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II Maniates, M .1111 IAN BENT 602 I Lester, J. "The Fux-Mattheson Correspondence: An Annotated Translation," Current 1 Musicology 24 (1977), pp. 37-62 · 19. Between Modes and Keys: German Theory 1592-1802, Stuyvesant, NY, Pendragon Press, 11 1989 Twelve-tone theory Maniates, M. R. "Bottrigari versus Sigoni: On Vicentino and his Ancient Music Adapted to II Modern Practice," in Musical Humanism and Its Legacy: Essays in Honor of Claude V. ii JOHN COVACH 111 Palisca, ed. N. Baker and B. Hanning, Stuyvesant, NY, Pendragon, 1992, pp. 79-107 "The Cavalier Ercole Bottrigari and his Brickbats: Prolegomena to the Defense of Don 111•, .. Nicola Vicentino against Messer Gandolfo Sigonio," in Music Theory and the Exploration 111 of the Past, ed. C. Hatch and D. Bernstein, University of Chicago Press, 1993, pp. 111 1111 139-89 As scholars begin to gain a sense ofhistorical perspective on art music in the twentieth 11 Mann, A. "Beethoven's Contrapuntal Studies with Haydn," Musical ()Jf;arterly 66 (1970), pp. century, it seems clear that the introduction and development of twelve-tone compo- 111 1,il 711 -26; reprinted in The Creative World ofBeethoven, ed. P. H. Lang, New York, Norton, sitional procedures will remain one ofthe cardinal markers ofmusical modernism. The 1971,pp.209-24 careers of Schoenberg, Berg, Webern, Boulez, Stockhausen, Babbitt, and even !:llli "Haydn and Mozart,'' in Theory and Practice: The Great Composer as Student and Teacher, !,I Stravinsky (among many others) are all at some point intimately bound up with dodec- i:: New York, Norton, 1987, pp. 41-54 aphonic concerns, as is the course ofavant-garde music generally. No matter what one "Haydn as Student and Critic of Fux," in Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: A Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H. C. Robbins Landon, New York, Oxford University Press, 1970, may think of the twelve-tone idea - and it has been the source of considerable contro- pp.323-32 versy almost from the start- understanding dodecaphonyand its appeal to several gen- "Haydn's Elementarbuch: A Document of Classic Counterpoint Instruction," Music erations of composers in Europe and America will continue to play a central role in Forum 3 (1973), pp. 197-237 understanding twentieth-century music and culture. "Padre Martini and Fux,'' in Festschriftfii.r Ernst Hermann Meyer zum sechzigsten Geburtsto,g, The twelve-tone idea has also played a pivotal role in the development of music ed. G. Knepler, Leipzig, VEB Deutscher Verlag fiir Musik, 1973, pp. 253-55 theory as a professional discipline, especially in the United States during the post- Nottebohm, G. "Generalbass und Compositionslehre betreffende Handschriften World-War-II period. Indeed, twelve-tone theory and composition are deeply interde- Beethoven's und J. R. Seyfried's Buch Ludwig van Beethoven's Studien im Generalbasse, Contrapuncte u.s.w.," in Zweite Beethoveniana, Leipzig and Winterthur, J. Rieter- pendent, and this is in no small measure attributable to the fact that in many cases the Biedermann, 1887, pp. 154-203; reprinted with Ludwig van Beethoven's Studien, ed. J. theorists involved were also composers. Unlike Schenkerian theory-which along with Seyfried, Hildesheim, G. Olms, 1967 twelve-tone theory has played an important role in the professional growth of music Beethoven's Studien, vol. r: Beethoven's Unterricht bei f. Haydn, Albrechtsberger und Salieri, theory in the second half of this century - twelve-tone theory often seems more pre- nach den Original-Manuscripten dargestellt, Leipzig,J. Rieter-Biedermann, 1873; reprint '' scriptive than descriptive; rather than explicating the structural features of works Niederwalluf, M. Sandig, 1971 already established within the canon ofWestern art music, dodecaphonic theory is fre- Rivera, B. V. German Music Theory in the Early 17th Century: The Treatises ofJohannes Lippius, quently speculative, suggesting structural possibilities for pieces yet to be written (or Ann Arbor, UMI Research Press, 1974 Salzer, F. and C. Schachter, Counterpoint in Composition: The Study ofVoice Leading, New York, in some cases, pieces just finished by the composer himself). Thus, instead of theory McGraw-Hill, 1969 following practice, twelve-tone practice has at times followed theory. Wagner, M. "Johann Joseph Fux als Lehrer kommender Generationen,'' f. f. Fux - There are at least two approaches available to scholars surveying the history of Symposium Graz '91: Bericht, ed. R. Flotzinger, Graz, Akademische Druck- und twelve-tone music and theory, and since theory and practice are so intimately related Verlagsanstalt, 1992, pp. 141-49 in this context it will be helpful to consider these. The first approach seeks to focus on Wellesz, E. Fux, London, Oxford University Press, 1965 the important composers and their works, using twelve-tone theory as a means of Wollenberg, S. "The Unknown 'Gradus,'" Music & Letters 51 (1970), pp. 423-34 explaining the structural features and perhaps the technical concerns that motivate such features; this produces a history of twelve-tone music. The second approach involves tracing the history oftwelve-tone theoretical writing and referring to compo- sitions only inasmuch as they clarify theoretical concerns; this produces a history of twelve-tone theory. The current chapter will take the second of these approaches, and will privilege the development of theoretical ideas over establishing a succession of 603 Twelve-tone theory 605 604 JOHN COVACH to important dodecaphonic works. Despite the obvious interdependence of theory and its original spiritual state. For Hauer, importance is placed on the inner hearing of practice in twelve-tone music, it turns out that many important theoretical documents the two persons involved, and the physically sounding music is reduced to a kind of deficient, yet necessary mode of transmission. 2 were not produced by its most important practitioners. And this is the case already at Hauer's aesthetic dualism casts off the material aspect of music wherever possible. the very beginning of our story. This leads Hauer to reject, for example, Schoenberg's notion ofKlangfarbenmelodie, a technique in which different instruments or instrumental groups ofsome performing The early development of twelve-tone theory, 1920-30 ensemble are juxtaposed in musical succession forming a kind ofmelody ofinstrumen- tal timbres. For Hauer, this focuses the musical attention in precisely the wrong way; by relishing the physical timbres and their differences, the listener gets stuck in the physical transmission line itself, and is unable to hear through to the spiritual content Josef Matthias Hauer. The "twelve-tone idea" can be defined as a systematic circu- lation of all the twelve pitch classes (pcs) in which no pc is repeated before all twelve of the music. According to Hauer, tone color in music resides in the character of the have been sounded. An early statement of the twelve-tone idea (perhaps the first) may internally perceived interval, not in the external "noises" ofthe material means ofcon- be found in a short monograph published in 1920 by the composer Josef Matthias veying that inner occurrence.3 Hauer also downplays the importance of instrumental virtuosity. Here one can again become mired in the admiration offeats of instrumen- Hauer (1883-1959). 1 As it does in much early dodecaphonic theory, the constant cir- , culation of the twelve pcs arises in Hauer's writing as a technical solution to a number tal prowess, and in so doing lose sight of the spiritual content ofthe music.4 According of music-aesthetic problems with which he was grappling in the late teens and early to Hauer, one must always work to suppress the attraction to the material, sensual aspect of the musical experience. twenties. It is thus important to understand his Zwo!ftongesetz in this broader music- Gnostic criticism of musical materialism forms the foundation for Hauer's argu- cultural context. Hauer sets forth his aesthetic positions at various points in Vom Wesen ments in favor of the twelve-tone idea. First, Hauer argues for a tempered twelve-note des Musikalischen, in a number of articles published early in the 1920s, and especially in tuning. He begins his discussion by surveying the ways in which one can generate all his Deutung des Melos of 1923. A fundamental premise in Hauer's many arguments is that music, when conceived and perceived in the proper way, is essentially a mental- twelve pitch classes acoustically. Starting from C, Hauer generates the remaining spiritual (geistig) phenomenon. An important distinction must be drawn between eleven pitches in three ways: up from C in acoustically perfect fifths (2: 3); up from C in acoustically perfect fourths (3 :4); and up from C in overtones. He then reduces music in its pure form, which Hauer maintains is its spiritual form, and music as it occurs in the physical world around us, which constitutes its material form. For Hauer everything down to within an octave and compares the results. The collections of eleven pitches generated from the same starting pitch are in each case different, gener- it is essential that in order to raise music to its highest, most spiritual level, the influ- ating various representatives for each of the other eleven pitch classes. The tempered ence of the material world must be suppressed as much as possible. Consider, for example, the way in which Hauer characterizes the musical event. For pitch classes, which are not to be found in nature, offer yet another of twelve pitch classes. Hauer thus asserts that the physical realm is imperfect because it produces no Hauer, each musical interval is considered to constitute a type of"gesture" in music, usable chromatic scale. Tempered tuning, on the other hand, does offer a suitable chro- and the character of each interval is thought of as its "color." In its purely spiritual- mental state, a musical gesture resides first in the mind of some musical person, matic scale.
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