Me Too Movement: Influence of Social Media Engagement on Intention to Control Sexual Harassment Against Women

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Journal of Content, Community & Communication Amity School of Communication Vol. 12 Year 6, December - 2020 [ISSN: 2395-7514 (Print) ] Amity University, Madhya Pradesh [ISSN: 2456-9011 (Online)]

#ME TOO MOVEMENT: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ENGAGEMENT ON INTENTION TO CONTROL SEXUAL HARASSMENT AGAINST WOMEN

Seema Shukla Research Scholar, School of Humanities, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

Pavitar Parkash Singh Professor, Mittal School of Business, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

Garima Assistant Professor, School of Management, IMS Unison University, Dehradun

ABSTRACT

Social media provide a common platform to public to speak about social injustice and put grievances about the polices. They also unite and act against crimes. Social Media has been instrumental in the propagation of gender inequality protests around the world. This purpose study is to assess the influence of “#Me Too movement” on intention to control sexual harassment against women and further to suggest a framework using mass communication as a tool to create awareness and control sexual harassment against women. Multivariate data analysis was conducted though Partial Least Squares Path Modeling (PLS-SEM) to analyze the data. The questionnaire was circulated through WhatsApp and emails to 800 Indian participants. The results suggested that social media movement like “#Me Too movement” has a positive influence on the intention to control sexual harassment against women. This research showed that awareness about the sex- based crimes could be increased with the participation in these kinds of social movements which in turn leads to formation of intention to control sexual harassment against women.

Keywords: Social Media Engagement, #Me Too Movements, Sexual Harassment.

INTRODUCTION advancements of technology have direct effect With the growth in the numbers of users of on the lives of people (Dwivedi, Narula, 2020). social media it has become a mainstream media platform through which the one-third The #Me Too, a social media movement has population of the world has been connected created many headlines in creating awareness (Nelson-Field & Taylor, 2012). Approximately and changing attitude of people towards 50% of Indian population are assessing social sexual violence against women, this network sites in 2020 and it is predicted that movement has highlighted the issues related approximately 67.4% will be able to assess to sexual violence against women and made social networks in 2025 (Keelery,2020). The aware the general public about sexism and accessibility, affordability and availability of sexual based crimes. It has also drawn the mobile phones have increased individual‟s attention of common public towards the interaction with social media sites (Shiva, power structures and gender inequalities Narula, Shahi, 2020). The engagement on which are deeply rooted in the patriarchal social media due to the proliferation of social society. The “#Me Too movement” is one of media platforms has been able to significantly the prominence movement happened on social influence the perception of public about the media which deals with sexual violence reality. It has emerged as a very powerful tool against women. It has also increased debates in spreading information (Fauzi et al., 2020, and critical discussions on gender Jain et al., 2020), awareness and mobilizing discrimination and crimes against women on campaigns on a variety of issues. It has proven social media. The mainstream media also its effectiveness in changing the public opinion witness the same trend (Jaffe, 2018). This and attitude towards critical social issues such movement exposed many high-profile as crime against women (Gitlin, 2003). The

DOI: 10.31620/JCCC.12.20/07 57

personalities in US such as film producer molestation and sexual harassment done by Harvey Weinstein (Mendes et al., 2018). The their former bosses and colleagues (Kazmin, sex offenders received a huge criticism and 2018). legal and organizational action due to this movement (North, 2019; Stone & Vogelstein, Sexual Harassment 2019). Nevertheless, the “#Me Too movement” Sexual harassment is gender-based put sexual harassment into limelight and discrimination that mostly target marginal provided feminism more media coverage and people mostly females in society. It consists of create a huge public interest which was never different acts such as sexual comments and received earlier (Gill, 2016; Jaffe, 2018). inappropriate or unwelcome promises of rewards in exchange for sexual favors. Actions #Me Too movement like whistling, staring, requests for dates or Tarana Burake an African American Women unwanted physical conduct and offensive Activist understood the power of Social Media language are considered sexual harassment. and started # Me Too Movement in 2006 to The act of asking for sexual favour in increase awareness about sexual harassment exchange for promotion or employment is also and sexual assault (Braileanu et al.,2020; Jaffe, considered as the act of sexual harassment at 2018; Mendes, Ringrose, & Keller, 2018). The workplace (Jacobson & Eaton, 2018). The movement took speed in October 2017 when Indian Penal Code has defined sexual Alyssa Milano an American Actress posted harassment in Section 354, which is further “#Me Too” on social media platform „Twitter‟ divided into sections A, B, C and D. Section (“Vision,” 2018; Zarkov & Davis, 2018). The 354 A is dealing with definition and its actress act increases the popularity of “#Me punishment of sexual harassment. According Too movement” among victims and it to this section any physical contact, encourage the survivors to share their stories unwelcome sexual overtures, showing on social media. The movement immediately pornography and making sexual remarks are became global. The “#Me Too movement” considered as sexual harassment act (Tripathi, initiated critical and political discussions 2014). NCRB data revealed that crimes against about the relationship between power and sex women have increased from 58.8 to 62.4 from (Gill, 2016; Gill & Orgad, 2018; Jaffe, 2018). The 2018 to 2019. There were 32,033 incidents of movement revealed that sexual harassment is rape were reported in 2019 (National Crime more about dominance and power than the Records Bureau, 2019) sexual attraction between the two genders (Jaffe, 2018).Since October 2017 the people of Females’ Engagement on Social Media 85 countries participated in the movement The use of internet and social networks for (Gill & Orgad, 2018). Some researchers found political or social engagement has attracted that #Me Too raises consciousness and researchers‟ attention in the past decades solidarity. (Schuster, 2013). Discussions approach how online activism could reach the real world # Me Too movement in India (Livingstone et al., 2005), other even points The “#Me Too movement” was initiated in that Facebook accounts have been disregarded 2018 September in India when Tanushree when it comes to political participation Dutta accused Nana Patekar for his (Christensen, 2011; Schuster, 2013). While inappropriate behavior on film set of film several researches suggest many ways on how 'Horn Ok Pleassss' (Roy,2019). Later, a list of social media can impact on collective action females came forward to discuss sexual (Valenzuela, 2013), few has dedicated efforts assault incidents happened to them through to understand females‟ behavior regarding “#Me Too movement”. All of them are very protests participation (Loiseau & Nowacka, famous personalities and keep a very 2015; Schuster, 2017). Social media has proved powerful position in Indian Society after the itself as a powerful tool to bring females‟ sexual allegations Mr. MJ Akbar has resigned interests and rights to public knowledge from his post and Sajid Khan must step down (Kapoor et al., 2017). The unprecedented use from his upcoming big budget venture of social media by women represents an Housefull part 4. Indian women have shared important step to bring opportunities and their painful stories. They have also several discussions regarding (in)equality, mentioned the detailed accounts of alleged gender gap, among others into media

attention (Loiseau & Nowacka, 2015).Easy social movements on the broader public access and low in cost, online participation in (Louis, 2009). This research study also protests is a preference for many young discussed about the influence of joint effort of women, especially the ones who lack of common public could create the centerpiece resources, furthermore, this option enables a for example Teixeira, Spears, & Yzerbyt, in choice regarding how much of their identity 2019. There are many research have been done will be exposed (Schuster, 2013).In Brazil, to study the influence and impact of # Me Too political movements in 2013 were marked by a movement on global arena but still the study strong online engagement and participation, about the influence of # Me Too movement in which brought a different way of making Indian context is missing. The purpose of protests in the country (Queiroz, 2017). present research study is to fill that gap by critically examine the influence of “#Me Too Regarding females‟ participation on online movement” on intention to control sexual activism, the literature points to a wave of harassment incidents against women. feminist forces trying to direct efforts into transforming online social movements into LITERATURE REVIEW actual change: The Feminist fourth wave. This Social media engagement is interpreted as the new wave would be marked by the intense measurement of individual‟s involvement use of social media as important vectors of with social media. It also refers to „individual change (Hollanda, 2018). Accordingly, it is attitude towards the relationship with social within the online environment where women media use‟ (Xiaoli, 2020). Engagement is a organize themselves and take a stand against complex structure, which consist behavior, abuse, gender discrimination, by developing a cognition, and affection. (Hollebeek ,2011; support network, where it is possible to share Myers,1993). stories and testimonials, and also organizing campaigns, social actions and protests. Hence, the present study aims to achieve the Differently from previous decades, the following objectives: The first objective of the internet and social media enable a much study is to assess the influence of “#Me Too broader capability of information movement” on intention to control sexual dissemination, where people could get harassment against women. The second information and also debate their ideas objective of the study is to suggest a (Moraes, Consolmagno & Pinheiro, 2020).On framework using mass communication as a the other hand, previous research on females‟ tool to create awareness and control sexual behavior towards political engagement points harassment against women. to evidence that women engage in less visible political behaviors on social media because To develop a framework using “#Me Too they are more likely to use social media for movement” as a tool to create awareness and relationship maintenance and seem to be able control sexual harassment incidents, the social to overcome political confrontations and media engagement sale and the theory of exposure (Bode,2016). Planned Behavior were used. Affective engagement, behavioral engagement and However, many experts showed their cognitive engagement construct were used to concerns about the impact of #MeToo measure social media engagement of movement on common public but they argued individuals. that the movement has increased the battle Hollander in (2018) stated in her research between both genders which raised women paper that the reporting could be a good tool against men (Kunst, Bailey, Prendergast, & to reduce the number of victimizations of Gundersen, 2019). Burstein & Linton (2002) Sexual Violence. Caputi et al., (2019) have argued that social movements could worked discussed in their study that #Me Too as revolution and brought change in the movement has encouraged considerable society by exerting influence on the huge interest in not only sex-based crimes, but also number of public (Burstein & Linton, 2002). stimulated the actionable outcomes such as However, the motives of most research studies reporting and prevention. were to study how the social movements mobilize people to act, but there is a scarcity of It is acknowledging the existence of other the study which discussed about the impact of influential factors on the use of social

networks and protests‟ participations online, behavioral attitude, on normative beliefs, however, the hypotheses presented in this which would be the social pressure on paper show a broader relationship to the behavior, and also on beliefs about control, chosen object of study. As the present research referring to factors that can facilitate or study aims to assess the influence of “#Me Too impede the performance of the individual's movement” the following hypothesis were behavior (Ajzen, 1991). formulated: The attitude towards control of Sexual H1: Social Media engagement creates Harassment against women is measured with awareness about sexual harassment the reporting of sexual harassment. The against women. Subjective norms towards control of sexual H2: Awareness about sexual harassment harassment against women was considered as against women influences attitude reporting of sexual harassment against towards control of sexual harassment women. To measure the sexual harassment against women. awareness construct eight items of sexual H3: Awareness about sexual harassment harassment myth were used. In this research against women influences subjective control of sexual harassment is refers as the norms towards control of sexual restriction of an activity of sexual harassment harassment against women. which is further defined with two variables H4: Awareness about sexual harassment reporting of sexual harassment incidents against women influences perceived (Caputi et al., 2019). To assess the influence of behavioral control towards control of “#Me Too movement” on intention to control sexual harassment against women. sexual harassment against women following hypothesis were formed: To assess an individual intention towards control of sexual harassment against women H5: Attitude towards control of sexual the three constructs of theory of planned harassment against women influence behavior were used. The Theory of Planned intention to control sexual harassment Behavior (TPB) was developed as an extension against women. of TRA, adding the perceived behavioral H6: Subjective norms towards control of control construct, which influences both sexual harassment against women intention and behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The influence intention to control sexual relative importance of attitude, subjective harassment against women. norm, and perceived behavioral control in H7: Perceived behavioral control towards predicting intention fluctuate according to the control of sexual harassment against different situations to which the theory is women influence intention to control applied. According to TPB, human behavior sexual harassment against women. is based on behavioral beliefs, that is the possible consequences of human behavior The relationship has been displayed through leading to a favorable or unfavorable structural model in figure 1.

Figure 1: Proposed Conceptual Model

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Assessment of Measurement Model Quantitative methodology (Multivariate data Outer model specifications were tested by analysis) was used to accomplish the research applying reliability and validity checks for the objectives. The theories on social movements model. The model's indicators were reflective. (movements against sexual harassment) on As suggested by Hair et al., (2019a, 2019b, social media are less developed, therefore 2020), the first step for assessment of the partial least squares path modeling (PLS-SEM) reflective measurement model involves was used to validate the proposed model examining the indicator loadings. All the (Hair et al., 2017). The initial questionnaire indicator reported acceptable and was evaluated by a group of 6 specialists in recommended loadings of above 0.70 (Hair et Mass Communication, who had already al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020, Ringle et al, 2020). worked in the area of sexual violence. The responses of ten respondents were used do the The internal consistency of the scale items was pilot study. Very limited changes were established through Cronbach‟s alpha incorporated as per the satisfactory feedback coefficient (α) and composite reliability. received from the respondents. Standards Convergent validity was established through scales were adapted from previous studies. average variance extracted (AVE), accepted value greater than 0.5 (Hair et al., 2017). The Data was collected through an online survey discriminant validity was evaluated using the through snowball sampling. The questionnaire Fornell-Larcker criterion and HTMT was circulated through WhatsApp and emails (heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations) to 800 participants. G*Power software 3.1.9.7 (Hair et al., 2017). Table 1 and 2 presents these version was used to estimate the minimum values; all the indicators mentioned and required sample size (Faul et al., 2009). At shows that all values are within the limits α=5% (level of significance), with statistical established by the authors. power of 0.95 and average effect size (f²= 0.15), the estimated minimum sample size was 89. Henseler et al. (2015) proposed the heterotrait- As the sample was 220 respondents, it is monotrait (HTMT) ratio of the correlations suitable for estimation by PLS-SEM (see Figure (Voorhees et al., 2016). The HTMT is defined 2). as “the mean value of the item correlations

Figure 2: Sample size estimation through G*Power software (3.1.9.7 version).

across constructs relative to the (geometric) RESULTS mean of the average correlations for the items Among the total respondents 62% were measuring the same construct”. females and 37% were male respondents. Most respondents were young, aged between 18 Higher HTMT values indicates a problem of and 22 years old (57.3%), 29.5% were 23 and 27 discriminant validity. Henseler et al. (2015) years old and the remaining 13% were over 28 propose a threshold value of 0.90 for years old. conceptually similar structural models. In such

a setting, higher HTMT value (above 0.90) thereby establishing the uniqueness of all the would indicates that discriminant validity constructs as per the empirical standards as problem is not present. In the present study, represented in Table 3. all the values were below the threshold of .90

Table 1: Measurement Model Accuracy Assessment. Research Constructs PLS Code Outer Cronbac‟s rhoA Composite AVE Items loadings Alpha (α) Reliability Social Media Engagement SME1 0.682 SME2 0.688 SME3 0.649 0.858 0.922 0.870 0.531 SME4 0.600 SME5 0.857 SME6 0.856 Sexual Harassment SHA2 0.813 Awareness SHA3 0.702 0.813 0.833 0.876 0.639 SHA4 0.835 SHA5 0.840 Attitude towards control of ATT1 0.836 sexual harassment against ATT2 0.781 0.752 0.763 0.857 0.666 women. ATT3 0.831 Subjective norms towards SN1 0.870 control of sexual harassment SN2 0.945 0.894 0.901 0.934 0.825 against women. SN3 0.909 Perceived behavioral control PBC1 0.913 towards control of sexual PBC2 0.910 0.875 0.883 0.923 0.800 harassment against women. PBC3 0.859 Intention to control sexual INREP1 0.903 harassment against women. INREP2 0.942 0.903 0.916 0.939 0.838 INREP3 0.900 Note: Low outer loadings were reported for SHA1 and SHA6, hence they were deleted from analysis. Source: Authors' Calculation

Table 2: Fornell-Larcker Criterion (Discriminant Validity Assessments) ATT_C INT PBC_C SHA SME SN_C ATT_C 0.816 INT 0.375 0.915 PBC_C -0.195 -0.124 0.894 SHA -0.376 -0.274 0.216 0.799 SME -0.124 -0.026 0.122 0.202 0.729 SN_C 0.423 0.405 -0.134 -0.322 -0.084 0.909 Source: Authors' Calculation

Table 3: HTMT Ratio of Correlations (Discriminant Validity Assessments) ATT_C INT PBC_C SHA SME SN_C ATT_C INT 0.435 PBC_C 0.237 0.130 SHA 0.476 0.304 0.242 SME 0.187 0.049 0.123 0.182 SN_C 0.503 0.448 0.150 0.363 0.101 Source: Authors' Calculation

Structural Model Assessments Table 5: Structural Model Assessments Satisfactory results from the measurement Results model assessment leads to assessment of Hypot Path Path Sa t- Decis structural model. Standard assessment hesis Relatio Coeffi mpl val ions criteria, as suggested by Hair et al., (2020) nship cient e ues which include the coefficient of determination Me (R2), effect size (f2), the statistical significance an and relevance of the path coefficients and the (M) blindfolding-based cross validated H1 SME> .202 .230 2.35 Supp redundancy measure Q2 were computed for >SHA 9** orted the assessment of structural model. H2 SHA> .376 .381 5.20 Supp Bootstrapping process with recommended >ATT 1*** orted 5000 bootstraps were conducted to compute H3 SHA> .322 .326 5.14 Supp the relevant p values. >SN 8*** orted Collinearity was examined through VIF values H4 SHA> .216 .222 3.68 Supp which were found to be below recommended >PBC ** orted value of 5 (Hair et al., 2017). The inner VIFs H5 ATT> .242 0.25 3.64 Supp were found to be below the threshold limits >INT 0 2*** orted with social media engagement (1), sexual H6 SN>>I .298 .298 4.08 Supp awareness about sexual harassment against NT 4*** orted women (1), attitude towards control of sexual H7 PBC>> -.037 .036 .551 Not harassment against women (1.247), subjective INT Supp norms towards control of sexual harassment orted against women (1.22), and perceived Source: Authors‟ Calculations; Path Co- behavioral control towards control of sexual efficient (*p<0.01, **p<0.05, ***p<0.001) harassment (1.043) Hence, collinearity issues The results vindicated that subjective norms were not reported in the study (Hair et al., towards control of sexual harassment most 2017). prominent feature which influence intention to In the present study intention to control sexual control sexual harassment against women (β= harassment against women are significantly 0.242 p<0.001), thereby supporting H6. determined by attitude, subjective norms, and Although significant positive relationship was perceived behavioral control towards control found between social media engagement and of sexual harassment. The results are reported creating awareness about sexual harassment, in Table 4. which was visible as per the huge response and wide protest offered through #Me Too Table 4: Predictive Relevance of the Path movement. Significant positive relationship Model Assessments Results reported for attitude towards control of sexual

harassment against women, subjective norms Constructs R2 values Adjusted R2 towards control of sexual harassment against values women and perceived behavioral control ATT_C 0.141 0.137 towards control of sexual harassment against INT 0.216 0.205 women confirms that sexual harassment PBC_C 0.047 0.042 awareness which was created through SHA 0.041 0.036 participating or engaging in protest SN_C 0.103 0.099 movement such as “#Me Too movement” through social media platforms does Source: Authors‟ Calculations influence prominent antecedents of intention (See figure 3). The study reported SRMR value of 0.073 in the structural model. This value is fairly below the PLS path model‟s predictive accuracy was threshold value of 0.08, hence this indicates assessed and established through f2 effect sizes that the model had a good explanatory power (Cohen, 1988) and Q2 value (Geisser, 1974; (Henseler et al., 2016). The results for Stone, 1974). The results of f2 effect sizes and structural model assessment and hypotheses Q2 are reported in Table 6. Further, the testing are reported in Table 5. goodness of fit criterion was investigated by

the standardized root mean square residual control of Sexual Harassment against women. (SRMR) global fit indices. The Subjective norms towards control of

Figure 3: Structural Model Assessment Results

Table 6: Predictive Relevance of the Path Model Assessments through f2 effect sizes and Q2

f2 effect sizes values Q2 ATT_C INT PBC_C SHA SME SN_C Q2=1-SSE/SSO ATT_C 0.060 .088 INT .168 PBC_C 0.002 .031 SHA 0.164 0.049 0.115 .022 SME 0.042 NA SN_C 0.092 .022 Source: Authors‟ Calculations

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Sexual Harassment against women is also The result shows that social media controlled by Sexual Harassment Awareness engagement is creating awareness about against women. The result is validating that if Sexual Harassment against women. It can be an individual aware about Sexual Harassment seen in the case of #Me Too movement, the against women, the individual does not bother movement has drawn attention towards the about the social construction and thinking of issue of gender-based violence such as sexual peer group. The research study showed that harassment, rape and sexual abuse. The SHA against women has very less influence on people spoke about organizational, criminal, the perceived behavioral control towards and ethical issues related to Sexual control of sexual harassment against women. Harassment against women. This create a It may be due to the eco system and huge awareness about Sexual Harassment circumstances available in Indian society. The against women and people started denying individual is not confident enough to report myth about Sexual harassment, which is the incident of sexual harassment against popular from many years (O‟Neil, 2018). The women because of fear of victim blaming and result also indicated that SHA plays a very ashamed. important role in developing attitude towards

The findings of this research study shown that attitude to control sexual harassment against social media movement like “#Me Too women. movement” has positive influence on the intention to control sexual harassment against LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH women. This research shows that awareness of DIRECTIONS sexual crimes against women can be increased A considerable limitation of our study is that and the participation in these kinds of social we are not able to establish with certainty that movements a sexual harassment intention social media engagement with respect to #Me could be controlled. Hence the conceptual Too strongly influenced intention to control model/framework as suggested in the present sexual harassment. However, constructs of study vindicates that mass communication theory of planned behavior (TPB) such as such as #Me Too movement is able to create attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived awareness among the common public, behavior control that we tested, were however the authors constructed framework significantly influenced by sexual harassment for sexual harassment against women through awareness, which in turn was influenced by mass communication was not able with social media engagement. Among the other certainty as PBC reported negative potential limitations of the study are paucity relationship with intention. of time, availability of funds, self-reporting biasness and representativeness of the sample Though the influence of sexual harassment were also there. awareness through mass communication has established with Attitude towards control of As the Sexual harassment is a flagrant crime sexual harassment against women, Subjective against women and it is increasing day by day norms towards control of sexual harassment in several parts of world. The social media against women and Perceived behavioral movement like #Me Too movement has control towards control of sexual harassment shown a positive relationship in controlling against women. Sexual harassment. The future research could be done on this area by modified Theoretical implications questionnaire and taking a larger sample, size. The purpose of present research study was to examine the influence of social media REFERENCES movement (“#Me Too movement”) on Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned individual intention to control sexual behaviour. Organizational Behavior and harassment incidents against women. The Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. research shown that the social media https://doi.org/10.1016/0749- engagement is successful in generating 5978(91)90020-t. awareness about sexual harassment against Bode, L. (2016). Closing the gap: gender parity women and sexual harassment awareness in political engagement on social plays a very important role in developing media. Information, Communication & attitude towards control of sexual harassment Society, 20(4), 587–603. against women. Hence, in accordance to the https://doi.org/10.1080/1369 theory of planned behavior, the above 118x.2016.1202302. implications were drawn and vindicated. Braileanu, M., Edney, E., Azar, S., Lazarow, F., Managerial implications Mogensen, M. A., Tuburan, S., Kadom, The findings indicated that the awareness N., & Phalke, V. (2020). Radiology, about sexual harassment against women has sexual harassment, and the #MeToo increased with the involvement with social movement. Academic Radiology. media engagement and it awareness about https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2020.04.0 sexual harassment has developed the attitude 36 to control of sexual harassment against Burstein, P., & Linton, A. (2002). The impact of women. The government and Non- political parties, interest groups, and government organization could run this kinds social movement organizations on of social media campaigns to create sexual public policy: some recent evidence and harassment awareness and which leads the theoretical concerns. Social Forces, 81(2),

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