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INDIVIDUAL INTEREST AND SUBJECT-MATTER KNOWLEDGE; VARIABLES AFFECTING SECOND-LANGUAGE STRATEGY USE IN READING A SCIENCE ARTICLE
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School
of The Ohio State University
By
Tona Dickerson, M A
The Ohio State University 1998
Dissertation Committee: Approvi
Professor Charles Hancock, Adviser 'Adviser Professor Diane Birckbichler College of Education
Professor Donna Lone ÜMI Number: 9833967
UMI Microform 9833967 Copyright 1998, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Copyright by Tona G. Dickerson 1998 ABSTRACT
This study investigated two components of Ellis' (1994) model of second language learning; individual learner differences and language learning strategies. Ellis posits that these language learners characteristics have an impact on the learning process. In fact, he claims that they determine strategy use. In the present study, subject-matter knowledge and individual interest were conceived to be individual learner differences. The purpose of the student study, therefore, was to document the strategies reported when subject-matter knowledge and individual interest were considered.
After measures of subject-matter knowledge and individual interest in a topic were obtained, a think-aloud protocol documented the strategy use of ten collegiate second- language learners of Spanish. Using a qualitative analysis, a strategy use taxonomy was developed which contained the strategies that both science and non-science majors employed during the reading of a science text. The identified strategies were subsequently submitted to frequency counts and then analyzed according to the levels of subject-matter knowledge and levels of interest of the participants in this study. In addition to strategy use identification, this study investigated strategy use validation to examine whether learners used strategies they had previously identified.
The results of this study indicated that science and non-science majors apply similar strategies to understand a science text, but they differ in terms of both frequency of strategy use and type of strategies used. Additional key findings related to learner systematicity of strategy use, an interrelationship between individual interest, subject- matter knowledge, strategy use, and the validation of learner strategy use.
The findings of this study provide insights into the language learning process of collegiate science and non-science majors during the reading of a science article. Also, the study presents implications for classroom practitioners and researchers. Second language strategy instruction and further research recommendations are made.
Ill DEDICATED to my mother, Elzora Johnson
IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As I honor Jesus Christ, the living God. I recognize the contributions of two e.xceptional scholars who obeyed Him and willingly gave of themselves to ensure my success: Dr. Charles Hancock, my adviser, a man of faith, and Dr. Elizabeth Bernhardt, my mentor.
I acknowledge the role of many other outstanding scholars in my doctoral program. Dr. Terrell Morgan. Dr. Keiko Samimy, and Dr. Valerie Lee. members of my
General Examination Committee: and Dr. Donna Long and Dr. Diane Birckbichler. members of my Dissertation Committee under whose direction my research, analytical, and writing skills were continually honed.
1 express my gratitude to another scholar. Bryce Bate. Senior Systems Manager for University Technology Services who benevolently provided the technical assistance to develop the computerized translation and interview.
Many other individuals shared in various aspects of this degree. The data could not have been collected without the assistance of Melinda Robinson and the Department of Spanish and Portuguese's teaching assistants and instructors. Carlos Eduardo Pineros assisted in rating and coding the data of this study. Doyline Williams and Claude
Nicholson donated their time and energy to read and comment on drafts of the written document. Esther Haynes. Betty Me bane, and members of the former Foreign Missions Committee of the Church of Christ Apostolic Faith contributed spiritually and financially
toward language study/ missions trips to Ecuador and Costa Rica.
My years at The Ohio State University were blessed with the friendships of other
graduate students; Sara Chang, Raquel Greene, Linda Trautman, Marilyn Howard,
Fernanda Capraro, Noriko Fuijioka, Natasha Bondareva-Humpheys, German Ardila, and
Akinjou Oniapo.
I could not have endured those years without the care packages and words of
encouragement given by Susan and Tom Myers, Rochelle keeper-Ryan, Hannah keeper,
Cheryl Parker, and Carlos Chang.
More importantly, I could not have completed this degree without the spiritual
sacrifices of eight women who agreed to pray and fast for me during the writing of my
dissertation: Geneva Watson, Dr. Helen Goss, Tracy Barron-Watkins, Betty Morris,
Georgia Gibson, Charlene Backner, Olive Grayson, and kynda Dickerson.
I thank God for the family in which He placed me. I honor my mother, Elzora
Johnson, who always encouraged me to obtain this degree. I express my appreciation to
my sister, kynda Dickerson, my taithful cheerleader, who always boasts my
accomplishments. Last but not least, I am indebted to my uncle and aunt, Fred and Ann
Harp for this degree. During my childhood, they rewarded my academic achievements with one dollar for each letter grade of A.
"but with God. all things are possible." Matthew 19:26
VI VITA
December 3, 1958 ...... Bom, Columbus, Ohio
1980 ...... B.A., Denison University Granville, Ohio
1980-1982 ...... Peace Corp Volunteer Ecuador
1983-1992 ...... Second-Language Instructor Refugee Resettlement Center Columbus, Ohio
1992 ...... M A., The Ohio State University
1992-Present ...... Graduate Administrate, Teaching, and Research Associate The Ohio State University
PUBLICATIONS
Dickerson. T , Bernhardt. E . Brownstein. E.. Copley. E . McNichols. M.. Thompson, R.. Washington. P. & Webb. M. (1995), "African-American Children Reflecting on Science, Mathematics, and Computer through Creative Writing: Perspectives from a Saturday Science Academy." Journal of Negro Education 64(2).
Dickerson. T. & Bernhardt, E. (1995). Strategy Use During the Reading of Professional-level Texts. Columbus. Ohio: National Foreign Language Resources Center
vu 3. Dickerson, T., Bernhardt, E., Destine, T. (1994). "Writing Science and Writing in Science: Perspectives from Minority Children." Cognosos 3(3) p.7-10.
4. Webb, M., McNichols, M , Thompson, R., Washington, P., Dickerson, T. (1994). "The Impact of a Science-Enrichment Program on African-American Children." Cognosos 3(4) p. 6.
5. Sulaiman, A , Destine, T., Dickerson, T., Dowell, M , Liu, J., Lucas, R , Wilberscheid-Hull, L., Shu-hua, Wu. (1994). Annotated Bibliography. In C.W. Hancock (Ed ), Teaching. Testing, and Assessment: Making the Connection. (pp.241-244). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Education Professors Charles Hancock and Elizabeth Bernhardt
Satellite Areas: Spanish and English Professors Terrell Morgan and Valerie Lee
VlII TABLE OF CONTENTS
A b stra c t...... ü
D ed icatio n ...... iv
Acknowledgments ...... v
V ita ...... vii
List o f T ab les...... xii
List of Figures ...... xiii
Chapters:
1. THE PROBLEM ...... 1
Introduction ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 Significance of the Problem ...... 7 Definition of Terms ...... 10 Assumptions ...... 13 Limitations ...... 14
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 15
O v e rv ie w ...... 15 S tra te g y ...... 16 Second-Language Strategy Definitions ...... 16 Second-Language Learning Strategy Research ...... 17 Strategy Use Related To Reading ...... 20 Learning Strategy Data Collection M ethodologies ...... 24 Computer Technology and Strategy Use Assessm ent ...... 27 Subject-matter Knowledge ...... 29
IX Second-Language Research and Subject-Matter Knowledge ...... 30 Individual Interest ...... 32 First Language Studies on Interest Related to Reading ...... 32 Second-Language Studies on Interest Related to Reading ...... 34 Chapter Summary ...... 34
3. DESIGN AND PROCEDURES...... 37
Population and Sample ...... 37 Methodology ...... 38 Procedures and Data Collection ...... 38 Pilot Study ...... 38 Pre-data collection ...... 41 Data Collection ...... 42 Instrumentation ...... 45 Personal-Data Questionnaire ...... 45 Interest Rating ...... 46 Text Selection Process ...... 46 Subject-matter Knowledge Probe ...... 47 Recall Protocol ...... 48 Think-aloud Protocol ...... 49 Computerized Translation and Interview ...... 50 Data Analysis ...... 51
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 52
Introduction ...... 52 Kinds of Strategies ...... 56 Strategy Use Frequency ...... 57 Level of Subject-Matter Knowledge ...... 60 Level o f Individual Interest...... 61 Strategy Use Validation ...... 65 Discussion ...... 69 Systematicity of the Reading Process ...... 70 Case Studies of Individual Readers ...... 70 Participant One ...... 71 Participant N ine ...... 73 Similarities and Differences in the Strategy Use Between Science and Non-Science M ajors ...... 76 Interrelatedness of Subject-matter Knowledge and Interest in Strategy U se ...... 77 5. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 81
Overview of the Study ...... 81 Summary of Findings ...... 82 Research Question 1 ...... 82 Research Question 2 ...... 83 Research Question 3 ...... 85 Research Question 4 ...... 88 Research Question 5 ...... 93 Implications for Pedagogy and Conclusions ...... 96 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 99
Appendices:
A Replication of Text ...... 101
B Computerized Interview Template ...... 104
C Computerized Translation and Interview Products ...... 144
D Participant Interest Rating Scale ...... 182
E Strategy Classification Scheme ...... 184
F Subject-Matter Knowledge Probe ...... 188
G Practice Text ...... 190
List of References ...... 192
XI LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 Findings of Pilot Study Text Processing Strategies Reported during Think-aloud Translations of Science T exts ...... 40
3.2 Participants’ Recall Protocol Scores ...... 49
4.1 Student Data Information ...... 54
4.2 Participant’s Science Orientation ...... 55
4.3 Science and Non-Science Majors Strategy Use During Think-aloud Protocol of “Los atletas consumen creatina” ...... 58
4.4 Science and Non-Science Majors Strategy Use Frequency Distribution During Think-aloud Protocol of “Los atletas consumen creatina” ...... 59
4.5 Science and Non-Science Major Strategy Use Indicating Level(s) of Subject- matter Knowledge for “Los atletas consumen creatina” ...... 62
4 6 Science and Non-Science Major Strategy Use Indicating Level(s) of Interest in “Los atletas consumen creatina” ...... 64
4.7 Evidence of Reported Strategies ...... 67
XII LIST OF HGURES
Figure Page
5.1 Science and Non-science Strategy Use in Percentages ...... 84
5.2 Global Strategy Use according to Levels of Subject-matter K now ledge ...... 86
5.3 Local Strategy Use according to Levels of Subject-matter K now ledge ...... 87
5.4 Global Strategy Use according to Levels of Interest ...... 89
5.5 Local Strategy Use according to Levels of Interest ...... 90
5.6 Comparison of Global Strategy use for Subject-matter Knowledge and Interest according to Levels ...... 91
5.7 Comparison of Local Strategy Use for Subject-matter Knowledge and Interest according to Levels ...... 92
xiu CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Increasingly, undergraduate and graduate university students are viewing foreign
language classes as more than a requirement for graduation. Undergraduates are
beginning to select foreign language as an academic major, second major, and/or minor.
Graduate students are enticed by the U.S. government to incorporate foreign language
study into their academic program with support through such incentives as the Foreign
Language .Area Studies Fellowship. Non-foreign language majors are electing foreign
language courses and enrolling in upper-level foreign language courses. Students
enrolled in foreign language programs cite wanting to use the language in their chosen
careers as the primary reason for pursuing their foreign language study
To meet the expressed needs of foreign language learners, many American
institutions of higher education now offer courses that integrate language use and the
study of disciplinary subject matter in the sciences, the humanities, and in professional programs Courses described as “content-based,” “language across the curriculum,” and
"language for specific purposes” integrate subject-matter disciplines into foreign language courses In these classes, students learn a second lanauaue throuuh various activities such as reading and studying foreign language texts as well as holding discussions and hearing
lectures in the target language.
To date, concerns about integrating foreign language use and subject matter have
focused on developing teaching methodologies (Brinton, Snow & Wesche, 1989) and
developing theoretical underpinnings for the inclusion of subject matter in foreign
language courses (Widdowson, 1993). Establishing theoretical and structural frameworks for the integration of foreign language study and subject matter to a particular course design are also necessary. Equally important is the investigation of the cognitive processing of the learners during the learning processes.
Subject-matter knowledge and individual interest are presumed to influence second-language acquisition. Proponents of content-based courses argue that the integration of language teaching and subject matter considers learners' interest and builds upon previous subject-matter knowledge (Brinton, Snow & Wesche, 1989). Educational psychologists and other education specialists not only support Brinton, Snow, and
Wesche's claim, but they further propose that the role of learning strategies should also be analyzed (Alexander & Judy, 1988).
Individually, individual interest, subject-matter knowledge, and learning strategies promote learning (Alexander, Kulikowich & Schulze, 1994; Leloup, 1993; Oxford, 1992).
Subject-matter knowledge, a complex concept, includes domain knowledge and topic knowledge (Alexander, Kulikowich & Schulze, 1994). Subject-matter knowledge, in this study, is defined as domain knowledge, how much knowledge one possesses in a field of study such as science or non-science knowledge; and topic knowledge, how much
knowledge one possesses on the topic of a science-related article.
Another important factor believed to facilitate learning is individual interest which is described as the psychological state within someone—one's inclination in one direction or another. According to Schiefele (1992), it is "the relatively long-term orientation of an individual toward a type of object, an activity, or an area of knowledge" p. 154.
Individual interest in this study refers to one's orientation toward a particular text topic.
Learning strategies are efforts to cope with the language-learning process by operating directly on incoming information, and orchestrating it to facilitate learning
(O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Learning in this study involves processing the information in a scientific article written in the Spanish language.
Research findings on academic performance in the areas of subject-matter knowledge, interest, and learning strategy use suggest that the learner is central to the learning process. Learners with subject-matter knowledge remembered and understood better than those without such knowledge (Chi, 1985; Glaser, 1984). Likewise, the level of interest an individual has on a topic can influence learning. Bernstein (1955), for example, discovered that individuals interested in a topic had higher reading comprehension scores than those without an expressed interest in the topic. When conducting research on strategy use, Flavell (1981) found that learners who engaged in strategic behavior did better in task performance than those who do not. Because human beings are unique, learners bring to any task varying degrees of individual interest in a topic, strategic behaviors, and subject-matter knowledge. This study investigated subject- matter knowledge and individual interest as individual learner differences in beginning and intermediate second-language learners’ cognitive processing of a scientific article written in Spanish.
Statement of the Problem
After synthesizing existing second-language research. Stern (1983) constructed a model of second-language acquisition. This model posits that learner characteristics influence the learning process, and subsequently, the learning outcome. For Stem, learner characteristics impact upon the second-language learning process to achieve a learning outcome such as proficiency or comprehension.
Building upon the relationship between learner characteristics, the learning process, and learning outcomes hypothesized by Stern, Ellis' model of second-language acquisition (1994) avers that, not only do individual learner differences influence the learning outcome, they also determine the kinds of learning strategies a learner will employ This study investigated the idea postulated by Ellis that individual learner differences determine the kinds of strategies used. More specifically, this study distinguished particular strategies that college-level second-language readers utilized during reading of a scientific text written in Spanish when level of individual interest and level of subject knowledge were considered. In 1989, Oxford and Nyikos investigated factors that affected the strategy choice
o f 1,200 foreign language students enrolled in French, Spanish, and German instruction.
After identifying the strategies applied by these learners, Oxford and Nyikos concluded that several different strategy types such as rules-related, functional, independent, and input emerged as prominent factors in strategy choice. In addition to classifying strategies, they also probed the relationship between individual learner differences and strategy use. Oxford and Nyikos found academic major, proficiency level, and motivation were some individual learner differences that differentiated strategy choice. For example, humanities, social science, and education majors used different strategies than science majors; and motivation, was a prominent variable in strategy choice. These two findings of Oxford and Nyikos' study are pertinent to this study. First, they support the claim that there may be differences in strategy use between science and non-science majors. Second, they suggest that individual learner differences are associated with strategy use.
Although Oxford and Nyikos (1989) found connections between strategy use and individual learner differences that may be involved in the learning of a new language, their study is problematic in several ways First, the Strategy Inventory of Language Learning questionnaire (SILL), the data collection instrument, contained a leading question format, as the following example reveals: "How often do you break down an expression into parts in order to understand it'’" (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989) This type of question format presumes that learners systematically use that particular strategy, and such a presumption could possibly influence how the learners answer the question Related to the first concern, the second weakness of the study also pertains to the
SILL questionnaire. On the SILL, respondents answer questions about strategies.
However, the strategies included on the SILL were selected by the investigators and may not reflect the actual behavior of their learner population.
The final concern with Oxford and Nyikos' (1989) study involves response timing.
The respondents were not required to perform any task associated with the questions they were answering. Their reliance on memory to answer questions about their behavior presents a validation problem ( i.e., a lack of validation between the language learners’ responses and their strategic language-learning behavior).
This present study was designed to answer the following questions:
( 1 ) What kinds of strategies were reported by science and non-science
majors during the reading of a particular scientific article in Spanish'’
(2) How frequently were the various kinds of strategies used in completing
the task'’
(3) What strategies were used depending on individual subjects' level of
subject-matter knowledge of the science text'’
(4) What strategies were used depending on level of individual interest in
the topic of a particular science text'’
(5) Did readers use the kinds of strategies they reported'’
In addition to identifving, documenting, and quantifying strategies that emerged from second-language learners reading a scientific text written in Spanish and examining the role of interest and subject-matter knowledge as individual learner differences, the issue of strategy use validation was explored. Strategy use validation determines the extent to which the strategies reported by second-language readers are indeed the strategies used by these readers in performing a specified task. Mayer and Cook ( 1980) argued that appropriate techniques are needed to describe and validate the learning strategies used by students in performing particular tasks.
Significance of the Problem
The current data base on second-language strategies contains research on strategy use (Abraham, 1983; Anderson. 1991; Barnett. 1988; Bernhardt, 1986; Block. 1986;
Hauptman. 1979; Hosenfeld, 1977; O'Malley & Chamot. 1990; Oxford. 1989; Nyikos &
Oxford. 1993; Vann & Abraham. 1990; Wenden. 1986). Only a few of these studies probed second-language strategy use during reading (Anderson. 1991; Barnett. 1988;
Bernhardt. 1986; Hauptman; 1997; Hosenfeld. 1977) Fewer studies treated strategy use in particular contexts (Anderson 1991; Hosenfeld. 1977; O'Malley & Chamot 1990;).
Furthermore, no second-language learning strategy studies were found that report specifically on strategy choice in the reading of a science article
The influence of individual interest in a topic has received limited study in the area of second-language acquisition A typical college second-language course is composed of undergraduate and graduate students from various academic disciplines. All the students do not share the same interests. Their level of interest in studying the second language may bear positively or negatively on the success of second-language learning. For several reasons, individual student interest in particular topics needed to be investigated to determine the relationship between level of interest and observable behavior such as
strategy use.
Only one published study (Leloup, 1993) investigated interest as a principal
variable in reading comprehension. She found that little or no interest in a text topic
adversely affected reading comprehension while high interest facilitated it. Interest as a
principal variable in second-language acquisition needed further investigation.
This study advanced the area of second-language strategy use in several ways.
First, it examined and reported on the constructs of subject-matter knowledge and individual interest in association with learner strategy use. It explored not only the learners' general knowledge of a particular field but also their knowledge of concepts referenced in scientific exposition as found in a particular printed article Such probing advanced the line of research on differential strategy use according to academic domain begun by Oxford and Nyikos (1989). At the same time, it provided baseline data in the field of second-language acquisition related to the influence that individual interest in a topic may have on strategy use in reading a science text.
Moreover, as a result of this study, information on subject-matter knowledge and individual interest as possible variables associated with strategy use were added to the knowledge base in second-language acquisition Finally, Oxford and Crookall (1989) advocated the use of multiple methods to document and validate the use of second- language learner strategies The present study responded to this recommendation by utilizing concurrent (think-aloud protocol) and retrospective (computerized interview translation) data collection methodologies to validate the presence of particular learner
8 strategies. By using multiple methods to research strategy use, a richer database was made available for further research.
The present research examined individual interest in a topic and subject-matter knowledge as language individual learner differences in second-language reading strategy use by college students while reading science exposition. A science-oriented article, written in Spanish and published in the Spanish-speaking popular press, served as the text under examination. Definition of Terms
Authentic Text/Passage: In this study, the text was written for native speakers of Spanish and published in the popular Spanish-speaking press. The text is approximately 450 words (See Appendix A).
Computerized Translation and Interview: This is an interactive, learner controlled software program used in this study to collect data. The program asked users to select and to translate portions of a Spanish language newspaper article. After the selected portion was translated, the computer queried the user to explain the process used to translate the selection. (See Appendix B).
Computerized Translation and Interview Products: Computerized Translation and
Interview Products are summaries of the individual computerized translation and interviews. Each participant's product contains the date and time the practice task began and ended, the date and time the translation and interview began and ended, the number of seconds the participant spent to translate each selection, the translation, the explanation, and the number of words in the selection. (See Appendix C)
Domain Knowledge: Domain Knowledge is a subcategory of subject-matter knowledge;
It focuses on knowledge of a particular field of study. Domain Knowledge is defined as scientific and non-scientific knowledge. One gauge of this knowledge is whether a participant is a science or non-science major.
Global Strategies: Global strategies are meaning-getting strategies: e.g., getting the gist, usinu backuround knowledue.
10 Interest. Interest is the psychological orientation of an individual toward a text topic. It is assessed by participants reading an article and rating their interest.
Kinds of strategies: Kinds of strategies are types of processes, techniques and operations that are described and reported to be used to comprehend a written text.
Learner Strategies: Learner strategies are mental processes reported by second-language learners that describe how to make meaning of a written science text. In this study, the terms learner strategies and learning strategies are used synonymously
Level of Spanish Class: The level of Spanish class indicates instructional outcomes expected for students in Spanish as indicated by the course number assigned by the
Department of Spanish and Portuguese at The Ohio State University (i.e., Spanish 104,
201, 401, and 450).
Level of interest: The level of interest is a Likert-like rating that indicates one’s orientation toward the text in this study Each participant rated his/her interest in the topic on a scale from 1 to 3 ( 1= little interest, 2=some interest, 3= much interest) (See Appendix D).
Level of Subiect-matter knowledge: This will be determined by the results of the Subject-
Matter Knowledge Probe. On the Subject-Matter Knowledge Probe, subjects are given a score for each of the three free association cues using the Langer Scale (1981, 1982). The
Langer Scale is a free association method of prior knowledge that groups subject-matter knowledge into three levels. Level 1 indicates little knowledge Level 2 signifies some knowledge Level 3 expresses much knowledge
Local Strategies Local strategies refer to strategies used in the decoding process: looks for cognates, defines linguistic units
I I Pausal Unit: Pausal unit refers to a portion of text segmented by the stopping and
catching of one's breath (Johnson, 1970). This usually occurs between linguistic
constituent groupings e.g., noun phrases, prepositional phrases, etc.
Recall Protocol: Recall protocol is a procedure in which participants immediately write in
their native language everything they can recall about a passage.
Scientific Text. A scientific text is a written document appearing in a periodical.
Science/Non-science majors: Science majors are students who declare their majors as
biology and pre-medicine. Non-science majors are students who report majoring in the
humanities, social sciences, education, or business.
Strategy Classification Scheme: Operational definitions used to identify and document
strategies reported by the participants in the think-aloud procedure and the computerized
translation and interview (See Appendix E).
Subject-matter knowledge: Subject-matter knowledge is defined to include domain
knowledge, how much knowledge one possesses in a field of study, and topic knowledge, how much information one possesses on a topic (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Schulze,
1994).
Subject-matter Knowledge Probe: Subject-matter Knowledge Probe is a free-association measure Text content-specific cues are given and the students have one minute to write everything they know about the topic. Scoring is done using Langer's Scale ( 1981,1982)
(See Appendix F)
Think-aloud Protocol: The Think-aloud protocol is a procedure in which readers orally describe their cognitive processes and experiences (Block, 1986; Ericsson & Simon. 1993;
12 Hosenfeld, 1977). The oral reports are typically done In the native language of the subject, so that second-language proficiency level does not confound results.
Topic Knowledge: Topic knowledge includes information one already possesses on a specific body of discourse or instructional selection.
Tvpes of Strategies. Type of strategies are learner strategies that have been classified as global strategies or local strategies.
Assumptions
The present study is based on the following assumptions:
1. Subjects are free of learning, speaking, and reading disorders.
2. Subjects will perform all tasks to the best o f their ability.
3 Subjects are proficient readers in their first language, implying successful
employment of reading strategies in their first language.
4 Subjects used in this study will have mastered basic linguistic forms taught in
Spanish 101, 102 and 103 These include, but are not limited to, the
development of reading and writing skills, the conjugation of regular and
irregular verbs in the simple present and past tenses, the location and use of
direct and indirect object pronouns, and the conjugation and use of the present
subjunctive
5 The Subject-matter Knowledge Probe is a reliable indicator of subjects' topic
knowledue
13 Limitations
This study is presumed to have the following limitations:
1. Because learners read from a computer monitor, the ecological validity of the
reading process may have been affected. It was decided that reading from a
computer screen would not challenge the college students.
2. Subjects were voluntarily recruited from current college students. It was
believed that this volunteer status would not affect the outcomes of the study.
3. Subjects were not be acquainted with the recall protocol procedure. Training
was, therefore provided for all participating students. The varying degrees of
familiarity was this procedure may have affected reading comprehension,
scores therefore must be interpreted with this in mind.
4. Subjects may not initially have been accustomed to the Subject-matter
Knowledge Probe procedure. Training was given to all participating students
who may have had difficulty completing the free association task under the
time constraint of this studv
14 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Overview
It is not a question as to whether second-language learners, in general, and second- language readers, in particular, engage in strategy use, but rather how individual learner differences are enmeshed in such strategy use by students. Empirical evidence suggests that individual interest influences both the first and second-language reading processes
(Asher. Hymel & Wigfeld, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Estes&Vaughn, 1973; Garner &
Willingham, 1991, Leloup, 1993). Similarly, the inclusion of subject-matter knowledge in language learning is thought to aid reading proficiency (Edwards, Wesche, Krashen,
Clement, & Krudenier; 1984). Hauptman, Wesche and Ready (1988) found that second- language learners who read material related to the domain of psychology and material in which they were interested became more proficient language learners. Because this research suggests that interest and subject-matter knowledge are somehow involved in reading, it can also be assumed that individual interest and subject-matter knowledge may affect second-language reading strategy use
The following review of literature is divided into five sections. The first section presents definitions of second-language-learning strategies. Section two is a general
15 introduction to second-language strategy research. The third section reports second- language strategy research focusing on reading. The fourth section describes selected second-language studies dealing with subject-matter knowledge as a significant variable in reading proficiency. Finally, the fifth section highlights studies on individual interest as a factor in first and second-language reading. A concluding summary is provided at the end of the chapter.
Strategy
Second-Language Strategy Definitions
In an attempt to define second-language-learner strategies, scholars have elicited what they perceive to be salient features. At the inception of second-language strategy research, learning strategies were primarily believed to be mental operations described as approaches and activities. Stern (1983) viewed them as approaches employed by the language learner In the same year, Bialystok (1983) characterized learning strategies as mental activities Chamot (1985) qualified Bialystok's definition and referred to them as mental activities that help learners remember new information.
The first second-language researchers to view learning strategies as having both mental and behavioral aspects were Weinstein and Mayer ( 1986). They stated that learning strategies were not only thoughts, but also behaviors that occur during learning.
Concurring with Weinstein and Mayer, Wenden ( 1987) specified strategies as behaviors to learn and regulate language learning
16 Definitions for language learning strategies evolved as research into the nature of second-language-learning strategies matured. Chamot (1987) expanded upon her 1985 definition by determining that learning strategies are not only techniques, but are also approaches and deliberate actions. In 1989 and 1990, Oxford, too, amended her definition of second-language-learning strategies. The revised definition recapitulates earlier definitions of language-learning strategies in that Oxford summarized learning strategies as behaviors, techniques, or actions used consciously or unconsciously.
While some researchers concentrated on the features of learning strategies, other researchers focused on the functions. Ellis (1985) asserted that learning strategies account for the accumulation of new second-language rules and the automation of existing rules.
Later, Rubin (1987) specified that learning strategies directly affect and assist in language development. Cohen (1996) maintained that second-language learning strategies improve or assist in language use, language learning, or both. It can be concluded, therefore, that strategic second-language learning behavior may involve mental, behavioral, conscious, intentional, and/or subconscious actions that facilitate second-language acquisition.
Second-Language Learning Strategy' Research
Early investigations into second-language-learning strategies collected information on strategy use in a wide variety of areas Carton ( 1971 ), the first researcher in the field of second-language acquisition to document second-language learners, investigated the facilitating effects of strategic behavior on comprehension. Looking at the role of contexualization in vocabulary comprehension. Carton identified inferencing as a strategy,
17 in a study where 8th- and 9th-grade students of French provided English equivalents to
decontextualized and contexuaiized French words. Carton found that the secondary
learners had a higher number of right answers among the contextualized words. He
concluded that learners infer word meanings from context.
Also interested in strategic behavior, Rubin (1975) pioneered research on "the
good language learner,” a few years later. Rubin postulated that the learning behaviors
of good language learners may be useful to other language learners. By observing and
videotaping second-language learners of various ages, Rubin concluded that "good"
language learners preferred strategies such as guessing, attempting to communicate, and
paying attention to form. Rubin (1981) continued her line of research on learner characteristics by investigating the language learning behaviors of young adults. By observing learner performance on classroom tasks and soliciting self-reports, Rubin identified six general language-learning strategies: strategy clarification, monitoring, memorization, guessing, deductive reasoning, and practice.
While Rubin documented the strategic behavior of young adults in a classroom setting, Wesche ( 1979) studied the strategic use of adults in the Canadian Civil Service
In an investigation of second-language learning for professional purposes, Wesche uncovered that language-learning improvement was accompanied by a variety of language- learning behaviors She argued that some strategies worked together with other strategies. The research on the good and successful language learner initiated a line of inquiry that established a relationship between strategy use and individual learner differences
18 Like the work of the two previous researchers. O'Malley and Chamot (1985)
identified, documented, and classified strategy use. However, they advanced inquiry on
strategy use and individual learner differences by examining a relationship between
proficiency level and task performance. In a series of studies, O'Malley and Chamot
focused on strategy use identification. A three-part study probed the strategy use of
seventy high-school ESL students. Data were gathered from classroom activities such as oral drills, pronunciation, grammar exercises, vocabulary, and listening for main ideas and facts. The investigators also collected and examined data on non-classroom activities such as social interactions outside of the classroom and any functional communicative activity.
Data on strategy use were obtained from these students and as well as from their twenty- two ESL teachers. Not only did O'Malley and Chamot discover twenty-four metacognitive, cognitive, and social strategies used by the students in this study, but they found that beginning-level students reported more strategies than intermediate-level students.
Chamot ( 1987) duplicated the methodology applied in O'Malley et al ( 1985) with a multilingual learner population. Using second-language learners of Spanish and Russian enrolled in high school and college courses, Chamot queried whether the strategies used by native speakers of English learning a foreign language were the same strategies as those applied by the ESL students in the previous study (O'Malley et al., 1985). In this study,
Chamot developed the General Interview Guide containing descriptions and questions on how the respondents would apply nine strategy types during learning tasks. From the responses on The General Interview Guide, Chamot found the English. Spanish, and
19 Russian second-language learners reported comparable strategies according to their
proficiency levels and the task type.
O'Malley and Chamot’s research finding that learner characteristics may influence
strategy choice were supported by Oxford and Nyikos. In their 1989 study, academic
major was one of several factors that influenced strategy use. The results of this study
indicated that science and science-related majors applied different strategies than social
science, humanities, education, and business majors.
In summary, research on second-language strategy use suggests that individual
learner differences such as proficiency level, academic major, and task demands determine
the types of strategies second-language learners use during the performance of an
academic task. The present study continued this line of inquiry and reported on college-
level students' strategy use in the reading of a science text.
Strategv Use Related To Reading
Early researchers of second-language reading strategies probed language-learning
success as a learner characteristic. Hosenfeld ( 1977) documented the reading strategies of
successful and unsuccessful high-school second-language learners with the think-aloud
protocol that elicited information on learners' strategic behavior When compared to the
strategy use of unsuccessful learners, Hosenfeld found that successful learners employed
distinct strategies
Unlike Hosenfeld. when looking at learner success. Block (1986) did not find a distinct pattern in strategy use In this study. Block examined the strategy use of native
2 0 and non-native speakers of English college students failed a university's reading proficiency test and were enrolled in a remedial reading course. Using the think-aloud protocol, she reported that learners utilized general and local strategies such as anticipation of content, recognition of text structure, integration of information, paraphrasing, and re-reading as comprehension strategies.
Studies investigating strategy use related to reading not only reported the kinds of strategies used, but also how strategies are applied by the users. Abraham and Vann
(1987) concluded that unsuccessful strategy users monitored form while successful learners paid attention to both meaning and form. In this study, the think-aloud protocol documented the reading strategies of two, unsuccessful. Arabic ESL learners enrolled in an intensive English program. The participants of this study who made below average gains on the Michigan English Language Proficiency Test were instructed to complete four tasks From their performance, learning strategies were determined by analyzing the think-aloud and the task products.
Topics related to gender and culture have also been examined in studies on reading strategy use. Interested in the ditTerences in gender, Oxford and Young ( 1997) researched the reading strategies used by forty-nine second-language learners of Spanish. Each participants read two Spanish texts and one English text They performed think-aloud protocol to gather information on strategy use Learners used such strategies as assuming, looking for key words, placing words in context, and hypothesizing The results of the study indicated that males and females use similar strategies to process the passages. The learners processed the text using local strategies on the Spanish text and global strategies on the English text.
Parry (1996) addressed the role of cultural membership in reading strategy use.
Parry's findings uncovered a relationship between cultural membership and strategy use.
Using a qualitative analysis, she compared the reading strategy use of secondary students in Nigeria and university graduates in China. She concluded that the two groups used strikingly different strategies for academic reading tasks. Nigerians used top-down processing while Chinese employed bottom-up strategies. These results suggest that cultural background may affect strategy use.
Research on reading strategies moved from an investigation of the learners and their characteristics to an examination on what learners do in context. Concerned with strategy use in the academic reading and testing contexts, Anderson (1991) studied the strategy use of sixty-five Spanish-speaking adult ESL students. Think-aloud protocols and comprehension checks of standardized passages from the Descriptive Text of
Language Skills (DTLS) and Textbook Reading Profile (TRP) provided data for the study The audiotapes of the think-aloud protocols were reviewed for strategies used during both academic passages and testing. The comprehension scores of the passages were submitted to a simple regression analysis. It was found that students who received low scores as well as those who obtained high scores used the same strategies.
While strategy use in the reading and testing contexts may yield the same strategy use, ESL learners did not use the same strategies during reading vocabulary' acquisition.
Lessard-Clouston ( 1996) documented the strategies that twenty adult ESL learners
10 enrolled in a TOEFL preparation class used to learn vocabulary. A two-page questionnaire administered to ascertain strategy use revealed that a variety of strategies were used, however, learners did not approach vocabulary acquisition in a structured manner.
More recently, second-language inquiries into learner characteristics and context have been joined with investigations on the application of specific strategies. Morrison
( 1996) investigated inferencing as a strategy of ten second-language learners in reading comprehension. Paired think-aloud protocols were used to elicit strategies that university- level French as a second-language learners use to cope with unfamiliar words in a written text. The data from the think-alouds were analyzed using Haastrup's (1991) taxonomy of knowledge sources. She established that context played a major role in lexical inferencing.
Treville (1996) investigated the use of cognates as a second-language reading strategy among adult second-language learners at the college or university.
French/English cognate use was measured by tests administered by the university French as a second-language program in Ontario and the Test of Aptitude in Recognizing Written
Cognates Students were pre- and post- tested on their gains in cognate recognition .After subjecting the results to a MANO\'A, Treville concluded that cognate recognition was a viable strategies in vocabulary' learning.
Research on reading strategies identified and documented strategies of successful and unsuccessful students More recent research centered on strategy use in various contexts and the investigation of specific strategies
23 Learning Strategy Data Collection Methodologies
In their study of learning strategies, O'Malley et al. (1985) determined they had
greater success in identifying learning strategies when they questioned the learners
themselves rather than relying on the non-participant observations of teachers and
researchers. Since research on learning strategies examine learner behavior, it seems
logical to utilize data-collection techniques that extract information on how learners
employ strategies.
During the last two decades several types of verbal report methodologies collected
introspective data to examine learner behavior during second-language acquisition: the
self-report, the self-observation, and the self-revelation. Each of these methodologies
favor the elicitation a certain type of verbal report data. According to Oxford (1996),
questionnaires provide information on general strategy use and should not be used to
assess strategic behavior in relation to a specific task Furthermore, the setting in which
questionnaires are administered typically does not involve a task. Many of the research
findings in second-language acquisition strategy use are based upon questionnaires
(Chamot, 1987; Oxford, 1989) Using a questionnaire format, Papalia and Zampogna
(1977) found reading aloud, reading for content, guessing, and skipping words were strategies utilized by the participants in their study. Padron and Waxman’s ( 1988)
Reading Strategy Questionnaire probed the effect of students' perceptions on reading strategy use and achievement. The researchers found paraphrasing, underlining, self questioning, comprehension checks, note-taking, and imaging to be strategies identified by their respondents
24 The self-observation is classified as an account of specific rather than generalized
behavior (Cohen, 1996). It may be concurrent (i.e., reported within twenty seconds of
occurrence) or retrospective (i.e., reported more than twenty minutes after the
occurrence). Immediate and delayed interviews are illustrations of self-observations,
which help individuals identify strategies on a specific task. Poulisse and Schils (1989)
used an interview to investigate strategy use according to proficiency level. Forty-five
Dutch learners of English were assigned to three groups and were asked to perform four
tasks in English and the learners first language. Retrospective comments were records for
two of the tasks were audiotaped and analyzed. A qualitative analysis revealed that the
participants employed conceptual and linguistic strategies.
Self-revelations are verbal reports that identify in-depth strategy use of an
individual on a given task. Employing a stream-of-conscious technique, think-aloud
protocols disclose thought processes while the information is still being attended to (e.g.,
"Does this word mean to make’ or to do.' 1 think it means ‘make ’"). Hosenfeld (1977)
documented the reading strategies of successful and unsuccessful high-school second-
language learners with the think-aloud protocol that elicited information on learners’
strategic behavior When compared to the strategy use of unsuccessful learners,
Hosenfeld found that successful learners employed distinct strategies. Also, Cohen and
-Aphek (1981) studied the strategic behavior of nineteen-American students spending their junior year in Israel Using a simulated think-aloud procedure, they found second-
25 language learners of Hebrew created verbs through association, associated English words with Hebrew words, associated Hebrew words with other Hebrew words, and generated rules.
The use of the think-aloud procedure is not only confined to reading and speaking.
In research on strategic listening comprehension. Long (1991) employed an introspective commentary procedure using six intermediate college second-language learners of
Spanish. The participants viewed a portion of an authentic foreign language video and reported their strategy use. Long found that paying attention, previewing, recognizing key words and utilizing background knowledge were a few of the strategies used to comprehend an aural text.
Many of the seminal studies in second-language learning strategy research employed verbal reports in the form of questionnaires (Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, &
Todesco, 1978; O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manazares, Kupper, & Russo, 1985; Oxford,
Nyikos, & Crookall, 1987). .According to Cohen ( 1996), the data from these studies show strategy use that was removed from a specific task These data shed light on learners beliefs about their language-learning behavior. Cohen admonished to obtain data at or near the moment the event occurs The purpose of using verbal reports in this study is to examine how learners utilize the second-language knowledge that they have acquired.
The verbal report methodologies selected for this study were those in which data might be obtained from the learners themselves The methodologies employed in this study were recommended to be use to gather data during the performance of specific tasks.
26 The merit of introspective data as a research tool is often debated. The question is often asked whether such data can really be used as evidence regarding the internal working of a learner's mind. This study did not seek to describe the learners internal system, but to employ verbal reports as a source of data collection on how learners use strategic behavior (Seliger, 1983a), In this study, the think-aloud procedure was one of two data sources for the research question. Since the learners and the learner’s internal processes were at the heart of this study, two types of introspective methodologies were employed to identify language-learning strategies: the think-aloud protocol, a self revelation and a computerized interview, a self-observation. Together, these introspective methodologies might ensure a more accurate depiction of learner strategy, and might reflect more accurately what learners may actually do during the learning process. Using verbal reports to obtain such information could be crucial in second- language reading instruction The information has pedagogical implications not only for reading material selection, but also for success in the organization of reading instruction.
Computer Technology and Strategv Use Assessment
To date, computers have been used in second-language strategy research to gather data on how learners employ particular second-language learning strategies. Jamieson and
Chapelle (1987) collected data on thirty-three ESL students assigned computerized spelling and dictation lessons. Their study "Working styles on computers as evidence of second-language strategies" researched advanced preparation, input monitoring, and output monitoring as strategic language learning behavior on the computer. During
27 computerized lessons in spelling and dictation, all keystrokes were recorded and stored.
The number of times that behaviors such as delays, typing, deleting, editing, and inserting were employed were calculated and submitted to ANOVA and multiple regression analyzes. The statistical results indicated that all strategies were employed for the more complex dictation tasks than for the simple spelling tasks.
Bland, Noblitt, Arminton, and Gay (1990) applied the Systeme-D software program to collect and to document the strategic queries of ten university second- language learners of French. In this study, strategies were operationalized as different classes of queries: editing, dictionary, and grammar queries in either French or English.
These events were documented and recorded by the computer. The different classes of learner queries demonstrated different learner strategies for writing in French.
■Another use of the computer was found in the investigation conducted by Hsu,
Chapelle, and Thompson (1993). They gathered information on the strategy of exploration by using a computer-based learning environment to examine how ESL learners experimented and hypothesis tested about the target language. Advanced and intermediate students in three writing composition classes were assigned four tasks consisting of a total of ten sentences The computer recorded the number of sentence constructions and editing tasks. However, only the number of sentences students attempted after completing the assignment and how students implemented any alternative grammar pattern comprised evidence for the strategy of exploration Results of the collected data showed that students only explored to complete the assigned tasks They failed to explore the morphosyntatic nature of the software
2 8 The use of the computer in second-language strategy research is in its infancy stage. While the computer has been used to gather data and research particular strategies, the present study expanded the use of computers to collect data in order to document and to verify the attested strategies employed by second-language learners.
Subject-matter Knowledge
Dewey (1913) considered the subject-matter knowledge to be information yielded from thought and experience. At advanced levels, it is the construction of a body of facts and ideas organized into concepts and expressions of specialized information. Modern scholars continue to discuss the nature of subject-matter knowledge. It is also referred to as domain knowledge (Voss, Blais, Means, Greene, & Aswesh, 1986), content-specific knowledge (Peterson, 1988), prior knowledge, topic knowledge, or background knowledge (Stahl, Hare, Sinatra, & Gregor)', 1990). Some researchers have treated these terms as a unitary construct, other researchers argue for a multi-dimensional perspective of knowledge
Alexander, Kulikowich, and Schulze (1994) separated knowledge into distinct concepts Prior knowledge is the term that denotes the knowledge that a learner brings to a task Subject-matter knowledge is a type of prior knowledge with a nexus in formal education Domain knowledge is a subcategory of subject-matter knowledge, and it focuses on a particular field of study Alexander ( 1992) defined domain knowledge as "a specialized instance of an individual's prior knowledge" (p.35) Topic knowledge includes information one already possesses on a specific body of discourse or instructional
29 selection. Together, domain knowledge and topic knowledge form subject-matter knowledge. For the purposes of this study, subject-matter knowledge is defined to include the following: domain knowledge and topic knowledge.
Second-Language Research and Subject-Matter Knowledge
In the area of second-language acquisition, subject-matter knowledge is most often referred to as content-area knovdedge, the teaching of subject matter through a second language. Many publications on language and content have provided a theoretical framework on how to design or implement instructional programs that integrate foreign language learning into content areas (Beasley, 1993; Brinton, Snow, Wesche, 1989;
Crandall, 1994; Kang & Pham, 1995; Short, 1993; Waxman, 1994). Few investigators examined the phenomenon empirically.
Edwards, Wesche, Krashen, Clement, and Krudenier ( 1984) investigated whether gains in reading proficiency were made after subject-matter instruction. The study took place at the University of Ottawa, a bilingual institution The subjects were intermediate- level second-language learners of French and English who studied psychology. The second-language psychology classes were taught by native-speaking French and English professors of psychology The psychology classes were limited to only second-language learners of either French or English The reading proficiency level of language learners was pre-and post-tested using a w ritten translation task. A comparison of the before and after course instruction scores suggest that after doing the assigned class readings in their
30 second language, both the second-language learners of French and English made gains in reading proficiency.
Hauptman, Wesche. and Ready (1988) replicated the above experiment. In a follow-up study on subject-matter learning at the University of Ottawa, Francophone and
Anglophone college students studied psychology in their second language, English and
French, respectively. Second-language learners with high-intermediate proficiency levels were instructed by professors who taught the "Introduction to Psychology" class to native speakers. One question that interested the researchers was whether there was a measurable improvement in the proficiency level of the experimental group. As in the previous study, reading comprehension was measured by the translation of a reading passage on psychology from the second language to the first language in this study.
According to the researchers, for both the English as a second-language learner (ESL) and the French as a second-language learner (FSL) groups, there were gains on the translation task measuring reading comprehension From the results of these Canadian studies, the researchers concluded that the inclusion of subject-matter texts in intermediate-language courses promoted greater second-language learning. The present research added to the data base on subject-matter knowledge by probing a relationship to strategy use.
31 Individual Interest
First Language Studies on Interest Related to Reading
Various studies have investigated individual interest and its role in first language development. As early as 1955, Bernstein concluded that school reading programs should incorporate the interest of the student. In her study of 100 9th-grade secondary students,
Bernstein found that learners read two stories of equal readability, and one story was considered by the students more interesting than the other, the interesting story was read with greater comprehensibility. Her finding suggest that individual interest impacted reading comprehension. Students' interest ratings were obtained and a comprehension measure assessed that high interest in a story was related to superior reading comprehension.
Over the years, Bernstein's finding remained unchallenged. For example.
Stanchfield ( 1967) obtained similar results. In a study of reading performance and interest, 400 I st-grade students were assigned into high interest and control groups and instructed with materials assessed by the investigator to be interesting. The high-interest story group out-performed students in the control group on reading comprehension tests.
Likewise, Estes and Vaughan (1973) received positive results that interest was related to reading comprehension In their study "Interest and reading comprehension:
Implication," Estes and Vaughan questioned the role of interest in every day reading activities They examined the individual interest and the reading comprehension o f 46 4th- grade students on six topics In this study, passages on each topic were presented to the students who ranked their interest by selecting passages they would "most and least like
32 to read." These passages were read by the students whose reading comprehension was measured by a cloze test. The difference between high- and iow-interest rankings were submitted to a t-test which generated statistical significance on the reading comprehension scores. These findings suggested that individual interest was a factor in reading comprehension.
The findings from studies contrasting high and low interest such as Estes and
Vaughan (1973) were challenged by Asher, Hymel and Wigfeld. In their 1978 study,
Asher, Hymel and Wigfeld questioned whether a contrast effect between high and low interest influenced reading comprehension To determine that interest was not related to a contrast effect, the reading behavior of seventy-five 5th graders was studied. These participants were asked to rate their interest on twenty-five topics. A week later, based on their rating, students were assigned to high-interest and low-interest groups. Using a cloze test as a comprehension measure, Asher et al. found that during the reading of the text, 75 5th graders comprehended more of the high- than low-interest material.
Garner and Gillingham (1991) again supported the claim that interest was related to positive reading comprehension. After assessing the recall, cognitive interest, and topic know ledge of thirty-six undergraduate majors in psychology, they found that ( 1 ) comprehension of text information was related to high interest, and (2) moderate topic knowledge was correlated to cognitive interest
Along with examining other variables, Schiefele's (1992) principal concern was whether interest affected text comprehension The reading comprehension of 96 male university students was assessed by a questionnaire relating to the text topic and interest in a text topic was rated on a Likert-like scale. Schiefele found that interest in a text topic yielded greater reading comprehension.
Second-Language Studies on Interest Related to Reading
In the area of second-language acquisition, only one study addressed interest as the principle variable. Leloup (1993) concluded that interest affected reading comprehension. She submitted interest ratings, interest ranking in text topics, Spanish language proficiency, and background knowledge probes of 206 secondary students to statistical analyzes. Leloup found that interest was the second largest contributor to the variance in second-language reading comprehension.
In summary, the question of individual interest in a topic and its relationship to the comprehension of a particular reading task has been addressed in both first language and second-language studies. These studies suggest that student interest in a topic is associated with successful reading of a text by second-language learners, at least at the high school and college levels. Further study of this topic was warranted and constituted a component of the present research
Chapter Summary
The studies reviewed in this chapter comprise an important part of the knowledge base on second-language strategy use. subject-matter knowledge, and interest To date, second-language strategy researchers described that strategic second-language learning
34 behavior as mental, behavioral, conscious, intentional, and/or subconscious actions that
facilitate second-language acquisition. Research findings on second-language strategy use
suggests that individual learner differences such as proficiency level, academic major, and
task demands determine the types of strategies second-language learners use during the
performance of an academic task. In examining reading as a second language task,
research studies not only identified and documented strategies of successful and unsuccessful students, but also investigated strategy use in specific contexts as well as investigated particular strategies.
Subject-matter and individual interest have been found to impact second-language acquisition. The researchers of the Canadian studies on subject-matter knowledge inferred from the results of their studies that the inclusion of subject-matter texts in promoted greater second-language learning. Likewise, Leloup (1993) found individual interest favorably to influence second-language reading. Student interest in a topic is associated with successful reading of a text by second-language learners, at least at the high school and college levels.
Not only were investigators of second-language strategy use concerned with variables that might influence strategy choice, but they were also paid attention to the methodologies employed to gather the data. Cohen ( 1996) advocated self-observation and self-revelation introspective methodologies in order to collect data as close to the task as possible
Because second-language reading is not merely the first language with different words, the cognitive processing involved in reading needed to be investigated in the
35 second-language arena. The present study considered individual learner differences, subject-matter knowledge and individual interest, as aspects of strategy use. These variables have not been investigated together in second-language strategy studies. This research continued the line of inquiry examining individual learner differences, yet added to the data base by examining subject-matter knowledge and interest as influential variables on the strategy choice reported by college-level students' during the reading of a science text.
36 CHAPTER 3
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Population and Sample
The sample was drawn from a population of students attending The Ohio State
University (OSU), a public, state-funded, Midwestern university with approximately
50,000 undergraduate and graduate students. The ten volunteer participants in this study were enrolled in beginning- and intermediate-level Spanish-language courses at this university at the time of the study. Before enrollment in Spanish courses, their Spanish proficiency was assessed by the regularly administered computerized placement examination, the Spanish Computerized Adaptive Placement Examination (S-CAPE). A prerequisite for participating in this study was that learners had to have completed the first three courses of beginning Spanish (i.e.. Span 101-103) at The Ohio State University, taken an equivalent course sequence elsewhere, or placed into a course above this level based on the S-CAPE. Participants were divided in equal groups based on science and non-science majors.
37 Methodology
In the present study, both qualitative and descriptive methodologies were used. A qualitative within-case descriptive analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994) identified each participant's strategy use during the think-aloud protocol. Strategies from the think-aloud protocol were then quantified by type for a frequency count of the strategies used by science and non-science majors. Later, the strategies were reviewed and ranked according to each participant’s level of subject-matter knowledge and level of individual interest. These analyses were followed by a within-case content analysis (Miles &
Huberman, 1994) of the responses to the computerized translation and interview. Using the content analysis method, the descriptions of the strategies each student reported during the computerized translation and interview session were subsequently compared with the actual translation and interview products in order to validate participant strategy use. Case studies on participant strategy use were created to detail and document how two second-language readers with different majors but the same amounts of subject- matter knowledge and interest employed strategic behavior while reading a particular science text.
Procedures and Data Collection
Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted at The Ohio State University during Spring, 1994.
The participants were fifteen second-language learners majoring in an engineering or science-related fields and enrolled in intermediate-level Spanish courses, along with six
38 Spanish-dominant bilingual students. The primary objectives of the pilot study were: (1) to examine the role that content knowledge played in strategy use; (2) to test whether learners were able to communicate their strategy use; and (3) to explore whether strategies reported during think-aloud reports could be observed in written translations. In the pilot study, it was found that the use of one's content knowledge did not emerge as a dominant strategy during the reading process. However, learners were able to explain strategies used during a subsequent think-aloud translation task. Evidence of each subject's reported strategies was found in their written translation of a portion of the scientific text.
Table 3.1 presents the strategies second-language learners reported using during the reading of a science text. (See Appendix E for Strategy Classification Scheme.) The reported strategies in the pilot study were used as baseline data for the present study.
39 Strategies Reported
Reads in linear fashion Looks at title/ Uses title as advance organizer Uses picture as advance organizer Reads caption Ass umes/Guesses Reads for gist/main idea/basic idea/main theme/purpose Tries to reason out meaning of unknown words Reads silently Looks for context clues Places unknown words in context Uses text type for understanding Matches prior knowledge on topic with information contained in text Skips unknown words Skips unknown structures Skips names and detail concentrates on action Reads aloud in Spanish Forms hypothesis/Sets up expectation Re-reads/revises Adjusts initial idea based on content Summarizes Looks at names of the authors Reads article more than once Visualizes information in article Concentrates on typeset style of text Correlates picture and title Automatically processes text in Spanish Reflects/Contemplates
Table 3 .1: Findings of Pilot Study Text Processing Strategies Reported during Think-aloud Translations of Science Texts
Based on what was learned in the pilot study, several adjustments were made in the planning of the current study. First, the strategies included in the matrix were classified as global and local strategies. Young and Oxford (1996) distinguish between local and global strategies as decoding process ( e.g., word-meaning and sentence syntax) and meaning-getting
40 (e.g., getting the text gist, using background knowledge). The purpose of this classification system was to narrow the researcher's focus to the types of strategic processing in which the learner might engage while reading a science text.
The second change in the research design of this study made after the pilot study included the incorporation of a self-rating instrument to assess individual interest. During the
1994 Modem Language Association's Annual Convention in Chicago, one of the attendees of the conference session questioned the role of interest in this study and whether or not there was a measure for this variable. The same person encouraged that the variable be considered. In reviewing the second language acquisition literature for research studies on interest, only one study was found where interest is the principal variable investigated. The small number of studies of interest found in the literature made a persuasive argument to investigate it in this study.
The final modification following the pilot study to the actual study was the addition of the computer to collect the data that verified strategy use. The computerized translation and interview was developed to query the participant's on their strategy use. The computer requested a translation of the text and explanations from participants about how the strategies were applied during the act of reading.
Pre-data collection
Prior to the study, the researcher solicited the participant of students regularly enrolled in the Spanish 104, 201, and 401 courses offered by the Department of Spanish and
Portuguese at The Ohio State University During the solicitation, the researcher introduced herself, explained her general purpose for being in the classes, requested volunteers, and
41 distributed a sign-up sheet for students who might be interested in participating in the study to provide their name, telephone number, and major. The students who volunteered were subsequently contacted and individual appointments were arranged for them to participate in the study. Participants were assigned to one of two groups, science or non-science, based on their declared major. Each group contained five students.
Data Collection
Data collection took place over an eight-week period. The data were collected for each participant during a single session. In each session, the researcher obtained personal data on the participant and entered the information into a computer log file. In addition, she administered a Subject-matter Knowledge Probe, a reading recall protocol, and an interest rating. Next, the participants were taught about the think-aloud process by viewing a video of a participant in the pilot study engaged in explaining her text processing (i.e., thinking-aloud).
The researcher followed the think-aloud protocol practice procedure advocated by Afflerbach
(1990). Participants were given the opportunity to think-aloud with a practice text. (Sample in
Appendix G.) They were encouraged to practice at their own pace, then to translate the text of this study from English to Spanish while thmking-aloud. If during the think-aloud protocol, a participant appeared to have trouble coping with the text, the researcher would ask, “What are you doing‘s” According to Afflerbach ( 1990), this question served to assist the participant to verbalize his/her cognitive processing at that moment All think-aloud protocols were videotaped by the researcher
The think-aloud protocol procedure was followed immediately by a computerized translation and interview of the same article. A program was developed using HYPERCARD
42 software for the Macintosh computer environment. As part of the study, each participant was required to interact with the computer performing translation and explanation tasks. The computerized translation and interview sessions varied in length from to 1147 seconds to 3582 seconds (19 to 59 minutes) and were conducted in a college classroom on campus. The data from the think-aloud protocol were categorized and tabulated to answer Research Questions
One. Two, Three, and Four. The data from the computerized translation and interview responded to Question Five.
The research questions in this study were answered using several methodologies. In order to describe the kinds of strategies used by all majors a within-case qualitative analysis was performed on data collected during the think aloud protocol. The researcher and a coder separately viewed the videotape of each think-aloud protocol and recorded on separate matrices the strategy use described by each of the ten participants. The matrix included predefined strategies reported during the pilot study (see Table 3 .1). A taxonomy of strategies used by participants who identified themselves as science majors (n=5) and non-science majors (n=5) was developed. The mterrater reliability between coder and researcher was determined to be
89 The mterrater reliability was established by comparing the investigator's and the coder's strategy matrices with each other to identify agreements and disagreements. If the investigator and coder included the same strategy, that was considered an agreement. If the investigator or coder documented a strateg>', but the other did not. it was considered as a disagreement
(Anderson, 1991).
A frequency count consisting of the number of times the participants reported using the different kinds of strategies was employed to answer the second research question.
43 Because research regarding the levels of individual interest and the levels of subject- matter knowledge has important implications on strategy instruction, it was important to investigate what strategies were used depending on the participant's level of subject-matter knowledge about the science text, and, what strategies were used depending on the subject's level of individual interest in the topic of the science text. These questions were answered by examining each participant’s reported strategies, his/her interest rating, and subject-matter knowledge score. Additionally, taxonomies were devised for the strategies indicating levels of interest and subject-matter knowledge of the participants who reported using the strategies.
The final research question concerned whether evidence existed that readers use the kinds of strategies they reported. This question verified the extent to which participants used the strategies they reported. Each participant read the science text on a computer screen, translated the text from Spanish to English, and answered a question pertaining to strategy use.
One question asked each participant to write about the strategies s/he used to comprehend the text by explaining his/her strategy use. The researcher randomly selected strategies reported during the strategy explanation and compared them with the translation and interview products.
If the researcher could support the strategy use explanation with an example from the translation, the attested strategy use was considered validated. If, on the other hand, there was no evidence to support the explanation, the strategy was considered not validated.
44 Instrumentation
The instruments used in this study were developed to gather information on subject- matter knowledge, individual interest, and learning strategies. To determine the level of knowledge each participant had on the topic, the Subject-matter Knowledge Probe wasadapted from Langer (1981; 1982). A rating system based on the work of Leloup, 1993 was used to ascertain a self-assessment of each participant’s individual interest in the topic of the science text. These two instruments which used Likert scales were administered and yielded a numencal value. The think-aloud procedure and the computerized translation and interview assessed reading strategies. These protocols were coded using the Strategy Classification
Scheme devised in the pilot study (See Appendix E).
Personal-Data Questionnaire
At the beginning of the data collection session, the investigator completed a "Personal-
Data Questionnaire" for each participant. The questionnaire requested information on gender, age, current Spanish course, year and quarter in which the S-CAPE was taken. Each participant, also, answered questions about his/her science background. For example, each participant reported his/her interest in science-related topics, reading of extracurricular science- related materials, involvement in science-related curricular, extracurricular activities, and final grade in the last Spanish course
45 Interest Rating
Subjects were asked to indicate the level of their interest in the topic of the reading text using a Likert Scale (See Appendix D). This information was used to measure and describe individual interest in the topic of the reading passage. Each participant rated his/her interest in the topic on a scale from 1 to 3 (1= little interest, 2=some interest, 3= much interest).
Text Selection Process
Because of an emphasis on the use of authentic material in foreign language programs, a science text article for this study was sought in Spanish-language periodicals that contained feature sections on science. Science was chosen as the content-area for this study to provide baseline data on the strategy use of science students in foreign language programs. The article
"Consumen losatletas creatina" appeared in the science-feature section of El Nuevo Dia. a daily newspaper published in Puerto Rico (See Appendix A). El Nuevo Dia is considered a standard-level periodical; it is written for an audience with an 8th-grade reading level
(personal communication, Edward Riedinger, Latin American reference specialist at the OSU library). In this study, “Consumen los atletas creatina” was the unedited, authentic Spanish- language newspaper article containing approximately 454 words. It was selected because of the simple writing style and syntactical-complexity level that was presumed to be familiar to students who completed the basic Spanish-language course at OSU as well as those students enrolled in lower-level and upper-level courses for Spanish majors.
The biology-related passage dealing with the effects of taking a supplementary amino acid on the body, was selected with the assumption the topic would be more familiar to participants in this study with an interest in the topics of biology and/or fitness. Though it was
46 presumed that science majors would possess more knowledge of biology, the text selected for
this investigation allowed for participants to have varying degrees of subject-matter knowledge on this topic regardless of academic major.
Subject-matter Knowledge Probe
To assess the scientific subject-matter knowledge, a free-association of prior knowledge was elicited. Langer and Nicholich ( 1980) developed this method to assess subject-matter knowledge. Langer (1981; 1982) postulated that such a method reflected the strength of organization of existing knowledge as it relates to key concepts and vocabulary found in a text. The Langer Scale is a free association method of prior knowledge grouping subject-matter knowledge into three levels of knowledge (i.e., much, some, and little knowledge). A participant possessing Level 3 (much knowledge) responds using superordinate concepts, definitions, analogies, and linking. At Level 2, (some knowledge), ideal responses are indicated by examples, attributes, and defining characteristics. At Level 1
(little knowledge), responses are indicated by associations, morphemes, homonyms, and first hand experiences. Each participant was awarded 1, 2. or 3, points for each of the three free association cues. Thus, for each Subject-matter Knowledge Probe the highest possible score was 3 A score of I indicated that the participant gave no response or no correct answer to the cue The score of 2 was awarded if some, but not all of the information provided was accurate.
A score of three was given if all the information given was correct. The researcher and a coder separately summed, averaged, and subsequently compared scores from the participant’s three free association cues for a final Subject-matter Knowledge Probe score Any disagreements were resolved in a conference Interrater reliability was 93
47 Recall Protocol
The reading recall protocols were scored according to Deville and Chalhoub-Deville's
( 1992) dichotomous propositional analysis system. During the pre-data collection process, a graduate student, native-Spanish speaker, read the article aloud. The researcher audio recorded the reading and used the recording to establish where he paused during the reading.
The natural pauses of this native speaker of Spanish were counted and were referred to as the pausal propositions of a native speaker of Spanish. His pauses were 89; these became pausal units dividing the article into 89 propositions. For each participant's protocol, the investigator and the coder scored the propositions as correct (being present) or incorrect (not present).
Participants were given a “one” for each correct proposition (each pausal unit they included in their recall protocol) and a “zero” for information that was not incorrect (for information not included in the recall protocol or when information not included in the article was added). The researcher and a coder separately scored each recall protocol. A total score was obtained by adding together the total number of correct responses for each participant. All disputes were resolved in a conference. Interrater reliability of .90 was established. It was expected that a level of at least 90 would be established. The average of the ten participant’s scores was 26.3 out of 89 The recall scores are summarized in Table 3 I. Subjects were native speakers of
English and wrote their recall protocols in English.
48 Participant Recall Protocol Score
SI 32
S2 52
S3 38
S4 21
S5 4
S6 13
S7 26
S8 23
S9 31
SIO 23
Table 3.2: Participants’ Recall Protocol Scores
Think-aloud protocol
The think-aloud protocol is an appropriate method of having subjects articulate their thoughts and actions by instructing them to "think aloud" while performing a task (Ericsson &
Simon. 1993. Hosenfeld. 1977) According to Ericsson and Simon, during think-alouds subjects articulate (explain, talk about, etc.) the information to which they are attending.
During a think-aloud translation, the subject describes the information to which he attends while making a Spanish to English translation of a science text. In this study, to research the mental processes of readers during the reading process, a think-aloud protocol was rendered by each subject during a Spanish to English oral translation of a prescribed general science text
49 Each subject was shown how to "think-aloud" by viewing a videotape of a think-aloud performed by another participant during the pilot study. Before the data collection, an opportunity was provided for all subjects to think aloud with a practice text. Participants were given as much time as needed to practice. (See Appendix G.) Immediately after the practice, think-aloud protocols were performed for data collection and were videotaped by the researcher. During the data analysis, the video-tape of the protocols collected in this study were viewed by the researcher and the coder, who independently identified the strategies each participant reported on strategy matrix form ( See Table 3.1).
Computerized Translation and Interview
All participants were asked to use the computer to write a Spanish to English translation of the scientific article of 454 words for which they had already performed the think- aloud protocol (See Appendix B for the template). Using a Macintosh computer provided by the investigator, students, first, simulated the study task using a practice text, to familiarize themselves with the computerized translation and interview procedure. During data collection, learners were asked to select, on the computer, portions of the text they intended to translate.
After the self-selected portion of the 454-word text was translated, each subject was interviewed about the strategies used to translate this self-selected portion of the text. Each learner typed his/Tier responses to the translation and interview questions which were chronologically recorded and time-stamped into a log file. In addition to the strategy information, the log file contained information on the amount of time in seconds required to complete the task. Although it was estimated that 30 minutes would be required to complete this task, each participant was allowed as much time as necessary for the computerized
50 translation and interview task. A complete listing of log files is summarized in the study, including task completion time, strategy use, and translations as well as choice of phrases, length of phrases, and total time required to translate the text. (See Appendix C.)
Data Analysis
A qualitative within-case descriptive analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was used to descnbe each participant's strategy use during the think-aloud protocol. After this analysis, strategies were quantified by type for a frequency count of the number of strategies used by the science and non-science majors, the number of strategies used depending on the participant’s level of subject-matter knowledge, and the number of strategies used depending on the participant’s level of interest. These analyses were followed by a within-case content analysis of the computerized translation and interview products. The researcher randomly selected three excerpts from nine of the ten participants. The selections were examined for evidence of the strategies the participant reported Because of mechanical difficulty. Participant Four was omitted from this analysis. During this analysis, the strategies the participant reported duiing the question to explain your strategy use were compared with the actual translation and interview product. If, for example, after translating a section, a participant explained, “I only translated the key words, words 1 considered important.” The researcher looked for support for the use of this strategy in the translation using the definitions outlined in the Strategy
Classification Scheme According to the Strategy Classification Scheme looking for key words was defined as an incomplete consisting mainly of important words If the translation section only had main words as explained by the participant, this would be considered evidence that the participant used the strategy.
51 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
The notion that interest, subject-matter knowledge, and strategy use are involved in learning has been documented in the field of education. Research in these areas has concentrated on defining the concepts and investigating them primarily as singular or multiple variables in a variety of learning activities. Second-language research has, likewise, probed the effect of strategy use, interest, and subject-matter knowledge on second-language learning, but to date the studies have examined their singular impact in language-related tasks such as reading.
Reading research in both general education and second-language education has shown that during reading, learners consciously employ mental and behavioral operations that facilitate their second-language learning. Ellis (1992) argued that individual learner differences, which include interest and subject-matter knowledge, may affect strategy use.
Leloup (1993) found that interest in a text topic fostered second-language reading comprehension. Similarly, Edwards (1984) and Hauptman, Wesche, and Ready (1988) concluded that subject-matter knowledge aided second-language reading proficiency.
52 From findings of these three studies, it can be argued that interest and subject-matter
knowledge may influence strategy use during second-language reading tasks.
The purpose of this study was to examine interest and subject-matter knowledge as
variables affecting strategy use. The subjects for the present study were ten collegiate
learners of Spanish at The Ohio State University who were enrolled in Spanish 104, 201,
401, and 4501 at the time of the study. Five students were enrolled in upper-level (400+)
courses and five students were enrolled in lower level courses (200-). The four males and
six females who volunteered to participate in the study had received A's or B's in their last completed Spanish class. An equal number of science and non-science majors was represented in the study. Table 4.1 provides student data information on all participants, these include academic orientation, age, gender, and S-CAPE score/course placement.
The average age of participants was 21. There was an equal number of science and non science majors. This latter criterion was important in the present study because it equalized the opportunity to observe strategy use based on the participants’ declared major. The average grade from the participants’ last course was A-.
53 S-CAPE Score/ Partici Academic Course Current pant Orientation Age Gender Placement Course Grade
I non-scicncc/ 25 male 33/ 450 A Spanish 103
2 non-scicncc 22 male O' 450 A Education
3 science/ 20 male 0 450 Pre-medicine
4 Non-science 22 male 22/ 201 A Histor> 103.66
5 Non-science 19 female 46/104 401 B undecided
6 Non-science/ 20 female 40/ 201 B Music 104
7 Science/ 20 female 23/ 201 A Biology 103.66
8 Science/ 23 female 0/ 104 A Biology 101
9 Science/ 20 female 33/ 401 A Biology 103
10 Science/ 20 female 33/ 401 A Biology 103 0 indicates no record exists that these had taken the S-CAPE at The Ohio State University
Table 4.1 : Student Data Information
54 Since interest was a dependent variable in this study participants answered questions related to their interest in science. Table 4.2 contains a summary of each participant's written responses. The majority of the participants reported an interest in science-related topics. Half of the participants, both science and non-science majors, responded affirmatively about ( 1 ) enrolling in elective science courses; (2) reading science- related curricular materials; and (3) attending science-related extracurricular activities.
Only twenty percent of the students in this study reported that they attend science-related curricular activities.
Attends Attends Participant Interested in Enrolls in Reads science- science science scicncc-rclalcd scicncc-classcs related curricular extra topics as eleciivcs materials activities curricular activities
1 yes yes yes no no
2 yes no yes no no
3 yes yes yes yes no
4 no no no no no
5 no no no no no
6 no no no no no
7 >es yes yes yes no
X yes yes yes yes yes
9 >es yes yes yes yes
10 ses no yes yes no
Table 4.2 Participant's Science Orientation
55 After participants completed personal data questions, a free association measurement assessing their levels of subject-matter knowledge and a self-rating of the levels of interest. Later, a think-aloud protocol was administered before the computerized translation and interview task was performed. The results from these instruments were used to answer the research questions in this study.
Kinds of Strategies
A within-case qualitative analysis was performed on data collected during the think-aloud protocol to identify and describe the kinds of strategies used by science and non-science majors. The investigator and the coder independently viewed the videotape of each participant’s think-aloud protocol and using a strategy matrix formulated during the Pilot Study recorded strategy use. After recording the strategies, the matrices were sorted according to academic major; science or non-science major. These science and non-science majors' strategies were compiled in a taxonomy (Table 4.3).
The ten students reported 30 different kinds of strategy during the think-aloud protocol. The thirty strategies were classified into two distinct strategy types: global and local. These strategies which were differentiated into 21 global strategies and nine local strategies An examination of the different kinds of strategies used, revealed that science majors administered 28 different kinds of strategies: Non-science majors employed 25.
Likewise, science majors used more global strategies (20) than non-science majors ( 19).
Additionally, science majors applied more local strategies (8) than non-science majors (6)
(See Table 4.3 ).
56 Strategy Use Frequency
The frequency with which the participants employed a particular strategy during the think-aloud protocol was investigated. The frequency count is the number of times the participants reported using the strategy according to the assigned group, science or non science. The frequency count showed that non-science majors used strategies a total of
213 instances while science majors used them a total of 142 instances. Together the science and non-science major reported a total of 355 strategies.(See Table 4.4).
An additional analysis of the results was conducted on the reported frequency of the strategies to examine the strategies preferred by science and non-science majors.
Strategies applied ten or more times were referred to as preferred strategies of the group.
Science majors preferred skipping unknown words, reading aloud in Spanish, and reading and revising strategies. Non-science majors preferences were guessing, reading for the gist, skipping unknown words, trying to reason out the meaning, adjusting initial content, reading and revising, and reading aloud in Spanish.
57 Stratcg) Use Science Non-Science
Globa! Strategies Reads in linear fashion X X Looks at title X X Uses title as advance organizer X Assumes/Guesses XX Reads for gist/main idea/basic idea/main theme/purpose X Tries to reason out meaning of unknown words X X Reads silently X X Looks for context clues X X Places unknown words in context X X Matches prior knowledge with information in text XX Skips unknown words XX Skips unknown structures X X Reads aloud in Spanish X X Forms h\pothcsis/Sets up expectation X X Rc-reads/rc\ iscs XX Adjusts initial idea based on content XX Summarizes X X Looks at names of the authors XX Reads article more than once X Automatically processes text in Spanish XX Reflects/Contemplates XX SUBTOTAL 2« 19 Local Stratepies Translatcs word by word XX Translates sentence by sentence/phrase by phrase XX Translates paragraph by paragraph XX Makes linguistic revisions after reading ahead X Looks for cognates XX Attempts to retrieve linguistic information from memory X Defines grammar constituent X X Reads aloud problematic word X Reads aloud and then translates SUBTOTAL 8 6 TOTAL 28 25 Note: X indicates strategies used by at least one individual in the science and non-science groups.
Table 4 3 Science and Non-Science Majors Strategy Use During Think-aloud Protocol of "los atletas consumen creatina”
58 Strategy Use Frequency Science Non-Science Total Global Stralcptes Reads in linear fashion 5 5 10 Looks at title 4 2 6 Uses title as advance organizer 1 1 Assumes/Guesses 8 20 37 Reads for gist/main idea/basic idea/main theme/purpose 10 10 Tries to reason out meaning of unknown w ords 7 13 20 Reads silently 9 3 12 Looks for context clues 3 4 7 Places unknown words in context 4 5 9 Matches prior know ledge on topic with information contained in text 3 2 5 Skips unknown words 19 25 44 Skips unknown structures 14 3 17 Reads aloud in Spanish 7 48 55 Forms h\pothesis/Sets up expectation 1 5 6 Re-rcads/revises 17 16 33 Adjusts initial idea based on content 8 11 19 Summarizes 1 4 5 Looks at names of the authors 1 1 Reads article more than once 1 1 Automatically processes text in Spanish 2 2 4 Reflects/Contemplates 3 3 Local Slralci’ics Translates word by word 3 6 9 Translates sentence by sentence/phrase by phrase 3 3 6 Translates paragraph by paragraph 4 2 6 Makes linguistic revisions after reading ahead 1 1 Looks for cognates 8 9 17 Attempts to retrieve linguistic information from memoiy 1 1 Defines grammar constituent 2 1 3 Reads aloud problematic word 2 2 Reads aloud and then translates 5 5
Total 213 142 355
Table 4 4 Science and Non-Science Majors Strategy Use Frequency Distribution During Think-aloud Protocol of “Los atletas consumen creatina”
59 Level of Subject-Matter Knowledge
Table 4.5 shows strategies used according to participants’ level(s) of subject-
matter knowledge. When the data were examined for strategies used at the three levels of
subject-matter knowledge, forty-eight percent were used at all three levels.
The results of a frequency count that examined the number of global and local
strategies that emerged at Levels 1, 2, and 3 of subject-matter knowledge indicated that
for both global and local strategies, participants assessed with Level 2 subject-matter
knowledge applied the greatest number of strategies Seventeen of the twenty-one were
global strategies and six of nine were local strategies. A secondary analysis ranked
strategy use by level. The number of global strategies and local strategies were ranked by
level from the highest to lowest strategies. Global strategies were ranked by total number
of strategies according to level as Level 2, Level 3, Level 1. Rank order for local
strategies in number of total was Level 2, Level 1, Level 3.
A subsequent review of the subject-matter data showed two tendencies in strategy
use according to level. Some strategies were used by participants with all levels of
subject-matter knowledge: ten out of the twenty-one strategies were found at all levels of
subject-matter knowledge: reading in a linear fashion, looking at the title, placing
unknown words in context, skipping unknown words, reading aloud in Spanish, forming
hypotheses, re-reading/revising, adjusting initial idea, translating paragraph by paragraph,
looking for cognates. Other strategies were applied by participants with Levels 2 and 3
of subject-matter knowledge: eight of the twenty-one strategies were used with Level 2 and Level 3 of subject-matter, but were not found at Level I of subject-matter knowledge.
60 Level of Individual Interest
When the data were analyzed for strategy use according to levels of interests, seventeen of thirty strategies clustered at Levels 2 and 3 (See Table 4 .6) indicating that participants rated themselves as having some and much interest in the text topic. For the variable of interest as with subject-matter knowledge, a distinction was made between the use of global strategies and local strategies. Fifteen of the seventeen strategies were global strategies. Because of the prominence of global strategies at Levels 2 and 3, more information on local strategies was sought. An additional analysis was performed. Local strategies were used foremost at Levels 1 and 2 of interest indicating that participants with little or some interest in the text topic used these strategies.
61 Strategy Use Lcvcl(s)
Subject-matter Knowledge 1 2 3
Global Sirafepies
Reads in linear fashion X X X
Looks at title X X X
Uses title as advance organizer
Assumes/Guesses X
Reads for gist/main idea/basic idea/main theine/purpose X X
Tries to reason out meaning of unknown words X X
Reads silcntfy X
Looks for context clues X X
Places unknown words in context X X X
Matches prior knowledge on topic with infonnation contained in text X X
Skips unknown words X X X
Skips unknown structures X X
Reads aloud in Spanish X X X
Forms hypothcsis/Scts up expectation X X X
Re-reads/revises XXX
Adjusts initial idea based on content X X X
Summarizes X X
Looks at names of the authors X
Reads article more than once X
AiitomaticalK processes text in Spanish X X
Reflects/Contemplates X
10/21 17/21 15/21
(Continued)
Table 4 5 Science and Non-Science Major Strategy Use Indicating Levei(s) of Subject-matter Knowledge for “Los atletas consumen creatina”
62 Table 4.5 (Continued)
Strategy Use Level(s)
Subject-matter Knowledge 1 2 3
Local Strategies
Translates word by word X X
Translates sentence by sentence/phrase by phrase X X
Translates paragraph by paragraph X X X
Makes linguistic revisions after reading ahead X
Looks for cognates X X X
Attempts to retrieve linguistic information from memory X
Defines grammar constituent X
Reads aloud problematic word
Reads aloud and then translates
4/9 6/9 3/9
63 Strategy Use Level(s)
Interest 1 2 3
Global Strategies
Reads in linear fashion XXX
Looks at title XXX
Uses title as advance organizer XX
Assumes/Guesses XXX
Reads for gist/main idea/basic idea/main thcmc/purpose X
Tries to reason out meaning of unknown words X
Reads silently X
Looks for context clues X
Places unknown words in context XX
Matches prior knowledge on topic with information contained in text XX
Skips unknown structures XXX
Reads aloud in Spanish XXX
Forms hypothcsis/Scts up expectation XX
Re-reads/re\ iscs X X
Adjusts initial idea based on content XXX
Suiniiiari/es X
Looks at names of the authors
Reads article more than once X
Automatically processes text in Spanish X
Reflects/Contemplates
13/21 17/21 17/21
(Continued)
Table 4 6 Science and Non-Science Major Strategy Use Indicating Levei(s) of Interest in "Los atletas consumen creatina”
64 Table 4.6 (Continued)
Strategy Use Level(s)
Interest 1 2 3
Local Strategies
Translates word by word X X
Translates sentence by sentence/phrase by phrase XX
Translates paragraph by paragraph x
Makes linguistic revisions after reading ahead x
Looks for cognates x x
Attempts to retrieve linguistic information from memory x
Defines grammar constituent x
Reads aloud problematic word x
Reads aloud and then translates
5/9 5/9 3/9
Strategy Use Validation
During the data analysis process, the researcher noted that some strategies could be supported with unequivocal evidence of use. For other strategies supporting evidence was more difficult to confirm For example, the strategy “skips unknown words" could be substantiated by finding evidence that words are missing from the written translation as defined in the Strategy Classification Scheme. If, indeed the written translation does not contain representations for all the linguistic units, then the translation supports the reported strategy
65 use. On the other hand, support for some strategies such as “use of cognates” was less strong.
For example, a participant stated that he used cognates to understand the text. It is true that in
the text there are many true cognates, however, the participant was not explicit about which
words he considered cognates. The participant's lack of specificity weakened an argument for
the use of the strategy.
Table 4.7 displays several randomly selected strategies that were reported by the
participants when asked for an explanation on their strategy use. Twenty-seven strategies
that were reported by nine participants were randomly selected from the excerpts of the
participants' computerized translation and interview in this study. Evidence supporting the
use of the strategies was found for sixteen of the twenty-seven strategies. For ten
strategies, no evidence was found to support strategy use. Two reasons accounted for the
ruling of no evidence to support strategy use. First, the participants mentioned using a
particular strategy, but did not include a specific reference on how this strategy was used.
For example, a participant may have mentioned using cognates, but did not say which
words they considered cognates This reason for a negative evidence ruling was found
with strategies involving cognates, skipped words, and the use of context. Three
strategies reflecting/contemplating, reading ahead and revising, and reading the whole sentence were not supported with evidence of their use because the operationalization as found in the Strategy Classification Scheme could not be observed in a written translation.
Presented in Table 4 7 are randomly selected strategies, an indication whether evidence supports strategy use, and the positive or negative evidence
6 6 Evidence Supporting Participant Reported Straleg> to Support Evidence
SI Guessing Yes The translation of "cs scincjantc de su dimension molecular a un aininoacido" show s signs of guessing. It is translated " is part of an amino acid."
SI Word for word Yes All linguistic units are accounted for.
SI Reflecting No No way to prove this strategy.
S2 Spanish Grammar word order Yes English translation contains reverse.
S2 Skipping Yes "liso" is omitted from the English translation.
S2 Reasoning Yes according to the participant "rihones" translated as kidney due to knowledge of biology
S3 Guessing No Did not state which phrases he "inferred the meaning from"
S3 Automatically processes Yes linguistic units are accounted for translation
S3 Word for word Yes semantic and linguistic units are accounted for
S5 Matches prior knowledge Yes participant indicates that "prueba" is a word used by Spanish
S5 Reasoning Yes "pruebas" must mean something like to prove one's self
S3 Retrieving linguistic Yes "1 tried to remember the forms of estar " knowledge
S6 Word for word Yes semantic and linguistic units are accounted for
S6 Context No No mention of w hich words she did not know, but were placed in context
Sf) Guessing Yes Invented an English word protagmzing from the Spanish word "protaganiza"
S7 Using ke\words Yes "creatina". "substancia" "consumida"
S7 Skipping No Docs not indicate which words she skipped
(Continued)
Table 4.7: Evidence of Reported Strategies
67 Table 4.7 (Continued)
Evidence Supporting Participant Reported Strategy to Support Evidence
S7 Using linguistic informatin Yes "I think of the infinitive form to llamado- llamar”
S8 Cognates No Did not indicate which words she considered cognates
S8 Reading for the gist No Did not specify’ key words
S8 Matching prior background No Did not indicate how science knowledge was used to assist in translation.
S9 Looking for context clues No Did not mention specific clues
S9 Looking for key words No Did not mention specific clues
S9 Translating phrase by phrase Yes Translation is complete; all linguistic units are accounted for
SIO Reading ahead and No Not possible to ascertain in a written re-reading translation
SIO Skipping Yes words for "el higado and los ri nones" are omitted from the English translation
SIO Reading whole sentence No No way to ascertain this strategy from the written translation
Note: S4 was omitted from this analysis. He had difficulty with the computerized translation and interview.
68 Discussion
Bernhardt (1993) proposed that a text and a reader contain unique features that influence the reading comprehension process of an individual. According to Bernhardt, during reading, the unique features of the reader interface with the unique features of the text as readers typically spend time constructing meaning from the text. It is at this point that learning strategies may be called upon to aid in reading comprehension. The more challenging the text is to the reader, the more strategic behaviors the reader may need to employ. In second-language reading, comprehension is further complicated. Because second-language reading is more than reading in English with different-looking words, second-language readers must construct meaning from an unfamiliar linguistic as well as socio-cultural context. The complexity may pose a greater degree of difficulty for the second language reader for a native reader.
This study was concerned with the reading comprehension process and selected variables that may influence it. The focus of this study was to identify strategies that mediate between the reading activity and the comprehension process that are determined by interest and subject-matter knowledge. Another concern of this study was to validate strategy use. This investigation of the second-language learning strategies of science and non-science majors during the reading of a science text resulted in three overarching findings: the systematicity of the reading process; the differential strategy use between science and non-science majors; and the interrelated role of individual interest, subject- matter knowledue. and strateuv use
69 Systematicity of the Reading Process
The think-aloud protocol documented the conscious processing that occurred during the reading of a science text by second-language learners of Spanish. It revealed the complex processing involved in understanding the authentic foreign language text for non-native speakers of Spanish. The data confirmed that individuals apply unique and varied strategies in order to understand a text. The data also indicated that each learner has a preferred strategy that is utilized more than other strategies. Finally, the data established that reading, for the learners in this study, was a linear process in which the reader started at beginning of the text and proceeded to the end of the passage. During this activity, when difficulty was encountered, strategic behaviors were employed.
Strategies such as reading ahead or re-reading may have temporarily interrupted this beginning-to-end processing until the learner was satisfied with the meaning made from the problematic passage.
Case Studies of Individual Readers
Kleiman (1982) advocated research examining the reading behavior of individual readers in order to investigate beneficial reading strategies. He proposed that detailed information about individual cases is indispensable for establishing general principles concerning reading practices.
70 The case studies in this present study documented, as a contemporary phenomenon within a real-word context, strategic behaviors during a computerized translation and interview. These case studies also exemplify the systematicity of the reading process. The information contained in them are drawn from the personal data questionnaire, the
Subject-matter Knowledge Probe, the interest rating, as well as the computerized translation and interview. The criteria for the selection of the two participants were academic major, interest rating, and Subject-matter Knowledge Probe score. To minimize the differences in examining the strategic behavior of the two individuals, both participants rated themselves as having much interest in the text topic. Also, both of the individuals in the case studies were assessed with having much knowledge on the text topic. For the purpose of study, the participants varied from each other in one respect, their declared major. Participant One declared himself as a non-science major while Participant Nine professed to be a science major. The excerpts from the computerized translation and interviews appear in an unaltered form, as produced by the participant. The excerpts consisted of the translation selection, the translation, followed by the explanation.
Participant One
Participant One is a male, 25-year-old, non-science major who at the time of the study was in an upper-level Spanish course. Participant One reported automatically processing the Spanish text, trying to reason out the meaning of unknown words, and reflecting as strategies to cope with this study’s scientific article
71 Participant One articulated a global view of processing the text. He emphasized the role of getting the general meaning of a text automatically processing the Spanish text and then translating it.
LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican prue-bas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Creatine is a substance already consumed by athletes, especially the ones who practice sports of high speed and strength, known as explosive sports.
I read the section, understanding it, then I though about how to word it in English the proper way.
This participant also employed at word-driven view of text processing relying on vocabulary knowledge and trying to reason out the meaning of words.
Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
The energy source used in this type of exertion in ATP (adenosine triphosfate) and creatine.
Didn’t know some words, 1 tried to make sense of it
Participant One used the reflecting strategy to assist in his English translation of the Spanish text He explained that reflecting is the strategic behavior that allows the reader time to formulate thouuhts about the readinu.
LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ûltimos
72 metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina.
Experts in physiological science have discovered that one of the main reasons athletes lose speed near the end of the race is because thy have used up their creatine.
I read it, thought for a second, then I decided how I would say it in English.
Participant Nine
Participant Nine is a 22-year-old female science major who, at the time of this study, was in an upper-level Spanish course. This participant indicated in her computerized translation and interview that she used word for word translation, phrase by phrase translation, the context, cognates and guessing strategies to understand the text.
Participant Nine described a multistrategic approach to gain construct meaning from the scientific article by utilizing strategy combinations, two or more strategies together. The use of context emerged as a pivot around which other strategies revolved.
In the following excerpt from her translation and interview. Participant Nine explained that it was the context and known words that assisted her in her translation.
LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican prue- bas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Creatine is a substance consumed by a number of athletes, especially those who practice speed and rapidness, they are named "explosive.”
1 translated accordinu to context, and some words 1 knew riuht away
73 Another citation from this participant’s translation shows the intended use of the multistrategic approach to text processing. This participant believed that cognate vocabulary and translating phrase by phrase facilitated her processing of the written
Spanish article.
El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mas oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica por-que no se consume oxigeno como (uente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mas creatina. La creatina esta, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estân poco cocinados.
The consumer of creatine (in the actual commercialized form it is creatine monohydrate) is extended into those athletes because of a deficiency in the interior of the muscle, and creatine phosphate helps in the high contraction of the muscles At the same time, runners in high altitudes have a hard time to transport oxygen to the muscle, athletes who run (especially anaerobic because they consume oxygen with a lot of energy) are found to have energy reserves with a lot of creatine. Creatine is recommended for vegetarian athletes because it is found in meat and fish dishes.
Translated from phrase to phrase, some of the words were cognates so it was easier to translate
The following selection suggests that participant wanted to use the context strategy in combination with a word-related strategy, but said that her vocabulary was not
74 sufficient to guess at the meaning of words. Participant Nine’s strategy use explanation was important for two reasons. First, it indicated that she was aware that the use of context was a dominant strategy for her. Second, she was aware that the knowledge she did not have hindered her comprehension process.
Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Other athletes have voiced their opinions of products of creatine.
I tried to translate in the context, but I needed to know what a couple of the words meant before I could make a good logical guess.
The examination of strategies use with a science and a non-science major showed that during the computerized translation and interview, the two participants reported utilizing different strategies. In fact, these two participants reported a wide-sweeping range of strategy use. Since the translation and interview was a distinct activity to document strategy use than the think-aloud protocol, the strategies reported in the computerized translation and interview may differ from the strategies reported in the think-aloud protocol. However, many of the strategies documented in both the think- aloud and the computerized translation and interview were similarities. The primary role of the computerized translation and interview as a strategy validation tool was to provide evidence to strengthen the validity of the think-aloud. While some opponents of the think- aloud argue that the think-aloud may not be a reliable source of data, the computerized
75 translation and interview served as an independent data collection tool to document
whether an attested strategy had been used.
Similarities and Differences in the Strategy Use Between Science and Non-Science M ^ors
During the think-aloud tasks, science and non-science majors found were to have
used the same strategies. Because the strategy use of participant could not be
distinguished by the kinds of strategies that were used, the data were examined for
possible distinguishing features between science and non-science majors. The difference in
strategy use between the two groups in this study was shown in the frequency of strategy
use and the types of strategies used. The fact that science majors employed fewer
strategies than non-science majors could be related to the problem-solving nature of
strategy use. Readers tend to implement a particular strategy to master a particular
reading problem. The non-science participants may possess, according to the Subject-
matter Knowledge Probe, little subject matter knowledge on the topic, perhaps
experience diffculty with the text, therefore, and need more assistance in meaning
construction.
In this study subject-matter knowledge was viewed as a dual part concept
consisting of domain knowledge (academic major) and topic (scientific subject-matter
knowledge,) it was also examined as a factor during the meaning construction process. As with the science majors, it was also found that the learners who according to the Subject- matter Knowledue Probe had much knowledue used fewer strateuies
76 The strategies identified in this study and included in the taxonomy were categorized into two types of strategies; global and local strategies. Global strategies are defined as process-oriented strategies such as reading for the gist, hypothesizing, using scientific content knowledge. Local strategies consist of decoding strategies, for example, the looking for cognates, skipping words, defining grammar constituents (defining parts of grammar). In this study, the science majors employed more global processing strategies than non-science majors. This finding suggested that the science-major participants were relying on factors other than their knowledge of the Spanish language to comprehend the text. Two influences could account for these results. First, the participants who were assessed on the Subject-matter Knowledge Probe as having much subject-matter knowledge applied it to understand the text. Second, the language learners, who were measured as possessing much subject-matter knowledge in this study have mastered strategies that work for them. Therefore, global strategies may be preferred by learners who possess superordinate concepts, definitions, and analogies of the topic in question.
Interrelatedness of Subject-matter Knowledge and Interest in Strategy Use
Ellis (1994) posited that three sets of variables influence the other sets of variables.
For Ellis, individual learner differences, learner strategies, and language learning outcomes are three interrelated sets of variables involved in language learning. A between-set influence is evident in a domino-effect: the individual learner differences influence learner strategies which in turn impact on learning outcomes Next, he theorized that each set, individual learner differences, learner strategies, and learning outcomes consist of factors that affect each other These within-set factors may or may not impact each other. For
77 example, individual learner differences may be defined as consisting of variables such as personality, language learning beliefs, and the language learning setting. According to
Ellis’ theory, these factors may affect each other. For example, personality variable may influence learners’ beliefs, and their reactions to the learning environment (Ellis, 1994).
Thus, between set as well as within set factors may affect each other.
Both of Ellis’ above mentioned hypotheses were supported by the results of this study. First, it was found that between-set variables influence each other. In this present study, interest, an individual learner differenc ewas found to be associated with strategy use. Interest level was associated with the type of strategy the participants used in this study. The results of this study demonstrate that global strategies were employed by professing some or much interest in the topic. Participants who rated themselves as having little or some interest in the topic engaged in strategic behavior using primarily local strategies. These findings suggest that participants with much interest in a topic rely on meaning-getting strategies while the learner with the less interest in the topic, strategies employed decoding the linguistic information given in the text
Second, from the results of this study, it was concluded that the within-set factors are associated with each other The data suggest that similar levels of interest and subject- matter knowledge may be needed by learners to use a particular strategy This was seen in the strategies reported during the think-aloud protocol. Strategy use by participants was found at similar levels of interest and subject-matter knowledge. Using an example from the study, the strategy "to look for context cues” occurred at Levels 2 and 3 of subject- matter knowledge When the same strategy, “to look for context cues” was examined for
78 the levels of interest of the participants who used it, it was found that they possessed
Levels 2 and 3. It was concluded that levels of subject-matter knowledge and levels of interest are interrelated in the strategy use of participants in this study. In addition, certain strategic behaviors such as reading in linear fashion, looking at the title, guessing, skipping unknown words and skipping unknown structures were found at Levels 1, 2, and
3 of interest. These same strategies were also found to be used by participants with
Levels 1,2,3 of subject-matter knowledge.
It was anticipated that science majors would draw upon their background knowledge to comprehend the science text. Surprisingly, scientific background knowledge was not reported by the participants as a widely used strategy contributing to the comprehension of the selected text. Six participants mentioned in their computerized translation and interviews that their knowledge of science or previous science-learning experiences influenced their getting meaning from the text. These references to science were few in relationship to their references regarding the use of other strategies. One reason is that second-language readers may not be aware of the role of scientific knowledge in their strategy use. Another reason is that the scientific knowledge may be used with other strategies.
The use of subject-matter knowledge as a strategy became visible when examined in connection with other strategies. An analysis of the computerized translation and interview products showed that scientific knowledge was embedded in strategies such as guessing, key words, and cognates. Participant One indicated. “1 am guessing that
‘rfiones’ are kidneys because clearly they are an abdominal organ, and there are two.”
79 Using knowledge of the body, this participant correctly guessed the meaning of a word in the text. Another participant. Participant Seven, pointed out that she focused on key words such as, "creatina. substancia. and consumida.” Finally. Participant Eight explained that her "science background helped her to understand and recognize cognates.
Summary
Second language reading is viewed as a systematic process in which science and non-science majors use similar strategies but differ in their frequency and type of use.
Two types of data were collected to observe strategy use in second-language reading.
Data from the think-aloud protocol showed that science majors employed more kinds of strategies than the non-science major, however, the science major used the kinds of strategies less frequency than non-science majors. Science majors also employed more global strategies than non-science majors. Furthermore, data from the think-aloud protocol revealed an association between level of subject-matter knowledge and the use of types of strategies. Both the data from the think-aloud protocol and the data gathered during the computerized translation and interviews showed a complex and interrelated role for strategy use. subject-matter knowledge, and interest when reading a second language scientiiic article.
80 CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Overview of the Study
The present study focused on investigating subject-matter knowledge and interest as individual learner differences in reading-strategy use. Subject-matter knowledge was defined as a dual-part concept comprising domain knowledge; science and non-science majors, and topic knowledge: knowledge of the content of a scientific text. The aspect of interest investigated in this study was that of individual reader interest. It was delineated as the predisposition of a reader toward certain topics, activities, and/or tasks. Besides examining the role of subject-matter knowledge and interest on reading strategy use, strategy validation was considered. Other concerns of this study included documenting kinds of strategy use, the frequency of strategy use, and strategy use at different levels of subject-matter knowledge and individual interest.
The participants were ten collegiate students enrolled in Spanish classes at a large urban, mid-western university. Subject-matter knowledge and interest were assessed.
Subject-matter knowledge was measured by academic major and Langer's (1980, 1981,
1982) free-association rating scale where three probes from one science-related article were presented to each participant. The scores from the three probes were averaged to
81 provide a numerical value for each participant who read the article. Individual interest was determined by a self-rating scale while strategy use was identified during the reading of a scientific text by the think-aloud protocol.
The data from the think-aloud protocol were subjected to qualitative and descriptive analyses. These included frequency counts and content-analyses. The kinds of strategies utilized by collegiate students were determined by a qualitative analysis of think- aloud protocols. The strategies identified during the think-aloud protocol were subjected to a frequency count. Then qualitative analyses were subsequently employed to examine the levels of interest and subject-matter knowledge in strategy use. Finally, strategy use validation was examined by recording each participant's activities during a computerized translation and interview. Each research question was answered based on the data collected in the study
Summary of Findings
Research Question I
( 1 ) What kinds of strategies were used by science and non-science majors reading a scientific te.xt'’
The ten students reported 30 different kinds of strategy during the think-aloud protocol. The thirty strategies were classified into two distinct strategy types: global and local These strategies were differentiated into 21 global strategies and nine local strategies
8 2 An examination of the different kinds of strategies used, revealed that science majors administered 28 different kinds of strategies: Non-science majors employed 25 various strategies. Similarly, science majors used more global strategies (20) than non science majors (19). Additionally, science majors applied more local strategies (8) than non-science majors (6). (See Table 4.3.)
Research Question 2
(2) How frequently were the different kinds of strategies used?
The frequency count showed that non-science majors employed strategies in a total of 213 instances (60%) while science majors totaled 142 instances (40%). Together the science and non-science majors reported a total of 355 strategies. Figure 5.1 shows in percentages the strategies used by science and non-science majors.
An examination of the frequency of strategy use of science and non-science majors found that both majors differed in the strategies that they preferred. This study documented preferred strategies of the science and non-science groups: those applied ten or more times. Science majors preferred to use skipping unknown words, reading aloud in
Spanish, and reading and revising strategies. Non-science majors preferences were guessing, reading for the gist, skipping unknown words, trying to reason out the meaning, and adjusting initial content, reading aloud in Spanish, and reading and revising.
83 Legend
Non-science
Figure 5.1: Science and Non-science Strategy Use in Percentages
84 Research Question 3
(3) What strategies were used depending on individual subjects’ level of subject- matter knowledge?
The data suggested that the use of global and local strategies may be related to the level of subject-matter knowledge. The results of a frequency count examining the number er of global and local strategies at Levels I, 2, and 3 of subject-matter knowledge showed that Level 2 was found with the largest number of strategies. Figures 5.2 and 5.3 chart the results of the frequency count for global and local strategies across the three levels. Global and local strategies were used most frequently by participants assessed with having Level 2, some, subject-matter knowledge.
A. subsequent review of the subject-matter data showed two patterns in level of use. First, ten out of the twenty-one strategies were found at all levels of subject-matter knowledge. Second, four of the twenty-one strategies were used with Level 2 and Level 3 of subject-matter, but were not found at Level I of subject-matter knowledge.
85 20
15
10
Legend Level 1 ^ Level 2 Level 3
Figure 5.2: Global Strategy Use according to Levels of Subject-matter Knowledge
8 6 6 —
5 —
!4j 4-r H
Legend Q Level 1 M Level 2 Level 3
Figure 5.3: Local Strategy Use according to Levels of Subject-matter Knowledge
87 Research Question 4
(4) What strategies were used depending on individual subjects’ level of interest in the science text?
The data were analyzed for strategy use according to levels of interest. Seventeen of the thirty strategies clustered at Levels 2 and 3 (See Figure 5 .4) indicating that participants rated themselves as having some and much interest in the text topic. For the variable of interest as with subject-matter knowledge, a distinction was made between the use of global strategies and local strategies. Fifteen of the seventeen strategies were global strategies. Because of the prominence of global strategies at Levels 2 and 3, more information on local strategies was sought. This analysis revealed that local strategies were used foremost at Levels 1 and 2 of interest indicating that participants with little or some interest in the text topic used these strategies. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 compare the global and local strategies for interest and subject-matter knowledge
88 20 ,17: 17! 15 13
10
Legend Level 1 ^ Level 2 Level 3
Figure 5.4; Global Strategy Use according to Levels of Interest
89 4 - I
Legend r ] Level 1 § Level 2 | g Level 3
Figure 5.5; Local Strategy Use according to Levels of Interest
90 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Legend I i Subject-matter Knowledge ^ Interest
Figure 5 .6: Comparison of Global Strategy Use for Subject-matter Knowledge and Interest according to Levels
91 6
5
4 sJ 2
1
0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Legend Subject-matter Knowledge Interest
Figure 5 .7: Comparison of Local Strategy Use for Subject-matter Knowledge and Interest according to Levels
92 Research Question 5
(5) Was there evidence that readers used the kinds of strategies they reported?
This query was answered by twenty-seven randomly selected strategies reported
by nine of the ten participants in this study. Participant Four’s computerized translation
and interview results were omitted from this part of the study due to technological
difficulty. Evidence of strategy use validation was considered when similarity between the
explanation and the translation and interview product was found. Evidence supporting the
use of the strategies was found for sixteen of the twenty-seven strategies. For ten strategies, no evidence was found to support strategy use. Two reasons accounted for this. First, the participants mentioned using a particular strategy, but did not include a specific reference on how this strategy was used. For example, a participant may have mentioned using cognates, but did not say which words they considered cognates. This reason for a negative evidence ruling was found with strategies involving cognates, skipped words, the use of context. Three strategies reflecting/contemplating, reading ahead and revising, and reading the whole sentence were not supported with evidence of their use because the Strategy Classification Scheme definition could not be observed in a translation and interview product
The purpose of this question was to validate strategy use by collecting empirical data on the attested strategy use of second language readers during the reading of a science article From the results of this study, three conclusions were drawn about the nature of strategic text processing. Reading involves systematicity in processing,
93 similarities and differences exist in the strategy use between science and non-science
majors, and attested strategy use can be validated.
The findings of this study corroborated the complex processing involved in
understanding the authentic foreign language text for non-native speakers of Spanish.
Data confirmed that individuals apply unique and varied strategies while processing a text.
The data also suggested that each learner administered a preferred strategy. Furthermore,
the data established that reading, for the learners in this study, was a linear process in
which the reader started at the beginning of the text and proceeded to the end of the
passage. During this activity, when difficulty was encountered, strategic behaviors were
employed. Strategies such as reading ahead or re-reading may have temporarily
interrupted this beginning-to-end processing until the learner was satisfied with the meaning made from the problematic passage.
During the think-aloud tasks, science and non-science majors used the same strategies The strategies of the science and non-science participants could not be distinguished by the kinds of strategies used, therefore, the data were examined for other possible distinguishing features The difference in strategy use between the two groups in this study was shown in the frequency of strategy use and the types of strategies used.
Science majors employed fewer overall strategies than non-science majors. This could be related to the problem-solving nature of strategy use. Readers tend to implement a particular strategy to master a particular reading problem. The non-science participants may possess little subject-matter knowledge on the topic, perhaps they experience difficulty with the text, therefore, and need more assistance in meaning construction.
94 In this study, subject-matter knowledge was viewed as a dual-part concept consisting of domain knowledge and topic knowledge as defined by academic major and topic knowledge and examined as a factor during the meaning construction process. As with the science majors, it was also found that the learners who according to the Subject- matter Knowledge Probe had much subject-matter knowledge used fewer strategies.
The strategies identified in this study and included in the taxonomy were categorized into two types of strategies: global and local strategies. Studies on reading strategies suggest differences in which skilled and less skilled readers process textual information. One way is global processing, the ability to organize language into meaning units. Another means is the use of local cues such as decoding of linguistic information.
Several studies have shown that skilled readers are selective in processing information.
That is skilled readers do not process all of the information presented in a text to the same degree and depth, but pick up the necessary linguistic cues to reconstruct the author’s message. They seem to identify what is important to their understanding of the passage and tend to focus their attention on this information while skimming or lightly processing information they do not regard as important (Jung-Hee, 1992).
In this study, the science majors employed more global processing strategies than non-science majors This finding suggests that the science-major participants were relying on factors other than their knowledge of the Spanish language to comprehend the test.
Two influences could account for these results First, the participants assessed as having much subject-matter knowledge applied it to understand the text Second, the language learners who were measured as possessing much subject-matter knowledge in this study
95 have mastered strategies that work for them. Therefore, global strategies may be
preferred by learners who possess superordinate concepts, definitions, and analogies of the
topic in question.
Ellis' ( 1994) model of second-language acquisition postulates that learning
strategies mediate between individual differences and learning outcomes. Individual
differences contribute to a learner’s choice of strategies and how they affect the
performance tasks such as reading. This study investigated interest and subject-matter
knowledge as individual learner differences. The purpose of this study included
ascertaining the kinds of strategies learners employed, the quantity of strategies, the use of
strategies at different levels of interest and different levels of subject-matter knowledge,
and validation of strategy use.
Implications for Pedagogy and Conclusions
Foreign language classes will benefit from the pedagogical implications of this
study. Bernhardt (1991) promoted a sociocognitive view of second-language reading.
She posited both the text and the reader possess a series of features that interact during the reading process and determine the meaning constructed from the text. Because of this dynamic, interactive process which occurs during reading, foreign language teachers need to ascertain the amount of students' subject-matter knowledge about topics presented in foreign-language classrooms. In a given foreign-language classroom, the amount of subject-matter knowledge among the language students in the course may differ and information gaps need to be filled by establishing background knowledge. Instructors
96 should also verify what understanding each student constructs from the text and correct
any misunderstanding that may stem from inadequate subject-matter knowledge.
The subject-matter knowledge of each student could be obtained by using the
Subject-matter Knowledge Probe of this study in the classroom. Students could be given
text-topic specific cues on which they perform a free-association. As in this study, they
may be given a time limit in which to write what they know about the topic. After
completing the Subject-matter Knowledge Probe, students may share their responses in
groups or in pairs and compare their answers with ideal responses provided by the teacher.
The teacher’s ideal responses include the necessary background knowledge to understand
the text.
During text selection, foreign-language teachers should consider the academic
disciplines of their students in the classes and also their students’ interest. This could be
done by obtaining the professed academic major from the course roster before the
beginning of the course, then at the time of the first class, the students' personal interest
could be surveyed. From this information, reading material for the course should be
selected. Students in the foreign language classroom may be asked about their interest in a topic Before the reading task, students could rate their interest on a pre-task reading interest survey
The data of this study indicated that science and non-science majors utilize the same strategies, however, science majors applied more of a variety of strategies, but tended overall to use fewer strategies This finding should figure into strategy instruction.
97 Foreign-language teachers ought to be aware that although they may emphasize the use of specific strategies, all students will not employ the strategies in the same way.
One intent of the study was to compare the strategy use of science and non-science majors and to provide baseline data on the strategy use of science students in foreign language programs. The results of this study provided foreign language instructors who teach or design curricula for content-based instruction programs geared toward science students with empirical data regarding the strategic behaviors of science oriented students.
The data showed that students with science-oriented background knowledge may use more global or meaning getting strategies during reading. The instructor may not need to spend much class time on reading activities to check comprehension, but rather on reading and writing or reading and speaking activities where the student could express what s/he understands.
In addition to the practical application of these research findings to the content- based second-language classroom, these findings benefit the second-language textbook writers, curriculum designers, and teacher educators, who integrate strategy instruction into their second-language teaching programs. One finding of this study suggests that successful language learners, whether science or non-science majors, employ more global strategies than local strategies. This finding should figure into the choice of strategies selected for textbooks and instruction.
Also, teacher education programs might consider training teachers on how to conduct strategy research. Pre-service and in-service can be taught how to identify
98 strategies employed by the students in their classrooms with different text and incorporate
these strategies into their instruction.
Reading strategy use is an activity that is believed to be observable. This study
has sought to investigate strategies that are employed according to task. Studies such as
this present one can contribute to the second language data base in an attempt to identify
and validate strategies used in a reading context. Individual learner differences comprise a
segment of variables that impact strategy use and ultimately on reading comprehension.
Variables such as interest are often difficult to operationalize, and, like subject-matter
knowledge eludes today's measurement techniques. The intricacy of strategy use and the
complexity of the reading process demands that attention be given to these problems.
Recommendations For Future Research
A number of areas exist in which further research might be done as a follow up of
this study The focus of this study was the strategy use of science and non-science majors
during the reading of a science text. This study might be replicated using a non-science-
related text Additionally, the participants of this study were collegiate students.
Replications of this study could be done by using second-language learners of different
age groups. Also, strategy use was found to be associated with levels of subject-matter
knowledge and level of interest. The exact nature of this association is unclear. Future
research might examine this association.
While this study gives some clear evidence about the ways in which strategic processing occurs in reading. Questions, however, remain about the specific connection
99 between strategy use and individual learner differences. This study did not use
correlational data to establish the relationship between individual strategies or total
strategy scores, more work of this kind should be performed.
The relationship between first and second language strategy use was not investigated to determine which strategies transfer for a reading task and which ones do not.
100 APPENDIX A
REPLICATION OF TEXT
101 Appendix A
Replication of Text
Consumen los atietas creatina
Por Ignacio Romo Del Diario El Mundo De Madrid (p. 56)
LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atietas, en especial, los que practican prue- bas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas". Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen niimero de atietas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atietas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina. Linford Christie, campeôn olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 me tros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revis tas deportivas. ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentacion habituai. En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos ràpido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los susiratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el
102 agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo. empieza a fallar la capaci- dad contractil del mûsculo. El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comercializa real mente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mâs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerôbica por que no se consume oxigeno como fùente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina esta, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la came y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Number of words: 454
The original article was replicated in order to be program for the computerized translation and interview section of this study HYPERCARD was the software program used. The replication contains the original format of the article including but not limited to line format, words, case, and punctuation.
103 APPENDIX B
COMPUTERIZED TRANSLATION AND INTERVIEW TEMPLATE
104 Appendix B
Computerized Translation and Interview Template
Enter your name then press return.
Reset All ) This is the text the student Use the cursor to select the must translate. first chunk of text you wish to translate.
Then click “Done Selecting".
( Dime Sclcctingj
R eset nil
This IS the text the student Ol Istucent must translate.
Translate the Text You Selected
my translation
Explain Your Translation
my explanation
105 APPENDIX C
COMPUTERIZED TRANSLATION AND INTERVIEW PRODUCTS
106 Appendix C
Computerized Translation and Interview Products
The following pages of this appendix contain information collected on a log file for each participant during the computerized translation and interview. The information includes: the number of seconds spent to translate the selection, the selection, the explanation of the translation process, and the number of words in the translation. The translations and interview are unaltered by the researcher. They appear in the form expressed by the participant: neither spelling, punctuation, nor grammar has been corrected.
SI Practice Task Began 7/10/97 4:31:20 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/10/97 4:45:57 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/10/97 4:45:59 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/10/97 6:00:16 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 412
Selection: LA CREATINA ES Una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas. en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fiierza ràpida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatine is a substance already consumed by atheletes, especially the ones who practice sports of high speed and strength, known as explosive sports.
Explanation: 1 read the section, understanding it, then 1 thought about how to word it in english the proper way
Number of words in the selection: 30
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 350
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado un buen nùmero de atletas admiie que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje
107 Translation: What was once a rumor has come to be plainly confimed; a good number of atheletes admit to taking creatine supplements because it is not on the list of prohibited products that constitute drug using.
Explanation: This passage seemed to translate into english naturally.
Mumber of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 157
Selection: Otros atletas van mas alia e incluse protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: Other atheletes go one step further and endorse the product.
Explanation: I translated this part as I thuoght i would be said in english.
Number of words in the selection: 13
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 293
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina.
Translation: Linford Cristie. 100 meter Olypic champioin, has this year announced on variuos occasions that she consumes a substance called creeatine.
Explanation: I took the story line and said it the way I think it should be.
Number of words in selection: 27
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 236
Selection: Colin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
108 Translation; Colin Jackson, world record holder of the 110 mter hurdles, also from the UK, has not only announced using the product, but has also spoken about it in sports magazines.
Explanation: I translated it almost word for word
Number of words in selection: 33
Number of seconds to translate the selection; 196
Selection: ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organisme produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido.
Translation: What is ceatine. A natural protien substance that our body produces naturally and is part of an aminoacid.
Explanation: I had troublke with some words, so I said what I thought Made sense.
Number of words in the selection: 26
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 257
Selection: Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: It is made in the liver , kidneys and the pancreas from argenine andglycol, which are two aminoacids (molecules made up of protiens), anatural process
Explanation: This section confused me so 1 made up what it seemed to say.
Number of words in the selection: 32
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 213
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos rapido. de corta duraciôn y alta iniensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxiueno como fuente de eneruia.
109 Translation: Especially in the sports that require rapid force for a short time and high intensity(as in the case of the 100 meter race) the human body doesn't as well as it can.
Explanation: Seemed to translate naturallly word for word.
Number of words in the selection: 34
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 199
Selection: Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosive" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: the energy source used in this tpye of exersion inATP(adenosine triphosfate) and creatine.
Explanation: Didn't know some words, i tried to make sense of it.
Number of words in the selection: 22
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 212
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina.
Translation: Experts in physiological sciencehave discoved that one of the main reasons altheletes lose speed near the end of the race is because the have used up their creatine.
Explanation: I read it, thought for a second, then 1 decided how 1 would say it in english.
Number of words in the selection: 37
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 173
Selection: Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.
Translation: When this substance is used up the person loses the ability to contract the muscles.
Explanation: This was almost word for word.
1 10 Number of words in the selection: 15
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 336
Selection: El consume de creatina (en la actuaiidad se comericializa real mente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The comsumption of creatine( actually the commercial form is a monohydrated ) is spreading among atheletes because it appears to augment the toal well being of the muscles and slows down the depletion of natural creation during high intensity.
Explanation: A few words i didn't know so I worked off of the other ones.
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 462
Selection. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mas oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica por que no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mas creatina.
Translation: In the same method that runners of fame train in high altitudes to augment their levels of white blood cells to get more oxygen to thier muscles, athletes of speed( specially called anaaerobics , because they don't use oxygen as their source of energy) they look to refill their energy levels with more creatine.
Explanation: This section was unique because 1 found myself understanding words 1 didn't earlier in the story this allowed me to understand this passage better
Number of words in the selection: 54
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 223
I I Selection: La creatina esta, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la came y el pescado, màs aun si estân poco cocinados.
Translation: Creatine , the supplement is recommened to vegetarian athletes, because they don't get it naturally from meet and fish, even more if it is cooked rare.
Explanation: I didn't understand all of this final passage so I tried to figure out what the final satement would be.
Number of words in the selection: 29
Total seconds = 3719
12 S2 Practice Task Began 7/10/97 6:04:53 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/10/97 6:09:15 PM
Translation/Interview Began 7/10/97 6:09:17 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/10/97 6:50:47 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 2372
Selection: Consumen los atletas creatina -Per Ignacio Romo~Del Diario El Mundo De Madrid— LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza ràpida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas". Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van màs allà e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.- Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademàs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.- ^Que es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos ràpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.- LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo - El consumo de creatina (en la actuaiidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se està extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerôbica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
113 Translation: Athletes consume creatin~by Ignacio Romo of the Daily "El Mundo" of Madrid— Creatin is a substance already consumed by a high number of athletes, in particular, those that practice test of speed and rapid force, those called "explosive" specialties. What was once a rumor has already become something plainly confirmed; a good number of athletes admit that they consume suplements of creatin because it does not figure in the lists of prohibited products which constitute dope/steroids. Other athleter go beyond that and even endorse advertisements of products of creatin.— Linford Christie, Olympic champion in the 100 meters in the 92 Olympic games in Barcelona, has stated on various occasions this year that he consumes a substance called creatina. Colin Jackson, possessor of the world record in the 110 meter hurdles, also British, not only states it but even endorses advertisements of this porduct in sports magazines.— What is creatin? A natural, protein-based substance that our organism produces regularly and is similar in its molecular dimension to an amino acid. It is sinthesized in the lives, the kidneys and the pancreas, after glycine and arginine, which are two amino acids (constituent molecules of proteins) which are present in common food.—In specialities which require rapid efforts, of short duration and high intensity (which is the case of a rase of 100 meters) the human organism does not utilize oxygen as a source of energy. The energetic substrates which are utilied in the kind of "explosive" effort are what's called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and creatin phosphate.— Experts in sports physiology have discovered that one of the principle reasons that an athlete loses speed in the final meters of a race is the dwindling of the reserves of creatin phosphate. When this substance runs low, the muscle's capacity to contract begins to fail.— The consumption of creatin (which nowadays is sold in the form of creatin monhydrate) is extending among athletes because it appears to augment the total storage of this substance inside the muscle and therefore slows down the dwindling of creatin phosphate in high intensity contractions. In the same manner that long-distance runners rush to train in high elevations in order to augment their lung capacity and thereby transport more oxygen to the muscle, athletes of speed (specialty called anaerobic because oxygen is not consumed as a source of energy) seed to replenish their energy reserves storing more creatin. Creatin is. in fact, especially recommended for vegetarian athletes, since above all it is found in meat and fish, even moreso is they are undercooked
Explanation: reverse noun/adjectives~"especial" as "particular"-anuncio as advertisement-reconocido as "stated." not "recognized"-"sino que ademas" as "but even"-"portagoniza" as "endoreses"~"proteica" as "protein-based"-l'm guessing that "ri-ones" are kidneys because it is clearly an abdominal organ, and is listed in the plural— I think kidneys are the only thing that we have two of down there -"la alimentaci— n habitual" as "common food" because it sounds better in context of translated sentence.-Omitted translation of "lisos" because 1 don't know what it means and sentence works without it. -"Source" is better translation for "fuente" than "fountain." which is what 1 said in the video tape-"agotamiento" as "dwindling"-"se va consumiendo" as "runs low"-"acuden" as "rush" (not sure of right definition)-"niveles de hemat’es" as "lung capacity" (guess)-"rellenar" as "replenish"-"poco cocinados" as "undercooked", though this doesn't sound quite the same — In general, my thought process focused mainly on
14 literal translation. This broke down for two reasons; either it didn't sound right in English, in which case I used an alternate translation or word order; or I wasn't sure of the definition, so I placed an educated guess, using the context of the sentece as my guide. Number of words in the selection: 454 Total seconds = 2372
115 S3
Practice Task Began 7/28/97 4; 13:23 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/28/97 4:42:39 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/28/97 4:42:41 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/28/97 5:04:16 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 155
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza ràpida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatine is a substance already being consumed by a large number of atheletes, especially those that are involved in tests of velocity, those which are specifically called "explosive."
Explanation: I attempted to infer the meaning of phrases which contained vocabulary with which I was not familiar and translate these phrases into complete english thoughts. In cases where I was familiar with the text, I simply translated its meaning into english taking care not to simply supply a literal translation.
Number of words in the selection: 30
Number of seconds to translated the selection: 73
Selection: Consumen los atletas creatina ~Por Ignacio Romo-Del Diario El Mundo De M ad rid '
Translation: Atheletes Consume Creatine-by Ignacio Romo -from the World Diary of Madrid
Explanation: Same as before
Number of words in the translated selection: 12
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 948
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado; un buen nùmero de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van màs alla e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.- Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademàs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.- cQué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habituai y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos ràpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina - LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo.- El consumo de creatina (en la actuaiidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se està extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerôbica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho. especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Translation: That which was previously a rumor has become a confirmed fact; a good number of atheletes admit that the consume supplements of creatine because it is not listed as a prohibited product which constitutes drugs. Other atheletes go further by endorsing creatine products -—Linford Christie, champion of the 100 meters in the '92 Barcelona Games, has recognized this year on various occasions that he consumes a substance called creatine. Collin Jackson, holder of the world record in the 110 meter hurdles, and also British, not only recognizes his use of it, but also endorses the product in sporting magazines— What is creatine‘s It is a natural protein substance which is produced regularly by our bodies and is similar in chemical composition to an amino acid. It is sinthesized in the liver, the kidneys and the pancreas, along with glycine and arginine, which are both amino acids (molecular constituents of proteins) present in normal food consumption— In specialties which require rapid efforts of short duration and high intensity (as is the case with a race of 100 meters) the human body doesn't utilize oxygen as a source of energy The energy substrates which are utilized in events characterized as
17 "explosive" are called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and creatine phosphate.— The experts in the field of sports physiology have discovered that one of the principal reasons for which an athelete loses velocity in the last meters of a race is the depletion of his reserves of creatine phosphate. When this substance is consumed, one's capacity for muscle contraction is decreased. The consumption of creatine (which, in actuality, is sold commercially in the form of creatine monohydrate) is being extended beyond atheletes because it appears to augment the total absorption of this substance in the interior of the muscle as well as retarding the loss of creatine phosphate in muscle contractions of great intensity. In the same way that runners practice in locations of high altitude to augment their hematic levels by transporting more oxygen to the muscle, the high-speed atheletes (specifically called anaerobic becuase they do not consume oxygen as a source of energy) are looking to refill their energy reserves by taking more creatine. The creatine is, in fact, especially reccomended for vegetarian atheletes, because, over all, creatine is most commonly found in meat and fish, even more is it is undercooked.
Explanation; Once again, I attempted to gain the sense of a particular phrase and translate it into clear, concise english In cases where the message of the passage could be better stated in other terms, I allowed myself to liberally translate.
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 412
Total seconds = 1176
18 S5 Practice Task Began 7/29/97 4:13:05 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/29/97 5:03:44 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/29/97 5:03:45 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/29/97 6:29:30 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 192
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican
Translation: Creatine is a substance already consumed by a high number of athletes, especially those who practice
Explanation: "La creatina es una sustancia" is pretty easy flowing translation. "Consumida ya" could mean "already consumed" or "yet consumed" and I thought the first choice sounded.better
Number of words in the selection: 18
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 308
Selection: pruebas de velocidad y fuerza ràpida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: tests of speed and rapid force, especially those called "explosives"
Explanation: "pruebas" is a word used by many of my Spanish instructors as "quizzes"; because I know the article does not mean the word to mean "quiz", it must mean something like a way to prove oneself. The rest was pretty self-explanatory.
Number of words in the selection: 12
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 865
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado un buen noemero de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van màs Translation: Those that before were rumor have been conveyed now as something plentily confirmed , a good number of athletes admit that they consume creatine supplements because that is not figured on the list of prohibited products for constituting drug use. Other athletes go more"Los que" is the noun here and it represents some opinions or ideas, "convenir" confused me a bit.
Explanation: At first I thought it meant "convinced", but after trying to read the sentence with that in place, I decided I didn't think it made very much sense. "Esta" was a similar case. I tried to remember the three forms of esta. I finally decided that this one must be a demonstrative pronoun, meaning some idea, "dopaje" makes me think of the word "dope" and therefore I associate it with drug use. Also, if the athletes are trying to find a loophole in the definition, it must be something they are not supposed to be doing, like steroids or something similar.
Number of words in the selection: 42
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 322
Selection: alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: over there and include protagonizing announcements of creatine products.
Explanation: "alia" is the demonstrative "over there", but I am confused on its meaning in this sentence I really am not satisfied with the way this is translated, but in a general sense, I think it says that some athletes are not just using it because it isn't an the list of prohibited products, but that they actually encourage it.
Number of words in the selection: 9
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 189
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina.
Translation: Linford Christie, Olympic champion o f the 100 meters en the 1992 Barcelona Games, has recognized several times that he consumes a substance called creatine
Explanation: this portion is just reading and rearranging the words into "English" fashion.
120 Number of words in the selection: 27
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 507
Selection: Colin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademjs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.
Translation: Colin Jackson, participant in the 110 world march, is not recognized alone but beside protagonizing advertisements of this product in sports magazines.
Explanation: "poseedor" must have something to do with his participation in the sport, so I assigned it a meaning at least similar to "participant". I really don't know what "britànico" means, so I skipped it, assuming that it was just extra detail. The rest of the information about Colin Jackson says that people know him as a spokesperson for the product more than as an athlete. I got that based on the meaning for protagonist and by the "no solo reconoce sino que ademas..."
Number of words in the selection: 33
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 270
Selection: ^Que es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido. Se sintetiza en el h’gado, los
Translation: What is creatine'’ A substance of nature that our organism produces in a habitual form and is similar in its molecular dimension to an amino acid It is sythesized in the The two words I am not sure of in this portion of the reading are "proteica" and "higado".
Explanation: If available, I would use my dictionary because I could not find any clues in the surrounding words or phrases
Number of words in the selection: 32
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 621
121 Selection: Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: pancreas, to seem like glicine and arginine, which are two amino acids (molecules that make up proteins) present in the habitual ?~ In the specialties that require rapid strengths, of short duration and highrinones is in the same boat as higado.
Explanation: I am not familiar with this term and cannot give it a meaning based on what is said about it. I believe it to be some body part, but can’t guess which, "pancreas" is a pretty easy one. "partir" is like "compartir" which is to share, but I couldn't find any logical connection, so I just picked a word that sounded logical in the sentence. The same goes for "alimentaciôn". The only word I could think of meant vegetables, so I just substituted an English word that helped my sentence make sense.
Number of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 423
Selection: intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina
Translation: intensity (as is the case of the 100 meter long race) the human organism does not use oxygen as much as energy. The energy parts that are used in the explosive type of burst are called ATP and creatine phosphate.
Explanation: "comoo fuente de energia" seems to want to say something about how enery is used more than the oxygen, so my translation says what 1 think the article's point is, although perhaps not exactly word - for - word.
Number of w ords in the selection: 44
Number of words in the selection: 339
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo. empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo -
122 Translation: the experts in sports physiology have discovered that one of the principle reasons by which an athlete loses speed in the last meters of a race is the loss of the reserves of the creatine phosphate. When this substance is being consumed, the ability to contract muscles begins to fail.
Explanation: "agotamiento" is the first word of this portion that I don't know. However, I am guessing that it means something like "loss" or "abscence" because the rest of the article talks about the presence of the creatine and what it does and now we have a contrasting view.
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 460
Selection: El consumo de creatina (en la actuaiidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se està extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The consumation of creatine ( en actuality it is commercialized in the form of monohydrate of creatine) is extending between athletes because it seems to add to the total storage of this substance in the interior of the muscle and retards the loss of creatine phosphate in the high intensity contractions.
Explanation: I racked my brain for any word resembling "almacenamiento" and the only word 1 could find reminded me of "store"; again, the word "agotamiento" seems to mean something along the lines of "loss"
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of words in the selection: 457
Selection: Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos. ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado. màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
123 Translation; In this same style that runners of the lower altitudes enter places of high altitude in order to add to their levels of hematies and so transport more oxygen to the muscle, speed athletes (especially called anaerobic because they do not consume oxygen as much as they use energy) look to refill their evergetic reserves, storing more creatine. Creatine is, in fact, especially recomended for vegetarian athletes because above all it is found in meat and fish, even more if a little cooked.
Explanation: "hematies" does not sound at all familiar to me, in Spanish or in English, the rest makes some sense, although a little broken.— i would definitely be using my dictionary as a valuable resource to understand this article better.
Number of words in the selection: 83
Total seconds = 4953
124 S6 Practice Task Began 7/29/97 7:08:28 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/29/97 7:09:34 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/29/97 7:09:36 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/29/97 8:00:34 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 33 S
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza ràpida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatine is a consumed substane already by many athletes especially those who practice events of Velocity"speed" and rapid force, specialties called "explosives"
Explanation: Most ofd the words I was able to translate directly becausel knew the english equivalent. Others thaT I may not have know I figured out through context and a little understanding of the partciular terms from science classes ie Physic 111.
Number of words in the selection: 29
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 329
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen ncemero de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje.
Translation: Other s beforewere a rumor that had convinced already in something confirmled plainly: a good number of athletes that consume supliments of creatine because it is not a product on the list of things that are prohibited by these constituted laws( whatever would restrict them from use of certain products)-
Explanation: Again I tooke the words that I knew the english equivalent and tried to makes sense byt context the others trhat I did not know
Number of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 133
125 Selection: Otros atletas van m+s all+ e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: Other athletes are going more in this direction of including protaginizing advertisements of cretine products
Explanation: Ditto
Number of words in the selection: 13
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 2150
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademàs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.- ^Que es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos ràpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina - LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo - El consumo de creatina (en la actuaiidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se està extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerôbica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Translation: Linford Christie , an Olympic champion in the 100 meter in the 1992 games in Barcelona, admitted on several occasion that she used this substance called
126 creatine. Collin Jackson, a word! record holder of the 110 m hurdles, also British, not only admitted it but also protaginized it in sports magazines.-What is creatine? A substance from natural prtoein that our organs produce from habitual forms and is similar to the molecular dimensions of amino-acids. One feels in the ???(organs or parts of the body), pancreus to part from glychegen?? and ??? that are two types of amino-acids.( constiguent molecule of protiens) present in the habitual aiiments( healing)-In specialties that require rapid forces of short duration and intense !ength( like the case of 100 m dash) the human organs do not use oxygen as source of energy. The energetic structures that one uses in forces of " explosive " type are called ATP (Adensin tri-phosphate) y phosphate from creatine-Physiological experts have discovered that the priciple reasons which cause athlete to lose speed in the last part of the race is ?? strored aggittation from phosphate from creatine. When this substance is consumed, it begins to loose( shorten, lessin)the control capacity of muscles.-The consuming of creatine( in actuality one really comercializes en form of monohydroxide of creatine) one is extending between the athletes because it augment( raises) the total production of this substance in the interior muscle y slows the aggitation'’? from phosohate form creatine in the contractions of long intensities. Of the same mode that the runners V encoutner( come to realization) places in high altitude in order to raise their ?? and so to transport more oxygen to the muscles, the athletes of speed( espoecially called arobic by those that do not cinsume oxygen as source of energy) look for V their stored energy produced more creatine. Creatine is , in fact, especiall recommended en vergetarian athletes that already overcome meats and fishes more than if they were a litte carnivorous( meat eaters)- -
Explanation: 11 found english equivalent either because 1 knew the word or its cognate. I used context to try to figure out word that I was not so familiar with. That's it nothing much more to it
Number of words in the selection: 361
Total seconds = 2947
127 S7
Practice Task Began 8/5/97 4:34:41 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/5/97 5:16:38 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/5/97 5:16:40 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/5/97 5:58:17 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 116
Selection: Consumen los atletas creatina -Por Ignacio Romo-Del Diario El Mundo De Madrid
Translation: athletes consume creatina- by ignacio romo of the world diary of madrid
Explanation: consumen looks like consume, as does athletes, so I put them in a logical order
Number of words in the selection: 12
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 440
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza ràpida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas" Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen nùmero de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van màs allà e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: creatina is a substance that is consumed by a high number of athletes, especially those that pratice in activities that require burst of high energy for a short amount of time This was a rumor until alot of athletes confessed they use it Other athletes protest the use of it.
Explanation: Again, 1 begin at the beginning and i read the first sentance, pulling out key words, creatina. sustancia. sonsumida, all sound like english. I remember the key words and don't pay too much attention to the other words I don;t know 1 then use the words and place them in a logical order that i feel describes the sentance. after i write down what i think is in the paragraph, i read it in Spanish again and would then go back and fill in anything i had left out.
128 Number of words in the selection: 81
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 421
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britànico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademàs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.
Translation: lindford christi champion of the 100 meter in the 92 Olympics in barcelona has recognized this year that he has consumed creatina. colin jackson a british athlete is not alone in his recognition of the benefits in races using this product.
Explanation: I pull the peoples names out and figure they are talking about athletes who must use this substance, so knowing this i try to make the translation fit into this idea, with key words supporting. Wheneve i see a verb, i immeadeatly think of the infinitive form to know th meaning, llamada-llamar to name, so i know they are talking about the product named creatina. my translation process involves pulling these key verbs out, remembering their meaning and then using the surrounging words to form a sentance. again, the smaller unknown words are really not need to translate because the main idea is in the verbs and nouns
Number of words in the selection: 60
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 596
Selection: ^Que es la creatina'’ Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoàcido Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos ràpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: what is creatina a natural substance produced by our bodiesconstantly on the molecular level using amino acid (AA) building blocks it is made in the pancreas and liver and involves glycine and arginine, to aa that make up certain protiens.-especially when a fast burst of energy is needed as in a 100 meter race, the body uses oxygen as the
129 source of energy, atp is a form of energy used and the phosphate group needed to make atp comes from creatina.-
Explanation: this is where my scientific knowledge on the subject comes into play. By again pulling the key words out i form various sentances and know that aa are the building blocks of protien, i can then go back and the words i did not know are related to the sentence i translated such as como fuente se energia must mean that it uses oxygen as a source of energy again, alot of the words are coganates and with a few easy Spanish words, the sentance is easily translated into english
Number of words in the selection: 114
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 793
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.- El consumo de creatina (en la actuaiidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se està extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus reserves energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Translation: the experts in physical sports discovered that the one of the principal reasons that an athlete looses energy in the last part of the race is that the energy reserves are used up and no more creatina is there to use. when the substance is consumed, it begins to gains more capacity to contract the muscles more.-the consuming of creatina- sold in the monohydrate form of creatina-is extended between athletes because it stops the rapid use of the energy reserves in the muscles and slows the loss of the phosphate group in high intensity activities, athletes have found that this kind of occurance happens in high altitudes where there is less oxygen and more breating has to be done to bring more to the muscle groups, especially in anaerobic exercises therefore, they have to look to stored energy as a form of energy in there bodies. Creatina is reccommended in vegatarian athletes who wouldn’t normally get it in their diets since it is found in red meat and fish when they are cooked
130 Explanation: this paragraph had alot of cognates and agi an i drew those out and could easily go along and pretty much type as i read it in Spanish, the hard thing about tranlating in sp is that the verbs are place in a different backward order, and i have to place them in the english order, there is not much more i can say on how it translated it except that i again looked for verbs and remembered there meaning, along with picking up surrounding easier sp. words, alta=high.
Explanation: 187
Total seconds = 2366
131 S8 Practice Task Began 8/7/97 4.29:30 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/7/97 4:33:18 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/7/97 4:33:20 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/7/97 5:02:31 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 204
Selection: LA CREATFNA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de at I etas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatin is s substance consumed by a high # of athletes, especially those practicing with velocity and rapid strenght, called explosivesi look for cognates and then words I know in Spanish and then try to translated the text.
Explanation: 30
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 206
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: There was a rumor before that some confirm, o good # of athletes admitt to using creatin supplements because it is not on the list of prohibited substances. Other athletes there protagonizes the creatin announcements.
Explanation: look for co g n a tes- then words i know in Spanish
Number of words in the selection: 51
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 182
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas,
132 también britânico, no solo lo reconoce si no que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
Translation; Lindford, Olympic champion of the 100 meters in the barcelona games of 92 recalls vaious times that year when he used creatin. Colin J, possessor of the gold medal in the 110 meter, also british, not only recalls it, but encourages its use.
Explanation: Cognates then known words
Number of words in the selection: 60
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 225
Selection: ^Que es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organisme produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoâcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: What is creatin? It is a natural protein substance our bodies produce habitually and is a type of amino acid. It is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, an is composed of arginine and glycine, two types of amino acids ( molecules that make up proteins) that are present in the habitual ailment
Explanation: Look for cognates and then words I know in Spanish
Number of words in the selection: 58
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 232
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos rapido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organisme humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosive " son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: In specialties that require high energy rapidly, cardiovascular endurance, and high intensity,! like running the 100 meter) the human body does not use oxygen with effieciency in these types oif activities. Energy substrates they use for these types of energy explosions are called atp adenosine triphosphate and the creatin phosphate
Explanation: look for cognates and then known Spanish words
133 Number of words in the selection: 56
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 151
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.
Translation: Sport physiology experts describe reasons why athletes lose velocity in the final meters of a run is the loss of creatin reserves. When this substance is consumed, they lose their ablitiy to contract muscles.
Explanation: Look for cognates and then known words
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 165
Selection: El consumo de creatina (en la actual id ad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The consumer of creatin (the commercialized form is actully a monodehydrated form) has extended among athletes in order to increase the amount of this substance in muscle interior for high intensities.
Explanation: same
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 171
Selection: Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mas oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad Ilamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mas creatina
134 Translation: The same applies to athletes at high altitudes because the need to increas the blood supply and transport more oxygen to their muscles (in anaerobic oxygen is not consumed for energy) and look for energy reserves to come from creatin.
Explanation: same
Number of words in the selection: 54
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 102
Selection: La creatina esta, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Translation: Creatin is especially important to vegetarian athletes because it is found in meats and fish, and in small amounts in other foods.
Explanation: I look for cognates and then words 1 know in Spanish and then i try to translate
Number of words in the selection: 29
Total seconds = 1638
1 would look for words that 1 consider to be cognates, but having a trong science background also helped me to recognize some of these words that a person without a science background would not recognize Then 1 look for words 1 am familiar with in Spanish and try to translate the text.
135 S9 Practice Task Began 8/1 1/97 4:46.54 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/1 1/97 4:59:34 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/11/97 4:59:35 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/11/97 5:38:42 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection; 250
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya per un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas"
Translation: Creatine is a substance consumed by a number of athletes, especially those who practice speed and rapidness, they are named "explosive"! translated according to context and some words I knew right away
Explanation: 30
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 167
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado. un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje
Translation: There were rumors of it. and a good number of athletes admit to comsume supplements of creatine because it not on the lists of products prohibited for use by athletes.
Explanation: I translated more from phrase to phrase.
Number of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 217
Selection: Otros atletas van màs alla e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina
Translation: Other athletes have voiced their opinions of products of creatine
Explanation: I tried to translate in the context, but I needed to know what a couple of the words meant before I could make a good logical guess.
136 Number of words in the selection: 13
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 188
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina.
Translation: Linford Christie, a champion Olympic athlete of the 100 meters in the Barcelona Games in 93, has admitted to consuming a substance called creatine.
Explanation: I translated it word for word, and with the help of context clues.
Number of words in the selection: 27
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 151
Selection: Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.
Translation: Colin Jackson, possessor of the world record in the 110 meter hurdles, also British, does not promote headlines of this in sports magazines.
Explanation: Basically just translated word to word.
Number of words in the selection: 33
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 281
Selection: jQue es la creatina"’ Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organisme produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoâcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: What is creatine’ A natural substance that protects our organs from producing habitual folrms and the dimensions are moledular and made of an amino acid It is synthesized in the liver, kidneys, and the pancreas, apart from glycine and arginine which are amino acids (molecular constituents of proteins.)
137 Explanation: This was a fairly easy passage to translate by use of context clues.
Number of words in the selection: 58
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 266
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos rapido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina
Translation: In specialties that require rapid movements in short durations and high intensity (like a 100 meter dash) the human organ cannot use oxygen with enough energy. The energetic people who use this go through a type of explosion, named ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and creatine phosphate.-
Explanation: I just translated with the help of context.
Number of words in the selection: 56
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 211
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.
Translation: The expeas of spoas physiology have discovered that one of the principal reasons for the loss of velocity in the last meters of the race is low reserves of the creatine phospate. When the substance is consumed, the muscles contract.
Explanation: Translated word for word, a little more difficult than the earlier passages.
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 466
Selection: El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo
138 modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad Ilamada anaerôbica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Translation: The consumer of creatine ( in the actual commercialized form it is creatine monohydrate) is extended into those athletes because of a deficiency in the interior of the muscle, and creatine phosphate helps in the high contraction of the muscles. At the same time, runners in high altitudes have a hard time to transport oxygen to the muscle, athletes who run (especially anaerobic because they consume oxygen with a lot of energy) are found to have energy reserves with a lot of creatine. Creatine is recommended for vegetarian athletes because it is found in meat and fish dishes.
Explanation: Translated from phrase to phrase, some of the words were cognates so it was easier to translate.
Number of words in the selection: 135 Total seconds = 2197
139 SIO Practice Task Began 8/13/97 5 .39.54 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/13/97 5:43:10 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/13/97 5:43:12 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/13/97 6:28:51 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 358-
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
Translation: Linford Christie, Olympic champion in the 100 meters in the 1992 Olympic Games of Barcelona had recalled that year on various ocassions that he consumes a substance called creatin. Colin Jackson, a 110 meter hurdler also british was not the only to recall that without more protagen advertisements of the product in the sport magazines.
Explanation: 1 translated word by word and if I got stuck on a word then I read the rest of the sentence to help me to figure it out
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 570
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92. ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademas protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
Translation: Creatin is a substance consummed by a large number of athletes, especially, those that practice games of velocity and strength, quickness called explosive. Those that before there was a rumor had convinced in the other plainly confirmed a good number of athletes admitt that they consume suplements of creatin because there are no figures on the list of prohibited products that constitute illegal drugs. Other athletes go over that, and include progesterone advertisements of creatin products.
Explanation: 1 basically translated it word by word and if 1 had a problem 1 would read the whole sentence a few times to tr>' to get the overall meaning.
140 Number of words in the selection: 81
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 409
Selection: ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoâcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: What is creatin? A substance of natural production that organisms produce in a habitual form and in the molecular dimension of an amino acid. It is synthesized in the pancreas and is part glycerin and another element that are molecules that make up proteins present in habitual
Explanation: 1 did it word by word, reading a sentence if I was stuck on a word and skipping some words that I could not figure out if I read the entire paragraphh
Number of word in the selection: 58
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 279
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: In the specialties that require fast and strong, short duration, and high intensity like 100 meters, the human organism does not utilize oxigen as a source of energy. The energy substrates that utilize in a type of explosive force are called atp and the phosphate creatin
Explanation: I could translate this paragraph mostly word by word. There were a few times when I would have to read further to try to figure out words.
Number of words in the selection: 56
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 304
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el auotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustanc
141 Translation: The experts in sports physiology have descovered that one of the principal reasons that which athletes lose velocity in the final meters of a race is the depletement of the reserves of creatin when this substance is consumed, it begins to increase the capacity of the muscle to contract.
Explanation: I translated one word at a time and if I got stuck on a word I rread the sentence for overall meaning and just guessed.
Number of words in the selection: 40
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 273
Selection: se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.~ El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The consumption of creatin, in actuality it is commercialized really in the form of the monohydrate of creatin, is extended over the athletes because it seems to increase the total of the substance in the interior of the muscle and slow down the of the phosphate creatin in the high intensity contractions
Explanation: 1 had to read the whole sentences to understand the significance of each word
Number of words in the selection: 64
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 203
Selection: uente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados
Translation: Of this mode of runners that train in places of elevated altitude in order to increase levels of and transport more oxygen to muscle, the athletes of velocity, especially anaerobic do not consume oxygen as energy
Explanation: 1 had to read sentences first in order to understand the words within
Number of words in the selection: 43
142 Number of seconds to translate the selection: 207
Selection: uente de energ’a) buscan rellenar sus réservas energ_ticas almacenando m js creatina. La creatina estj, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la came y el pescado, m js aun si estjn poco cocinados.
Translation: like the fuel of energy they look to restore reserves of energy more creatin. The creatin is especially recommended in vegetarian athletes, that over all that they find in meat and fish, more if they cook a little.
Explanation: I had to read more than one sentence at a time and then go back and try to translate each word.
Number of words in the selection: 40
Total seconds = 2603
143 APPENDIX C
COMPUTERIZED TRANSLATION AND INTERVIEW PRODUCTS
144 Appendix C
Computerized Translation and Interview Products
The following pages of this appendix contain information collected on a log file for each participant during the computerized translation and interview. The information includes: the number of seconds spent to translate the selection, the selection, the explanation of the translation process, and the number of words in the translation. The translations and interview are unaltered by the researcher. They appear in the form expressed by the participant: neither spelling, punctuation, nor grammar has been corrected.
SI Practice Task Began 7/10/97 4:31:20 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/10/97 4:45:57 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/10/97 4:45:59 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/10/97 6:00:16 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 412
Selection: LA CREATINA ES Una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas. en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatine is a substance already consumed by atheletes, especially the ones who practice spons of high speed and strength, known as explosive sports.
Explanation: 1 read the section, understanding it. then 1 thought about how to word it in english the proper way
Number of words in the selection: 30
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 350
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje
145 Translation: What was once a rumor has come to be plainly confimed; a good number of atheletes admit to taking creatine supplements because it is not on the list of prohibited products that constitute drug using.
Explanation: This passage seemed to translate into english naturally.
Number of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 157
Selection: Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: Other atheletes go one step further and endorse the product.
Explanation: I translated this part as I thuoght i would be said in english.
Number of words in the selection: 13
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 293
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92. ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina
Translation: Linford Cristie, 100 meter Olypic champioin, has this year announced on variuos occasions that she consumes a substance called creeatine.
Explanation: I took the story line and said it the way I think it should be.
Number of words in selection: 27
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 236
Selection: Colin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademas protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
146 Translation; Colin Jackson, world record holder of the 110 mter hurdles, also from the UK, has not only announced using the product, but has also spoken about it in sports magazines.
Explanation: I translated it almost word for word
Number of words in selection: 33
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 196
Selection: ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido.
Translation: What is ceatine. A natural protien substance that our body produces naturally and is part of an aminoacid.
Explanation: I had troublke with some words, so I said what I thought Made sense.
Number of words in the selection: 26
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 257
Selection: Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoâcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentés en la alimentaciôn habituai
Translation: It is made in the liver , kidneys and the pancreas from argenine andglycol, which are two aminoacids (molecules made up of protiens), anatural process.
Explanation: This section confused me so I made up what it seemed to say.
Number of words in the selection: 32
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 213
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza o.xigeno como fuente de energia
147 Translation: Especially in the sports that require rapid force for a short time and high intensity(as in the case of the 100 meter race) the human body doesn't as well as it can.
Explanation: Seemed to translate naturallly word for word.
Number of words in the selection: 34
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 199
Selection: Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: the energy source used in this tpye of exersion inATP(adenosine triphosfate) and creatine.
Explanation: Didn't know some words, i tried to make sense of it.
Number of words in the selection: 22
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 212
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ultimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina.
Translation: Experts in physiological sciencehave discoved that one of the main reasons aitheletes lose speed near the end of the race is because the have used up their creatine.
Explanation: I read it. thought for a second, then 1 decided how I would say it in english.
Number of words in the selection: 37
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 173
Selection: Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo. empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo
Translation: When this substance is used up the person loses the ability to contract the muscles.
Explanation: This was almost word for word.
148 Number of words in the selection: 15
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 336
Selection: El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The comsumption of creatine( actually the commercial form is a monohydrated ) is spreading among atheletes because it appears to augment the toal well being of the muscles and slows down the depletion of natural creation during high intensity
Explanation: A few words i didn't know so I worked off of the other ones.
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 462
Selection; Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar màs oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad Ilamada anaerôbica por que no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando màs creatina.
Translation: In the same method that runners of fame train in high altitudes to augment their levels of white blood cells to get more oxygen to thier muscles, athletes of speed( specially called anaaerobics , because they don't use oxygen as their source of energy) they look to refill their energy levels with more creatine.
Explanation: This section was unique because I found myself understanding words I didn't earlier in the story this allowed me to understand this passage better.
Number of words in the selection: 54
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 223
149 Selection: La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la came y el pescado, màs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
Translation: Creatine , the supplement is recommened to vegetarian athletes, because they don't get it naturally from meet and fish, even more if it is cooked rare.
Explanation: I didn't understand all of this final passage so I tried to figure out what the final satement would be.
Number of words in the selection: 29
Total seconds = 3719
150 S2 Practice Task Began 7/10/97 6:04:53 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/10/97 6:09:15 PM
Translation/Interview Began 7/10/97 6:09:17 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/10/97 6:50:47 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 2372
Selection: Consumer! los atletas creatina -Por Ignacio Romo-Del Diario El Mundo De Madrid— LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas". Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.- Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina. Co lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.- ^,Qué es la creatina'’ Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoâcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina - LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ûltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo.- El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se estâ extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mâs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad Ilamada anaerôbica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mâs creatina La creatina estâ, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mâs aun si estân poco cocinados.
151 Translation: Athletes consume creatin~by Ignacio Romo of the Daily "El Mundo" of Madrid-—Creatin is a substance already consumed by a high number of athletes, in particular, those that practice test of speed and rapid force, those called "explosive" specialties. What was once a rumor has already become something plainly confirmed: a good number of athletes admit that they consume suplements of creatin because it does not figure in the lists of prohibited products which constitute dope/steroids. Other athleter go beyond that and even endorse advertisements of products of creatin.— Linford Christie, Olympic champion in the 100 meters in the 92 Olympic games in Barcelona, has stated on various occasions this year that he consumes a substance called creatina. Colin Jackson, possessor of the world record in the 110 meter hurdles, also British, not only states it but even endorses advertisements of this porduct in sports magazines.— What is creatin? A natural, protein-based substance that our organism produces regularly and is similar in its molecular dimension to an amino acid. It is sinthesized in the lives, the kidneys and the pancreas, after glycine and arginine, which are two amino acids (constituent molecules of proteins) which are present in common food.— In specialities which require rapid efforts, of short duration and high intensity (which is the case of a rase of 100 meters) the human organism does not utilize oxygen as a source of energy. The energetic substrates which are utilied in the kind of "explosive" effort are what's called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and creatin phosphate.— Experts in sports physiology have discovered that one of the principle reasons that an athlete loses speed in the final meters of a race is the dwindling of the reserves of creatin phosphate. When this substance runs low, the muscle's capacity to contract begins to fail.— The consumption of creatin (which nowadays is sold in the form of creatin monhydrate) is extending among athletes because it appears to augment the total storage of this substance inside the muscle and therefore slows down the dwindling of creatin phosphate in high intensity contractions. In the same manner that long-distance runners rush to train in high elevations in order to augment their lung capacity and thereby transport more oxygen to the muscle, athletes of speed (specialty called anaerobic because oxygen is not consumed as a source of energy) seed to replenish their energy reserves storing more creatin. Creatin is, in fact, especially recommended for vegetarian athletes, since above all it is found in meat and fish, even moreso is they are undercooked.
Explanation: reverse noun/adjectives-"especial" as "particular"~anuncio as advertisement-reconocido as "stated," not "recognized"-"sino que ademas" as "but even"~"portagoniza" as "endoreses"~"proteica" as "protein-based"-l'm guessing that "ri-ones" are kidneys because it is clearly an abdominal organ, and is listed in the plural— I think kidneys are the only thing that we have two of down there -"la alimentaci— n habitual" as "common food" because it sounds better in context of translated sentence.-Omitted translation of "lisos" because I don't know what it means and sentence works without it -"Source" is better translation for "fuente" than "fountain," which is what I said in the video tape-"agotamiento" as "dwindling "-"se va consumiendo" as "runs low"-"acuden" as "rush" (not sure of right deflnition)-"niveles de hemat’es" as "lung capacity" (guess)-"relIenar" as "replenish"-"poco cocinados" as "undercooked", though this doesn't sound quite the same— In general, my thought process focused mainly on
152 literal translation. This broke down for two reasons; either it didn't sound right in English, in which case I used an alternate translation or word order; or I wasn’t sure of the definition, so I placed an educated guess, using the context of the sentece as my guide. Number of words in (be selection: 454 Total seconds = 2372
153 S3 Practice Task Began 7/28/97 4:13:23 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/28/97 4:42:39 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/28/97 4:42:41 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/28/97 5:04:16 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 155
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatine is a substance already being consumed by a large number of atheletes, especially those that are involved in tests of velocity, those which are specifically called "explosive."
Explanation: I attempted to infer the meaning of phrases which contained vocabulary with which I was not familiar and translate these phrases into complete english thoughts. In cases where I was familiar with the text, I simply translated its meaning into english taking care not to simply supply a literal translation.
Number of words in the selection: 30
Number of seconds to translated the selection: 73
Selection: Consumen los atletas creatina ~Por Ignacio Romo-Del Diario El Mundo De M adrid-
Translation: Atheletes Consume Creatine-by Ignacio Romo -from the World Diary of M adrid
Explanation: Same as before
Number of words in the translated selection: 12
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 948
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado; un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina
154 porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van mâs alla e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.- Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia Ilamada creatina. Co lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no sôlo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas - ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habituai y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoâcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentés en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duracion y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina - LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ûltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo.- El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se estâ extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mâs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad Ilamada anaerôbica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mâs creatina. La creatina està, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mâs aun si estân poco cocinados.
Translation: That which was previously a runior has become a confirmed fact: a good number of atheletes admit that the consume supplements of creatine because it is not listed as a prohibited product which constitutes drugs. Other atheletes go further by endorsing creatine products— Linford Christie, champion of the 100 meters in the '92 Barcelona Games, has recognized this year on various occasions that he consumes a substance called creatine. Collin Jackson, holder of the world record in the 110 meter hurdles, and also British, not only recognizes his use of it, but also endorses the product in sporting magazines — What is creatine'’ It is a natural protein substance which is produced regularly by our bodies and is similar in chemical composition to an amino acid. It is sinthesized in the liver, the kidneys and the pancreas, along with glycine and arginine, which are both amino acids (molecular constituents of proteins) present in normal food consumption— In specialties which require rapid efforts of short duration and high intensity (as is the case with a race of 100 meters) the human body doesn't utilize oxygen as a source of energy The energy substrates which are utilized in events characterized as
155 "explosive" are called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and creatine phosphate.— The experts in the field of sports physiology have discovered that one of the principal reasons for which an athelete loses velocity in the last meters of a race is the depletion of his reserves of creatine phosphate. When this substance is consumed, one's capacity for muscle contraction is decreased. The consumption of creatine (which, in actuality, is sold commercially in the form of creatine monohydrate) is being extended beyond atheletes because it appears to augment the total absorption of this substance in the interior of the muscle as well as retarding the loss of creatine phosphate in muscle contractions of great intensity. In the same way that runners practice in locations of high altitude to augment their hematic levels by transporting more oxygen to the muscle, the high-speed atheletes (specifically called anaerobic becuase they do not consume oxygen as a source of energy) are looking to refill their energy reserves by taking more creatine. The creatine is, in fact, especially reccomended for vegetarian atheletes, because, over all, creatine is most commonly found in meat and fish, even more is it is undercooked.
Explanation: Once again, I attempted to gain the sense of a particular phrase and translate it into clear, concise english. In cases where the message of the passage could be better stated in other terms, I allowed myself to liberally translate.
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 412
T otal seconds = 1176
156 S5 Practice Task Began 7/29/97 4:13:05 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/29/97 5:03:44 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/29/97 5:03:45 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/29/97 6:29:30 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 192
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican
Translation: Creatine is a substance already consumed by a high number o f athletes, especially those who practice
Explanation: "La creatina es una sustancia" is pretty easy flowing translation. "Consumida ya" could mean "already consumed" or "yet consumed" and I thought the first choice sounded better.
Number of words in the selection: 18
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 308
Selection: pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: tests of speed and rapid force, especially those called "explosives"
Explanation: "pruebas" is a word used by many of my Spanish instructors as "quizzes", because I know the article does not mean the word to mean "quiz", it must mean something like a way to prove oneself. The rest was pretty self-explanatory.
Number of words in the selection: 12
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 865
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen ncemero de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van mas
157 Translation: Those that before were rumor have been conveyed now as something plentily confirmed: a good number of athletes admit that they consume creatine supplements because that is not figured on the list of prohibited products for constituting drug use. Other athletes go more"Los que" is the noun here and it represents some opinions or ideas, "convenir" confused me a bit.
Explanation: At first I thought it meant "convinced", but after trying to read the sentence with that in place, I decided I didn't think it made very much sense. "Esta" was a similar case. I tried to remember the three forms of esta. I finally decided that this one must be a demonstrative pronoun, meaning some idea, "dopaje" makes me think of the word "dope" and therefore I associate it with drug use. Also, if the athletes are trying to find a loophole in the definition, it must be something they are not supposed to be doing, like steroids or something similar.
Number of words in the selection: 42
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 322
Selection: alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: over there and include protagonizing announcements of creatine products.
Explanation: "alia" is the demonstrative "over there", but 1 am confused on its meaning in this sentence. 1 really am not satisfied with the way this is translated, but in a general sense, I think it says that some athletes are not Just using it because it isn't an the list of prohibited products, but that they actually encourage it.
Number of words in the selection: 9
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 189
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este afio en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina
Translation: Linford Christie, Olympic champion of the 100 meters en the 1992 Barcelona Games, has recognized several times that he consumes a substance called creatine.
Explanation: this portion is just reading and rearranging the words into "English" fashion.
158 Number of words in the selection: 27
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 507
Selection: Colin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademjs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.
Translation: Colin Jackson, participant in the 110 world march, is not recognized alone but beside protagonizing advertisements of this product in sports magazines.
Explanation: "poseedor" must have something to do with his participation in the sport, so I assigned it a meaning at least similar to "participant". I really don't know what "britanico" means, so I skipped it, assuming that it was just extra detail. The rest of the information about Colin Jackson says that people know him as a spokesperson for the product more than as an athlete. I got that based on the meaning for protagonist and by the "no solo reconoce sino que ademas..."
Number of words in the selection: 33
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 270
Selection: ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organisme produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el h’gado, los
Translation: What is creatine'^ A substance of nature that our organism produces in a habitual form and is similar in its molecular dimension to an amino acid. It is sythesized in the The two words I am not sure of in this portion of the reading are "proteica" and "higado".
Explanation: If available, I would use my dictionary because I could not find any clues in the surrounding words or phrases
Number of words in the selection: 32
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 621
159 Selection: Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentés en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: pancreas, to seem like glicine and arginine, which are two amino acids (molecules that make up proteins) present in the habitual ?~ In the specialties that require rapid strengths, of short duration and highrinones is in the same boat as higado.
Explanation: I am not familiar with this term and cannot give it a meaning based on what is said about it. I believe it to be some body part, but can't guess which, "pancreas" is a pretty easy one. "partir" is like "compartir" which is to share, but I couldn't find any logical connection, so I just picked a word that sounded logical in the sentence. The same goes for "alimentacion". The only word I could think of meant vegetables, so I just substituted an English word that helped my sentence make sense.
Number of words in the selection; 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 423
Selection: intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organisme humano no utiiiza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosive" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina
Translation: intensity (as is the case of the 100 meter long race) the human organism does not use oxygen as much as energy. The energy parts that are used in the explosive type of burst are called ATP and creatine phosphate.
Explanation: "comoo fuente de energia" seems to want to say something about how enery is used more than the oxygen, so my translation says what I think the article's point is. although perhaps not exactly word - for - word.
Number of words in the selection: 44
Number of words in the selection: 339
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los iiltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las reserv'as de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.~
160 Translation: the experts in sports physiology have discovered that one of the principle reasons by which an athlete loses speed in the last meters of a race is the loss of the reserves of the creatine phosphate. When this substance is being consumed, the ability to contract muscles begins to fail.
Explanation: "agotamiento" is the first word of this portion that I don't know. However, I am guessing that it means something like "loss" or "abscence" because the rest of the article talks about the presence of the creatine and what it does and now we have a contrasting view.
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 460
Selection: El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The consumation of creatine ( en actuality it is commercialized in the form of monohydrate of creatine) is extending between athletes because it seems to add to the total storage of this substance in the interior of the muscle and retards the loss of creatine phosphate in the high intensity contractions.
Explanation: I racked my brain for any word resembling "almacenamiento" and the only word I could find reminded me of "store"; again, the word "agotamiento" seems to mean something along the lines of "loss"
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of words in the selection: 457
Selection: Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mas oxigeno al musculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mas creatina La creatina esta, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mâs aun si estàn poco cocinados.
161 Translation: In this same style that runners of the lower altitudes enter places of high altitude in order to add to their levels of hematies and so transport more oxygen to the muscle, speed athletes (especially called anaerobic because they do not consume oxygen as much as they use energy) look to refill their evergetic reserves, storing more creatine. Creatine is, in fact, especially recomended for vegetarian athletes because above all it is found in meat and fish, even more if a little cooked.
Explanation: "hematies" does not sound at all familiar to me, in Spanish or in English, the rest makes some sense, although a little broken.~~i would definitely be using my dictionary as a valuable resource to understand this article better.
Number of words in the selection: 83
Total seconds = 4953
162 S6 Practice Task Began 7/29/97 7:08:28 PM
Practice Task Ended 7/29/97 7:09:34 PM
Translation and Interview Began 7/29/97 7:09:36 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 7/29/97 8:00:34 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 335
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Creatine is a consumed substane already by many athletes especially those who practice events of Velocity"speed" and rapid force, specialties called "explosives"
Explanation: Most ofd the words I was able to translate directly because! knew the english equivalent. Others thaT I may not have know I figured out through context and a little understanding of the partciular terms from science classes ie Physic 111.
Number of words in the selection: 29
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 329
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado; un buen nœmero de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje.
Translation: Other s beforewere a rumor that had convinced already in something confirmled plainly: a good number of athletes that consume supliments of creatine because it is not a product on the list of things that are prohibited by these constituted laws( whatever would restrict them from use of certain products)-
Explanation: Again 1 tooke the words that I knew the english equivalent and tried to makes sense byt context the others trhat 1 did not know
Number of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 133
163 Selection: Otros atletas van m$s allj e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: Other athletes are going more in this direction of including protaginizing advertisements of cretine products
Explanation: Ditto
Number of words in the selection: 13
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 2150
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademas protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.- &Que es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai - En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.- LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo - El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se estâ extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mâs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mâs creatina La creatina estâ, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mas aun si estân poco cocinados
Translation: Linford Christie , an Olympic champion in the 100 meter in the 1992 games in Barcelona, admitted on several occasion that she used this substance called
164 creatine. Collin Jackson, a wordl record holder of the 110 m hurdles, also British, not only admitted it but also protaginized it in sports magazines -W hat is creatine? A substance from natural prtoein that our organs produce from habitual forms and is similar to the molecular dimensions of amino-acids. One feels in the ???(organs or parts of the body), pancreus to part from glychegen?? and ??? that are two types of amino-acids.( constiguent molecule of protiens) present in the habitual ailments( healing)—In specialties that require rapid forces of short duration and intense length( like the case of 100 m dash) the human organs do not use oxygen as source of energy. The energetic structures that one uses in forces of" explosive " type are called ATP (Adensin tri-phosphate) y phosphate from creatine-Physiological experts have discovered that the priciple reasons which cause athlete to lose speed in the last part of the race is ?? strored aggittation from phosphate from creatine. When this substance is consumed, it begins to loose( shorten, lessin)the control capacity of muscles.-The consuming of creatine( in actuality one really comercializes en form of monohydroxide of creatine) one is extending between the athletes because it augment( raises) the total production of this substance in the interior muscle y slows the aggitation'’? from phosohate form creatine in the contractions of long intensities. Of the same mode that the runners encoutner( come to realization) places in high altitude in order to raise their ?? and so to transport more oxygen to the muscles, the athletes of speed( espoecially called arobic by those that do not cinsume oxygen as source of energy) look for V their stored energy produced more creatine. Creatine is , in fact, especiall recommended en vergetarian athletes that already overcome meats and fishes more than if they were a litte carnivorousf meat eaters)- -
Explanation: II found english equivalent either because I knew the word or its cognate. I used context to try to figure out word that I was not so familiar with. That's it nothing much more to it
Number of words in the selection: 361
Total seconds = 2947
165 S7 Practice Task Began 8/5/97 4:34:41 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/5/97 5:16:38 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/5/97 5:16:40 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/5/97 5:58:17 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 116
Selection: Consumer! los atletas creatina ~Por Ignacio Romo~Del Diario El Mundo De M adrid
Translation: athletes consume creatina- by ignacio romo of the world diary of madrid
Explanation: consumen looks like consume, as does athletes, so I put them in a logical order
Number of words in the selection: 12
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 440
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas" Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: creatina is a substance that is consumed by a high number of athletes, especially those that pratice in activities that require burst of high energy for a short amount of time This was a rumor until alot of athletes confessed they use it. Other athletes protest the use of it.
Explanation: Again, I begin at the beginning and i read the first sentance. pulling out key words, creatina, sustancia, sonsumida, all sound like english. I remember the key words and don't pay too much attention to the other words I don;t know I then use the words and place them in a logical order that i feel describes the sentance after i write down what i think is in the paragraph, i read it in Spanish again and would then go back and fill in anvthinu i had left out
166 Number of words in the selection: 81
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 421
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademas protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.
Translation: lindford christi champion of the 100 meter in the 92 Olympics in barcelona has recognized this year that he has consumed creatina. colin jackson a british athlete is not alone in his recognition of the benefits in races using this product.
Explanation: 1 pull the peoples names out and figure they are talking about athletes who must use this substance, so knowing this i try to make the translation fit into this idea, with key words supporting. Wheneve i see a verb, i immeadeatly think of the infinitive form to know th meaning, llamada-llamar to name, so i know they are talking about the product named creatina. my translation process involves pulling these key verbs out, remembering their meaning and then using the surrounging words to form a sentance. again, the smaller unknown words are really not need to translate because the main idea is in the verbs and nouns
Number of words in the selection: 60
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 596
Selection: jQué es la creatina'^ Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoacido Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina. que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.- En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: what is creatina. a natural substance produced by our bodiesconstantly on the molecular level using amino acid (AA) building blocks, it is made in the pancreas and liver and involves glycine and arginine, to aa that make up certain protiens -especially when a fast burst of energy is needed as in a 100 meter race, the body uses oxygen as the
167 source of energy, atp is a form of energy used and the phosphate group needed to make atp comes from creatina.-
Explanation: this is where my scientific knowledge on the subject comes into play. By again pulling the key words out i form various sentances and know that aa are the building blocks of protien, i can then go back and the words i did not know are related to the sentence i translated such as como fuente se energia must mean that it uses oxygen as a source of energy, again, alot of the words are coganates and with a few easy Spanish words, the sentance is easily translated into english
Number of words in the selection: 114
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 793
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.- El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se estâ extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mâs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mâs creatina. La creatina estâ, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mâs aun si estân poco cocinados.
Translation: the experts in physical sports discovered that the one of the principal reasons that an athlete looses energy in the last part of the race is that the energy reserves are used up and no more creatina is there to use. when the substance is consumed, it begins to gains more capacity to contract the muscles more.-the consuming of creatina- sold in the monohydrate form of creatina-is extended between athletes because it stops the rapid use of the energy reserves in the muscles and slows the loss of the phosphate group in high intensity activities, athletes have found that this kind of occurance happens in high altitudes where there is less oxygen and more breating has to be done to bring more to the muscle groups, especially in anaerobic exercises, therefore, they have to look to stored energy as a form of energy in there bodies. Creatina is reccommended in vegatarian athletes who wouldn't normally get it in their diets since it is found in red meat and fish when thev are cooked
168 Explanation: this paragraph had alot of cognates and agian i drew those out and could easily go along and pretty much type as i read it in Spanish, the hard thing about tranlating in sp is that the verbs are place in a different backward order, and i have to place them in the english order, there is not much more i can say on how it translated it except that i again looked for verbs and remembered there meaning, along with picking up surrounding easier sp. words, alta=high.
Explanation: 187
Total seconds = 2366
169 S8 Practice Task Began 8/7/97 4.29:30 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/7/97 4:33:18 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/7/97 4:33:20 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/7/97 5:02:31 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 204
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas".
Translation: Great in is s substance consumed by a high # of athletes, especially those practicing with velocity and rapid strenght, called explosives! look for cognates and then words 1 know in Spanish and then try to translated the text.
Explanation: 30
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 206
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado: un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje. Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina.
Translation: There was a rumor before that some confirm, o good # of athletes admitt to using creatin supplements because it is not on the list of prohibited substances. Other athletes there protagonizes the creatin announcements.
Explanation: look for cognates- then words i know in Spanish
Number of words in the selection: 51
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 182
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas.
170 también britânico, no sôio lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
Translation: Lindford, Olympic champion of the 100 meters in the barcelona games of 92 recalls vaious times that year when he used creatin. Colin J, possessor of the gold medal in the 110 meter, also british, not only recalls it, but encourages its use.
Explanation: Cognates then known words
Number of words in the selection: 60
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 225
Selection: ^Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoâcido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: What is creatin? It is a natural protein substance our bodies produce habitually and is a type of amino acid. It is synthesized in the liver, pancreas, an is composed of arginine and glycine, two types of amino acids ( molecules that make up proteins) that are present in the habitual ailment
Explanation: Look for cognates and then words I know in Spanish
Number of words in the selection: 58
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 232
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: In specialties that require high energy rapidly, cardiovascular endurance, and high intensity.( like running the 100 meter) the human body does not use oxygen with effieciency in these types oif activities. Energy substrates they use for these types of energy explosions are called atp adenosine triphosphate and the creatin phosphate.
Explanation: look for cognates and then known Spanish words
171 Number of words in the selection: 56
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 151
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo.
Translation: Sport physiology experts describe reasons why athletes lose velocity in the final meters of a run is the loss of creatin reserves. When this substance is consumed, they lose their ablitiy to contract muscles.
Explanation: Look for cognates and then known words
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 165
Selection: El consumo de creatina fen la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The consumer of creatin (the commercialized form is actully a monodehydrated form) has extended among athletes in order to increase the amount of this substance in muscle interior for high intensities.
Explanation: same
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 171
Selection: Del mismo modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mas oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mas creatina.
172 Translation: The same applies to athletes at high altitudes because the need to increas the blood supply and transport more oxygen to their muscles (in anaerobic oxygen is not consumed for energy) and look for energy reserves to come from creatin.
Explanation: same
Number of words in the selection: 54
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 102
Selection: La creatina esta, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mâs aun si estân poco cocinados.
Translation: Creatin is especially important to vegetarian athletes because it is found in meats and fish, and in small amounts in other foods.
Explanation: I look for cognates and then words I know in Spanish and then i try to translate
Number of words in the selection: 29
Total seconds =1638
I would look for words that I consider to be cognates, but having a trong science background also helped me to recognize some of these words that a person without a science background would not recognize Then I look for words 1 am familiar with in Spanish and try to translate the text.
173 S9 Practice Task Began 8/11/97 4:46:54 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/1 1/97 4:59:34 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/11/97 4:59:35 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/11/97 5:38:42 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 250
Selection: LA CREATINA ES una sustancia consumida ya por un alto numéro de atletas, en especial, los que practican pruebas de velocidad y fuerza rapida, las llamadas especialidades "explosivas"
Translation: Creatine is a substance consumed by a number of athletes, especially those who practice speed and rapidness, they are named "explosive" I translated according to context and some words I knew right away
Explanation: 30
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 167
Selection: Los que antes era un rumor se ha convenido ya en algo plenamente confirmado; un buen numéro de atletas admite que consume suplementos de creatina porque esta no figura en las listas de productos prohibidos por constituir dopaje.
Translation: There were rumors of it, and a good number of athletes admit to comsume supplements of creatine because it not on the lists of products prohibited for use by athletes.
Explanation: I translated more from phrase to phrase
Number of words in the selection: 38
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 217
Selection: Otros atletas van mas alia e incluso protagonizan anuncios de productos de creatina
Translation: Other athletes have voiced their opinions of products of creatine.
Explanation: 1 tried to translate in the context, but I needed to know what a couple of the words meant before 1 could make a uood louical uuess.
174 Number of words in the selection: 13
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 188
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina.
Translation: Linford Christie, a champion Olympic athlete of the 100 meters in the Barcelona Games in 93, has admitted to consuming a substance called creatine
Explanation: I translated it word for word, and with the help of context clues.
Number of words in the selection: 27
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 151
Selection: Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademas protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas.
Translation: Colin Jackson, possessor of the world record in the 110 meter hurdles, also British, does not promote headlines of this in sports magazines.
Explanation: Basically just translated word to word.
Number of words in the selection: 33
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 281
Selection: ^Qué es la creatina"^ Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoacido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina. que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai
Translation: What is creatine‘s A natural substance that protects our organs from producing habitual folrms and the dimensions are moiedular and made of an amino acid. It is synthesized in the liver, kidneys, and the pancreas, apart from glycine and arginine which are amino acids (molecular constituents of proteins.)
175 Explanation: This was a fairly easy passage to translate by use of context clues.
Number of words in the selection: 58
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 266
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina
Translation: In specialties that require rapid movements in short durations and high intensity (like a 100 meter dash) the human organ cannot use oxygen with enough energy. The energetic people who use this go through a type of explosion, named ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and creatine phosphate.-
Explanation: 1 just translated with the help of context.
Number of words in the selection: 56
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 211
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deponiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el agotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustancia se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del mûsculo.
Translation: The experts of sports physiology have discovered that one of the principal reasons for the loss of velocity in the last meters of the race is low reserves of the creatine phospate When the substance is consumed, the muscles contract.
Explanation: Translated word for word, a little more difficult than the earlier passages.
Number of words in the selection: 52
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 466
Selection: El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se esta extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del mûsculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad. Del mismo
176 modo que los corredores de fondo acuden a entrenarse a lugares en altitud elevada para aumentar sus niveles de hematies y asi transportar mâs oxigeno al mûsculo, los atletas de velocidad (especialidad llamada anaerobica porque no se consume oxigeno como fuente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mâs creatina. La creatina estâ, de hecho, especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, mâs aun si estân poco cocinados.
Translation: The consumer of creatine ( in the actual commercialized form it is creatine mono hydrate) is extended into those athletes because of a deficiency in the interior of the muscle, and creatine phosphate helps in the high contraction of the muscles. At the same time, runners in high altitudes have a hard time to transport oxygen to the muscle, athletes who run (especially anaerobic because they consume oxygen with a lot of energy) are found to have energy reserves with a lot of creatine. Creatine is recommended for vegetarian athletes because it is found in meat and fish dishes.
Explanation: Translated from phrase to phrase, some of the words were cognates so it was easier to translate.
Number of words in the selection: 135 Total seconds = 2197
177 SIO Practice Task Began 8/13/97 5:39:54 PM
Practice Task Ended 8/13/97 5:43:10 PM
Translation and Interview Began 8/13/97 5:43:12 PM
Translation and Interview Ended 8/13/97 6:28:51 PM
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 358-
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britanico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
T ran slatio n : Linford Christie, Olympic champion in the 100 meters in the 1992 Olympic Games of Barcelona had recalled that year on various ocassions that he consumes a substance called creatin. Colin Jackson, a 110 meter hurdler also british was not the only to recall that without more protagen advertisements of the product in the sport magazines.
Explanation: 1 translated word by word and if I got stuck on a word then I read the rest of the sentence to help me to figure it out.
61
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 570
Selection: Linford Christie, campeon olimpico de los 100 metros en los Juegos de Barcelona 92, ha reconocido este ano en varias ocasiones que consume una sustancia llamada creatina. Co- lin Jackson, poseedor de la marca munidal de los 110 metros vallas, también britânico, no solo lo reconoce sino que ademâs protagoniza anuncios de este producto en las revistas deportivas
Translation: Creatin is a substance consummed by a large number of athletes, especially, those that practice games of velocity and strength, quickness called explosive. Those that before there was a rumor had convinced in the other plainly confirmed a good number of athletes admitt that they consume suplements of creatin because there are no figures on the list of prohibited products that constitute illegal drugs. Other athletes go over that, and include progesterone advertisements of creatin products.
Explanation: 1 basically translated it word by word and iff had a problem 1 would read the whole sentence a few times to try to get the overall meaning
178 Number of words in the selection: 81
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 409
Selection: i,Qué es la creatina? Una sustancia de naturaleza proteica que nuestro organismo produce de forma habitual y es semejante de su dimension molecular a un aminoacido. Se sintetiza en el higado, los rinones y el pancreas, a partir de la glicina y la arginina, que son dos aminoàcidos (moléculas constituyente de las proteinas) présentes en la alimentaciôn habituai.
Translation: What is creatin? A substance of natural production that organisms produce in a habitual form and in the molecular dimension of an amino acid. It is synthesized in the pancreas and is part glycerin and another element that are molecules that make up proteins present in habitual
Explanation: I did it word by word, reading a sentence if I was stuck on a word and skipping some words that I could not figure out if I read the entire paragraphh
Number of word in the selection: 58
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 279
Selection: En las especialidades que requieren esfuerzos râpido, de corta duraciôn y alta intensidad (como es el caso de una carrera de 100 metros lisos) el organismo humano no utiliza oxigeno como fuente de energia. Los sustratos energéticos que se utilizan en esfuerzo de tipo "explosivo" son el llamado ATP (adenosin trifosfato) y el fosfato de creatina.
Translation: In the specialties that require fast and strong, short duration, and high intensity like 100 meters, the human organism does not utilize oxigen as a source of energy The energy substrates that utilize in a type of explosive force are called atp and the phosphate creatin
Explanation: I could translate this paragraph mostly word by word. There were a few times when I would have to read further to try to figure out words
Number of words in the selection: 56
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 304
Selection: LOS EXPERTOS en fisiologia deportiva han descubierto que una de las principales razones por las cuales un atleta pierde velocidad en los ùltimos metros de una carerra es el auotamiento de las réservas de fosfato de creatina. Cuando esta sustanc
179 Translation: The experts in sports physiology have descovered that one of the principal reasons that which athletes lose velocity in the final meters of a race is the depletement of the reserves of creatin. when this substance is consumed, it begins to increase the capacity of the muscle to contract.
Explanation: I translated one word at a time and if I got stuck on a word I rread the sentence for overall meaning and just guessed
Number of words in the selection: 40
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 273
Selection: se va consumiendo, empieza a fallar la capacidad contractil del musculo.- El consumo de creatina (en la actualidad se comericializa realmente en forma de monohidrato de creatina) se estâ extendiendo entre los atletas porque parece aumentar el almacenamiento total de esta sustancia en el interior del musculo y retarda por tanto el agotamiento de fosfato de creatina en las contracciones de alta intensidad.
Translation: The consumption of creatin. in actuality it is commercialized really in the form of the monohydrate of creatin, is extended over the athletes because it seems to increase the total of the substance in the interior of the muscle and slow down the of the phosphate creatin in the high intensity contractions
Explanation: I had to read the whole sentences to understand the significance of each w ord
Number of words in the selection: 64
Number of seconds to translate the selection: 203
Selection: uente de energia) buscan rellenar sus réservas energéticas almacenando mâs creatina. La creatina estâ, de hecho. especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos. ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado. mâs aun si estân poco cocinados
Translation: Of this mode of runners that train in places of elevated altitude in order to increase levels of and transport more oxygen to muscle, the athletes of velocity, especially anaerobic do not consume oxygen as energy
Explanation: I had to read sentences first in order to understand the words within
Number of words in the selection: 43
180 Number of seconds to translate the selection: 207
Selection: uente de energ’a) buscan rellenar sus réservas energ_ticas almacenando m$s creatina. La creatina estj, de hecho. especialmente recomendada en los atletas vegetarianos, ya que sobre todo se encuentra en la carne y el pescado, m js aun si estjn poco cocinados.
Translation: like the fuel of energy they look to restore reserves of energy more creatin. The creatin is especially recommended in vegetarian athletes, that over all that they find in meat and fish, more if they cook a little.
Explanation: I had to read more than one sentence at a time and then go back and try to translate each word.
Number of words in the selection: 40
Total seconds = 2603
181 APPENDIX D
PARTICIPANT INTEREST RATING SCALE
182 Appendix D
Participant Interest Rating Scale
Name: Code SS. Major:
"Consumen los atletas creatina"
Article name:
Please rate the article you just read on the following scale. Circle the number that best corresponds to your level of interest in this article.
3 2 I much some little interest interest interest
183 APPENDIX E
STRATEGY CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
184 Appendix E
Strategy Classification Scheme
Read in a linear fashion; The translation is done from front to back. The participant starts at the beginning of the article and reads to the end.
Assumes/Guesses : The participant indicates that s/he is guessing. Uses false cognates or invented words. A written translation may have questions next to the response.
Reads/looks at the title: The title is included in the translation.
Uses the title as an advance organizer; Makes comments about the title to indicate s/he is using it to obtain information about the article.
Looks for the gist/main idea/theme; Expresses the main idea of the sentence or paragraph.
Looks for key words; The translation is not complete. It consists mainly of important or significant words.
Tries to reason out the meaning of words; The participant indicates that s/he is trying to make sense out of a word or phrase.
Reads silently; Reads at a subvocal.
Looks for context clues; The focus is on the words in the sentence. The participant remarks that s/he is relying on other words in the sentence for meaning. Indicates using w ords in the sentence/paragraph to gain meaning.
Places unknown words in context. Focus is on the unknown words. The participant indicates that s/he is attempting to get meaning from the words in the sentence.
Matches background knowledge with prior Participant mentions knowledge related to the knowledue. topic and uses that knowledge to understand the article.
Skips unknown words; The translation is not complete. Words are missing from the translation.
185 Read in a linear fashion; The translation is done from front to back. The participant starts at the beginning of the article and reads to the end.
Skips unknown structures: The translation is not complete. Words are missing from the translation.
Reads aloud in Spanish: Reads at a vocal level.
Forms hypothesis/Sets up expectations: The participant made a decision about what s/he believes the article to be about.
Reads/re-reads: Reads the sentence/phrase/paragraph more than one.
Adjusts initial idea based on content: The participant made a decision about the content of the article but changes the idea based on the information on which s/he is attending.
Summarizes: Paraphrases the contents in the sentence or paragraph or article
Reads article more than once: The participant completes the article from beginning to end and begins additional readings.
Automatically processes the Spanish text: The participant indicates knowing the meaning of the text The participant instantaneously knows the meaning of the text.
Reflects/Contemplates: The participant pauses for a moment and makes a comment about the information to which s/he is attending.
Revises hypothesis based on following The translation started with some type of information: semantic error The translation revises it by marking out or inserts.
Translates word for word: The participant indicates that s/he translates word for word. All words in the source document are accounted for linguistically and semantically.
186 Read in a linear fashion: The translation is done from front to back. The participant starts at the beginning of the article and reads to the end.
Translates sentence by sentence/phrase by The participant indicates that s/he translates phrase: sentence by sentence/phrase by phrase. Translation is complete. Linguistic and semantic representation are accounted for in the sentence.
Reads paragraph by paragraph: The participant indicates that s/he translates paragraph by paragraph. Or the translation contains complete and accurate translation of the source article.
Makes linguistic revisions after reading ahead: The oral or written translation show signs that after linguistic correction was made after word or phrase was written.
Looks for cognates:
Attempts to retrieve linguistic information The translation contains signs that the from memory: participant possesses linguistic information. Tries to recall parts of speech. Tries to remember the meaning of verbs.
Define urammar constituents: The participant attempts to gain information about the sentence by classifying the words in the sentence by their parts of speech.
Read aloud problematic word: The participant focuses on one word with which s/he does not understand and read it at a vocal level.
Reads aloud and then translates: The participant selects portions of the text, reads it at a vocal level, then translates it from Spanish to English.
187 APPENDIX F
SUBJECT-MATTER KNOWLEDGE PROBE
188 Appendix F
Subject-matter Knowledge Probe
Name: Code SS
Major:
Subject-matter Knowledge Probe
You will be doing some free association. I will give you a topic and a time limit, and you must write in English what you know about the topic. In the next three minutes, you will write for one minute on each of the following topics. Please tell me all you can about:
1. creatine
2. human muscle growth
3. any relationship between creatine and muscle growth
189 APPENDIX G
PRACTICE TEXT
190 Appendix G
Practice Text
Cifuentes, E. (1995, June 11). Rayos y Truenos, p. 72, El Niievn Hi'a Rayos y truenos en el horizonte Por EDUARDO CIFUENTES ______DË EL NUEVO DIA______
EN UN MOMENTO cualquiera en cl dia, se producen. cn cl plancta. unas 4.000 tronadas. La mayon'a dc clias sc dcsarrollan cn cl area tropical, dondc Puerto Rico ocupa una dc las areas de màxima actividad (curiosamente. el numéro de pararrayos cxistcntes en la Isla. es minimo). La Tiema cucnta con un importante campo eléctrico. cuva diferencia de potencial se estima en unos 300.000 voiiios. Ta! campo cuenta con un polo de carga positiva situado en la lonosfera (capa atmosferica cuyo limite infe rior se ubica hacia las 50 millas -unos 80 kilômetros- dc aliitud). y con otro. dc carga negativa, en el suelo. El aire, situado entre mcdio, résulta mal conductor de la electrici- • dad. por lo que no sc producen fuertes .descargas entre ambos polos. No sc originan fuertes descargas. pero si una constante pcrdida, de iones positives hacia el suelo y de iones negati ves hacia la ionosfera. Tan constante résulta que. de no mediar un fenômeno capaz de restablecer el equilibrio. este diferencia! quedaria. en un corto espacio dc tiempo. inverti- do o anulado. Esc fenômeno es, precisamente. el rayo. Para que sc produzca un rayo se précisa de una nube. Pero no de una nube cualquiera. Es necesario que crezca un cumule. Y que. a poder scr. adopte el tipo màximo de desarrollo. conocido como Cumulonimbo. Taies nubes se caracterizan por la presenda. en su inte rior. de potentisimas corrientes de viento. tante ascendentes como dcsccndentcs.
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