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The Role of Gender in Supporting Livelihoods Through Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture: the Case of Kinondoni Municipality in Dar Es Salaam City, Tanzania

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The Role of Gender in Supporting Livelihoods Through Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture: the Case of Kinondoni Municipality in Dar Es Salaam City, Tanzania The Role of Gender in Supporting Livelihoods through Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture: The Case of Kinondoni Municipality in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania Dissertation Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Title of Doktor der Wirtschaftswissenschaften (Dr. rer. pol.) in the Department of Business Administration, Economics and Law of Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg Submitted by Christina Kifunda Oldenburg, 9 December 2019 Disputation date: 22 January 2020 First Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bernd Siebenhüner (University of Oldenburg) Second Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Pius Yanda (University of Dar es Salaam) DECLARATIONS Declaration of own work I, Christina Kifunda (matriculation number 4385917) hereby declare that this dissertation titled “The Role of Gender in Supporting Livelihoods through Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture: The Case of Kinondoni Municipality in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania” is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for similar or any other degree award. All sources cited or quoted in this dissertation are indicated and acknowledged with a comprehensive list of references. Declaration of Good Academic Practice I declare that I have followed the guidance of good academic practice of the Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg (17.03.2017). Oldenburg, 9th December 2019 Christina Kifunda i ABSTRACT Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) is a common informal sector activity across many Sub-Saharan African cities that acts as a mechanism for coping with food insecurity and the alleviation of poverty. This study assessed the role of gender in supporting livelihoods through UPA in the Kinondoni municipality, in the city of Dar es salaam, Tanzania. The motivation for this study lies in the fact that many urban dwellers depend on UPA for their survival, yet the roles of men and women are still not clearly established. The study also looked at the extent of men’s and women’s participation in UPA, and how their roles are described in the study area. The factors influencing men and women of different age groups to participate in UPA and the strategies for improving agriculture were dealt with in this study. A mixed-method approach was adopted, and data were collected through semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, focus-group discussions and direct observations. A total of 386 respondents engaged in urban and peri-urban agriculture, 5 ward extension officers, 5 local market traders and 2 district agricultural officers were interviewed in the Kinondoni Municipality. People’s perceptions and knowledge on UPA in relation to livelihoods were captured through content analysis. Quantitative data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. The relative risk (RR) concept was employed in assessing gender differences in involvement in agricultural activities, while the association between gender and sustainable livelihood was assessed using logistic regression models. The findings of the study show that more women than men are participating in UPA. The study also revealed that other activities, in which males were significantly more often involved than females, include land preparation, fertilizer application, and weeding and pest control, while most of female hired labour for land preparation. For both men and women, the most influential factors that motivated them to participate in UPA include; lack of employment, a means to earn an income, a means to get food, a means to alleviate poverty, their low level of education, the availability of market for their products, a means to get fresh food and the availability of open spaces and undeveloped plots. With regards to socio-economic development of the people, UPA appears to provide the needed capability sets (opportunities) important for sustaining peoples livelihoods. These capability sets observed in this study are: physical health, financial capital, education, food security and social ii relations. The study further revealed that key challenges that are facing UPA include; pests and diseases, land access and availability, and climate change. The adaptation strategies suggested by farmers for the improvement of UPA are: the use of quality inputs, capital availability, adequate education, improved markets and technology for sustainable livelihoods. The study recommends that the government should recognize the importance of UPA through the improvement of water services, the provision of subsidies and low-interest loans, and also the inclusion of urban and peri-urban agriculture in city- and urban planning. Also, farmers should be equipped with necessary education through training, seminars, and workshops related to UPA. For these recommendations to be practical farmers need to have solidarity by forming and joining to farmer groups for easy access of various services like financial services, trainings and the share of production costs. iii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Urbane und peri-urbane Landwirtschaft ist in vielen Städten des südlichen Afrikas eine verbreitete informelle Aktivität, welche als Bewältigungsmechanismus gegen Ernährungsunsicherheit und Armutsbekämpfung dient. In dieser Studie wird die Rolle der unterschiedlichen Geschlechter bei der Schaffung oder Erhaltung von Lebensgrundlagen durch UPA untersucht. Die Motivation für diese Studie resultiert aus der Tatsache, dass viele Bewohnerinnen und Bewohner in Städten für ihr Überleben auf UPA angewiesen sind, wobei die Rolle von Männern und Frauen noch nicht klar definiert ist. Die Studie untersucht auch das Ausmaß der Beteiligung von Männern und Frauen in der UPA und wie ihre Rollen im Untersuchungsgebiet beschrieben werden. Die Einflussfaktoren für die Teilnahme von Männern und Frauen unterschiedlicher Altersgruppen an UPA und Strategien zur Verbesserung der Landwirtschaft wurden in dieser Studie behandelt. Es wurde ein Mixed-Methods Forschungsansatz gewählt und die Daten wurden durch semi-strukturierte Interviews, Fragebögen, Fokusgruppen-Diskussionen und direkte Beobachtungen erhoben. Insgesamt 386 Befragte, die UPA praktizieren, fünf Bezirksvorstehende auf Ward-Ebene, fünf lokale Markthändler und zwei Bezirksagrarbeamte auf Distrikt-Ebene wurden in der Gemeinde Kinondoni befragt. Die Wahrnehmungen und das Wissen der Menschen über die UPA in Bezug auf Ihre Lebensgrundlagen wurden durch Inhaltsanalysen erfasst. Die quantitative Datenanalyse wurde mit Hilfe des Statistischen Programms für Sozialwissenschaften (SPSS Version 26) durchgeführt. Das Relative Risiko (RR)-Konzept wurde verwendet, um geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede in der Beteiligung landwirtschaftlicher Aktivitäten zu bewerten, während der Zusammenhang zwischen Geschlecht und einer nachhaltigen Lebensgrundlage mit Hilfe logistischer Regressionsmodellen bewertet wurde. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zeigen, dass sich mehr Frauen als Männer an UPA beteiligten. Die Studie ergab des Weiteren, dass andere Aktivitäten, wie die Landvorbereitung, die Düngung sowie die Unkraut- und Schädlingsbekämpfung signifikant häufiger von Männern durchgeführt werden als von Frauen, während die meisten Landwirtinnen Arbeitskräfte für die Landvorbereitung einstellen. Beschäftigung, Einkommen, Ernährungssicherheit, Armutsbekämpfung, frische Lebensmittel, Flächenverfügbarkeit, Bildungsniveau und iv Marktverfügbarkeit werden als einflussreiche Faktoren für die Beteiligung von Männern und Frauen an UPA identifiziert. Die Verbesserung der Ernährungssicherheit, eine verbesserte Gesundheit, Siedlungen und soziale Beziehungen sowie die Verfügbarkeit der Grundbedürfnisse in den Haushalten gehörten zum sozioökonomischen Beitrag der UPA als Lebensgrundlage der Menschen. Schädlinge und Krankheiten, Landverfügbarkeit und -zugang sowie der Klimawandel sind die größten Herausforderungen für die UPA im Untersuchungsgebiet. Die von den Landwirten vorgeschlagenen Anpassungsstrategien zur Verbesserung der UPA betrafen die Nutzung hochwertiger Inputs, Kapital und Bildung, verbesserte Märkte und Technologien für nachhaltige Lebensgrundlagen. Die Studie empfiehlt die staatliche Anerkennung der UPA durch die Verbesserung der Wasserversorgung, die Bereitstellung von Subventionen, vorteilhafte Darlehenskonditionen und die Einbeziehung der UPA in den Städten und die Stadtplanung. Außerdem sollten die Landwirte mit der notwendigen Bildung durch Schulungen, Seminare und Workshops im Zusammenhang mit der UPA ausgestattet werden. Damit diese Empfehlungen praktikabel sind, müssen sich die Landwirte untereinander zusammenschließen und ihre Stimme gegenüber den zuständigen Behörden erheben. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I would like to thank Almighty God for His generous blessing He has offered me through my entire life. I whole heartedly thank every person who gave me a helping hand in different ways. I would wish to mention everyone here, but that is impractical. I would like to mention a few of them, but I value all people who contributed on the accomplishment of this study. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors Prof. Bernd Siebenhüner from the University of Oldenburg and Prof. Pius Z. Yanda from the University of Dar es Salaam for their close supervision, intellectual stimulation, professional guidance, critical comments, encouragement, and profound interest in this study: Thank you very much! I remain deeply indebted to my beloved husband Dr. Ezekiel Edward Mwakalukwa. He sacrificed a lot to help me reach this point. His tireless encouragement,
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