Personality and Individual Differences 128 (2018) 146–156

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Development and validation of the multi-dimensional questionnaire of T scientifically unsubstantiated beliefs ⁎ Anna Stone , Mark R. McDermott, Aishi Abdi, Brittanie Cornwell, Zsofia Matyas, Ruby Reed, Rebecca Watt

University of East London, United Kingdom

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Objective: There are several existing questionnaires measuring paranormal or scientifically unsubstantiated Paranormal beliefs but none give comprehensive cover of a broad spectrum of beliefs while also being up-to-date. There is Supernatural also a debate about the number of separate types of belief. Thereby, reported here is the development and Religion validation of a new multidimensional questionnaire measure of scientifically unsubstantiated beliefs in the Conspiracy general UK population. Scientifically unsubstantiated Method & results: In Study 1, participants (N = 393) completed a questionnaire containing a pool of 82 items Belief questionnaire covering nine facets of belief discernible conceptually within the existing research literature. Scree analysis followed by exploratory factor analysis indicated the existence of four empirically observable factors: belief in supernatural forces; belief in God and destiny; belief in alien visitation, monsters and conspiracies; and belief in consciousness beyond the body. Twenty-four items were selected as measures of these factors. Studies 2, 3 and 4 demonstrated the convergent and divergent validity of the four empirically-derived questionnaire subscales and their internal reliability. Conclusion: The resultant new Multi-dimensional Questionnaire of Scientifically Unsubstantiated Beliefs (MQSUB) is a psychometrically robust measure and comprises a comprehensive framework which can be used to systematically investigate the psychological and social concomitants of such beliefs.

1. Introduction is generated within the non-scientific community and extensively en- dorsed by people who might normally be expected by their society to be Belief in scientifically unsubstantiated phenomena is widespread capable of rational thought and reality testing’ (Irwin, 2009, p16). This throughout the world. For example, Moore (2005) observed that definition emphasises the lack of empirical evidence for a belief and so around three-quarters of the adult American population accept at least might include those in conspiracy theories and religious belief, though one paranormal belief (for example, ghosts, telepathy, precognition, these are not typically regarded as facets of the paranormal. The present astrology) while Austin (2005) reported that 68% of adult British so- series of studies uses the term ‘scientifically unsubstantiated phe- ciety reported having experienced some kind of supernatural event, nomena’ as a generic one to encompass a wider field than is commonly including 31% claiming to have experienced the presence of a ghost. understood by the word ‘paranormal’. Brotherton, French, and Pickering (2013) reported moderate levels of Belief in scientifically unsubstantiated phenomena may seem conspiracist ideation in their series of studies. Despite the prevalence of harmless but can have damaging impacts on personal outcomes and on belief in scientifically unsubstantiated phenomena there is currently no wider society. For example, a tendency to conspiracist thinking is as- comprehensive and up-to-date measure available for researchers. The sociated with non-compliance with health care for HIV/AIDS (Bogart, studies reported here document the development and validation of a Wagner, Galvan, & Banks, 2010), and a withdrawal from cooperation comprehensive and multi-dimensional measure of scientifically un- with security measures (Bartlett & Miller, 2010). Belief in alternative substantiated belief to assist research examining the causes and con- medicine can lead to inappropriate health behaviours (Perry & sequences of such belief. Dowrick, 2000; White, Resch, & Ernst, 1997), while belief in demonic The term paranormal is defined as ‘a proposition that has not been possession can result in violence against individuals perceived to be empirically attested to the standards of the scientific establishment but afflicted (http://www.livescience.com/37274-toddler-exorcism-death.

⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Psychology, Department of Psychological Sciences, University of East London, Water Lane, Stratford, London E15 4LZ, United Kingdom. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Stone). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.024 Received 20 December 2017; Received in revised form 12 February 2018; Accepted 13 February 2018 0191-8869/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. A. Stone et al. Personality and Individual Differences 128 (2018) 146–156 html). Generally, belief in scientifically unsubstantiated phenomena 2. Study 1 discourages appreciation of evidence, thereby harming an individual's ability to assess current threats and concerns, or to evaluate the im- 2.1. Participants portance of initiatives such as testing for cancer in at-risk groups (French & Stone, 2014, p171; Sherriff, 2010). This may be of concern in There were 393 participants recruited via social media. An oppor- politicians who take decisions with far-reaching consequences, such as tunity sampling method was employed wherein the researchers used whether to fund renewable energy sources or homeopathy delivered their electronic networks to elicit the input of respondents. through a national health service. Undergraduate students were approached via email, as well as in- There are several questionnaire measures of paranormal belief, the dividuals in social networks on Facebook and Instagram. two most used being the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) ori- The participant sample comprised 280 women (71%), 112 men ginally developed by Tobacyk (1988), and the Australian Sheep and (28.5%), and 1 respondent who gave their gender as androgyne. Their Goat Scale (ASGS) of Thalbourne and Delin (1993). Both of these have ages ranged from 18 to 86 (with 80% being aged 18 to 48), mean substantial limitations. age = 34.9 years, SD = 14.71. Of these participants, 131 (33%) were The RPBS is the most frequently-used measure of paranormal belief married, 29 (7.4%) were cohabiting, 190 (48%) were single, 18 (4.6%) according to Irwin (2009, p45). It purports to measure belief in seven were divorced, 6 (1.5%) were widowed and 19 (4.8%) were separated. facets of the paranormal: traditional religious belief, psi, witchcraft, Educationally, 73 (18.6%) had been educated to age 16 (UK General superstition, spiritualism, extraordinary life forms, and precognition. Certificate of Secondary Education), 85 (21.6%) to age 18 (‘Advanced’ This measure has been valuable in establishing the multi-dimension- secondary school level), and 234 (59.5%) had university or professional ality of paranormal belief and has produced a substantial body of re- qualifications. There were 122 (31%) students (only 4 of whom self- search. A major drawback is that its 26 items are insufficient to measure designated as part-time), 20 (5%) were unemployed, 11 (2.8%) self- the seven facets reliably, since there have been frequent failures to designated as home-makers, 210 (53%) were employed (153 full-time, replicate the factor structure: some researchers consider there are five 57 part-time), and 30 (7.6%) described themselves as retired. factors (Lawrence, Roe, & Williams, 1997, 1998), while Lange, Irwin, Household income was less than £5000 per year for 109 (28%) of the and Houran (2000) preferred two clusters of items which they termed participants, over £45,000 for 30 (7.6%) of the participants, with the New-Age Philosophy (psi and psychic powers, future prediction, astral majority (50%) reporting between £11,000 and £30,000. A majority of projection) and Traditional Paranormal Belief (witchcraft and the respondents (N = 310, 79%) gave their ethnicity as ‘white European’, devil). Some items are outdated, for example, the statement ‘witches do with the remainder spread among other ethnicities (for example, 6% as exist’ could be argued to be true since people who follow the practice of ‘black African’ and 6.6% as ‘south Asian/Indian/Pakistani’). Religious Wicca call themselves witches. The item ‘There is life on other planets’ affiliation was varied: 175 (44.5%) specified having no religion, 136 is now scientifically supported and accepted as the case. The items in (34.6%) self-designated as Christian, 37 (9.4%) were Muslim, and 6 the traditional religious belief scale are Judeo-Christian in nature and (1.5%) were Buddhist, while 35 (8.9%) gave their religion as ‘other’. do not address the full spectrum of traditional religious beliefs com- Thus, the participant sample covered a broad range of demographics. It monplace in many countries today. should be noted that previous research has shown only weak and in- The ASGS is so-named to refer to those who believe in the para- consistent variation in belief according to these factors (e.g., French & normal as ‘sheep’ and those who are sceptical as ‘goats’. The ASGS Stone, 2014, Chapter 2). contains eighteen items measuring belief and self-rated abilities in, telepathy, psychokinesis (movement of objects by the power of the 2.2. Measures mind), precognition, and post-mortem survival. Its scope, however, does not cover the full range of popular paranormal belief. The initial pool of 82 items was created following an examination of Other measures are focused on a narrow range of belief: for ex- existing questionnaire measures of paranormal and conspiracist belief ample, the Generic Conspiracist Belief Scale (Brotherton et al., 2013) (ASGS, Thalbourne & Delin, 1993; RPBS, Tobacyk, 1988; GCBS, measures general conspiracist ideation, the tendency to endorse con- Brotherton et al., 2013) and the a-priori consideration of other areas of spiracy theories across a range of domains. Its scope is thus limited to belief, specifically belief in the influence of destiny/fate/karma and one specific facet of scientifically unsubstantiated belief. belief in the efficacy of alternative medicine. We took a deliberately None of these existing measures cover the whole range of common inclusive approach in order to produce a wide-ranging measure, and beliefs in scientifically unsubstantiated phenomena. The present study this included items measuring religious belief. Nine conceptual domains aimed to identity the conceptually and empirically discriminable of belief were identified: anomalous mental powers including clairvoy- components of scientifically unsubstantiated belief and to create a ance, telepathy, precognition, and psychokinesis, an example of an item multi-dimensional questionnaire measuring belief across a wide range being ‘some people can see events before they happen’; traditional su- of topics of current concern and using items that are well-understood by pernatural belief including good and bad luck, dowsing, and casting the general population. In Study 1, participants were presented with 82 spells, an exemplar item being ‘touching wood can bring good luck’; questions covering a wide range of beliefs including the seven facets of fate/destiny/karma, e.g., ‘some events are fated to occur’; extraordinary the RPBS and additionally belief in conspiracy theories, religion, des- life forms including aliens, the Loch Ness monster, and Bigfoot, e.g., tiny/fate/karma, and alternative medicine. ‘Aliens from other planets have visited Earth’; the survival hypothesis Subsequent studies reported here investigated the convergent and including reincarnation, ghosts, and astral travel, e.g., ‘Some part of a divergent validity of the relevant subscales of the new questionnaire person's consciousness can survive their death’; future prediction, e.g., compared to existing measures. Convergent validity was measured re- ‘Study of the stars can be used to predict the future for individuals’; lative to the RPBS (Study 2), the Generic Conspiracist Belief Scale Energy-based therapies, e.g., ‘homeopathy is an effective form of medi- (Study 2), and the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (Study 3 and 4). cine’; religious beliefs, e.g. ‘The world was created by a God’; and con- Divergent validity was measured by comparison with the Creative spiracist beliefs, e.g., ‘National governments routinely lie to the general Experiences Questionnaire measure of fantasy proneness (Study 2), the public in order to retain power’. For each of these nine conceptual Rational Experiential Inventory measure of thinking styles (Study 3), domains of belief items were generated so that collectively the item and locus of control (Study 4). In addition, Study 4 examined how pool comprised of 82 in all. mortality awareness, rebelliousness, and self-perceived margin- The 82 items were scored on a scale of 1–5, where 1 = strongly alisation, relate to scientifically unsubstantiated beliefs. disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.

147 Download English Version: https://daneshyari.com/en/article/7248840

Download Persian Version:

https://daneshyari.com/article/7248840

Daneshyari.com