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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA BIOLOGY of Limnocharis Flava (L

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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA BIOLOGY of Limnocharis Flava (L UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA BIOLOGY OF Limnocharis flava (L.) BUCHENAU AND neptunia oleracea LOUR. AND THEIR STATUS AS VEGETABLE CROPS IN SARAWAK, MALAYSIA NOORASMAH SAUPI FPSM 2014 2 BIOLOGY OF Limnocharis flava (L.) BUCHENAU AND Neptunia oleracea LOUR. AND THEIR STATUS AS VEGETABLE CROPS IN SARAWAK, MALAYSIA UPM By NOORASMAH BINTI SAUPI COPYRIGHT © Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfillment of the Requirements for Degree of Doctor Philosophy of Science February 2014 TABLE OF CONTENT Page ABSTRACT ii ABSTRAK iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii APPROVAL viii DECLARATION x LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xvii LIST OF PLATES xxi LIST OF ABRREVIATION AND SYMBOLS xxv CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 2 LITERATURE REVIEW UPM11 2.1 Distribution and environmental conditions of 11 Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 2.2 Morphological characteristic of Limnocharis flava 17 2.3 Morphological characteristic of Neptunia oleracea 17 2.4 Propagation of Limnocharis flava and Neptunia 30 oleracea 2.5 Availability and nutrient content of Limnocharis flava 30 and Neptunia oleracea in markets 2.5.1 Availability of Limnocharis flava and Neptunia 30 oleracea in markets 2.5.2 Proximate compositions and mineral contents 31 of Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 3 DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND 36 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF Limnocharis flava (L.) BUCHENAU AND Neptunia oleracea LOURERIO 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Materials and Methods 38 3.2.1 Distribution and habitat characteristics of 38 COPYRIGHTLimnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 3.2.2 Water and soil sample collection 38 3.2.3 Chemical variables in habitats Limnocharis 38 flava and Neptunia oleracea ©3.2.4 Substrates of Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 39 habitats 3.2.5 Statistical analysis 39 3.3 Results and Discussion 39 3.3.1 Distribution and habitat characteristics of 39 Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 3.3.2 Chemical variables in Limnocharis flava and 55 Neptunia oleracea habitats 3.3.3 Substrate in Limnocharis flava and Neptunia 60 oleracea habitats 3.4 Conclusion 63 4 VEGETATIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE 64 MORPHOLOGY OF Limnocharis flava (L.) BUCHENAU 4.1 Introduction 64 4.2 Materials and Methods 65 4.2.1 Sample collection 65 4.2.2 Morphological observation 65 4.2.3 Herbarium specimen preparation 65 4.2.4 Statistical analysis 65 4.3 Results and Discussion 68 4.3.1 General description of Limnocharis flava UPM68 4.3.2 Vegetative structure of Limnocharis flava 68 4.3.3 Reproductive structure of Limnocharis flava 74 4.4 Conclusion 78 5 VEGETATIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE 80 MORPHOLOGY OF Neptunia oleracea LOURERIO 5.1 Introduction 80 5.2 Materials and Methods 80 5.2.1 Sample collection 80 5.2.2 Morphological observation 82 5.2.3 Herbarium specimen preparation 82 5.2.4 Statistical analysis 82 5.3 Results and Discussion 82 5.3.1 General vegetative and reproductive of 82 Neptunia oleracea 5.3.2 Vegetative structure of Neptunia oleracea 87 5.3.3 Reproductive of Neptunia oleracea 89 5.4 Conclusion 94 6 COPYRIGHTPROPAGATION OF Limnocharis flava (L.) 95 BUCHENAU AND Neptunia oleracea LOURERIO 6.1 Introduction 95 6.2 Materials and Methods 96 ©6.2.1 Sexual reproduction 96 6.2.1.1 Fruit collection 96 6.2.1.2 Seed germination and development stages 96 6.2.1 Vegetative reproduction 97 6.2.2.1 Plant materials 97 6.2.2.2 Plantlet of Limnocharis flava and stem 97 cutting of Neptunia oleracea development 6.2.3 Growth performance and production of 97 Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 6.2.3.1 Plant materials 97 6.2.3.2 Observation on the growth performance 99 6.2.2.3 Yield 101 6.2.2.4 Statistical analysis 101 6.3 Results and Discussion 102 6.3.1 Seed germination and plant development of 102 Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 6.3.1.1 Seed germination and development stages 102 6.3.1.2 Vegetative reproduction 106 6.3.2 Growth performance and production of 110 Limnocharis flava and Neptunia oleracea 6.3.2.1 Growth performance 110 6.3.2.2 Yield 120 6.4 Conclusion UPM132 7 AVAILABILITY OF Limnocharis flava (L.) 133 BUCHENAU AND Neptunia oleracea LOURERIO IN LOCAL MARKETS 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 Materials and Methods 134 7.2.1 Availability of Limnocharis flava and Neptunia 134 oleracea in native markets 7.2.2 Dimension and weight of edible parts 134 7.2.3 Proximate composition and mineral content 137 analyses 7.2.4 Statistical analysis 137 7.3 Results and Discussion 138 7.3.1 Availability of Limnocharis flava and Neptunia 138 oleracea in native markets 7.3.2 Proximate composition and mineral content of 145 Limnocharis flava 7.3.3 Proximate composition and mineral content of 151 Neptunia oleracea 7.4 Conclusion 155 COPYRIGHT 8 GENERAL DISCUSSION: SUMMARY, 157 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR © FUTURE RESEARCH REFERENCES 164 APPENDICES 181 BIODATA OF STUDENT 189 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 189 Abstract of thesis presented to Senate of the Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy BIOLOGY OF Limnocharis flava (L.) BUCHENAU AND Neptunia oleracea LOUR. AND THEIR STATUS AS VEGETABLE CROPS IN SARAWAK, MALAYSIA By NOORASMAH BINTI SAUPI Chairman : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Muta Harah Zakaria @ Ya, PhD Faculty : Agriculture and Food Sciences The invasion and fast growth of aquatic macrophytes, Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau and Neptunia oleracea Lour. caused problems in rice fields and drainage systems. However, they are also offered for sale in nativeUPM markets and being consumed as leafy vegetables among local urban peoples mainly in central region of Sarawak, Malaysia. These aquatic weeds are harvested from the wild, and there has been no attempt to cultivate them. Hence, this research evaluates their distribution and determine their ecological and morphological characteristics, i.e., habitats and plant adaptations to environments. These information were used for observational and detailed studies on developmental stages, crop and yield patterns, and the availability of these vegetables in native markets and further evaluates their nutritive status. Limnocharis flava were recorded growing in various habitats of 32 locations, i.e., township and residential ditches, oil palm plantation irrigation and roadside drainage systems. Based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the various environmental parameters, three distinct environments formed the growing sites of L. flava, i.e., group A – areas with pH 5.01 – 5.50 and high water temperature, 33.01 – 34.00°C, group B – areas with low water temperature, 27.01 – 28.00°C that flow from roadside drainage system and group C – areas with slow moving water in wide drainage system, 2.0 – 2.5 m with water depth of 1.0 – 1.5 m. Plants grew densely in ditch which had comparatively high 3- - - concentration of dissolved PO4 , NH3 and NO2 and total N and C, available P, K, Na, Mg and Mn in substrate, e.g., at Public Library Mukah and possessed relativelyCOPYRIGHT longer petiole and sheath length, and also bigger blade, floral structures, fruit and seed. There are three types of plant life forms, i.e., submerged, emergent and semi aquatic or marginally. The submerged life form ©was observed from seed germination to the juvenile plant stage and rarely occurred in the adult mature plant. The submerged juvenile plants’ leaves lacked stomata on both surfaces. The plant propagated through seed and plantlet. The plant developed from seed to reproductive plant within 20 to 28 days that involved seven developmental stages, i.e., swollen seed, germinating seed, seedling, juvenile plant with plumular leaves, juvenile plant with petiolate leaves, mature vegetative and reproductive plants. New plantlet emerges in the ii middle of the umbel inflorescence of the reproductive plant which then grew into new vegetative and reproductive plants. For N. oleracea, the plants showed two life forms as adaption to the environments, i.e., terrestrial (at Kg Medong and Kg Kekan) and floating (at Kg Penipah). However, the terrestrial life form is less common. The terrestrial plant had woodier stem than the floating plant. The stems were enveloped by thick white aerhenchyma tissues formed when stem is in contact with water within 6 to 8 days. It grew densely in the ditch which had comparatively high - - - concentration of dissolved NO2 , NO3 and NH3 and total N and available Na in substrate, e.g., at Kg Penipah. The plant propagated through seed and stem cutting. Six developmental stages were observed during development from seed to reproductive plant which took 24 to 26 days, i.e., swollen seed, germinating seed, seedling, juvenile plant, mature vegetative and reproductive plants. Auxiliary buds were also observed at the stem of N. oleracea which then developed into new vegetative and reproductive plants. UPM Limnocharis flava and N. oleracea can be propagated in created environment, e.g., - - - - in tank. NO3 or a combination of nutrient (NO2 , NO3 and NH3 ) responsible in the increased in number of leaf and inflorescence, blade length and width, and petiole diameter of L. flava propagated from seed and plantlet. As for - propagation of N. oleracea, only NO3 was responsible in the increased in length of plant grown from seed and stem cutting. Seven harvesting activities at two weeks interval performed after five weeks of transplanting showed there were no differences in the yield of L. flava shoots. For N. oleracea propagation from seed and stem cutting, allowed eight harvesting activities at one week interval after five weeks transplanting also showed there were no differences in the yield of shoots. In the evaluation of plant availability in native markets, L. flava were available in the months of January to April, June to July and October in Sibu central market and in February to March in Bintulu tamu.
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