ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 21 December 2015 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01926 Anomalous Experiences, Trauma, and Symbolization Processes at the Frontiers between Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Neurosciences Thomas Rabeyron 1, 2* and Tianna Loose 2, 3 1 Department of Psychology, University of Nantes, Nantes, France, 2 Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK, 3 Department of Psychology, University of Québec in Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada Anomalous or exceptional experiences are uncommon experiences which are usually interpreted as being paranormal by those who report them. These experiences have long remained difficult to explain, but current progress in cognitive neuroscience and psychoanalysis sheds light on the contexts in which they emerge, as well as on their underlying processes. Following a brief description of the different types of anomalous experiences, we underline how they can be better understood at the frontiers between psychoanalysis and cognitive neurosciences. In this regard, three main lines of research Edited by: Stijn Vanheule, are discussed and illustrated, alongside clinical cases which come from a clinical service Ghent University, Belgium specializing in anomalous experiences. First, we study the links between anomalous Reviewed by: experiences and hallucinatory processes, by showing that anomalous experiences Jonathan Douglas Redmond, frequently occur as a specific reaction to negative life events, in which case they mainly Deakin University, Australia Diana Caine, take the form of non-pathological hallucinations. Next, we propose to analyze these National Hospital for Neurology and experiences from the perspective of their traumatic aspects and the altered states Neurosurgery, UK of consciousness they often imply. Finally, these experiences are considered to be *Correspondence: Thomas Rabeyron the consequence of a hypersensitivity that can be linked to an increase in psychic [email protected] permeability. In conclusion, these different processes lead us to consider anomalous experiences as primary forms of symbolization and transformation of the subjective Specialty section: experience, especially during, or after traumatic situations. This article was submitted to Psychoanalysis and Keywords: anomalous experiences, paranormal, trauma, hallucinations, altered states of consciousness, psychic Neuropsychoanalysis, permeability, symbolization a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Received: 27 May 2015 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ANOMALOUS EXPERIENCES Accepted: 30 November 2015 Published: 21 December 2015 The origin of the scientific and clinical understanding of anomalous experiences dates back to Citation: the end of the nineteenth century, and is based particularly on work conducted by scholars and Rabeyron T and Loose T (2015) members of the Society for Psychical Research, in Cambridge, the American Society for Psychical Anomalous Experiences, Trauma, and Research, in Boston, and the Institut Métapsychique International in Paris (Méheust, 1999). At Symbolization Processes at the Frontiers between Psychoanalysis and this time, philosophers, doctors, and psychologists such as James (1902), Myers (1903), Richet Cognitive Neurosciences. (1923), Bergson (1932), and Freud (Freud, 1933; Devereux, 1953; Massicotte, 2014) were attempting Front. Psychol. 6:1926. to understand strange experiences that seemed to resist scientific explanation, but that were doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01926 potentially important for the understanding of the human mind. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 December 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1926 Rabeyron and Loose Anomalous Experiences, Trauma, and Symbolization Processes Members of the Society for Psychical Research (Gurney being situated outside of one’s body (McCreery and Claridge, et al., 1886) published the conclusions of one of their largest 2002; Blanke and Dieguez, 2009). From a more “projective” studies in Phantasms of the Living. Seventeen thousand people perspective, some people believe they have a “paranormal” responded to the question “Have you ever had a realistic influence on their environment. This is the especially the case impression of seeing, hearing or being touched by a living being in (4) subjective psychokinesis experiences, which involve the or an inanimate object that didn’t seem to have an external perceived ability to interact mentally with objects, and (5) cause when you were completely awake?.” One in every 10 magnetism or healing experiences, which suppose inexplicable people responded affirmatively to this question, and recent interactions between living systems (Schmidt et al., 2004). studies suggest that this proportion remains approximately the A third category concerns “encounter experiences” in which same in the present day (Johns et al., 2004). However, the “another world” is usually reported. This includes (6) Near epistemological and sociological status of these experiences, Death Experiences (NDE) (van Lommel et al., 2001; Mobbs and along with their complexity, and their unthinkable nature at Watt, 2011), which occur especially after comas or clinical death, this time (Méheust, 1999), led them to become progressively and which some people (after seeing, for example, a tunnel or marginalized in mainstream psychology during the twentieth deceased loved ones) interpret as being a journey in the after life century (Le Maléfan, 2000; Evrard, 2014). (Parnia et al., 2014). A belief in life after death is also frequent As we will propose in this paper, current progress in cognitive in (7) mediumistic experiences, which correspond to the alleged neurosciences and psychoanalysis allows us to better understand ability to communicate with the deceased. In experiences of (8) these human experiences, which were difficult to integrate into reincarnation, the person, sometimes a child, believes that they scientific models until recently. The last few years have seen have past life memories (Stevenson, 1967; McNally, 2012). (9) many books and articles published on the topic of what are Mystical experiences are also in this encounter category, and now called “anomalous experiences,” mainly from the point relate to an intense and global feeling of having “become one” of view of cognitive neurosciences (Brugger and Mohr, 2008; with God or the universe. Finally, maybe the most surprising Krippner and Friedman, 2010), psychoanalysis (Eschel, 2006; of these experiences are (10) abductions, in which people are Brottman, 2011; Si Ahmed, 2014), clinical psychology (Kramer strongly convinced that they have been abducted by aliens et al., 2012), and anomalistic psychology (Holt et al., 2012; French (Clancy et al., 2002). and Stone, 2013; Cardeña et al., 2014). Several definitions of It is common for a single person to report having had anomalous, exceptional or “subjective paranormal experiences” a variety of anomalous experiences, especially after a first (Neppe, 1980) have been proposed. They are defined by Cardeña “inaugural” experience (Rabeyron, 2012). Accordingly, it seems et al. (2014) as “uncommon experiences (e.g., synesthesia), or appropriate to approach and conceptualize them as a whole, those that, although they may be experienced by a significant both from a clinical and a theoretical perspective. In this regard, number of persons, are believed to deviate from ordinary anomalistic psychology tries to understand and explain these experience or from the usually accepted explanations of reality experiences (Holt et al., 2012; French and Stone, 2013), whereas according to Western mainstream science” (p. 4). Metzinger the clinical psychology of anomalous experiences aims to develop (2003) defines them as “deviations from what might be referred to therapeutic models in order to help people cope with these as ordinary experiences, i.e., experiences consistent with typical experiences when they are associated with mental suffering (Fach ‘reality models” that individuals develop to cope with their et al., 2013; Landolt et al., 2014). Psychotherapy can indeed socio-cultural environment” (p. 16). Between 30 and 50% of be useful in order to re-establish the individual’s well-being, the population report having had at least one such experience especially in counseling services that are specifically dedicated (Ross and Joshi, 1992; Evrard, 2013a) that involves the subject to anomalous experiences (Belz-Merk, 2000). From this point being confronted with an “anomaly” that usually elicits intense of view, these experiences question how clinicians are supposed positive or negative emotions. In terms of demographics, these to deal with patients reporting unusual experiences that do not experiences are manifested amongst people of all ages, genders, fit with the patient’s or the therapist’s model of reality, and that education levels, and cultures (Evrard, 2013a). Moreover, even frequently engender an “ontological choc” (Mack, 1995). This if there is a complicated relationship between anomalous question relates to a recent study in Holland conducted on 640 experiences and psychopathology, they can’t be reduced to purely mental health professionals (Corbeau, 2004; Evrard, 2013a), in psychopathological phenomena (Evrard, 2013a). which half of those who responded reported having listened to In taking a phenomenological approach, anomalous narratives of anomalous experiences produced by their patients. experiences can be classified into 10 categories (Rabeyron Four out of five clinicians explained that they were lacking in et al., 2010). Firstly,