communication and establishing relationships continue to be a hindrance to their college persistence.

Being able to “fit in” and be accepted by peers is something that they crave and, on some level, strive for. Although K-12 programs are now beginning to offer social skills training for students with ASD, these students have already transitioned into their postsecondary institutions. At the time of this research, none of the participants had attended social skills workshops at Northern Community College. This topic is further explored in the “Interagency Collaboration Section.”

Environmental factors. Another way for college students to socially transition into a college is by becoming involved in campus activities. This allows for social interactions with peers and campus staff. Campus can be a structured place to practice and build social skills. It may also be used as a way to obtain a feeling of “fitting in” or that there is a place on campus. Although Northern Community College has numerous clubs and organizations, athletic teams, and a performing arts center, only two participants were involved in campus clubs.

Traditional pathway. Leeshia, who previously indicated that making friends was her greatest barrier to her college persistence, said she belongs to one of the university’s political clubs. In fact, she is proud to say that she holds an office within the club.

However, Leeshia feels she is “hanging on by the skin of her teeth.” She does not feel

165 accepted into the club and feels they want to get rid of her. She described her first experience with a club:

and our president, he wouldn’t speak to me for the most part. I am like the only other board member. He is like, ‘I will just defer to Jennifer [another club member]’ and they were friends. And I felt like the outsider, and it was a disaster.

Although Leeshia feels unaccepted in the club, she is determined to stay in it.

Although not currently involved in any campus clubs, Gulliver and Daniel indicated they were both thinking of joining online computer game clubs that were forming. Gulliver stated that his club focused on a specific game where you could chat about all areas of the game online. Gulliver had recently read an article online about a robotics club. As these types of clubs do not normally involve face-to-face meetings or social situations, their involvement may be considered a stepping-stone to expanding their exposure and interactions with peers.

The lack of friendships and involvement in campus clubs or organizations can be seen as a social barrier for students with ASD in college. As all the participants indicated, they wished to have more friends and better peer relationships. This appears to be an area of continued concern for postsecondary students with ASD with regard to their college persistence.

C2C pathway. Ryan, on the other hand, has had the opposite experience with his peers in a club. He is involved in a campus anime [Japanese animation] club. “I worked my way up to the point where I could just be public relations. What that job entails is that

I help with free press for the club.”

166

Intra-Agency Collaboration: Theme 3

In relation to sources of support, the following three common subcategories were found to be essential to the students’ persistence each semester: C2C, DSPS, and parental support. This theme is connected to the Ecology Human performance. EHP is concerned with the interrelationships of individuals and the effect of these relationships on performance. The relationship of the environment and the person is characterized from the perspective of general systems theory.

All participants were found to be eligible for services under the DSPS guidelines at Northern Community College. As part of their intake process, the participants were required to meet with counselors to determine what accommodations they were eligible to receive. These accommodations are based on their disability-related functional limitations and academic plan. The steps are completed in an attempt to ease the student’s transition into the community college. According to the Coordinator of DSPS at Northern Community College, during this process, the students were required to advocate for themselves and articulate which support services they felt might benefit them. They were also asked to share information about how their disability affects their ability to access the classroom, class materials, and campus services, and were asked to describe the accommodations and services they have used in the past.

Four participants in the C2C program first made contact with the DSPS with the help of their parents, particularly their mothers. All the participants had close relationships with their mothers and considered them to be their major source of support.

167

This topic is further explored in the subsequent Family section. They explained their mothers’ involvement in the process of locating the office in various ways. Daniel said,

“Me and my mother were there because she had to…Then I signed some consent forms, leaving her out of it, so I am in charge of all of me. The department of me!” As Daniel is used to secondary IEP meetings where his parents told of his education rights, he is now embracing his independence in college. Dave, who was the first to start services in high school and at the community college, credited his mother by indicating she found out about the disabilities office through the financial aid office and then took him there.

After contacting the DSPS, the students meet with a counselor to review appropriate support services and accommodations. This, too, became another area of self-advocacy weakness for the participants. As first outlined in the Learning Challenges sections, most of the participants struggled to define and articulate what having ASD/ID meant to them and how it affected their learning. Then, by not being able to adequately understand and express their learning challenges in relation to their ASD/ID, students and support staff continue to struggle with properly matching the appropriate services that are available to support them in their persistence. Additionally, this difficulty impacts their ability to advocate for themselves with their professors. However, their connectedness with C2C learning community enabled students to advocate as responsible for their life- long learning and to articulate specific interests for constructing individualized learning plans.

168

Five participants in this study indicated priority registration, extra time on tests, tutors, and using note-takers as the four leading support services that contributed to their persistence. Additionally, their experience in a new outreach program, Builders Series

(pseudonym), offered exclusively by the DSPS at Northern Community College, was explored.

For priority or early registration, students within the department have been approved in the admissions computer system and are provided with a date and time to register for classes before the general population of students register. They do not have to meet with a disabilities counselor; rather, they can go online and simply register. Leeshia explained, “My mom found out from one of her …one of her friends. Then my mom was like, we are going. We’re going to register you here so you can do stuff…and blah blah blah.” Leeshia indicated that when all the slots for the writing proficiency exam were full last spring, she was able to register for the exam through the disabilities office and did not have to wait for the next test.

All seven participants, at one time or another, used the accommodation of test and quiz time allowance. This accommodation was highly regarded as the most important accommodation leading to their academic persistence. Students communicate an optimistic outlook in academic goals and participation in developing community networks.

The students' life experiences provided a starting point for transformational learning, evident in their changing self-perceptions as they participated in the C2C

169 program. Interpretations draw on the works of Mezirow (1996) who explored youth consciousness inner-connected to cognitive process and stages within child development.

The majority of experimental studies assess consciousness by asking human subjects for a verbal report of experiences. During in-depth C2C discussions, student self-inquiry explored verbal consciousness. Daniel expressed his appreciation for the services and support he experienced in the C2C learning community.

I got enrolled when we went to see a counselor almost a month before I started college at the end of July 2011. We saw a counselor and they made a suggestion and they suggested Career 2 College and we agreed to do it. We saw a counselor at Northern community college and meet the program coordinator. I was on my way. The best connections are because of the C2C family. Options for higher education have never been offered until we learned about C2C and DSPS. We have friends in the C2C cohort.

The participants in the C2C program appear to know the process for obtaining extra time and did not indicate any complaints or concerns with the process. As discussed in Dave’s individual case analysis, he was the only participant to have an issue with a professor agreeing to the extra time. For the others, the accommodation was viewed as being supported by the college as a whole. One traditional pathway participant, Daniel, elaborated on the importance of this accommodation, as it is crucial to him persisting each semester, and expressed his three benefits from this accommodation:

A – I get double time on tests. B – I get to take it in a room. Like a room. Not in a defined little seat built for little people – because the desks are very confining to me. I am trying to write. In a room, I am a lot more open to express my thoughts, which is very helpful on an essay. Um…and thirdly, this has to do with...cheating. Back in high school, I sort of had issues with looking over other people’s tests, which was mostly due to again…Asperger’s. I looked around, stared off into space, or into others’ space.

170

Students reported confidence in accomplishing goals and do not identify as disabled learners. The four participants in the C2C program have found individualized structures to create pathways for success. Reflecting on early learning experience, several participants observed an increase in self-esteem that replaced depression, which paralleled their experience of increased connectedness.

Tutoring services are available through the C2C learning community or DSPS. A majority of the students use some form of tutoring, either through C2C or DSPS. The participants in both groups echoed that tutoring was essential to their persistence each semester. Leeshia attends tutoring once a week to work on her writing, Daniel spends most of his time with his tutor, and Dave works with his tutor three times a week, in addition to working with a private tutor on his math. Gulliver works with tutors within his major.

The aid of tutors is essential for supporting students with ASD in their persistence, as five of them indicated taking tests and/or passing classes as their greatest barrier in their persistence each semester. The use of tutors is not only essential in helping students with ASD understand their course work, but also in keeping them focused on current assignments and relieving some of the anxiety they may be feeling about their studies.

Their stress management and lack of time management skills are further discussed in the

“Builders Series” section.

Another accommodation used by a majority of the students is note-taking. This process has been changed in the last few years and has upset some of the students. At

171

Northern Community College, students with disabilities, including ASD, must self- advocate for a class note-taker. Students may simply ask the person sitting next to him/her, ask a friend in the class, stand in front of the class and make a request, or ask the professor to make the announcement to the cl ass. According to the Coordinator of

DSPS, the professor may say something like, “If you would like to provide notes for a student with a disability, please write your name, telephone number, and email on a piece of paper and give it to me after class.” Students who become note-takers used to receive a $50.00 per class stipend and early registration each semester. Three participants have used note-takers at one time or another and feel this accommodation is useful in helping them academically persist in their courses.

Daniel and Dave both feel note-takers are essential in courses in which the professor talks fast. Robert stated he started using a note-taker in Biology class, as “those notes go at you fast. Having a note-taker that can take notes at a better speed than I could is much helpful.” He also indicated that he did go up to a student he knew and asked him if he wanted to be his note-taker for his language course. However, a situation has presented itself that may change how well Robert does in the class.

The problem is…that he now has spontaneous pneumothorax and went into the hospital last week. He is going to be in the hospital this week because it happened again. He may have to drop the class and I may have to actually start taking notes. My handwriting is not good.

Dave indicated he uses a note-taker for classes he has trouble with. He stated, “If I write it, I don’t really listen to what the professor says and I miss stuff.” Leeshia, who also used note-takers, noted the current cons with the structure of the services.

172

There is no system to verify like someone will do it on a continual basis and is actually good at it…You have to find the note-taker yourself and you know…you are the one that is going to have to supervise them and consistently…you know, get the notes yourself.

Also, one participant, Ramon, indicated his professors post course notes online, which eliminates the need for note-takers in his courses. Daniel indicted that this is still a good deal for students to be note-takers, as it is “absolutely good motivation. So knowing next semester they don’t have to go through that insane mercy-worthless process.”

Daniel and Dave both feel note-takers are essential in courses in which the professor talks fast.

As there appears to be some discrepancies in the structure of the accommodation with regard to what constitutes quality notes or what happens when the note-taker does not follow through or becomes ill, for the most part, the students felt this support service was essential in their persistence each semester. However, the issue of students with

ASD/ID acquiring their own note-taker if the professor does not announce it to the class remains a critical issue. For students with ASD/ID, this may become a challenge compared to neurotypical students because it requires initiation of peer communication and some social skills: skills students with which ASD students struggle. Like any other student, students with ASD have different academic strengths and weaknesses depending on how their ASD impacts their learning. The auditory processing of information may impact a student’s ability to take notes and listen at the same time. It is essential for students with ASD to understand how their disability impacts their learning so they can

173 work with their counselors and professors on providing accommodations that support their academic persistence. The Builders Series was developed to address those issues.

In 2013, Northern Community College developed a new outreach program to support students with disabilities. According to the college’s DSPS, Northern

Community College is the only college to offer such a program. The program, called the

Builders Series (pseudonym), was a response by the DSPS office to provide strategic learning support to their students. The components include counselors who provide individualized study strategies, tutoring in basic math and writing, mentoring, and counseling. The program starts with identifying students’ strengths and building their supports from their individual needs. The program is designed for incoming freshman and those who are struggling to transition into college. Of the eight participants, four participated in the C2C program, two chose not to, and two reported never receiving information on it. However, they all realized the value of the program and two of the participants wanted to participate in it after learning about it through this research study.

All four of the participants in C2C indicated they only went to a few of the workshops.

Ryan and Gulliver also attended a few workshops but struggled with time management and had difficulty keeping track of the workshops and appointments. Dave stated, “it came down to problems last semester and the semester before of remembering when my appointments were…and, now I have a calendar I use.” He indicated that his counselors in the disabilities office have been extremely helpful working with him on his time management skills. He indicated that he does not miss nearly as many appointments

174 as he had in the past. Gulliver and Ryan both indicated they have heard about the program and want to be involved; however, they have yet to take steps to do so. Gulliver stated he definitely wanted to be involved and “at the time the counselor told me about it,

I didn’t really need it. I am thinking now would probably like be a better time and I would need it.” Leeshia felt the program would not help her and she does not feel she has time for it. “It just seemed like I didn’t really need it or…I didn’t really need it or I just didn’t want to go through all the hoops you know or jump through all the hoops and go get involved in it.”

Leeshia, a freshman and likely candidate for the program, stated, “I went to a couple of…I went to a couple of their meetings…I thought it was going to be interesting but I wasn’t sure if it was worth my time.” She remembered the workshop that focused on how to talk to professors about a disability, “which I know is helpful but…(laughing)…They had some game stuff and I was…yeah.” Leeshia further stated she was bored and did not think she needed the workshops. The “game stuff” to which

Leeshia is referring is icebreakers and questions about social skills in a social setting.

The four participants who joined the program indicated they have no real means to cope with their stress and attending workshops would be a benefit to their overall health. When asked how they dealt with stress, the most frequent answer was by watching television, although none of them have a favorite show or something in particular they liked to watch. Leeshia and Gulliver stated they try to talk to their mothers. Mostly their mothers listen and appear to be supportive. The same lack of

175 coping skills filtered over to their time management and organization. Here, too, the students had no real plan to organize and track their assignments. Leeshia indicated she procrastinates and that she tries to follow a routine but panics when a test is near. Ryan and Gulliver have no system at all in place, and Gulliver and Ryan both have started using their computers to try and manage their time and course assignments.

Based on the shared experiences of the participants in this study, it is apparent that there continues to be a need for the Builders Series for students with ASD/ID. The

DSPS office and the students with ASD/ID need to find a way to connect with each other on how to recruit and keep students participating, as the information shared could possibly help the students with ASD persist. Their organization skills, faculty fears, stress management, and social skills could perhaps improve if they made a commitment to the program.

Parental support. As previously stated, the students with ASD/ID in this study were referred to the DSPS office by their parents, the majority being their mothers. The support of their immediate family members appears to have contributed heavily to their persistence each semester. This support has come in the form of identified resources, financial assistance, living arrangements, study prompting, social engagements or entertainment, and rides.

All the participants reported that a college education was expected of them; therefore, they felt supported by their families on both their college quest and subsequent

176 persistence. All the participants had at least one parent who graduated from college, including Robert’s foster father. Those with siblings also found them to be supportive.

Leeshia stated, “I think my younger sister supports whatever I do in my life. My younger sister is very supportive.” Seven participants live at home, and one lives in an apartment across the street from campus. Of the seven living at home, none feel they are ready to move out, although their ages range from 19 to 24. They feel they are not ready to move out because they are not employed at this time and they, or their parents, do not think they have the skills to live independently yet. Leeshia indicated that the older she gets, the harder it is for her to live at home. Daniel echoed her feelings; however, he does not think his mother will allow him to live on his own. Daniel has a history of severe behavior issues with his peers while in high school.

I can’t go on my own. Because they fear that if I go into a dorm room I might start something. But, yeah, she is very supportive. She drives me around, she picks me up. I live in her house rent-free.

Gulliver indicated that when he does move out, he knows his mother will be proud of him for being independent. Some participants relied on their mothers or family members to drive them to and from campus as needed. By not having a driver’s license, their involvement with peers and campus activities could be limited. Of the eight participants, five have driver’s licenses and drive to and from campus. However, three of the participants do not have a license because they are unable to pass the driver’s license test. Daniel described his driving experience, or lack thereof:

I don’t drive. I tried in the past to pass an exam. Failed three times, so I didn’t bother. It was very discouraging. No matter how hard I study I just…It is a lot of

177

ridiculous rules. That…and whenever I am in the driver’s seat I…when I was testing driving it…I was very distracted by everything around me. It was too much. It was sensory overload per se, and I really couldn’t handle driving. I still want to, just to prove a point that I can, but.

Ramon echoed Daniel’s feelings and said that although he would like to have a driver’s license, just to have it, he does not think he would be a good driver. Although

Ramon does not have his license, he indicated he does not have a need for it. At his community college, he relied and continues to rely on the public transportation system and his mother.

Transitional Shift in Awareness: Theme 4

Students participating in the C2C cohort have found individualized structures to create pathways for success. This theme is connected to the Ecology Human performance and the Social Model of Disability. EHP promotes self-determination of individuals with disabilities inclusive of quality educational services in secondary education and transition services. Social Model of Disability shifts away from consideration of the deficits of the functional, physiological, and cognitive abilities of the individual and promotes empowerment and human rights, independence, integration, self- advocacy, and self-determination. The desire to celebrate diversity and difference and take pride in the positive value of living with impairments has also been expressed by the participants with ASD/ID.

The perceptions and experiences shared by the eight participants regarding their aspirations for their future and long-term plans generated the following three common subcategories that were found to be essential contributors to the students’ persistence

178 each semester: Self-Perception, Self-Advocacy and Self-Determination. Additionally, the outside employment support provided by the Department of Rehabilitation (DOR) is discussed in relation to transitioning into the workforce.

Self-Perception. Although several research studies have applied Schlossberg’s

Transition Theory to topics such as athletes (Pearson & Petitpas, 1990), retired university faculty (Goodman & Pappas, 2000), community college students (Chaves, 2006), diverse college students (Tovar & Simon, 2006), first-year undergraduates (Rayle & Chung,

2007), staff departures on college campuses (Kortegast & Hamrick, 2009), and the return of baby boomers to college (Schaefer, 2010). As higher education institutions become increasingly accessible to students with ASD, their academic and social experiences and perceptions regarding their transition into, and persistence at, a university will be beneficial to students and help support their continued retention.

In the current economic condition this world is facing, the debate about the value of a college degree rages on. Each of the participants had different interpretations of what their college degree provided them with future employment opportunities.

Three participants made reference to future employment. Leeshia stated, “I think it’s probably like getting a job or something.” Leeshia provided a little more in-depth thought about this subject:

I, well I mean, like I guess you accomplished an advanced level of learning. And that I would think that should um prepare you or should be entry into a certain level of employment. But again, I keep hearing the opposite. It is like, oh a degree, even a bachelor’s degree, is just worthless. You know it it’s just like that won’t help you with anything. Employers just want experience or they want this whole crazy mythical combination of factors that hardly anyone possesses.

179

The other four participants related their college degree more internally. Dave, giving one of his longest responses in the entire interview, stated, “It will mean that I am better skilled in math.” Dino stated, “I would say it means that I have knowledge.”

Ramon stated, “I don’t know…I see myself being more independent.” Daniel provided a more detailed description of how he felt:

College, to me, means that I have achieved something that I have long set out to do, which is say I am like everyone else. Even though I know most people haven’t gone to college, but I wanted to. I just needed to prove to myself that I could be normal or do what other people do. Not many people, when I tell them I have ASD/PDD, they don’t say I come off as not normal. Even though when I talk to them I look in other directions, I never talk to them eye-to-eye.

Taken together, the participants believe there is a basic cause and effect relationship between obtaining a college degree and employment. If they persist in college and graduate, they will have achieved personal and professional advancement.

For those seeking professional advancement in their field, other obstacles hinder their persistence.

Self-Advocacy.

C2C pathway. Obtaining a college degree or certification symbolizes advocacy and empowerment. Specifically, connecting with students of the C2C cohort and others in the students’ social learning community was a transformation paradigm shift. Students become cognizant that they are experiencing learning, community, and the world through connection and appreciative inquiry.

Primarily because it is a commonly held idea that a college degree leads to employment, it was important to explore how this notion affects students with ASD

180 regarding their persistence in college, as research indicates that a majority of people with disabilities lives below the poverty line (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Again, the participants were divided on their views of education in relation to employment outcomes. Also within this section, the Workability program is reviewed.

Of the eight participants, four participants attended the career development workshops offered by the DSPS and C2C, which include resume writing, interviewing techniques, networking skills, and disability disclosure and self-advocacy. Although they each had individual stories about what they thought their careers would hold for them in the future, they all resonated with themes of academic and employment connectedness through the support of the learning community. All eight participants’ views on their future employment can be broken down into three themes: positive, negative, and overwhelming.

First, Daniel, age 21, explained his love for television production as part of his disability. “That is one of the things my Asperger’s syndrome apparently fixes on is this need for pop culture.” Although unsuccessful in his attempts to find a job, he indicated he has been seeking help from several agencies. He stated, “I have been doing crazy stuff to try to get a job. Regional Center, New Horizon, The Department of Rehabilitation, pick a number.” Daniel feels it is important for him to work on his social skills and build his networking skills because in the future it may help in his employment search. He said, “Again, where the whole making friends help. Where, again, you never know where they end up.” Daniel is working with the three main agencies that could help him

181 secure employment. The Regional Center and New Horizon are both non-profit community agencies that support people with developmental disabilities in gaining independence, employment, and inclusion. The DOR is a government agency that also provides support for people with ASD/ID who qualify.

Dave, age 19, also appeared positive about the future. He is a Gaming Technician and feels he is still two years away from being where he needs to be to obtain employment because he would like to attend a 4-year college. He feels there continues to be a demand for employment in his field so he is not worried about obtaining future employment. He indicated that the Regional Center set up an internship for him with the

Department of Power and Water the summer 2013 term.

Traditional pathway. Although both her parents are professionals, Leeshia wants to switch from majoring in English to majoring in Speech Pathology. She does not have any job experience, except for helping in her father’s in his office, and that is why she has not acted upon information she received from the DSPS office on the Workability

Program. Leeshia, 21, is starting to figure out what she wants to do with her life.

Robert, 24, is a senior who has negative views of future employment options, although he has persisted in college the longest. Robert, who would like to be involved in political science, stated:

Jobs are not waiting for us after we graduate…I was expecting to have a job waiting for me. I was told that is just a dream and it will not happen in real life. I don’t know what is going to happen in the future. I don’t really think about the future. I make a plan and try to make those things happen, but I don’t think about the future but the future is unknown to me. Currently no internships. I didn’t get

182

accepted. I am going to try again. Eventually I have to get accepted. I have to get work experience.

Dino was the only student who had participated in an internship program in his career; he worked as a librarian’s assistant and described his experience:

I definitely find it hard to interact with the public—I think they think I'm too old/standoffish/"not fun" like the other interns. I often wonder if I was an anomaly when I was in middle school—besides finding their curriculum (for the most part) questionable, I find their lack of critical thinking skills distressing. (For example, in the 6th grade, I was reading the sequel to Gone With The Wind, The Firm, books on food chemistry, and issues of Consumer Reports—these kids don't read unless they are forced to. Plus, being a mentor to a 13-year-old boy is hard, because at minimum I have little in common with him. I have a bad feeling I was paired up with him because he may be on the spectrum himself (I disclosed my diagnosis to our on-site supervisor (Librarian)—who, while talking to him, I also think might be on the spectrum too!) I'm bad at drawing people out/issuing orders/being firm, so I find it difficult to interact with him.

Two other participants had responses similar to Robert’s comments on his lack of planning and thinking of the future. Ryan indicated he has not thought about the future.

Robert, who will be graduating in June 2015, indicated he was thinking of attending graduate school. He has not thought about what he is going to do after graduation or where he would live. He was unsure if he would move back with his foster family or attempt to live in an apartment on his own. His expressions and mannerisms during the interview led the researcher to believe this was the first time he had thought about where he would live after graduation. He knows in the future that his goal is to have his “own living space without roommates.” He does not know what jobs are associated with his degree or where he could work. He had not looked into internship programs and has no work experience.

183

Self-Determination. Self-determination is the ability to take primary control of one’s own life and to do so in personally meaningful ways. Recognized as an important educational outcome for youth both with and without disabilities, self-determination has drawn attention in recent years, especially as it relates to students with disabilities. Self- determination improves outcomes for transition-age youth with disabilities. Social skills are also a great predictor of a student’s capacity for self-determination. Transition from secondary to post-secondary settings are key milestones for any student, but is a more significant process and achievement for students with an ASD. Employment success is an essential component for determining independence.

The Workability program is available for consumers of the California DOR and is a separate program from the services offered by the DSPS office at Northern Community

College. Within this program, qualified students participate with counselors in career planning, such as career assessments and counseling; academic supports such as assistive technology and accommodations; internships in their field of study; and employment readiness, such as resume writing, job search skills, and networking skills. These services are similar in many ways to the professional development also offered by

Northern Community College. However, the DOR is one more agency that can support eligible students with ASD/ID in their transition from college to gainful employment and that, thus, promotes independence.

According to the DOR, for a person to become a consumer with the agency, he/she must meet the following three criteria: (a) the person must have a physical or

184 mental impairment, (b) his/her impairment constitutes or results in a significant impediment to employment for him/her; and (c) he/she requires and can benefit from vocational rehabilitation services to prepare him/her to obtain, retain, or regain employment.

All the students have heard about the DOR’s Workability III program. All eight participants are currently consumers in their program. Leeshia indicated she is a consumer because she “like[s] the support and encouragement to seek independence.”

However, Ryan indicated it has been difficult for him to find a job or an internship, so his counselor referred him to the program. He subsequently completed the application and is now in the process of being reviewed for eligibility. Ramon, Dave, and Daniel are also consumers. Gulliver indicated that the DOR is helping him look for an internship.

As students persist toward graduation, they will need internships or work experience for their resumes. The job development workshops provided by both the

DSPS office and the DOR are essential for supporting students with ASD/ID in transitioning into the workforce and striving for self-determination. This, in turn, could lead to greater independence.

Future

The future outcomes of the students with ASD/ID in this study are unknown.

What is known is that all eight students passed their fall 2014 courses and have persisted at least one more semester. Some are still trying to figure out their academic future.

Leeshia, 21, remains unsure of what she would like to do with her life. She has thought

185 about transferring into a 4-year university and majoring in Speech Pathology. Others have an idea of what they want to do in the future, yet four participants developed the skills to persist in those occupations. After graduation, Dave hopes to have his own gaming business. However, right now, “I would probably have to learn how to operate a business,” he stated.

One thing is certain; they all wanted to share what they would like others to know about the academic and social experiences of students with ASD/ID. The following are two of the most insightful and empowering thoughts shared by Leeshia and Daniel.

Well, assuming they actually listen…just to try and be more understanding. That we don’t mean to be, you know, rude or mean. But, we just experience things and try to process things differently from you. And that we just need a little more patience and understanding…That we require more empathy than your average student. Or, we just require empathy, seems to be a lost word in our culture. (Leeshia)

I want them to know that…that it’s really tough when you have Asperger’s. It seems like the entire world is staring at you, because you feel that way or because you’re paranoid like me. Just try to be comfortable, all right? Cause I have been really stressed and really…emotionally compromised myself a couple of times in college. (Daniel)

Conclusion and Summary

The cross-case analysis in this study resulted in three four main themes:

Academic Preparation, Social Capital, Intra-Agency Collaboration, and Transitional Shift in Awareness. Students with ASD/ID were able to reflect on their own academic and social experiences as they related to their persistence each semester. Although the students had strengths and weaknesses in each category, it remains difficult and challenging for students with ASD/ID to persist.

186

The eight participants had commonalities and differences in their higher education experiences that included varying levels of challenges in communication, relationships, emotions, and not being prepared for the future. Table 8 illustrates the analyses of collected data from interviews and observations with each interviewee. The students who entered Northern Community College through the traditional pathway encountered academic challenges and received limited to no support from the campus. They felt overwhelmed with navigating campus culture and uncertain of their ability to manage the social aspect of college as well as the academic assignment demands.

Table 8

Cross-Case Analysis Findings

C2C Pathway Participant Overlap Traditional Pathway

Experiences Participant Experiences

Agency Collaboration Family supports Lack of Agency Support

Self-advocacy Community connections Uncertainty

Persistence External factors Little to No Persistence

Self-determination Overwhelmed

Two of the four participants in the traditional pathway group dropped out of college because they felt isolated and struggled with academic assignments. Ryan shared, “I had an overwhelming feeling of sadness and depression.” The common emerging themes shared by both groups were the support from family, the connection

187 with community resources, and external factors. The participants in the C2C Model sustained successful academic outcomes. For example, they obtained different types of support, hope, self- reliance, learned skills in self-advocacy, self-determination which ultimately transformational shift in awareness transpired.

As of this writing, six participants reported passing their fall 2014 courses and have registered for the spring 2015 semester. The following chapter summarizes this research study, provides current research literature findings, reviews the theoretical framework as it relates to the findings of this study. This is followed by the implications and limitations of the study. Lastly, the final section offers suggestions for future research in this area.

188

Chapter 5

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This dissertation explored the transformative process for eight students identified with ASD/ID as influenced by their experience participating or not participating in the

Career 2 College (C2C) program, a progressive inclusive high school transition program in an urban public school setting. Specifically, the research examined the complex relationship concerning individualized eligibility, diagnoses, range of expression in core social characteristics, and access for academic delivery. It further explored the process that coordinates transformation in the students while equitably providing a potentially exceptional education in the C2C program. Conversely, the participants who entered the community college through the traditional pathway struggled and encountered challenges with navigating the college culture and had difficulty identifying accommodation resources.

This research examined participation in a transition program to postsecondary education and life-goals perspective after secondary education through the eyes of young adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and/or Intellectual Disability (ID). Three questions were asked in an effort to describe the experiences of an individual with

ASD/ID for the purpose of improving transition programming.

1. What are the factors that facilitate college students with ASD and/or ID in

making the transition into the C2C postsecondary program?

189

a. From their perspectives, what factors hinder college students with

ID/ASD from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary program?

2. What are the ASD/ID college students’ perceptions of the usefulness of

either the C2C pathway or traditional pathway?

3. How did the answers to the questions above differ between college

students in the C2C program and college students entering community

college through the traditional pathway?

A review of the methodology was presented in Chapter 3. Participants were interviewed in their homes or in the DSPS conference room. Three individuals chose to have a parent in the room for a part of the interview. All interviews were audio and video taped, and none of the participants resisted answering the questions and they were engaged during the conversation. Each participant used verbal language in response to the questions.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to understand and describe the perspective of life choices after secondary education through the eyes of young adults with ASD/ID. The focus was on their needs and supports through transitions related to school, work, relationships, living placement, and hobbies. In this research, the phenomenon of transition to higher education was illuminated through the lived experiences of those with ASD.

190

Discussion

The interviews allowed the researcher to hear the voices of the individuals diagnosed with ASD/ID and presented an opportunity for participants to divulge and discuss their actual experiences. Since the majority of former research has communicated how to meet the needs of younger children with ASD, as reported by Camarena and

Sarigiani (2009) and Hendricks (2010), this study fills a void in the literature by specifically hearing the young adult perspective on transitioning to higher education.

As found by Browning, Osborne, and Reed (2009), former studies revealed, “little focus on obtaining the views of individuals with ASD themselves” (p. 37). Investigating this gap led to a divulgence of recollected memories from early childhood up through the present, which contributed to answering the core question that remained “viable and alive throughout the investigation” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 105). The core question of “How do young adults with ASD/ID describe their experiences after high school?” guided this research through a process of discovering how young adults with ASD/ID describe their experiences after high school. In response to the opening icebreaker question, participants shared their emotions through depictions of their differences, which interfered with their lives by telling about a day in the life of having ASD/ID.

As the prevalence rate of students diagnosed with ASD/ID rises, postsecondary institutions need to be prepared to provide support services and programs that lead to students with ASD/IDs’ successful transition into and persistence at college. As previously stated, students with disabilities are 50% less likely to attend postsecondary

191 institutions than their non-disabled peers. Still, there has been a steady increase in the number of students with IDs attending higher education institutions over the past 20 years

(Eckes & Ochoa, 2005; Neubert, Moon, Grigal, & Redd, 2001; Sitlington, 2003; Zafft,

Hart, & Zimbrich, 2004). The increase has resulted in a greater awareness among educators about the needs of students with disabilities in general and their experiences in higher education. It has also resulted in researchers paying closer attention to this issue and, consequently, studies on students with disabilities have begun to appear more frequently (Rice, 2009; Tagayuna, Stodden, Change, Zeleznik, & Whelley, 2005;

Troiano, 2003). The method of phenomenological research was chosen to describe what the “participants have in common as they experience the phenomenon” of life choices through the lens of one who has ASD/ID (Creswell, 2007, p. 58). A diagnosis of a particular type of ASD/ID, namely pervasive developmental disorder, autism disorder, or

Asperger’s Disorder did not appear to be relevant because all participants, regardless of the label used for their particular diagnosis, depicted similarities in their lives. For the most part, participants concluded that all diagnoses fell under “Autism ASD” or

Intellectual Disability “ID” as chosen for this research. As each participant addressed his/her experiences of growing up and making the transition out of high school and into the next phase, support, or a lack of, was addressed through the interview. This research was unique in that it sought to hear their voices directly rather than the opinions of parents or staff. Examples of struggles due to being affected by social impairment, communication limitations, and often cognitive challenges, were rendered in their voices.

192

The findings of this research confirmed, as formerly detailed by Hendricks and Wehman

(2009), that this population struggles in relationships, living arrangements, further education, and work. Of eight participants, one female and seven male, all shared commonalities of issues in communication and relationships. Many of the participants shared the afflictions of depression or struggles with emotions and feeling unprepared for the future at some time in their experiences. Furthermore, there is a need to understand how they feel about their diagnosis affecting their lives (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009).

As shown in Table 7 the four participants who entered Northern Community College through the traditional pathway received fewer to no services in transition planning than those who entered through C2C. It is a challenge for schools to understand how students who are achieving high grades and high test scores may need services, which has created big issues for students with ASD and/or ID.

Methodology

As outlined in Chapter 3, the participants in this research were selected through purposeful criterion sampling. All eight participants attended the same community college and were identified by the Career 2 College (C2C) and Disabled Services and

Program for Students (DSPS) office at Northern Community College as being on the autism spectrum or having intellectual disabilities.

Results

The findings of this research revealed four themes, which emerged from the cross-case analysis: (a) Academic Preparation, (b) Social Capital, (c) Intra-Agency

193

Collaboration, and (d) Transitional Shift in Awareness. Within the first theme, Academic

Preparation, three subcategories emerged as essential in discussing the persistence of students with ASD/ID from one semester to the next. The three subcategories were learning challenges, college navigation, and connection with community college resources. The eight participants all articulated how ASD/ID impacted their academic learning in various ways. For example, as outlined in Chapter 4, Dino indicated he felt he was slow in learning new information and that taking tests caused high levels of anxiety. Ramon stated he felt he is better at processing information that he reads in contrast to his auditory processing.

Data analysis from the second theme of Social Capital resulted in the two subcategories of communication and external factors. The concepts discussed in the two subcategories were contributing factors in the persistence of students with ASD/ID each semester. For example, socialization skills were both a barrier and strength for the participants in this research. Daniel, who indicated that his disability affects his ability to socialize with other people, indicated that in college he is most proud of improving on his social skills. Leeshia, who felt having ASD means being alone, is proud that she is still persisting in college and is a member of a club, even though she feels no one likes her.

The third theme that emerged from the cross case analysis focused on Agency

Collaboration with ASD/ID, which was found to be essential in participants’ persistence each semester. The theme included the three subcategories of Career 2 College, DSPS, and parental support. The supports and services found to be essential to their persistence

194 each semester included priority registration, extra time on tests and quizzes, tutoring services, and having note-takers. Additionally, a new program, referred to as the Builders

Series offered by the DSPS office, was discussed. Although the participants found the value in the program and some appeared to be interested in the program, they were unable to determine how it would fit into their already stress-filled schedules.

The last theme that emerged focused on the participants’ Transitional Shift in

Awareness. Within this theme, the three subcategories of Self-Perception, Self-

Advocacy and Self-Determination emerged in relation to participant college persistence.

Additionally, the outside agency support from the Department of Rehabilitation (DOR) was discussed with regard to obtaining employment. All participants had some idea of the field they wanted to pursue in the future. However, the four participants in the C2C program had job experience and/or participated in some type of employment development workshop.

Interpretation of the Findings

Theoretical Implications

This research examined how the individual with ASD/ID perceived the control and the challenges associated with decision making. Tinto (1987) suggested parallels between Van Gannep's (1960) notion of rites of passage as a three-stage process

(separation, transition, and incorporation) and the processes by which students become integrated into the academic and social systems of a college. Disability theory views disability as social construction (Jones, 1996), which argues inclusive thinking through a

195 commitment to diversity and the elimination of oppression. Consideration of a disability in this theory frames the thoughts of Daniel who felt they were not treated as equals. As voiced by Ramon, people with ASD/ID are not useless. “Listening to people with autism,” in Daniel’s words, is the prime way of helping them. As Daniel voiced, “Like I never would have been interested in poetry unless I heard this guy speak out that inspired me to do poetry.” Furthermore, he believed that creating programs to help them realize their potential and spark the inspiration of which they are capable would instill motivation for success.

The participants in this research spoke repeatedly about equality and wanting to be respected as people who could give to society in unique ways, not as people with a disability, but as those who could think differently. For example, Ramon persisted to overcome his awkwardness to communicate with others. He advocates for other students and volunteers with community organizations. The four participants in the C2C program exhibited perseverance and determination to complete course work. Additionally, they voiced their sense of accomplishment. Previous research supports the belief that people with ASD/ID “want to be considered knowledgeable and experts in what could make a difference in the lives of others with similar diagnoses” (Hulbrutt & Chalmers, 2002, p.

107). The voices of the participants provided an invaluable source of information for building programs for success. Vivid thoughts of experiences in special education created periods in the lives when the participants did not feel they had been given a

196 chance to progress to their best potential and were capable of much more advanced educational opportunities if they had been given the best support.

Dateline NBC aired the show, “Autism’s ‘Aging Out’ Crisis” in On The Brink on

Sunday evening, April 12, 2015. This segment provided insight to “their findings after a three year investigation into services for autistic young adults after school. They covered what happened to Eric and Nick, two young men with autism as they graduated from high school and struggled to get services” (Dachel, 2015).

The conceptual lens that was applied to this research was the social model of disability and is a frequently used framework for analyzing a plethora of disability issues

(Barnes & Mercer, 1997; Shakespeare, 1997). Developed by Oliver (1990; 1996), the social model of disability posits that “disability” is a socially constructed concept and attributes any difficulties or limitations encountered by individuals with disabilities not to the individual but to barriers that have emerged within society. Rather than attributing difficulties encountered by individuals with disabilities in a particular setting or situation to the individual’s neurological or physical functioning, the social model of disability ascribes that “disability” is a consequence of society consciously or unconsciously erecting barriers that ultimately prohibit individuals with disabilities from accessing a variety of aspects of society (Oliver, 1990, 1996). For example, if an individual with a physical disability cannot enter a building due to the building’s architecture, the barrier is attributed to the building’s lack of accessibility, not to the individual’s disability (Barnes

& Mercer, 1997). In addition, this model views society as the entity that must alter its

197 way of viewing disability instead of altering the individual with the disability (Oliver,

1996). Therefore, similar to the ecological model, the social model of disability recognizes the influence the external environment has on shaping the individual’s experience. It adds an anti-deficit-specific lens to the ecological human performance.

Ecology of Human Performance

Dunn, Brown, and McGuigan (1994) emphasized the need to factor context into disability evaluation and intervention processes because “ecology, or the interaction between person and the environment, affects human behavior and performance, and that performance cannot be understood outside of context” (p. 598). The context for students with disabilities in postsecondary education is very individualized with each student having his or her own educational, employment, and personal goals, personal circumstances, financial resources, etc. Therefore, accommodation needs not only differ from student to student but from one circumstance to another for each student. This research was designed to determine student perceptions of the accommodation process and its possible effects on participation for students with disabilities in postsecondary education. Serving students with ID and ASD necessitates communication and collaboration among professionals from several disciplines, including professors and family members. Efforts to promote self-determination of youth with disabilities are a component of high quality special education services in secondary education and transition services (Wehmeyer & Field, 2007; Wehmeyer et al., 2003). In Figure 6,

198 several areas can be seen to contribute to the transition and persistence of students with

ASD/ID.

The Awareness and Empowerment Model

The Awareness and Empowerment model is illustrated in Figure 6 and incorporates components of the Ecology of Human Performance and the Social Model of Disability. The evolution of how we develop as individuals is represented by an overlapping of the theoretical frameworks used for this research in addition to the concepts of awareness and empowerment. Every environmental layer that exists and all the stages of relationships in which we engage continually change our beliefs, values, and expectations as we move and grow through these stages. The family is considered one emotional and functional unit whereby individuals cannot be understood in isolation from one another, are interconnected, and are interdependent of the whole.

199

Figure 6. The Awareness and Empowerment Model.

The existence of self-determination, awareness, and empowerment as they relate to motivation and expectancy all are part of a growing evolution of self and what can be called the Awareness and Empowerment Model. The literature that was available indicated that students with ASD/ID are entering colleges at increasing rates; therefore,

200 further research needs to be completed on ways to support these students during their transition into and persistence at institutions of higher education (IHE). Figure 6 is a pictorial reference of how individuals develop, noting that the process is fluid and continually changing and allows for an in-depth understanding of expectations and outcomes. The outcomes of this research have implications concerning understanding schools as an organization within the larger context of society. In light of what participants have said, listening to the voices of those affected by ASD/ID is at the heart of helping to solve the problem stated in this research.

Intra-Agency collaborations. Schools as organizations are systems used to meet goals and objectives within society. Schools are not traditionally thought of in terms of organizations; however, schools function as organizations by design. Organizational theorists suggest that to improve school productivity, we can research and examine how organizations function within power dynamics and how decisions are made and enforced.

The two areas this section considers regarding schools as organizations are:

• The conflict of teaching according to traditional instructional practices vs.

making adjustments according to the needs and readiness of the individual

students.

• Restrictions on school community-based structures and activities to enhance

curricular design and implementation.

Collaboration within organizations. What are the factors that facilitate college students with ASD and/or ID in making the transition into the C2C postsecondary

201 program? Previous experience with both accommodations and community college had an impact on the participants’ transition into and persistence in a community college.

The process of requesting accommodations at the secondary level and self-advocating for accommodations at the college level is quite different. There is no longer an IEP team to discuss accommodations, but rather a student self-advocating for accommodations based on the disclosure of a disability to a counselor, who determines which accommodations will be beneficial to the student. This role change becomes stressful for students with

ASD/ID.

Within this research, one student with ASD transferred to a 4-year university after attending community college. The four participants in the C2C program expressed positive experiences at the community college, one is a long time student at the community college, and two did not have a positive experience and dropped out. For example, Ramon indicated that his greatest experience due to persistence in his education was being on the Dean’s list at the community college. He is determined to transfer to a

4-year university; however, grades in the upper division courses are now his greatest barrier to his persistence. Ramon felt he was on the verge of dropping out and felt quite stressed.

Glennon (2001) explored “the intricacies between the person with Asperger syndrome and the college experience” in relation to stress (p. 183). Previous research implies that transitioning into college can be a stressful time due to factors associated with leaving secondary peers, nervousness or anxiety about what college life might be

202 like, and leaving one’s family (Baker, McNeil, & Siryk, 1994; Cutrona, 1982; Shaver,

Furman, & Burhrmester, 1985; Wright, 1967). For students with ASD/ID, these factors are exacerbated for many reasons. Emotionally, due to characteristics associated with

ASD/ID, they may not demonstrate that they are under stress or are having difficulties coping with their transition into college or their struggles to persist (Glennon, 2001).

Additionally, they feel more pressure to fit in with their peers. For example, Ryan has not disclosed his disability to any of his professors for fear of being judged. As students with ASD/ID begin to transition into college, they find the change to their normal routine overwhelming. Thus, they feel stressed and even more isolated from their peers

(Glennon, 2001). Robert and Leeshia gave two examples of how their routines limited their transition into and persistence at Northern Community College. Although Robert appeared to have greater academic transition success at Northern Community College, he has not been so successful in his attempts at the 4-year university. He was the only participant living alone in an apartment, and was more than 60 miles from his family for the first time. He did not have any social or peer supports on campus or nearby. He was also unfamiliar with many of the services on campus and had not familiarized himself with the campus layout. Leeshia’s routine kept her from being socially involved on campus and meeting with her professors. Although she has met with her professors on occasion, she indicated it has only been when her routinized schedule has allowed for it.

This research question is addressed as this section considers the two above areas in the context of school as an organization. Considering schools as an organization is an

203 important phenomenon regarding the C2C program concerning progressive implementation of developing transitional programs. With specific regard to C2C, consider the earlier concern regarding appropriate diagnosis and the growing number of students with ASD/ID and related disorders currently in public school systems.

Transformative education is an example of inclusive learning environment rooted in discourse, minimizing complex curricular reform implementation and bureaucracy.

Reports (that inform curriculum development and reform) written in statistical jargon cost money and produce inaccessible information to the educational community. The specific

C2C program design illustrates that moving academic community decisions from the state to the district level is significant; additionally, the individual school community does make a difference, through progressive program development at the site level to address community needs.

School leadership. Sub-question: From their perspectives, what factors hinder college students with ID/ASD from transitioning into the C2C postsecondary program?

Another area to consider based on the outcomes of this research is the legitimacy of school leadership, which becomes more significant when considering the sociopolitical and sociocultural concerns in the high schools (Anderson, 1988). Historically, centrally appointed school leaders are not by profession trained in sociology nor are they professionally trained to be responsible for how they manage school design as a direct impact on how the community responds to issues of inequities. School leaders view the sociological and sociopolitical issues within community through the lens of personal

204 history, beliefs, and professional experience. If these are in conflict with inter-agency ideologies, school leaders may create “legitimizing myths” regarding social constructs

(Anderson, 1988). This researcher recognizes that the significant impact of leadership, along with personal and professional identity, influences sociopolitical and sociocultural conditions at the school site and determined if status quo was challenged or maintained.

The findings of this research suggest focus of school site leadership practices is on the learning communities to build education collaboration, across educational institutes, intended to impact broader society and public relations, concerned with educational leadership for social justice.

External factors. The C2C program believes that students who were most socially successful in college learned to manage their behaviors through prior preparation by their secondary schools and parents. The advanced preparation needed to include discussions about possible social issues that could arise in college, e.g., how to interact and mingle with others, self-advocate, and work in a group. The participants believed that “social involvement” or finding a niche through participation in campus organizations, clubs, and activities was an essential component to social navigation of

IHEs. The interviewees explicitly stated that students with ASD/ID needed friends and social opportunities to be more satisfied with their IHE and to lessen the chances of feeling lonely and isolated. The participants believed that social opportunities for students with ASD/ID could be prompted through high school and parental exposure to a

205 variety of activities prior to college and promoted during college through purposeful linking of students with similar interests, talents, and hobbies by faculty and staff.

While there were minor differences in the perceptions of each group, individualized housing accommodations were identified by all three groups as a critical factor for the successful navigation of the independent living demands of IHEs for students with ASD/ID. The students shared that while they desired social interactions and the camaraderie of others, they also needed their own personal space. Some of the parents shared that individualized housing accommodations could be critical to their child’s ability to navigate the independent living demands of their IHE because their child needed a “safe place” to go if “over-stimulated” or to avoid a “meltdown.” It was a consensus that the participants desired social opportunities and friendships, but lacked some of the basic skills needed to initiate social interactions; therefore, they took the initiative to provide their child with a variety of possessions to engage and attract others, to increase social opportunities, and prevent them feeling lonely and isolated. In addition, the participants believed that “social involvement” or finding a niche through participation in campus organizations, clubs, and activities was an essential component to social navigation of IHEs. Parents and students attributed high school and parental exposure to a variety of activities prior to college with contributing to social opportunities in college.

They required support from home as well as from the campus community to help them navigate the academic and social demands of IHEs. The interviewees believed they needed a variety of people with knowledge and training to understand their academic,

206 social, and independent living needs in order for them to be successful when navigating college.

Self-perception. What are the ASD/ID college students’ perceptions of the usefulness of either the C2C pathway or traditional pathway? Students with ASD/ID have “both assets and liabilities; resources and deficits” (Anderson et al., 2012, p. 72).

How a student with ASD/ID understands these internal attributes contributes to his/her transition into and persistence in postsecondary education. Characteristics found to be relevant for students with ASD/ID as they transition into and persist in college include their identity, autonomy, socioeconomic status, self-efficacy, resiliency, and state of health and psychological resources (Anderson et al., 2012).

As students with ASD/ID transition into college, their identity or how they see themselves also changes. All the research participants referred to themselves as a college student with ASD and/or ID, except one. Daniel stated, “I finally felt like I was a real member of society by going to college and taking courses.” However, Gulliver indicated that although he was formally diagnosed with ASD, he does not identify with that label.

He feels he identifies more with the diagnosis of ADHD/anxiety. Thus, all the participants have their own views of how they identify themselves. Anderson et al.

(2012) defined autonomy as “independence or self-directed freedom” (p. 109). All the students in this research are striving toward autonomy. For Dino and Daniel, the transition into college brought about a sense of autonomy. Dino stated that college has allowed for “more freedom; I could do whatever I wanted,” and Robert indicated that he

207 is striving for autonomy in the future by living on his own and being the “king of my own castle.”

Contributing to views of self, several studies have focused on the mental health issues students with ASD/ID face. These factors also carry over to how students with

ASD/ID cope with their mental health issues while transitioning into and persisting in college. Kanne, Christ, and Reiersen (2009) found that the greater degree of autistic traits, the greater the psychiatric difficulties across a wider psychosocial realm.

Furthermore, Ozonoff, Garcia, Clark, and Lainhart (2005) found that individuals with

ASD were more likely to have issues of social isolation, interpersonal difficulties, depressed mood, and coping deficits. Additionally, Shtayermman (2008) found that 50% of the sample of students with ASD “had a clinically significant level of suicidal ideation,

20% met criteria for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, and 30% met criteria for generalized anxiety disorder” (p. 301).

The socioeconomic status of the all participants in this research was unknown.

However, none of the participants were employed, seven of the eight lived at home, and their parents were paying for their education. Two participants indicated that they were receiving a small amount of funding from the Regional Center for college. However, going to college was something that was naturally discussed and planned for in their homes. Additionally, all the participants had at least one parent or foster parent who graduated from college.

208

The psychological resources for students with ASD/ID include their “ego development, optimism, self-efficacy, comments, and values as well as spirituality and resilience” (Anderson et al., 2012, p. 78). When analyzing the participants’ outlook on their college transition and persistence, it was found that despite their expressed barriers, they all possessed an optimistic view about completing their education. Although they struggled to pass their courses, six out of the eight were determined to graduate.

In looking at the self-efficacy skills of the participants in relation to their transition into and persistence at college, it was discovered that, outside the goal of graduating, the participants who were in the traditional pathway were not setting short or long-term goals for themselves. In fact, the two participants who were seniors had no career goal or job experience. Leeshia, a junior, indicated she did not know what occupations were related to her degree. Although students with ASD/ID are optimistic about graduating and resilient in their pursuit, they lack self-efficacy skills in setting goals and working toward a tangible outcome if they were not supported by a learning community.

How these participants with ASD/ID and other diagnoses perceive their internal assets and liabilities affects how they transition into and persist at Northern Community

College. In this research, the students in the traditional pathway group had an optimistic outlook for graduating, yet they had no goals for their future. The students in the C2C also had an optimistic outlook for graduating with goals for their future. Their optimism regarding their persistence is an asset yet not having clear objectives becomes a liability

209 to their future. Additionally, because students with ASD/ID (and other diagnoses) are at risk for suicidal ideation it is imperative that counselors and mental health agencies collaborate on best practices for students with ASD/ID. Working to build on their assets and decrease their stress and depression will help support their persistence. The participants believed they needed a variety of people with knowledge and training to understand their academic, social, and independent living needs in order for them to be successful when navigating college. Furthermore, the perceptions of parents were that students with these diagnoses needed their continued support as well as the support of individuals at the IHE to navigate the academic and social demands of their IHE. Parents also noted the importance of social connections and affiliation for navigation of the social and independent living demands of IHEs for these students.

Supports.

Education support. Through the high school experiences of Dave and Daniel, this research illuminated how reported insufficient support could impact a student’s transition to postsecondary education. The literature has described effective special education services as individualized special education and related services, supplementary aids and services, and appropriate program modifications, supports, and accommodations that meet a particular student’s needs (IDEA 2004; Turnball, Stowe, &

Huerta, 2007). The literature has reiterated that the services should be tailored to address a student’s academic and social needs and reviewed annually (Yell, 2012; Zigmond,

Kloo, & Volonino, 2009). While Dave and Daniel received services through an IEP, they

210 both perceived the services as being inadequate to meet their needs. For instance, although Dave struggled considerably with mathematics, he did not report receiving direct support from a special education teacher and desired additional skills support.

Daniel’s services were also minimal for his needs, and he viewed special education as more of a hindrance than a support. While in college, he felt unprepared, especially in mathematics, revealing that he would have benefitted from targeted mathematics support in high school. Although in the last few years there has been a push for inclusion for students with disabilities in K-12, it is evident that students’ IEPs could have been enhanced through more comprehensive skills-based direct support to prepare them for the academic challenges of postsecondary education. This is critical for high schools to consider since it is required by IDEA (2004) for public high schools to take into consideration each student’s individual academic needs while determining services during the IEP development process.

Transition support. This research contributes to the existing literature by capturing how critical the students’ high school transition preparation was for their ability to navigate postsecondary education, especially having knowledge of and gaining access to the postsecondary support system. Based on their accounts, the four students in the

C2C program had transition support from their high schools that would be an indication of intra-agency collaboration. The other four students also received transition support from their high schools; however, considered minimal under the law, most of it was provided by their guidance counselors. The sessions consisted of advising related to their

211 postsecondary educational selection, but there is no evidence they included discussions of college academic and social expectations or of campus disability services. For instance, it appears the other four traditional pathway students’ transition support in high school did not effectively provide them the guidance to self-disclose their disability to the higher education institute. As a result, the four students’ accounts suggested they did not possess knowledge of DSPS or of the steps to take to self-disclose their disability once they arrived on campus and those who did self-disclose ultimately relied on their parents’ support.

This is particularly important for students to be aware of due to the differences in disability law between high school and postsecondary education. For one, it is the student’s responsibility to initiate a request for services in postsecondary education

(Eckes & Ochoa, 2005; Madaus & Shaw, 2006). Students are covered by IDEA (2004) throughout high school, which mandates providing students with an individualized education plan to meet the requirements of FAPE. The legal differences also impacted

Leeshia, who had a 504 plan and therefore was guaranteed FAPE in high school but not in college. Knowledge of campus supports is an important predictor of a smooth transition for students with a diagnosis. Such knowledge, if built into the students’ transition programs, could have helped the students seek out and gain DSPS support more independently upon their arrival on campus. Even Gulliver and Ryan, the two students with IEPs who were legally entitled to comprehensive transition support under IDEA

(2004), had reported inadequate support based on the lack of evidence of high school

212 transition documentation and their insufficient ability to navigate the postsecondary support network.

Therefore, this research revealed that in this particular instance, there was a possible gap between policy and practice. In fact, Ryan’s account suggested he had the least transition support from his high school of all eight students, even those students without IEPs. Per the law, both students with IEPs were legally required to have transition-based support from their high school mandated by IDEA. During a student’s final year of high school, a Summary of Performance (SOP), which provides documentation of the student’s disability, a summary of the student’s “academic achievement and functional performance,” and recommendations for how to assist the student meet his or her postsecondary goals, should be prepared because it is intended to serve as a transition document to help students during their transition to postsecondary education (IDEA, 2004). The development of these documents must follow the same protocol as preparing an IEP and, therefore, should involve the parent, school professionals, and Rehabilitation Services Administration (DOR), if applicable.

Although this process is mandated by federal law, neither of the students nor Ryan’s mother could recall being involved in the transition-planning process and had no knowledge whether they had a transition plan or an SOP. Based on their accounts, it is questionable whether this document was developed, and, if so, it was prepared in such a way that the students and parents did not remember it. It is, therefore, debatable whether

213 this requirement was met, displaying a potential gap between the intended policy and implementation by these individual schools.

In addition to meeting the federal legal requirements, previous research has shown that certain best practices, such as ensuring transition efforts are collaborative, enhancing a student’s self-determination and ability to self-advocate, and addressing social skills are crucial to their transition to postsecondary education. Furthermore, it is recognized that students’ development of self-determination during their high school programs is critical for their ability to successfully transition to postsecondary education because it has been shown to increase students’ knowledge of the transition process and their independence

(Izzo & Lamb, 2002; Kochhar-Bryant, Shaw, & Izzo, 2008; Kochhar-Bryant et al., 2009;

Webb et al., 2008; Wehmeyer, Gragoudas, & Shogren, 2006). However, based on the accounts of the participants in this research, the legal mandates for transitional services articulated by IDEA were not met and probable that transition best practices were not implemented by the students’ respective high schools. The lack of targeted transition preparation could have likely contributed to the difficulties the students had navigating the postsecondary support system, thus leading Gulliver and Ryan to drop out of the community college.

Parental support. Since all the students reported limited transition support from their high schools, this research illuminated the importance of parental support during a student with ASD/ID’s transition to postsecondary education. In fact, in relation to the ecological-human performance model, parents were the entity that provided the students

214 the most crucial support. Previous literature has found parental involvement to be an important part of the transition process for students with disabilities. In this research, four of the students’ parents were involved in their high school programs and transitions from high school. For instance, because Gulliver attended a private school and did not have formal special education support, his mother structured an organization and support system for him. Even with special education support, Daniel’s parents had to intervene to ensure he was enrolled in challenging enough courses. Most of the students perceived their parents as their main elements of support during their transition period. The important role the parents in this research played in the students’ transition to college was elucidated by the fact that all four students were accepted into selective postsecondary educational programs despite a perceived lack of high school professional guidance.

Even during their transition to the postsecondary environment, the parents filled the void of the perceived lack of professional transition support the students had received in their high schools by helping them through the self-disclosure process. Since this is initial research focused on the transition of students with ASD/ID to postsecondary education, it made an important addition to the literature by illuminating that students with these diagnoses can succeed and make it to a selective college with comprehensive

C2C support and parental support despite an otherwise limited high school professional support system.

Self-Advocacy. How did the answers to the questions above differ between college students in the C2C program and college students entering community college

215 through the traditional pathway? The participants suggested that advanced preparation needed to include discussions about possible social issues that could arise in college, e.g., how to interact and mingle with others, self-advocate, and work in a group. Secondary education teachers must incorporate self-knowledge opportunities and competencies into transition planning, monitor social support development, and teach/evaluate students’ self-advocacy skills and awareness training. Awareness and training for faculty of how to teach and deal with behavioral issues for students with an ASD/ID (and other diagnoses) is vital. Faculty and educators need a better understanding of strength-based approaches that accentuate the positive and more time to compare observations.

Opportunities exist for postsecondary institutions to be a driver in meeting the unique needs of this population by creating and implementing training programs and professional development opportunities at the postsecondary level that require the participation of all faculty, staff, and administrators thus constructing the ability to have impact and implication on existing practices.

Another impact on education would be for the state department of education

(CDE) to require teachers working with students with ASD and/or ID to hold a certificate of teaching specifically in the area of autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disorders. The requirement would provide opportunity for colleges and universities to offer programs and courses for credit or professional development for students with autism spectrum disorders. The requirement by the department of education and program of research at the college level would provide more specified training for teachers

216 working with this population of students. Additionally, these participants needed to be involved in their educational planning and decision-making, starting in high school, so they develop greater self-confidence in their skills, greater awareness of their needs, and greater self-advocacy skills essential to college success. They also noted the need to learn to organize and manage their time and balance demands through the use of personal resources of people, technology, and visuals.

Self-Determination. Promoting self-determination as a recommended practice for equipping young adults with disabilities for life after high school has emerged relatively recently (Pierson, Carter, Lane, & Glaeser, 2008). Efforts to enhance self- determination should be woven throughout multiple transition domains, promoted in diverse settings, and addressed in conjunction with other related skill deficits combining instruction into a more comprehensive intervention approach (Pierson et al., 2008). Over the past two decades, increased awareness and disability legislation has highlighted the importance of self-determination for individuals with disabilities (Field & Hoffman,

1999).

Research shows that self-determination has a vital impact on academic and personal success for individuals with disabilities (Field & Hoffman, 1999), further establishing it as a cornerstone element in special education. According to Field, Martin,

Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer (1998), self-determination is defined as:

A combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one’s strengths and limitations together with a belief in oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination. (p. 36)

217

Self-determination examines the role of intrinsic needs and extrinsic motivations as expressed by the participants. Three elements are required for self-determination skills to be translated into success: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This was echoed by Robert’s story of becoming independent and living in an apartment with roommates.

Robert further expressed that social environment factors satisfy and support his individual psychological need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness perpetuating exceptional motivational conditions. Such conditions foster an individual’s self- determination skills and maximize the individual’s potential for success as demonstrated by the participants in the C2C program versus those in the traditional pathway.

Self-determination is a skill developed and learned through life experiences and personal insight. Self-awareness and social insight are two key factors that determine the success of self-determination development. Ramon, Dave, and Daniel defined their sense of independence through their determination to succeed. The process of becoming self- determined takes time and often requires facilitation from an authority figure (parents, teachers, counselors) to help the young adult navigate and comprehend the concepts

(Fullerton & Coyne, 1999). Self-determination is a crucial element in promoting successful transitions for students with and without disabilities (Field & Hoffman, 1999).

Autism disorders pose an inherent barrier to the development of self- determination skills. Students on the spectrum often think differently (Fullerton &

Coyne, 1999) and encounter socio-emotional challenges that impede their comprehension of self-determination and life-planning concepts. Despite the participants’ challenges, the

218 students developed self-determination skills. The impact of doing so on the success of academic transitions is undeniable. The following review focuses on the current trends in transitional research in each respective academic group: early childhood and elementary school, secondary school, and postsecondary activities.

Findings

As the participants in this research had limited community involvement and friendships, it became clear the role of their mothers was significant and a major factor in their persistence. Another unexpected and notable finding and one absent from the literature, brought to the forefront by this research was the need for students with ASD/ID to understand how their disability affects their learning and how to articulate that information to others (e.g., professors, employers, support agencies). The importance of self-advocacy skills is not a new topic for students with disabilities. However, previous research has focused primarily on the stigma and disclosure issues surrounding students with learning disabilities. Students with ASD/ID have a complex neurodevelopment disorder that affects each differently. For students with ASD and/or ID, the traits and characteristics of the disability play a greater role in their ability to verbally express their academic and social strengths and weaknesses. Due to communication barriers, an inability to sustain a conversation, and a lack of social skills, students with ASD/ID struggle with being able to articulate themselves with counselors, professors, and others.

In this research, the eight participants struggled to understand how ASD/ID impacted their learning.

219

It is important for educators to know how to support the academic and social needs of students with ASD and/or ID in order to contribute to their persistence in college. Students with ASD and/or ID need to understand how their disability affects their learning and how to articulate that information to others (e.g., professors, employers, support agencies). While the importance of self-advocacy skills is not a new topic for students with disabilities, due to communication challenges, an inability to sustain a conversation, and a lack of social skills, students with ASD/ID struggle with being able to articulate themselves with counselors, professors, and others. Furthermore, according to the shared experiences of the participants in this research, they felt intimidated by their professors. Although they felt supported by the college in general, each had individual experiences that they felt became barriers to their persistence. These included feeling intimidated about visiting professors during office hours and other self-advocacy skills related to disclosing personal information to their professors. Future research should focus on educating faculty on the specific academic and social needs of students with

ASD/ID. As students with ASD/ID have difficulties in the areas of communication and social interactions, their needs are different than the traditional student with a learning disability. These topics could include the learning challenges associated with ASD/ID, how to support students with ASD/ID seeking note-takers in the classroom and other support services, and having flexible office hours for students with ASD/ID who need a rigid routine.

220

Limitations

To assist participants with describing their experiences of challenges or gains, a communication support, such as a device that would allow the individual to type words or speak words would have been accepted, but only two of the participants used a device.

The others were independent in the use of verbalizations for communication. Although their hampered communication was considered a limitation, in that responses were communicated in single words or short phrases, they were given the opportunity to respond electronically. It is possible participants were unable to say all they thought about the topic. A second limitation was that the young adults had a choice of being accompanied by a parent for emotional support, which may have caused the participant to feel inhibited from self-expression. Three participants chose to have a parent present for parts of the interviews, but the parent went in and out of the room. In some cases, the participant asked the parent to leave when the parent offered to leave. A third limitation was noted in that the autism spectrum includes a diverse population, but the small sample size, along with the locations of the sample, limited the possible perspectives.

Although the sample size was small, the strength was apparent in the descriptive data, which were obtained through the intensive interview process. Every attempt was made to include a mix of socioeconomic backgrounds, race, and gender. The representative sample included a mixture of race and gender. Despite limitations, this researcher felt the research problem and questions under investigation were best explored through a case research approach (Merriam, 1998). Within this research, the sample

221 population size was a small sample size, as only eight students with ASD and/or ID participated. Additionally, the eight participants attended the same community college.

Additionally, this researcher has 25 years of teaching experience with students with disabilities, including students with ASD and/or ID. As discussed throughout this dissertation, there has been limited research on students with ASD/ID in postsecondary institutions. An ongoing, thorough review of the literature continued to support the notion that more research is needed to support the persistence of students with these diagnoses in higher education.

Recommendations

Implications for Practice

This research was the first to explore the transition to postsecondary education and the first-year postsecondary experience of students with ASD/ID. Through the cases of the four students in the C2C program, it identified implications for practice both at the high school and the postsecondary level that would improve the postsecondary experience for this group of students with the integration of the C2C program.

High school. This research identified a need for improved IEP development and transition planning for students with ASD/ID. Though two of the students in the research had an IEP and, therefore, were entitled to comprehensive transition planning under

IDEA (2004), neither student nor their parents reported being involved in this process or aware of the contents of their transition plan or SOP (student operation plan). In addition to abiding by the requirements under IDEA (2004) to prepare IEPs, individualized

222 transition goals, and SOPs, high schools should integrate additional best practices into the transition planning process. Integration of social skills training has been found to increase the likelihood of student social success in a variety of postsecondary settings, including postsecondary education (Webb et al., 2008).

This research provides insight into how important it is for the students to be able to access postsecondary support services and to have knowledge of the postsecondary educational self-disclosure process as well as how to indicate what supports they need.

In this research, one student did not self-disclose his disability and the other three students had comprehensive parental support during the self-disclosure process. It is important for all students with disabilities, no matter whether they have an IEP or a 504 plan, to be informed of the self-disclosure process because FAPE terminates when the students graduate from high school (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005; Office of Civil Rights, 2011).

Therefore, high schools should encourage student development of independence and self- determination by ensuring students understand their rights and responsibilities under

Section 504 as it applies to postsecondary educational institutions and have knowledge of their disability and accommodation needs (Krell, 2011).

Postsecondary educational institution. This research indicated that postsecondary educational institutions must introduce several practices, similar to the

C2C model, to help support the transition and first-year experience of students with

ASD/ID and other types of diagnoses. The primary practices postsecondary educational institutions should consider implementing supports similar to those instituted in C2C

223 such as academic support services that go “above and beyond” Section 504 and the ADA and its amendments, engaging faculty in training about how to best support students with

ASD/ID, implementing a peer-mentorship program for students with ASD/ID, providing education coaches, and engaging in a targeted effort to ensure that students with disabilities understand the self-disclosure process.

Implications for Policy

Although additional research is necessary to fully understand how changes to existing policy could potentially improve the transition to postsecondary education and the first-year postsecondary educational experience for students with ASD/ID, this research suggested several key areas within transition and postsecondary policy that, if considered by policymakers, have the potential to positively impact a student’s transition to postsecondary education. This research suggested that a closer alignment of the transition provisions under IDEA (2004) with Section 504 and the ADA and its amendments could potentially foster a smoother transition into postsecondary education for students with disabilities.

Currently, federal law does not provide a legal requirement or standard specifying the documents that postsecondary educational institutions must accept and reference when determining a student’s eligibility for postsecondary disability services (National

Joint Committees on Learning Disabilities [NJCLD], 2007; Shaw, 2009). It is therefore the decision of each individual educational institute whether to reference disability documentation under IDEA (2004), including IEPs, transition goals, and SOPs, when

224 determining if a student is eligible to receive auxiliary supports and services in postsecondary education under Section 504 and the ADA and its amendments

(Association of Higher Education and Disability, 2012; NJCLD, 2007; Shaw, 2009).

These high school documents, particularly the SOP, are intended to inform the student’s post-school educational institution or employer and foster a smoother transition for students (Kochhar et al., 2009). Therefore, federal policymakers should consider issuing guidance that advises postsecondary educational institutions to utilize these documents when making eligibility and service plan decisions. It is particularly important for postsecondary service providers to gain a better understanding of students’ previous services so they can gauge what types of services might help students at the postsecondary level. Additionally, it would be a beneficial aid to help students self- advocate for a similar set of services at the postsecondary level. This guidance would help to begin building a bridge between high school and postsecondary disability policy.

As exemplified by this research and previous studies, certain students might encounter social difficulties that, in turn, impact their ability to access the general academic curriculum. For example, Ryan had difficulty communicating with instructors at certain times throughout the semester. Therefore, issuing federal policy guidance to universities that indicates social supports should be provided to students with ASD/ID if the students’ social issues are impacting their ability to access the academic curriculum would be an important first step to meeting the unique needs of students with ASD.

225

Implications for Future Research

It is important to articulate that this research is a notable contribution toward filling literature gaps and better understanding the first-year postsecondary educational experience of students with ASD/ID. However, it is only an initial step. With the expanding number of students with ASD/ID entering postsecondary education, additional research is imperative (Sanford et al., 2011). Further research that expands the understanding of the postsecondary experiences of a wider number of students with

ASD/ID in postsecondary educational institutions nationwide should be conducted. Since this research focused on four students participating in the transitional program C2C and four students entering the community college in the transitional manner program using a qualitative case research methodology, future research should focus on gaining additional knowledge of students’ experiences by expanding the population of participants and the number of studied. For instance, this research found that the four students (traditional group) who participated in the research could have benefitted from a structured on- campus educational/social skills program. Therefore, to further explore supports and services that would benefit postsecondary students with ASD/ID; this proposed research would begin to provide insight into the integration of education and support services.

Additionally, the research could be expanded into longitudinal research to analyze whether the students’ perceptions of their supports differ depending on how many years they have been enrolled in postsecondary education. This would provide additional,

226 important insight into the postsecondary educational experience and support needs of students with ASD/ID.

This research examined the academic and social experiences of students with

ASD/ID as they transition into and persist from one semester to the next at a public 4- year university. Based on the perceptions and experiences of the eight participants, four major themes were found to be essential in their transition into and persistence at the community college. The research identified critical factors for successful navigation of the academic, social, and independent living demands of IHEs for students with ASD/ID.

This provides direction for future research on students with these diagnoses, both those who were successful as well as those who were unsuccessful and did not graduate from their IHE. Future research could include a comparison of students with ASD/ID who were successful with those who were unsuccessful and, thus, did not graduate with a degree from their IHE.

Conclusion

This research contributes to existing research on individuals with ASD by providing insight into the transition to postsecondary education and first-year postsecondary educational experiences of students with ASD by exploring the first-year postsecondary experiences of four students with ASD enrolled in a selective, 2-year postsecondary educational institution. While the results of the research are limited in their applicability to larger populations, they contribute to filling an important gap in the literature by providing insight into this critical transition period. The research revealed

227 that the students faced academic and social challenges. However, all the students overcame many of the challenges, showed tremendous academic and social improvements, and made it through their first year. This research illuminated how targeted and effective academic and social supports during a student’s transition period and during their first year can provide the students with the support and encouragement to forge ahead.

It also identified implications for policy and practice. This is a particularly important contribution to the field since currently less than half of all students with ASD graduate from their postsecondary educational programs (Sanford et al., 2011). More importantly, this research revealed how the students’ own determination and persistence was a critical component to their ability to make it through the first year. The students often did not view their diagnosis of ASD/ID as a “disability,” which is how it is classified medically and perceived throughout society, but viewed it as a positive attribute that allowed them to be unique, contributing individuals.

The cost to implement successful postsecondary programs for young adults with

ASD/ID, along with professional development opportunities for faculty and staff, will face higher education leaders for the foreseeable future. Inconsistencies among the varied postsecondary institutions in the ability to meet the needs of students with these diagnosis continue (Agnello, 2010), and while how important decisions are made vary from institution to institution, resources tend to be political and ultimately in need of support from the policymakers to develop change. The initiative for postsecondary

228 institutions is to begin to recognize and address how to accommodate the needs of this growing population and make the needs a priority. Other educational impacts include the opportunities to partner with community agencies and/organizations to develop stronger links with community personnel affording students and their families the opportunity to become better prepared for transition from high school to postsecondary education.

My next steps as a researcher are to continue to develop the C2C program embedded in the Transformative Education principles. While the participants in this research are formally diagnosed, the research reveals Transformative Education can be accessed by all students. The experiences these students conveyed during this research exemplify the following:

There is no such thing as a neutral education process. Education either functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate the integration of generations into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity to it, or it becomes the “practice of freedom,” the means by which men and women deal critically with reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world. (Paulo Freire 1999, p. 38).

This can be demonstrated in the praxis of the C2C participants in this research who had no expectations of academic success in college. Each of the C2C participant’s educational transition demonstrates accomplishments in their academic and personal life- long learning. The eight participants expressed their appreciation of being able to share their story, which provided them the opportunity to reflect on their struggles and accomplishments.

The results of this study found the “social” aspect of college cut across all domains and was often embedded in the information shared by the participants when

229 discussing the needs of students with ASD/ID at IHEs. The eight participants believed that “social involvement” or finding a niche through participation in campus organizations, and activities was an essential component to successful social navigation of

IHEs. They agreed that students with ASD/ID needed social opportunities for them to be more satisfied with their IHE and to lessen the chances of feeling lonely and isolated.

As the researcher, I have concluded that more is to be learned about the perspectives of young adults with ASD/ID in regards to their life choices after secondary education and their experiences in transitions. Transition to adulthood is a challenging period for young people in their quest for independence.

I have only touched the surface of the potential of those who were interviewed.

As an educator and rehabilitation specialist, I felt humble as I focused on the participants who persisted and determined to succeed in their personal and educational endeavors.

According to Geller and Greenberg (2010), this means to take time to carefully listen to the young person and develop an understanding of the person within a multi-system context including education resources, multi-agency collaboration, family engagement, and psychosocial strengths. Furthermore, this research provided insight into how important it is for the students to be able to access postsecondary support services and to have knowledge of the postsecondary educational self-disclosure process and how to indicate the supports that they need.

This research also shed light on the importance of students entering postsecondary education academically prepared and having engaged in transition

230 planning to include college preparation activities. Additionally, high schools should ensure that all college-bound students have the skill set to be competitive and successful in the college environment. Professionals in high schools should also ensure that students with IEPs have targeted and ambitious academic goals that address their needs.

All students with ASD and/or ID should be given opportunities to flourish in the academic areas in which they excel but should also be offered appropriate supports, such as tutoring and summer classes, to remediate and improve in areas in which they struggle.

231

APPENDICES

232

APPENDIX A

Informed Consent Form

You are being asked to participate in a research study by Alina A. Sala, a candidate for the doctorate in Educational Leadership at California State University, Sacramento. Based on an extensive review of the literature, relatively little information on the experiences of students with ASD/ID enrolled in California community colleges exist. This researcher is interested in your perceptions of your transition into the community college environment.

By allowing me, the researcher, to understand your college and C2C Project experiences, we can begin to gain a more complete view on the experiences of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability in higher education and the influences of C2C on helping such student’s transition to the community college and successfully complete their educational goals. The purpose of the study is to: a) Gain a better understanding of how students transition into the community college after high school and how the C2C program assists and supports students with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability with their educational goals. This is important because the research comes at a time when students with ASD/ID are a growing population in California and in the California community colleges. b) Specifically, this research study proposes to interview four students with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Diagnosis (ASD) and Intellectual Disability (ID) from the C2C program at Sacramento City College (SCC) and four students with the ASD/ID who enter with the general population, without the support or guidance of the C2C program. The criterion for selection includes: 1) Being a student with the diagnosis of ASD/ID, 2) Actively participating in the C2C for one or two semesters, or 3) Being a student with an ASD diagnosis who completed one or two semesters and entered the community college with the general population.

All interviews will be individually conducted at the time and location that is most convenient and comfortable for you. Each interview will be no longer than 60 minutes (one hour) in length. Please note that the interview will be audio-taped and later transcribed. To ensure confidentiality, a pseudonym will be provided to protect your identity. Your responses will be known by numbers only – your actual name will never be associated with a number. All interview materials will be destroyed one year after completion of the project and data will be securely managed so your real name cannot be matched to the response.

Some of the interview questions may seem personal, but you do not have to answer any question you do not feel comfortable answering. Your participation in this research is

233 entirely voluntary. Your honesty and openness are appreciated, but you have the final say in what you reveal and what questions you feel comfortable to answer.

If at any time you do not wish to continue participation in this study, you are free to do stop. In case you experience emotional distress, you may contact The Department of Health and Human Services, 700 A East Parkway, Suite 1000, Sacramento, CA, 95823, (916) 875-7070 or by visiting http://www.sacdhhss.com for assistance.

By participating in this research, you may gain additional insight into the attitudes and perspectives of your own college experiences as a student with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Findings from this study will add to the body of literature on the transitional experiences of community college for students with disabilities. With your permission, I would like to contact you by email/phone. Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agree to participate in the interviews.

If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Alina A. Sala at [email protected] (916) 508-4600 or Dissertation Chair Dr. Caroline Turner at [email protected] (916) 278-2281. Additional contact information: Office of Research Affairs (916) 278-5674.

I have also agreed to have this interview audio-recorded YES______NO______

Signature: ______

234

APPENDIX B

Interview Protocol

TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL:

1. To what extent did you feel prepared for the transition to college? How would you characterize your academic preparation for college? For example, did your Individual Educational Plan (IEP) include a plan immediately after high school?

2. How did you decide on your major or career? Why did you select attending a community college?

3. Do you think that high school has helped prepare you for the future?

4. Has the high school staff encouraged you to continue in an educational setting after high school?

5. What barriers, if any, have you encountered in trying to understand all the options available to you?

6. What can the school you attended do to help students make orientation and transition to higher education easier?

TRANSITION INTO THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: Please tell me about how you came to enroll in the C2C program here at this community college.

1. Describe your experience as a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability attending this community college.

2. When you think back, how were your first semester experiences in community college?

Student Open-ended Questions

1. From your experiences, tell me what helped you succeed in community college?

a. If individuals helped you overcome any barriers, please tell me about them and how they were of assistance.

235

b. If programs helped you overcome any barriers, please tell me about them and how they were of assistance.

2. Can you tell me about a time when you felt accomplished as a college student?

3. Can you tell me about a time when you felt discouraged as a college student?

4. What makes you feel positive about the college experience? What makes you feel negative about the college experience?

a. Please provide examples of how your college experiences may relate to your home or family influences.

5. How did you learn about campus resources at the community college?

a. Which resources are most useful?

b. Which resources are not being utilized enough?

4. Comments about this topic or these questions?

C2C QUESTIONS

1. What strategies are working for you in the C2C program?

2. What might be missing from the C2C intervention approach that you think ought to be added?

a. How would you characterize the support you had from home to go to college? b. How would learning in the home help you with learning in college? c. Can you offer examples of anything that bridged your home and college experiences for you? d. Anything else you would like to add?

DEBRIEFING STATEMENT

Thank you for participating in the study. As previously mentioned, there is relatively little information explaining the perceptions, lived experiences, and voices of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability who participated in a California community college C2C program. Findings on this study will add to the body

236 of literature on the attitudes, perceptions, and lived experiences of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder, as well as on the best practices of programs serving such a population. Remember that related documents for this study including consent forms, audio recordings, data, and any related notes will be kept in my home in a locked file cabinet and will be destroyed one year after the completion of my study to maintain confidentiality. Again, I thank you for taking the time to participate in this study and contributing to the body of literature on the C2C program. If you have any questions about this study at any time, feel free to contact me at (916) 508-4600 or by e-mail at [email protected].

237

APPENDIX C

Coding Data for C2C Participant Interviews

Category Code Description Count % Cases % Cases Codes Academic Preparation college navigation 6 2.90% 5 62.50% Academic Preparation Community Connection 7 3.40% 3 37.50% College Transition Family 15 7.30% 5 62.50% College Transition Staff 2 1.00% 2 25.00% College Transition College Resources 2 1.00% 1 12.50% Transition Support C2C 7 3.40% 3 37.50% Transition Support DSPS 12 5.90% 4 50.00% Transition Support Family support 8 3.90% 3 37.50% Social Capital Environment Factors 2 1.00% 2 25.00% Social Capital Communication 3 1.50% 1 12.50% Transformative Accomplishment 8 3.90% 5 62.50% Awareness Transformative Persistence 11 5.40% 5 62.50% Awareness Transformative Sense of Success 4 2.00% 3 37.50% Awareness Transformative Overcoming Challenges 22 10.70% 7 87.50% Awareness Transformative Transforming 7 3.40% 3 37.50% Awareness Transformative Positive Self Perception 5 2.40% 2 25.00% Awareness Transformative Independence 14 6.80% 5 62.50% Awareness Interagency Integration of education 3 1.50% 3 37.50% Collaboration services Interagency DOR 8 3.90% 7 87.50% Collaboration Self- Advocacy Hope and Self Reliance 1 0.50% 1 12.50% Self- Advocacy Self-Efficient 1 0.50% 1 12.50%

238

239

APPENDIX D

Coding Data for Traditional Pathway Participant Interviews

Category Code Count % Codes Cases % Cases Academic Preparation Learning Challenges 1 0.50% 1 12.50% College Transition College Resources 2 1.00% 1 12.50% College Transition Family 15 7.30% 5 62.50% College Transition Staff 2 1.00% 2 25.00% Interagency Collaboration DOR 8 3.90% 7 87.50% Interagency Collaboration Integration of Education Services 3 1.50% 3 37.50% Self- Advocacy Hope and Self Reliance 1 0.50% 1 12.50% Self- Advocacy Self-Efficient 1 0.50% 1 12.50% Social Capital Communication 3 1.50% 1 12.50% Social Capital Environment Factors 2 1.00% 2 25.00% Traditional Pathway Academic Challenges 3 1.50% 3 37.50% Traditional Pathway Dropped Out 3 1.50% 2 25.00% Traditional Pathway Non Support 5 2.40% 3 37.50% Traditional Pathway Overwhelmed 1 0.50% 1 12.50% Transition Challenges Depression 4 2.00% 2 25.00% Transition Challenges Uncertain 5 2.40% 4 50.00% Transition Challenges Bullied 6 2.90% 3 37.50% Transition Challenges Sense of Rejection 1 0.50% 1 12.50%

240

241

REFERENCES

ADA Publications. (2009). Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, as amended.

Retrieved from http://www.ada.gov/pubs/ada.htm

Adreon, D., & Durocher, J. S. (2007). Evaluating the college transition needs of

individuals with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Intervention in

School and Clinic, 42, 271-279.

Agnello, B. (2010). The parental journey of adjustment. ProQuest, UMI Dissertations

Publishing ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (3427229)

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Autism. In Diagnostic and statistical manual

of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-

Anderson, K. L. (1988). The impact of colleges and involvement of male and female

students. Sociology of Education, 61, 160-177.

Anderson, L. W., Jacobs, J., Schraumm, S., & Splittgerber, F. (2000). School transitions:

Beginning of the end or a new beginning? International Journal of Educational

Research, 33, 325–339.

Anderson, M., Goodman, J., & Schlossberg, N. (2012). Counseling adults in transition:

Linking Schlossberg’s Theory with practice in a diverse world (4th ed.). New

York: Springer.

242

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieth, A. (1996). Introduction to research in education (5th

ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Association of Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD). (2012). AHEAD best

practices: Disability documentation in higher education. Retrieved from

http://ahead.org/resources

Attwood, T. (2000). Strategies for improving the social integration of children with

Asperger syndrome. Autism, 4(1), 85-100.

Baer, R., Daviso, A., McMahan, R., & Magee, J. (2010). The Ohio longitudinal

transition study: Annual state report on transition. Retrieved from

https://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Special-Education/Resources-

for-Parents-and-Teachers-of-Students-wit/Ohio-Longitudinal-Transition-Study-

OLTS/2013-OLTS-Annual-State-Report.pdf.aspx

Baker, R. W., McNeil, O. V., & Siryk, B. (1994). Expectations and reality in freshman

adjustment to college. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 94-103.

Barnes, C., & Mercer, G. (1997). Breaking the mould: An introduction to doing disability

research. In C. Barnes and G. Mercer (Eds.), Doing disability research. Leeds,

England: The Disability Press.

Bartak, L., & Rutter, M. (1976). Differences between mentally retarded and normally

intelligent autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 6,

109–120.

243

Baskin, A. (2008). Empty nest envy. Retrieved from

http://www.more.ca/relationships/family-and-friends/empty-nestenvy/ a/18861

Blackorby, J., & Wagner, M. (1996). Longitudinal post school outcomes of youth with

disabilities: Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study.

Exceptional Children, 62, 399-413.

Boyer, S. P., & Sedlacek, W. E. (1988). Non-cognitive predictors of academic success for

international students: A longitudinal study. Journal of College Student

Development, 29, 218-223.

Breakey, C. ( 2006). The autism spectrum and further education: A guide to good

practice. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Brinkerhoff, L. C. (1996). Making the transition to higher education: Opportunities for

student empowerment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(2), 118-136.

Brooks, J. H., & DuBois, D. L. (1995). Individual and environmental predictors of

adjustment during the first year of college. Journal of College Student

Development, 36, 347-360.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 349U.S.249 (The Supreme Court, May 31,

1954).

Browning, J., Osborne, L. A., & Reed, P. (2009) A qualitative comparison of perceived

stress and coping in adolescents with and without autistic spectrum disorders as

they approach leaving school. British Journal of Special Education, 36(1), 36-43.

244

California Community College Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO). (2012). Disability Student

Programs & Services Report, 2012. Retrieved from

http://extranet.cccco.edu/Divisions/StudentServices/DSPS/Reports.aspx

California Department of Developmental Services. (2003). Autism spectrum disorders—

Changes in the California caseload. An update: 1999–2003. Retrieved from

http://www.dds.ca.gov/autism

Camarena, P., & Sarigiani, P. (2009). Postsecondary educational aspirations of high-

functioning adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders and their parents. Focus

on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(2), 115-128. doi:

10.1177/1088357609332675

Cameto, R., Levine, P., & Wagner, M. (2004). Transition planning for students with

disabilities. A special topic report of findings from the National Longitudinal

Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from

www.nlts2.org/reports/2004_11/nlts2_report_2004_11_complete.pdf

Carter, E. W., Sisco, L. G., Chung,Y., &Stanton-Chapman, T. (2010). Peer interactions of

students with intellectual disabilities and/or autism: A map of the intervention

literature. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 35, 63–79.

Carter, E. W., Swedeen, B., Cooney, M., Walter, M. J., & Moss, C. K. (2012). “I don’t

have to do this by myself”: Parent-led community conversations to promote

inclusion. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 37, 9–23.

doi: 10.2511/027494812800903184

245

Cauley, K. M., & Jovanovich, D. (2006). Developing an effective transition program for

students entering middle school or high school. The Clearing House, 80(1), 15-

25.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2005). How common is autism spectrum disorder

(ASD)? Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/

Chadsey-Rusch, J., Rusch, F. R., & O’Reilly, M. F. (1991). Transition from school to

integrated communities. Remedial and Special Education, 12, 23-33.

Chappel, S. L., & Somers, B. C. (2010). Employing persons with autism spectrum

disorders: A collaborative effort. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32, 117–

124. doi: 10.3233/JVR-2010–0501

Chaves, C. (2006). Involvement, development, and retention: Theoretical foundations and

potential extensions for adult community college students. Community College

Review, 34(2), 139-152. doi: 10.1177/0091552106293414

Chiang, H. M., Cheung, Y. K., Hickson, L., Xiang, R., & Tsai, L. Y. (2012). Predictive

factors in participation in postsecondary education for high school leavers with

autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 685-696. doi:

10.1007/s10803-011-1297-7

Ciccantelli, L. A. (2011). Critical factors in successful navigation of higher education for

students with autism spectrum disorder: A qualitative case study (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation). University of Akron, Ohio.

246

Cimera, R. E., & Cowan, R. J. (2013). The costs of services and employment outcomes

achieved by adults with autism in the US. Autism, 13, 285–302. doi:

10.1177/1362361309103791

Cohen, M. Z., & Ornery, A. (1994). Schools of phenomenology: Implications for

research. In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Critical issues in qualitative research methods.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Committee on Disability in America. (2007). Health care transitions for young people. In

M. J. Field & A. M. Jette (Eds.), Future of disability in America. Washington,

DC: The National Academies Press.

Cook, B., Tankersley, M., & Landrum, T. (2009). Determining evidence-based practices

in special education. Exceptional Children, 75, 365-383.

Cosumnes River College (CRC). (2014). Welcome to DSP&S. Retrieved from

https://www.crc.losrios.edu/services/dsps

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method

approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five

approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Cutrona, C. (1982). Transition to college: Loneliness and the process of social

adjustment. In L. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of

current theory, research and therapy (pp. 291-309). New York: John Wiley and

Sons.

247

Dachel, A. (2015, April 12). Autism’s “aging out” crisis. On the Brink. Retrieved from

http://www.ageofautism.com/2015/04/datelin-nbc-autism-aging-out-program-

offers-painful-awareness.html

Davies, P. L., Schelly, C. L., & Spooner, C. L. (2013). Measuring the effectiveness of

universal design for learning intervention in postsecondary education. Journal of

Postsecondary Education and Disability, 26(3).

Denbo, S. (2003). Disability lessons in higher education: Accommodating learning

disabled students and student athletes under the rehabilitation act and the

Americans with disabilities act. American Business Law Journal, 41, 145-203.

Denhart, H. (2008). Deconstructing barriers: Perceptions of students labeled with

learning disabilities in higher education. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41,

483-497.

Dewsbury, G., Clarke, K., Randall, D., Rouncefield, M., & Sommerville, I. (2004). The

anti-social model of disability. Disability & Society, 19(2), 145-158. doi:

10.1080/0968759042000181776

Disability Compliance For Higher Education. (2006). Successful strategies for

accommodating students and staff with disabilities. Exceptional Nurse, 11(8).

Retrieved from http://www.exceptionalnurse.com/dche.pdf

Dowling, M., & Cooney, A. (2012). Research approaches related to phenomenology:

Negotiating a complex landscape. Nurse Researcher, 20(2), 21-27.

248

Dudley-Marling, C. (2004). Social constructs of learning disability. Journal of Learning

Disabilities, 37, 482-489.

Dunn, W., Brown, C., & McGuigan, A. (1994). The ecology of human performance: A

framework for considering the effect of context. The American Journal of

Occupational Therapy, 48, 595-607. doi: 10.5014/ajot.48.7.595

Eckes, S. E., & Ochoa, T. A. (2005). Students with disabilities: Transitioning from high

school to higher education. American Secondary Education, 33(3), 6-20.

Retrieved from JStor.

Edgar, E. (1987). Secondary programs in special education: Are many of them

justifiable? Exceptional Children, 53, 555-561.

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (2010). Student

development in college: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Ewell, P., & Wellman, J. (2007). Enhancing student success in education: Summary

report of the NPEC Initiative and National Symposium on Postsecondary Student

Success. Washington, DC: National Postsecondary Education Cooperative.

Field, S. S., Martin, J. E., Miller, R. J., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (1998). Self-

determination for persons with disabilities: A position statement of the Division

on Career Development and Transition. Career Development for Exceptional

Individuals, 21, 113-128.

249

Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1999). The importance of family involvement for promoting

self-determination in adolescents with autism and other developmental

disabilities. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 14, 36-41.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative

Inquiry, 12(2), 219-245.

Fossey, E., Harvey, C., McDermott, F., & Davidson, L. (2002). Understanding and

evaluating qualitative research. Australian and New Zealand Journal of

Psychiatry, 36, 717-732.

Freire, Paulo. (1999). Cultural action for freedom, Harvard Education Review, 88(4),

471.

Fullerton, A. (1995). Promoting self-determination for adolescents and young adults with

autism. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 5, 337-346.

Fullerton, A., & Coyne, P. (1999). Developing skills and concepts for self-determination

in young adults with autism. Focus and Other Developmental Disabilities, 14(1),

42-63.

Geller, L. L., & Greenberg, M. (2010). Managing the transition process from high school

to college, and beyond: Challenges for individuals, families, and society. Social

Work in Mental Health, 8, 92-116.

250

Gilmore, D., Bose, J., & Hart, D. (2001). Postsecondary education as a critical step

toward meaningful employment: Vocational Rehabilitation's role. Research to

Practice, 7, 1-5. Retrieved from

http://www.communityinclusion.org/publications/text/rp29.html

Gilmore, D., Schuster, J., Zafft, C., & Hart, D. (2001). Postsecondary education services

and employment outcomes within the Vocational Rehabilitation system.

Disabilities Studies Quarterly, 21(1). Retrieved from

www.cds.hawaii/dsq/issues/2001/winter/default.htm

Giorgi, A. (1989). One type of analysis of descriptive data: Procedures involved in

following a scientific phenomenological method. Methods, 39-61.

Giorgi, A. (1997). The theory, practice, and evaluation of the phenomenological method

as a qualitative research procedure. Journal of phenomenological psychology,

28(2).

Giorgi, A. (2012). The descriptive phenomenological method. Journal of

Phenomenological Psychology, 43(1), 3-12.

Glennon, T. (2001). The stress of the university experience for students with Asperger

syndrome. Work, 17(3), 183-190.

Goodman, J., & Pappas, J. G. (2000). Applying the Schlossberg 4S Transition Model to

retired university faculty: Does it fit? Adultspan Journal, 2(1), 15-28.

Graetz, J. E., & Spaminato, K. (2008). Asperger’s syndrome and the voyage through high

school: Not the final frontier. Journal of College Admission, 198, 19-24.

251

Grandin, T. (1999). Choosing the right job for people with autism or Asperger’s

Syndrome. The Autism Research Institute. Retrieved from

http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/?pageId = 596

Gray, C. A. (2000). The new social story book. Arlington, TX: Future Horizons.

Habermas, J. (1987). Theory of communicative action. (Trans. T. McCarthy). Boston,

MA: Beacon.

Halpern, A. S. (1985). Transition: A look at the foundation. Exceptional Children, 51,

479-486.

Halpern, A. S. (1994). Quality of life for students with disabilities in transition from

school to adulthood. Social Indicators Research, 33(1-3), 193-236.

Haring, K. A., Lovett, D. L., & Smith, D. D. (1990). A follow-up study of recent

supported employment graduates of learning disabilities programs. Journal of

Learning Disabilities, 23, 108-113.

Harris, A., Harris, D., & Homewood, R. (2005). Autism spectrum disorder: Good

practice guidance for transition forward. Maidstone, United Kingdom: Kent

County Council.

Hart, D., Grigal, M., & Weir, C. (2010). Expanding the paradigm: Postsecondary

education options for individuals with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual

disabilities. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25(3), 134-

150. doi: 10.1177/1088357610373759

252

Hart, D., Zafft, C., & Zimbrich, K. (2001). Creating access to college for all students.

Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 23(2).

Hasazi, S. B., Gordon, L. R., & Roe, C. A. (1985). Factors associated with the

employment status of handicapped youth exiting high school from 1979 to 1983.

Exceptional Children, 51, 455-469.

Hedlund, M. (2000). Disability as a phenomenon: A discourse of social and biological

understanding. Disability and Society, 15(5), 765-780.

Hendricks, D. (2010). Employment and adults with autism spectrum disorders:

Challenges and strategies for success. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32,

125-134.

Hendricks, D. R., & Wehman, P. (2009). Transition from school to adulthood for youth

with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental

Disabilities, 24, 77-88.

Hendricks, D. R., & Wehman, P. (2009). Transition from school to adulthood for youth

with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Review and recommendations. Focus on

Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(2), 77-88. doi: 10.1177/

1088357608329827

Hewitt, L. E. (2011). Perspectives on support needs of individuals with autism spectrum

disorders: Transition to college. Topics in Language Disorders, 31(3), 273-285.

doi: 10.1097/TLD.0b013e318227fd19

253

Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) of 2008, 122 STAT. 3078, PL 110-315.

Retrieved from

www.uc.edu/content/dam/uc/registrar/docs/higher_education_opportunity_act_of

_2008.pdf

Holahan, C. J. (1986). Annual review of psychology. Environmental Psychology, 37,

381-407.

Horn, L., & Berktold, J. (1999). Students with disabilities in postsecondary education: A

profile of preparation, participation, and outcomes. U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Horn, L., Peter, K., & Rooney, K. (2002). Profile of undergraduates in U.S.

postsecondary institutions: 1999-2000 (Statistical Analysis Report No. NCES

2002-168). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics.

Hubert, C. (2009, June 28). Rise in autistic adults worries caregivers. The Sacramento

Bee. Retrieved from http://www.sacbee.com/ourregion/story/1983338.html

Hunt, M. (1997). How science takes stock: The story of meta-analysis. New York:

Russell Sage Foundation.

Hurlbutt, K., & Chalmers, L. (2002). Adults with autism speak out: Perceptions of their

life experiences. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(2),

103-111.

254

Hurley, A. D., & Levitas, A. S. (2007). The importance of recognizing autism spectrum

disorders in intellectual disability. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental

Disabilities, 10, 157-161.

Husserl, E. (1970). The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology.

Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Individual with Disabilities Act (IDEA) of 1990, 20 U.S.C. § 1414 (d) (1) (A) (vii) (III).

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et

seq.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA), 20 U.S.C §

1401 et seq.

Ivey, M. L., Heflin, J., & Alberto, P. (2004). The use of social stories to promote

independent behaviors in novel events for children with PDD-NOS. Focus on

Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 19, 164–176.

Izzo, M., & Lamb, P. (2002). Self-determination and career development: Skills for

successful transition to postsecondary education and employment. A White Paper.

Retrieved from

http://www.ncset.hawaii.edu/publications/pdf/self_determination.pdf

Janiga, S. J., & Costenbader, V. (2002). The transition from high school to postsecondary

education for students with learning disabilities: A survey of college service

coordinators. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 462-468.

255

Jones, S. R. (1996). Toward inclusive theory: Disability as social construction. NASPA

Journal, 33, 347-354.

Kanne, S. M., & Christ, S. E., Reiersen, A. M. (2009). Psychiatric symptoms and

psychosocial difficulties in young adults with autistic traits. Journal of Autism

Development Disorder, 39, 827-833. doi: 10.1007/s10803-008-0688-x

Klin, A., McPartland, J., & Volkmar, F. R. (2005). Asperger Syndrome. In F. R.

Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of Autism and

pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 88-125). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &

Sons.

Koch, T. (1995). Interpretive approaches in nursing research: The influence of Husserl

and Heidegger. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21, 827-836.

Kochhar-Bryant, C. A., Bassett, D. S., & Webb, K. W. (2009). Transition to

postsecondary education for students with disabilities. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Corwin Press.

Kochhar-Bryant, C. A., Shaw, S., & Izzo, M. (2008). Transition and IDEA 2004: what

every teacher should know about. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Kohler, P. D., & Field, S. (2003). Transition-focused education: Foundation for the

future. The Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 174-183.

Kokina, A., & Kern, L. (2010). Social story interventions for students with Autism

Spectrum Disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental

Disorders, 40, 812-826.

256

Kortegast, C. A., & Hamrick, F. A. (2009). Moving on: Voluntary staff departures at

small colleges and universities. NASPA Journal, 46(2), 183-207.

Krell, M. M. (2011). Defining college readiness for students with Autism Spectrum

Disorders: A Delphi study to guide school counselors (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation). University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT.

Krohn, F. B., & Goetz, K. M. (2005). The Goetz plan: A practical smoking cessation

program for college students. College Student Journal, 39(2), 260.

Kuh, G. D., Cruce, T. M., Shoup, R., & Kinzie, J. (2008). Unmasking the effects of

student engagement on first-year college grades and persistence. The Journal of

Higher Education, 79(5), 540-563. doi: 10.1353/jhe.0.0019

Learning Disabilities Association of Canada. (2007). Putting a Canadian face on

learning disabilities (PACFOLD). Ottawa ON: LDAC.

LeBlanc, L., Richardson, W., & Burns, K. A. (2009). Autism spectrum disorder and the

inclusive classroom: Effective training to enhance knowledge of ASD and

evidence-based practices. Teacher Education and Special Education, 32(2), 166-

179. doi: 10.1177/0888406409334279

Leyser, Y., Vogel, S., Wyland, S., & Brulle, A. (1998). Faculty attitudes and practices

regarding students with disabilities: Two decades after implementation of Section

504. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 13(3).

Madaus, J. W. (2005). Navigating the college transition maze: A guide for students with

learning disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(3), 32-37.

257

Madaus, J. W., & Shaw, S. F. (2006). Disability services in postsecondary education:

Impact of IDEA 2004. Journal of Developmental Education, 30, 13-21.

doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2006.00223.x

May, A. L., & Stone, C. A. (2010). Stereotypes of individuals with learning disabilities:

Views of college students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of

Learning Disabilities, 43, 483-499. doi: 10.1177/0022219409355483

McCarthy, M., & Campbell, N. (1993). Serving disabled students: Faculty needs and

attitudes. NASPA Journal, 30(2), 120-125.

McGraw-Hill. (2002). Concise dictionary of modern medicine. USA: Author.

McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2006). Research in education: Evidence-based

inquiry (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Mellard, D. F., Hall, J. P., & Parker, K. (1999). Assisting adult educators in preparing

individuals with disabilities for employment. American Rehabilitation, 25(4), 24.

Merriam, S. (1998). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow, J. (1996). Contemporary paradigms of learning. Adult Education Quarterly,

46(3), 158-172.

258

Migliore, A., Butterworth, J., & Hart, D. (2008). Postsecondary education and

employment outcomes for youth with intellectual disabilities (Fast Facts Series,

No. 1). Boston, MA: Institute for Community Inclusion.

Mills v. Board of Education (F.Supp. 866 (D.D.C. 1972).

Morningstar, M. E., Kleinhammer-Tramill, P. J., & Lattin, D. L. (1999). Using successful

models of student-centered transition planning and services for adolescents with

disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31(9), 1-19.

Morse, J. M. (1991). Qualitative nursing research: A free-for-all? In J. M. Morse (Ed.),

Qualitative nursing research: A contemporary dialogue (Revised ed.). Newbury

Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Morse, J. M. (2003). A review committee’s guide for evaluating qualitative proposals.

Qualitative Health Research, 13, 833-851.

Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic research: Design, methodology, and applications.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.

Moxon, L., & Gates, D. (2001). Children with autism: Supporting the transition to

adulthood. Educational and Child Psychology, 18, 28–40.

Mull, C., Sitlington, P. L., & Alper, S. (2001). Postsecondary education for students with

learning disabilities: A synthesis of the literature. Exceptional Children, 68(1),

97-118.

259

National Autistic Society. (2004). The undiscovered workforce. Prospectus. Retrieved

from http://www.autism-society.org/

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2001). Students with disabilities in

postsecondary education: A profile of preparation, participation, and outcomes,

1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2002). Table 4. Public school

membership, by race/ethnicity and state: School year 2000-01. Education

Statistics Quarterly. Retrieved from

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/quarterly/summer/3-6_2asr

National Council on Disability (NCD). (2003). People with disabilities and

postsecondary education: A position paper. Retrieved from

http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2003/education.htm

National Council on Disability (NCD). (2008). The Rehabilitation Act: Outcomes for

transition-age youth. Washington, DC: National Council on Disability. Retrieved

from http://www.ncd.gov/publications/2008/10282008

National Joint Committees on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD). (2007). The documentation

disconnect for students with learning disabilities: Improving access to

postsecondary disability services. Retrieved from

http://www.ldonline.org/?module= uploads&func=download&fileId=673

260

National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). (2004). Transition planning for

students with disabilities: A special topic report from the National Longitudinal

Transition Study-2. Retrieved from

http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2004_11/nlts2_report_2004_11_complete.pdf

National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). (2005). The post-high school

outcomes of youth with disabilities up to four years after high school. Retrieved

from http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2009_04/ index.html

National Organization on Disability. (2000). Executive summary: 2000 N.O.D./Harris

Survey of Americans with Disability. Retrieved from

http://www.nod.org/content.cfm?id_

National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Washington, DC:

National Academy Press.

Neubert, D. A., Moon, M. S., & Grigal, M., & Redd. V. (2001). Postsecondary

educational practices for individuals with mental retardation and other significant

disabilities: A review of the literature. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 16,

155-168.

Newman, L. (2005). Postsecondary education participation of youth with disabilities. In

M. Wagner, L. Newman, R. Cameto, N. Garza, & P. Levine (Eds.), After high

school: A first look at the post school experiences of youth with disabilities

(Report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 [NLTS2]) (pp. 4-1 to

4-17). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

261

No Child Left Behind Act, 20 U.S.C. § 6301 (2001).

Noonan, P. M., Morningstar, M. E., & Erickson, A. G. (2008). Improving interagency

collaboration: Effective strategies used by high-performing local districts and

communities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 31, 132–143. doi:

10.1177/0885728808327149

Odom, S. L., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, R. H., Thompson, B., & Harris, K. R.

(2005). Research in special education: Scientific methods and evidenced-based

practices. Exceptional Children, 71, 137–148.

Office for Civil Rights (OCR). (2011). Students with disabilities preparing for

postsecondary Education: Know your rights and responsibilities. Retrieved from

http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/transition.html

Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). (2002). Twenty-fourth annual report to

Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education

Act. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from

https://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2002/toc-execsum.pdf

Oliver, M. (1990). The individual and social models of disability. Paper Presented at Joint

Workshop of the Living Options Group and the Research Unit of the Royal

College Physicians. Retrieved from

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disabilitystudies/archiveuk/Oliver/in%20soc%20dis.pdf

Oliver, M. (1996). Understanding disability: From theory to practice. New York:

Palgrave.

262

Orr, A. C., & Hammig, S. B. (2009). Inclusive postsecondary strategies for teaching

students with learning disabilities: A review of the literature. Learning Disability

Quarterly, 32(3), 181-196.

Ozonoff, S., Garcia, N., Clark, E., & Lainhart, J. E. (2005). MMPI-2 personality profiles

of high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorders. Assessment, 1, 86-95.

Pancer, S. M., & Hunsberger, B. (2000). Cognitive complexity of expectations and

adjustment to university in the first year. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(1),

38-57.

Partners Resource Network. (2013). Transition. Retrieved from

http://www.partnerstx.org/transition

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). London,

England: Sage Publications.

Pearson, R. E., & Petitpas, A. J. (1990). Transitions of athletes: Developmental and

preventive perspectives. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69, 7-10.

Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) v. Commonwealth of

Pennsylvania. 343 F. Supp. 279; 1972 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 13874. Public Interest

Law Center of Philadelphia. Undated. Retrieved from

http://www.pilcop.org/pennsylvania-association-for-retarded-citizens-parc-v-

commonwealth-of-pennsylvania/.

Peterson, A. C., & Crockett, L. (1985). Pubertal timing and grade effects on adjustment.

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14(3), 191–206.

263

Pierson, M. R., Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., & Glaeser, B. C. (2008). Factors influencing

the self-determination of transition-age youth with high-incidence disabilities.

Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 31, 115-125.

Prince-Hughes, D. (n.d). Understanding college students with Autism. GW HEATH

Resource Center. Retrieved from

http://www.heath.gwu.edu/files/active/autism_college_ students.pdf

Prinstein, M. J., & Dodge, K. A. (2008). Understanding peer influence in children and

adolescents. New York: Guilford.

Pritchard, M. E., & Wilson, G. S. (2003). Using emotional and social factors to predict

student success. Journal of College Student Development, 44(1), 18-28.

Rayle, A., & Chung, K. (2007). Revisiting first-year college students’ mattering: Social

support, academic stress, and the mattering experience. Journal of College

Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 9(1), 21-37.

Rehabilitation Act of 1973. (2011). Protecting students with disabilities: Frequently

asked questions about Section 504 and the education of children with disabilities.

Office for Civil Rights. Retrieved from

http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/504faq.html

Rehabilitative Services Administration (RSA). (n.d.). Frequently asked questions about

RSA. Retrieved from http://rsa.ed.gov/faqs.cfm#college

Retish, P. (1989). Education and transition: Is there a relationship? Career Development

for Exceptional Individuals, 12, 36-69.

264

Rice, C. (2009). Attitudes of undergraduate students toward people with intellectual

disabilities: Considerations for future policy makers. College Student Journal,

43(1), 207-215.

Richard, M. M. (1995). Pathways to success for the college student with ADD:

Accommodations and preferred practices. Journal of Postsecondary Education

and Disability, 11(2-3), 16-30.

Roberts, K. (2010). Topic areas to consider when planning transition from high school to

postsecondary education with students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on

Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25(3), 158-162.

Roessler, R. T., Brolin, D. E., & Johnson, J. M. (1990). Factors affecting employment

success and quality of life: A one-year follow-up of students in supported

employment. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 13, 95-107.

Sabbatino, E., & Macrine, S. (2007). Start on success: A model transition program for

high school students with disabilities. Preventing School Failure, 52(1), 33-39.

doi:10.3200/PSFL.52.1.33-40

Sanford, C., Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., Knokey, A. M., & Shaver, D. (2011).

The post-high school outcomes of youth with disabilities up to 6 years after

high school. Key findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-

2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2019-3004). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

265

Schaefer, J. L. (2010). Voices of older baby boomer students: Supporting their transitions

back into college. Educational Gerontology, 36, 67-90. doi:10.1080/

17419160903057967

Schaffer v. Weast, 377 F.3d 449 (4th Cir. 2004). Retrieved from

http://www.wrightslaw.com/law/caselaw/04/4th.schaffer.weast.md.htm

Schall, C. M. (2012). Positive behavior support: Supporting adults with autism spectrum

disorders in the workplace. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32(2), 109-115.

doi: 10.3233/JVR-2010-0500

Schalock, R., Keith, K. D., Hoffman, K., & Karan, O. C. (1989). Quality of life: Its

measurement and use. Mental Retardation, 27(1), 25-31.

Schneider, N., & Goldstein, H. (2009). Using social stories and visual schedules to

improve socially appropriate behaviors in children with autism. Journal of

Positive Behavior Interventions, 11, 1-12.

Scott, S. (1991). A change in legal status: An overlooked dimension in the transition to

higher education. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 459-465.

Scuccimarra, D., & Speece, D. (1990). Employment outcomes and social integration of

students with mild handicaps: The quality of life two years after high school.

Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 213-219.

Seidman, A. (2005). Where we go from here: A retention formula for student success. In

A. Seidman (Ed.), College student retention: Formula for student success (pp.

295-316). Westport, CT: ACE/Praeger.

266

Shakespeare, T. (1997). Defending the social model. Disability and Society, 12(2), 293-

300. doi: 10.1080/09687599727380

Shattuck, P. L. (2006). The contribution of diagnostic substitution to the growing

administrative prevalence of autism in U.S. special education. Pediatrics, 117,

1028–1037.

Shattuck, P. T., Wagner, M., Narendorf, S., Sterzing, P., & Hensley, M. (2011). Post-high

school service use among young adults with autism. Archives of Pediatrics and

Adolescent Medicine, 165, 141–146. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.279

Shaver, P., Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Transition to college: Network

changes, social skills, and loneliness. In S. Duck & D. Perlman (Eds),

Understanding personal relationships (pp. 193-219). London, UK: Sage

Shaw, S. (2009). Transition to postsecondary education. Focus on Exceptional Children,

42(2), 1-16.

Shtayermman, O. (2008). Suicidal ideation and comorbid disorders in adolescents and

young adults diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome: A population at risk. Journal

of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 18(3), 301-328. doi:

10.1080/10911350802427548

Simpson, R. (2003). Policy-related research issues and perspectives. Focus on Autism

and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(3), 192-196.

Sitlington, P. L. (2003). Postsecondary education: The other transition. Exceptionality,

11(2), 103-113. doi: 10.1207/S15327035EX1102_05

267

Smith, M. D. & Fowler, K. A. (2006). Phenomenological research. Unpublished

manuscript.

Smith, R. O. (1993). Technology part II: Adaptive equipment and technology. In C. B.

Royeen (Ed.), AOTA self-study series: Classroom applications for school-based

practice. Rockville, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association.

Smith, T. E. (2001). Section 504, the ADA, and public schools. Retrieved from

http://www.ldonline.org/article/6108

South, M., Ozonoff, S., & McMahon, W. M. (2005). Repetitive behavior profiles in

Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and

Developmental Disorders, 35, 145–158.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Sterling-Turner, H., & Jordan, S. (2007). Interventions addressing transition difficulties

for individuals with autism. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 681-690.

Stodden, R. A., & Conway, M. A. (n.d.). Supporting individuals with disabilities in

postsecondary education. National Center for the Study of Postsecondary

Educational Supports (NCSPES). Retrieved from

http://www.ncset.hawaii.edu/publications/pdf/SupportingIndividualswithDisabiliti

es.pdf

Stodden, R. A., & Mruzek, D. W. (2010). An introduction to postsecondary education

and employment of persons with autism and developmental disabilities. Focus on

Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25(3), 131-133.

268

Stoner, J. B., Angell, M. E., House, J. J., & Bock, S. J. (2007). Transitions: A parental

perspective from parents of young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

(ASD). Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 19, 23-39.

Tagayuna, A., Stodden, R. A., Chang, C., Zeleznik, M. E., & Whelley, T. A. (2005). A

two-year comparison of support provision for persons with disabilities in

postsecondary education. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 22, 13-21.

Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2010). Changes in the autism behavioral phenotype

during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental

Disorders, 40, 1431-1446.

Taylor, M. J. (2005). Teaching students with autistic spectrum disorders in HE.

Education & Training, 47(7).

Tennessee v. Lane, 541 U.S. 509 (2004).

Tevyaw, T. O., Borsari, B., Colby, S. M., & Monti, P. M. (2007). Peer enhancement of a

brief motivational intervention with mandated college students. Psychology of

Addictive Behaviors, 21(1), 114-119.

Tinto, V. (1982). Limits of theory and practice in student attrition. The Journal of Higher

Education, 53, 687-700.

Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition

(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago.

Tinto, V. (2004). Student retention and graduation: Facing the truth, living with the

consequence. Washington, DC: The Pell Institute.

269

Tovar, E., & Simon, M. A. (2006). Academic probation as a dangerous opportunity:

Factors influencing diverse college students’ success. Community College Journal

of Research and Practice, 30, 547-564. doi:10.1080/10668920500208237

Trainor, A. A. (2008). Using cultural and social capital to improve postsecondary

outcomes and expand transition models for youth with disabilities. The Journal of

Special Education, 42, 148–162. doi: 10.1177/0022466907313346

Troiana, P. (2003). College students and learning disability: Elements of self-style.

Journal of College Student Development, 44(3), 404-419. Doi:

10.1353/csd.2003.0033

Turnball, H. R., Stowe, M. J., & Huerta, N. E. (2007). Free and appropriate public

education. Denver, CO: Love Publishing.

Twyman, J. S., & Sota, M. (2008). Identifying research-based practices for response to

intervention: Scientifically based instruction. Journal of Evidence-Based

Practices for Schools, 9, 86-101.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010). Labor force statistics from the current

population survey. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsdisability.htm

U.S. Department of Education Office of Special and Rehabilitative Services. (2012).

About ED offices. Retrieved from

http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html

U.S. Department of Education. (1991). Table EA 3.6.A. Data Analysis System. Retrieved

from LexisNexis.

270

U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Twenty-second annual report to Congress on the

implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Retrieved from

https://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2001/toc-execsum.pdf

U.S. Department of Education. (2003). Identifying and implementing educational

practices supported by rigorous evidence: A user friendly guide. Washington,

DC: Author.

U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Building the legacy of IDEA 2004. Retrieved from

http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cstatute%2C

U.S. Department of Education. (2006). 26th Annual (2004) report to Congress on the

implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, vol. I.

Washington DC. Retrieved from

http://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2004/index.html

U.S. Department of Education. (2011). 30th Annual Report to Congress on the

Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2008.

Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from

http://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2008/parts-b-c/30th-idea-arc.pdf

U.S. Department of Education. (2014, July 10). The national technical assistance center

on improving transition to postsecondary education and employment for students

with disabilities. Retrieved from

http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/rsa/new.html#20140710

271

U.S. Department of Labor. (1999). Report on the American workforce. (USDL: 99–252).

Washington, DC: US Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Van Gannep, A. (1960). The rites of passage (Trans. M. Vizedon & G. Caffee). IL:

University of Chicago Press.

VanBergeijk, E., Klin, A., & Volkmar, F. (2008). Supporting more able students on the

autism spectrum: College and beyond. Journal of Autism and Developmental

Disorders, 38, 1539-1370.

Volkmar, F. R., & Weisner, L. A. (2009). Adolescence, adulthood, and the future. In F.

R. Volkmar & L. A. Weisner (Eds.), A practical guide to autism: What every

parent, family member, and teacher needs to know (pp. 277-323). Hoboken, NJ:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Wagner, M., Cameto, R., & Newman, L. (2003). Youth with disabilities: A changing

population. A report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study

and the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2. Retrieved from

http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2003_04-1/nlts2_report_2003_04-1_execsum.pdf

Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Garza, N., & Levine, P. (2005). After high school:

A first look at the post school experiences of youth with disabilities. A report from

the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI

International

272

Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Levine, P., & Marder, C. (2007). Perceptions and

expectations of youth with disabilities. A special topic report of findings from the

National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI

International.

Waldrop, J., & Stern, S. M. (2003, March). Disability status: 2000 census brief, issued

March 2003. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-17.pdf

Walker, C. J. (2006). Adequate access or equal treatment: Looking beyond the IDEA to

Section 504 in a Post-Schaffer public school. Stanford Law Review, 58(8).

Webb, K. W., Patterson, K. B., Syverud, S. M., & Seabrooks-Blackmore, J. J. (2008).

Evidence-based practices that promote transition to postsecondary education:

Listening to a decade of expert voices. Exceptionality: A Special Education

Journal, 16, 192-206. doi: 10.1080/09362830802412182

Wehmeyer, M. L., & Field, S. (2007). Self-determination: Instructional and assessment

strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Abery, B., Mithaug, D. E., & Stancliffe, R. J. (2003). Theory in

self-determination: Foundations for educational practice. Springfield, IL:

Charles C Thomas Publisher, LTD.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Gragoudas, S., & Shogren, K. A. (2006). Self-determination, student

involvement, and leadership development. In P. Wehman (Ed.) Life beyond the

classroom, Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

273

Wessel, R. D., Jones, J. A., Markle, L., & Westfall, C. (2009). Retention and graduation

of students with disabilities: Facilitating student success. Journal of

Postsecondary Education and Disability, 21(3), 116-125.

West, M., Kregel, J., Getzel, F., Zhu, M., Ipsen, S., & Martin, E. (1993). Beyond Section

504: Satisfaction and empowerment of students with disabilities in higher

education. Exceptional Children, 59(5).

White, S. W., Ollendick, T. H., & Bray, B. C. (2011). College students on the autism

spectrum: Prevalence and associated problems. Autism, 15, 683-701. doi:

10.1077/1362361310393363.

Wicker, A. W (1979). An introduction to ecological psychology. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press.

Wilson, M. G., Hoffman, A. V., & McLaughlin, M. J. (2009). Preparing youth with

disabilities for college: How research can inform transition policy. Focus on

Exceptional Children, 41(7), 1-10. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0074-5

Wing, L. (1980). Childhood autism and social class. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137,

410–417.

Wisconsin Technical College System. (2009). Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) guide

for Wisconsin Technical College System (WTCS) staff. Retrieved from

https://heath.gwu.edu/files/downloads/autismspectrumdisordersguide.pdf

274

Wolanin, T. R., & Steele, P. E. (2004, June). Higher education opportunities for students

with disabilities: A primer for policymakers. Washington, DC: The Institute For

Higher Education Policy.

Wright, J. J. (1967). Reported personal stress sources and adjustment of entering

freshman, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14(4), 371-373.

Yell, M. L. (2012). The law and special education (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson.

Yell, M. L., Katsiyannis, A., Drasgow, E., & Herbst, M. (2003). Developing legally

correct and educationally appropriate programs for students with autism spectrum

disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, J8(3), 182-

191.

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage.

Zafft, C., Hart, D., & Zimbrich, K. (2004). College career connection: A study of youth

with intellectual disabilities and the impact of postsecondary education. Education

and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39(1), 45-53.

Zager, D., & Alpern, C. S. (2010). College-based inclusion programming for transition-

age students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities,

25, 151-157. doi: 10.1177/1088357610371331

275

Zeedyk, S., Gallacher, J., Henderson, M., Hope, G., Husband, B., & Lindsay, K. (2003).

Negotiating the transition from primary to secondary school: Perceptions of

pupils, parents and teachers. School Psychology International, 24(1), 67-79.

Zigmond, N., Kloo, A., & Volonino, V. (2009). What, where, how? Special education in

the climate of full inclusion. Exceptionality, 17, 189-204. doi:

10.1080/09362830903231986

Zirkel, P. A. (2002). The autism case law: Administrative and judicial rulings. Focus on

Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(2), 84-93.

Zolnierek, C. (2011). Exploring lived experiences of persons with severe mental illness:

A review of the literature. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 32(1), 46-72.

Zussman, R. (2004). People in places. Qualitative Sociology, 27, 351-363.