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Modernity's Garbage: Struggles Over Municipal

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Modernity's Garbage: Struggles Over Municipal MODERNITY’S GARBAGE: STRUGGLES OVER MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN URBAN INDIA by Aman Luthra A dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Baltimore, Maryland October, 2015 © 2015 Aman Luthra All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT The challenges associated with waste are worsening with increasing urbanization and economic growth in contemporary India. A range of actors--public and private, formal and informal--currently manage urban waste. Challenged with managing growing quantities of waste, municipalities across the country have recently been outsourcing waste management services to private firms, and in the process privatizing what used to function as the urban commons of waste for the informal sector. This new form of privatization has created a struggle over access to waste. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods based on fifteen months of fieldwork in Delhi, this dissertation examines waste as a contested object of urban planning in contemporary India, through four inter-related arguments. First, privatization of waste management services reveals a contradiction between neoliberal theory and practice. While free markets are privileged in neoliberal theory, the reforms disrupt existing well-functioning markets by displacing (or threatening to displace) countless independent informal entrepreneurs and set the stage for national oligopolies where a few firms dominate the landscape. Second, in response to such displacement or threats thereof, informal sector workers are organizing into formal entities that can enter into contracts to provide certain waste management services, through a process called formalization. This process requires disciplining informal workers and an expenditure of free labor on their part. Under a persistent threat of displacement and dispossession, formalization is both strategic and necessary for the informal sector. Third, even though the composition of Indian waste has been deemed unsuitable for incineration, such technologies are increasingly being promoted. The emergence of such a technological fix can be explained in practical terms but also ideologically in the promise of modernity that such technologies embody. If ii implemented, it will necessitate that informal workers no longer extract recyclable materials and a livelihood, from the waste stream. Fourth, behavior change has recently emerged as the focus of how to make cities in India cleaner. However, a discourse of behavior change privileges aesthetic over infrastructural concerns. It also makes visible the voluntary labor of the privileged while erasing from memory the economically necessary labors of the marginalized. Advisor: Dr. Erica Schoenberger iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. Erica Schoenberger, my advisor, guided and supported me throughout the project. Without her mentorship, none of this would have been possible. Mike Hardin, my partner, supported me through this project intellectually, financially and emotionally. Without his support and encouragement, completing this project would have been almost impossible. Bharati Chaturvedi, the Director of Chintan, opened up her organization to me. Extended discussions with her about the organization and general issues surrounding waste and the informal sector were foundational to the development of the ideas presented in this dissertation. I thank all of Chintan’s staff for their time and support, especially thank Imran Khan and Aiden Short, both of whom I discussed various issues related to the informal sector at length. Although it would be impossible for me to name the numerous waste pickers and dealers, government officials, and other people who talked to me during the course of my research, their willingness to take time and share ideas with me is much appreciated. I also thank my parents and my sisters for their support through this project. Many others provided general or specific input that was crucial to the development of the ideas presented in this dissertation. Among them, I would first like to thank Dr. Clayton Rosati, discussions with whom are always encouraging and inspiring. Comments from those who participated in my dissertation proposal defense were also very helpful—Dr. Rina Agarwala Dr. John Boland, Dr. Nathan Connolly, Dr. Jane Guyer, Dr. Ben Hobbs, and Dr. Catherine Norman. During the course of writing and presenting various drafts of these chapters, comments from participants and organizers at these events proved indispensable. Among these, I would particularly like to thank Dr. Manisha Anantharaman, Jacqueline Cieslak, and Freyja Knapp for their comments on chapter four. I thank all attendees, iv participants and organizers of the “Ecologies of Urbanism in Asia Conference” for reading and commenting on my paper. In particular, I thank Dr. Joshua Barker, Dr. Erik Harms, Dr. Ann Rademacher, Dr. Kalyanakrishnan Sivaramakrishnan, and Amy Zhang. Tahirih Alia, Mike Hardin and Dr. Chitra Venkataramani painstakingly proofread and edited the final drafts of this dissertation. I am grateful for their work and support. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. John Boland, Dr. Naveeda Khan and Dr. Anand Pandian for serving on the dissertation defense committee. The following have provided crucial financial assistance for this project: Social Science Research Council (SSRC) International Dissertation Research Fellowship; Wenner-Gren Foundation Dissertation Fieldwork Grant; National Science Foundation (NSF) Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant; Gordon “Red” and Elaine Wolman Fellowship; Environment, Energy Sustainability and Health Institute’s (E2SHI) Fellowship; and Gordon Croft Fellowship. In addition, I thank my partner, John Michael Hardin for his financial support that was indispensable to completing this dissertation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. GARBAGE/MODERNITY: AN INTRODUCTION 1 LANDSCAPES OF WASTE IN CONTEMPORARY URBAN INDIA 4 METHODS 14 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION 21 CHAPTER 2. CONTRADICTORY NEOLIBERALISM: “OLD” AND “NEW” PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN URBAN INDIA 25 (UN)NATURAL MONOPOLIES IN THE WASTE MANAGEMENT INDUSTRY: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 27 PRIVATIZATION OF URBAN INFRASTRUCTURES 27 PRIVATIZATION OF SOLID WASTE COLLECTION MARKETS 36 THE CONTRADICTION IN THEORY AND PRACTICE: MONOPOLY AND COMPETITION IN THE WASTE MANAGEMENT INDUSTRY IN THE U.S. 45 INFRASTRUCTURE PRIVATIZATION IN URBAN INDIA: A BRIEF HISTORY 51 WASTE COLLECTION IN URBAN INDIA 61 THE ‘NEW’: FORMAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN WASTE MANAGEMENT IN URBAN INDIA 63 THE ‘OLD’: INFORMAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN WASTE MANAGEMENT 80 CONCLUSION 107 CHAPTER 3. ACCUMULATION THROUGH FORMALIZATION? DISCIPLINING LABOR IN THE INFORMAL ECONOMY OF URBAN WASTE IN INDIA 111 INFORMALITY, PROPERTY, AND DISPOSSESSION: A REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE 116 UNRULY PEOPLE / UNRULY GARBAGE: THE JUSTIFICATION FOR DISCIPLINE 120 CRIMINAL, ILLEGAL AND IMMORAL 122 SPECTER OF THE PLAGUE 125 MESSY WORK, MESSY PEOPLE 129 VILLAINY OF THE MIDDLEMAN 134 FORMALIZATION/PROFESSIONALIZATION: TACTICS OF DISCIPLINE 140 CONCLUSION: DISCIPLINED LABOR, WAGE DEPRESSION AND SURPLUS VALUE PRODUCTION 157 CHAPTER 4. REFUSE TO BURN: WASTE-TO-ENERGY, VALUE, AND UNRULY MATTER 166 THE “NATURAL” PROPERTIES OF WASTE: CAN IT BURN? 169 REGIME CHANGE? THE RE-EMERGENCE OF WTE IN INDIA 182 DISPLACEMENT AND DISPOSSESSION: MECHANISMS OF CONTROL 197 NEW FORMS OF VALUE EXTRACTION FROM WASTE 203 WTE AND THE PROMISE OF MODERNITY 207 CONCLUSION 224 CHAPTER 5. OLD HABITS DIE HARD? NEW URBAN MODERNITIES AND THE MAKING OF DISCIPLINED SUBJECTS 227 FRAMING THE ISSUES: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 231 LOCATING RESPONSIBILITY FOR WASTE 240 VOLUNTARY LABOR AND THE AESTHETICS OF URBAN MODERNITY 252 SWACHCH BHARAT MISSION (SBM): THE THEATRICS OF THE BROOM 252 THE UGLY INDIAN: THE MORALITY OF URBAN AESTHETICS 266 vi SEGREGATE AT SOURCE! DISCIPLINING DOMESTIC LABOR 285 CONCLUSION: ERASING THE LABORS OF NECESSITY 296 CHAPTER 6. MODERNITY AS GARBAGE / GARBAGE AS MODERNITY: CONCLUSIONS FOR THOUGHT AND PRACTICE 304 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER-WISE FINDINGS 305 MODERNITY/GARBAGE: CONCLUSIONS FOR THOUGHT 310 MODERNITY/GARBAGE: CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE 319 GLOSSARY OF FREQUENTLY USED NON-ENGLISH WORDS 335 ACRONYMS 336 BIBLIOGRAPHY 339 CURRICULUM VITAE 386 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. TIMELINE OF KEY EVENTS ....................................................................................................................................................... 10 TABLE 2. PPP PROJECTS IN INDIA .......................................................................................................................................................... 60 TABLE 3. PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF DELHI'S WASTE .................................................................................................................... 174 TABLE 4. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DELHI'S WASTE .................................................................................................. 174 TABLE 6. SUITABILITY OF WASTE STREAMS FOR TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES ............................................................................ 194 TABLE 7. SUITABILITY OF DIFFERENT TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES FOR WASTE RECEIVED AT LANDFILLS ............................ 195 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. A SCHEMA FOR UNDERSTANDING FORMAL AND INFORMAL SECTORS AND ARRANGEMENTS ........................................ 5 FIGURE 2. A GENERALIZED DEPICTION OF DELHI’S WASTE MANAGEMENT LANDSCAPE .................................................................
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