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Home , Club Alpino Italiano, Gaetano Bresci, Turin, Vincenzo Cabianca

Timeline / 1830 to 1900 /

Date Country Theme

1831 - 1835 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by Gaetano Donizetti (1797– 1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the different characters.

1831 Italy Political Context

Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy).

1835 - 1837 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

For the first time, a cholera epidemic hits Italy, killing more than 140,000 (26,000 in and 19,600 in ). Its causes remain unknown until the 1880s. Its spread is favoured by poor sanitation in urban centres. Cholera epidemics hit poor people especially and often occasion social unrest.

1837 - 1840 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Naples and are the first Italian towns to have gas street lightning.

1839 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First Italian railway line (Napoli–Portici, 8 km). In the following years, other railway lines are inaugurated in other Italian states, e.g. Milano– (1840), - (1844), Padova–Venezia (1846), Torino– (1848). Political fragmentation is an obstacle to the construction of long railway lines.

1842 Italy Travelling

A seaside hostel is opened in Viareggio () for the treatment of children affected by tuberculosis (the first of its kind in Italy). In Tuscany, experiments of “marine therapy” for children started in the 1820s. By 1882, 21 seaside hostels for medical purposes are active in Italy.

1842 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Triumph of Nabuccodonosor by Giuseppe Verdi (1831–1901) at La Scala Theatre (): it marks the appearance of a new operatic style, in which both voice and music show an entirely new heroic passion and strength.

1843 Italy Travelling

First bathing establishment created in .

1847 - 1848 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First Italian telegraph line (–Pisa–Livorno). Date Country Theme

1848 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Donizetti dies and Verdi remains the only heir to the Italian melodrama, which is increasingly identified with the Risorgimento movement, becoming a “sound track” of the Italian fight for independence and unification.

1848 - 1849 Italy Political Context

Uprisings in different parts of Italy demand constitutional rule and national unification. In and , short-lived republics are proclaimed. King Carlo Alberto (Kingdom of ) grants a constitution and wages war against the Austrian Empire, but he is defeated.

1850s - 1860s Italy Travelling

Mountaineering on the becomes a sport and tourism activity. Local people had always climbed mountains. Since the end of the 18th century, scientists had started exploring the Alps for scientific purposes ( was first climbed in 1786). In 1857, Irish mountaineer John Ball starts climbing the Dolomites and writing guidebooks about them.

1850 - 1855 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

The painters of the School of Posillipo (Naples) develop a new style of more natural observation of landscapes and everyday life.

1851 - 1853 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Verdi composes the so-called popular trilogy (Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata), consolidating his fame and reaching full musical and dramatical maturity.

1852 Italy Political Context

Cavour (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, 1810–61), the architect of the diplomatic strategies that allowed , becomes prime minister of the (he will remain prime minister until his death).

1854 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Leopoldo Alinari, with his brothers Romualdo and Giuseppe, opens in Florence one of the first photography workshope – Fratelli Alinari.

1855 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Inauguration of the in Florence. The bulk of its holdings are the items collected by Ippolito Rossellini during the 1828–29 Franco-Tuscan expedition to , together with the Egyptian antiquities that the Medici family had collected during the 18th century.

1855 Italy Political Context

The Kingdom of Sardinia participates in the Crimean war as part of the Anglo- French alliance against Russia. Date Country Theme

1855 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

The Caffé Michelangelo in Florence becomes a meeting place for artists and republican intellectuals close to , in opposition to academic and official environments.

1858 Italy International Exhibitions

An industrial exhibition is held in Turin.

1859 - 1861 Italy Political Context

The Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against the Austrian Empire and annexes Milan. Pro-unification insurrections in central Italy; Garibaldi leads an expedition of 1,000 volunteers in . Italy is unified under King Victor Emanuel II (formerly King of Sardinia) as a constitutional monarchy.

1859 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The Casati Law is passed in the Kingdom of Sardinia (and in 1860 extended to the rest of Italy) that defines the organisation of the educational system, from primary school to university. The system is aimed more at educating the ruling elite than the illiterate masses. Humanities are given a much higher status than scientific and technical education.

1860 Italy Political Context

The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of income and education: only 2.2% of the can vote.

1860 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old walls, which have lost their defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in order to build monumental architecture.

1860 - 1870 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

In opposition to academic painting, the movement (, Vincenzo Cabianca and Silvestro Lega) experiments with “spot painting”, based on the strong contrast between light and shadow.

1861 Italy International Exhibitions

First Italian National Exhibition of Agricultural and Industrial Products and Fine Arts opens in Florence.

1861 Italy Rediscovering The Past

The pre-unification laws on the protection of cultural heritage of the individual Italian states remain in force even after unification. Until 1902, different Italian regions are thus subject to different disciplines. Date Country Theme

1862 Italy Economy And Trade

Law on the unification of currencies passed: the lira becomes the Italian currency.

1863 - 1885 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Opening of applied art schools, often attached to museums: Industrial Museum of Turin (1863), Artistic Industrial Museum of Rome (1873), Naples (1882) and Palermo (1885).

1863 Italy Travelling

The is founded in Turin. Its goal is “to promote the knowledge of mountains, and especially of Italian mountains, their ascent and scientific expeditions”. In 25 years, membership reaches 4,500 with 34 local branches. By 1900 it had built 57 mountain huts.

1863 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the 167.5 m high in Turin, initially conceived as a . It soon becomes the city’s landmark building.

1864 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

A governmental survey reveals the existence of 443 friendly societies (Società di mutuo soccorso), all located in Central and (Milan has 38 societies with a total of 9,923 members, Turin 13 with 14,864 members). Their number and membership grows considerably over time until the development of modern welfare.

1865 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The new-born Italian state approves a civil code that places women in a subordinate position in the family. Boys and girls can inherit equally, but married women need “marital authorisation” to manage their property. Male and female adultery are treated differently. The “defence of honour” is accepted as attenuating circumstance in murder cases.

1865 - 1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The worst of the five cholera epidemics that hit Italy during the 19th century kills more than 160,000. The most affected towns are always Naples and Palermo.

1866 Italy Economy And Trade

A law confiscates the properties of religious orders and congregations, and establishes a state fund to support the clergy and monks.

1866 Italy Political Context

Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice. Date Country Theme

1867 Italy Travelling

The Società Geografica Italiana is founded. In 1869-70, it organises an exploratory expedition to East Africa, in 1875 to and in 1876 to Ethiopia. Many other journeys to Africa, and also to Central Asia, South America and Papua follow. Such travels generally combined scientific purposes and political agendas.

1867 Italy Economy And Trade

Law on the abolition of religious bodies: the real estate properties of 25,000 religious bodies are auctioned.

1867 Italy Political Context

Uprising in Rome demanding unification with Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi leads an expedition of volunteers that enters the and tries to seize Rome. Roman rebels are defeated and executed. Garibaldi is defeated by Papal troops backed by a French expeditionary corps (France protects the Papal States).

1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Around 60 per cent of men and 80 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate because they are unable to write.

1868 - 1883 Italy Migrations

Different circular letters by the Minister of Interior place obstacles on migration: migrants are supposed to have work contracts or to prove they have enough funding to repatriate. Such circular letters have only limited effect. Landowners put pressure on government to discourage migration.

1868 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Gualberta Alaide Beccari (a feminist with republican ideas, much influenced by Mazzini) founds the periodical La donna, which campaigns for women’s rights. La donna’s main contributor is Anna Maria Mozzoni, who since 1865 had campaigned against “marital authorisation” and for women’s right to vote.

1870 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Renewal and urban modernisation of Rome starts with the opening of a long road linking Porta Pia (where the broke into the city in 1870) to the Quirinale , residence of the King (formerly a papal palace). The headquarters of some ministries are located along this road.

1871 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

24 December: first world performance of the new opera by Verdi, Aida, set in ancient Egypt, at the Khedivial in Cairo.

1871 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

Fréjus Rail under Alps, between Italy and France, inaugurated (12.8 km long).

1876 Italy Rediscovering The Past

In Rome, Luigi Pigorini founds the National Prehistoric Ethnographic Museum, enriching with new acquisitions the ethnographic and prehistoric collection previously belonging to the Kircher Museum, founded in the 17th century.

1877 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The “Coppino Law” makes elementary schools mandatory and free of charge.

1880 - 1887 Italy Migrations

As a consequence of agricultural crisis, mass migration starts.

1880 - 1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Italy is hit by the international agricultural crisis and annual per capita income decreases.

1880 - 1889 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 37,000; USA 24,000; Argentina 39,000; 22,000.

1880 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Anna Maria Mozzoni and Paolina Schiff (an academic) found the League for the Promotion of Women’s Interests, the first feminist organisation in Italy.

1881 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Italian telephone services run by private companies start operating.

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giovanni Verga (1840–1922) publishes the novel I malavoglia (published in English as The House by the Medlar-Tree), which describes the life of a family of Sicilian fishermen. Verga was the most important author of the Italian realist school known as verismo.

1881 Italy International Exhibitions

The first Italian National Industrial Exhibition is held in Milan.

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At La Scala Theatre in Milan, premiere of Excelsior, mimic ballet by Luigi Manzotti, music by Romualdo Marenco. Through 11 allegorical scenes glorifying 19th- century scientific and industrial progress (steam-engine, electric light, telegraph, Date Country Theme Suez Canal, Fréjus Rail Tunnel, etc.), it celebrates the triumph of Light over Obscurantism.

1882 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Gotthard Rail Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland opens (14.9 km). The construction work had started in 1872.

1882 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Brera Picture Gallery, originally created by Maria Teresa of Austria in 1776, becomes an independent museum.

1882 Italy Political Context

The Triple Alliance formed (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary).

1882 Italy Political Context

Electoral reform: the right to vote is extended to 7 per cent of the Italian population, by lowering the age limit (from 25 to 21) and the level of income required.

1882 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

In order to fight malaria, Parliament approves a law on drainage of swamps. Malaria plagues about one-third of Italian territory, where 10 per cent of the population lives.

1882 - 1884 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

On the occasion of the 1884 General Exhibition of Turin, construction of the Rocca (castle) and the Borgo Medievale (medieval village) in (Valentino Park) in order to promote appreciation for 15th-century architecture. In 1884, the Municipality of Turin buys part of this area, where it will later locate the Civic Museums.

1882 - 1896 Italy Political Context

Italy’s first African war: in 1882 Italy starts colonial expansion in the ; in 1890, Eritrea becomes an Italian colony. Afterwards, Italy attempts to penetrate into Ethiopia and suffers a crushing defeat at Adwa (the biggest African victory over a colonial army): Italy loses 4,000 Italian and 2,000 colonial soldiers. The Crispi government resigns.

1882 Italy Travelling

The municipality of Cervia (on the Adriatic Sea) builds a bathing establishment explicitly intended for the middle class: previously a prerogative of the elite, beach tourism starts to become a more widely practised activity.

1883 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

In Milan, the first thermoelectric power station in Europe is inaugurated. Date Country Theme

1883 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Inauguration of the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, in the Exhibition Palace by Pio Piacentini. It is intended to focus on “national” art.

1883 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

A credit-fuelled “construction fever” explodes in Rome and in the other urban centres.

1884 Italy International Exhibitions

The General Italian Exhibition in Turin attracts 3 million visitors.

1884 - 1885 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First experiments of electric street lighting in Turin and Milan.

1884 - 1885 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Cholera epidemic causes 7,000 deaths in Naples and 2,500 in Palermo (out of a total 21,000 deaths). The government starts programmes of urban renewal in Naples and other towns (the most effective tool to prevent new epidemics).

1885 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

After the 1884–85 cholera epidemic hits Naples (the fourth cholera epidemic hitting the city since 1835), the government starts a redevelopment plan to clear Naples of slums and improve its sewerage and water systems. Similar renewal plans will be extended to other cities.

1886 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 9 from working in factories and mines and those under the age of 12 from working at night.

1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Federation of Italian Cooperatives is funded (from 1893 known as the League of Cooperatives).

1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Adoption of a protectionist policy aimed at boosting industrial development.

1887 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

After long silence, Verdi composes a new opera on a text by Arrigo Boito: Othello, based on Shakespeare’s tragedy. In Othello, Verdi adopts a more fluent narrative structure that goes beyond the traditional division into separate units (arias, duets, concertatos, choirs). Date Country Theme

1888 - 1890 Italy Economy And Trade

Tariff war with France.

1888 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

First comprehensive law on health services.

1888 Italy Migrations

The first law on migration introduces measures aimed at preventing a married woman from migrating without her husband’s consent; at preventing men to migrate to avoid military service; and at granting migrants some protection against abuses.

1888 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of Piazza Esedra (now Piazza della Repubblica) in Rome, designed by Gaetano Koch. The newly built with porticos around the square are opposite the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) and connect the area of Termini railway station to via Nazionale, providing an attractive entrance to the city.

1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Establishment of the Museum of the pre-Roman Antiquities of Latium in the 16th- century Villa Giulia, in Rome. The museum would be later renamed the National Etruscan Museum.

1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Establishment of the National Roman Museum, in the stunning structure of the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) in Rome.

1890 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Cavalleria rusticana by (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.

1890 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

For the first time, trade unions organise celebrations for May Day as the International Worker’s Day.

1890 - 1899 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 26,000, USA 51,000; Argentina 37,000; Brazil 58,000.

1891 Italy Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

First Chambers of Labour (territorial trade unions) founded in Milan.

1892 - 1898 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Hydroelectric power plants are built in Tivoli (1892) and Paderno d’Adda (1898) and the power they generated is transported to, respectively, Rome and Milan.

1892 Italy Political Context

Italian Socialist Party founded.

1893 - 1894 Italy Economy And Trade

A comprehensive law on banking establishes the Bank of Italy, which starts operating on 1 January 1894.

1893 - 1895 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (today Piazza della Repubblica) in Florence, after clearing the area of the Ancient Market.

1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Manon Lescaut by (1858–1924) has a great success in Turin and Puccini becomes the most promising opera composer of the new generation.

1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At the age of 80, Verdi composes his last opera, Falstaff, an opera buffa that opens new avenues towards the theatre of the 20th century. The music underscores all the subtle nuances of the psychology of the different characters.

1894 Italy Travelling

The Touring Club d’Italia is founded. Its main goal is “to make Italians know Italy”. It conceives of tourism as a tool for the cultural growth and modernisation of the country.

1895 Italy International Exhibitions

Opening of the First International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice, known as the Venice Biennale. The exhibition – organised to bring the city out of isolation – meets with great public acclaim (224,000 visitors).

1895 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gugliemo makes the first successful experiments of radio broadcasts.

1897 - 1898 Italy Political Context

Widespread demonstrations and riots against high bread price. The government uses the army to repress protests: in Milan 85 demonstrators are killed. Date Country Theme

1898 Italy Political Context

Anarchist Gaetano Bresci kills the King Umberto I, in revenge for the protesters killed in Milan in 1898. Victor Emanuel III becomes King of Italy.

1899 Italy Economy And Trade

In Turin, founds the car factory .

1900 Italy International Exhibitions

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Italian companies participate in many international exhibition, such as the 1900 Paris World Fair.

1900 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Law on “state quinine” passed: in order to fight malaria, the state will produce quinine and sell it at a low price not only in the 5,000 pharmacies, but also in the 27,000 tobacconists.