CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE rHE STONE CIRCLES OF IRELAND \) A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the · requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology by Ellen Gail Boatwright June, 1979 The Thesis of Ellen Gail Boabvright is approved: Mrchael~west Antonio Gilman California State University, Northridge ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreci­ ation to Antonio Gilman for his guidance and assistance throughout the writing of this thesis and to Louis Tartaglia and Michael West for their helpful sugg-estions. My thanks to Robert Kuboshima, who expertly drew and professionally assembled the maps of the Boggeragh and Sperrin mountains, Figures 59 and 60, from my rough drafts. Special thanks to my husband, Bob, and children, Pam and Craig, whose patience and understanding made possible the completion of this· project. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . iii LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii ABSTRACT xi INTRODUCTION . 1 Chapter I. SPECULATIVE PERIOD AND SUCCEEDING THEORETICAL PARADIGMS . • • • 6 Speculative Period . • • . • • . 6 Early Prehistoric Studies in Britain 6 Early Prehistoric Studies in Ireland 9 Diffusionist Paradigm ( 189 5-19 25) . • 12 Modified Diffusionist Paradigm (1925-1965). • . • • • • . 14 Independent Invention/Functionalist Paradigm ( 19 65-Present) . • . 19 II. CULTURAL CONTEXT OF THE IRISH STONE CIRCLES .•...•.• 26 The Ecology . • • 27 The Mesolithic . • . • • • • • • 30 The Neolithic . • • . • • • 32 Habitation Sites . • • • • 32 Megalithic Tombs . 38 The Early Bronze Age . • • . • • 46 The Beaker Folk . • • • • • • . 46 Metallurgy . • . • • 47 Round Cairns . • • . • • • 51 Standing Stones • • . • • 53 Stone Circles . • • • • • . • • 54 Conclusion . • • • • 55 iv Chapter III. DESCRIPTION OF SITES BY GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION . • • • • • • • • • • • 57 Southwest Ireland 58 Western Ireland . 65 Eastern Ireland 67 Northern Ireland 70 Discuss ion • • . 74 IV. -PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CIRCLES 78 Thorn's Metrology and Geometry . • • • • 79 Geometry and. Construction • • • • • 81 Discussion . • . • • • • • • • • 84 Analysis by Diameter, Nlmber of Stones and Associated Features . • • • • • 93 Conclusions • • • • • • • • • . • • • 109 . v. ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL THEORY • 112 Introduction • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 112 Astronomical Observations • • • • • • 117 Solar Observations . • • • • 117 Lunar Observations . • • • • • • • • 120 Stellar Observations . • . • . • • • 127 Methodology of Archaeoastronomical Studies . • • . • • • • • • • • ·129 Alexander Thorn • . • . • • • • • 129 John Edwin Wood . • . • • • • . • • 133 Gerald Hawkins . • • • • 135 Jonathan Reyman . • • • • • 138 Cork and Kerry Recumbent Stone Circle Alignments . • • • • • • • • • 140 Conclusion . • • • • • • . • • • • • 145 VI. THE CIRCLES AS CEREMONIAL SITES: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 147 Small-Scale Societies • • • • • • 149 Social Organization • • • • • • 149 Ceremonies . • • . • • • • • • • • • 151 Ceremonial Structures . • • • • . 152 Cooperation, Competition or Autonomy: Models of Social Interaction . • • 155 Distribution and Social Organization • • . 157 Cork and Kerry Circles • . • • • • • • • 157 Western Circles • • • • • • • • • • • • 161 v Eastern Circles . • . • • 162 Northern Circles . 162 Summary and Conclusion • • • 165 CONCLUSION 167 REFERENCES . 171 APPENDIX • 180 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Approximate Beginning Dates for Irish Epochs 4 2. Climate and Vegetation History from Pollen Analysis . 29 3. Radiocarbon Dates for the Neolithic 34 4. Radiocarbon Dates for the Bronze Age 49 5. Diameters of Irish Stone Circles in Meters and Megalithic Yards 86 6. Irish Stone Circles, Physical Characteristics and Associated Features . • • • • • • • • • 94 7. Diameters of Irish Stone Circles • . 103 8. Numbers of Stones in Irish Stone Circles ,, . 103 9. Circles of 30 m or More 104 10. Associated Features of the Stone Circles • . 105 11. The Sixteen-Month Bronze Age Calendar .• 119 12. Declination in Terms of Azimuth, Altitude, and Latitude . • • • • • • . • ••• ~ • 132 13. Refraction as a Function of Observed Altitude •••.•••• • 137 14. Semi diameter and Parallax of the Sun and !'·1oon. • 137 15. Extreme Declination of the Sun and Moon • 138 16. Azimuth and Declination of Cork Circles from Barber's Study ••••••••.••••• 142 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of the Counties and Provinces of Ireland . • . 181 2. Distribution of Stone Circles in the British Isles . 182 3. Bristlecone-pine Calibration Done by Hans E. Suess . • . • • 183 4. The New Chronology 184 5. Distribution Maps: a. Extent and Effects of Most Recent Glaciation b. Mineral Resources c. Plants of Lusitanian and North American Origin d. Peat Deposits .••••••••....• 185 6. Flint Implements and Neolithic Pottery Sherd . ~ 186 7. Axeheads, Stages of Manufacture • 187 8. Distribution of Tievebulliagh Axeheads 188 9. Neolithic Houses, Plans ..• 189 10. Lough Gur Pottery, Classes I, Ia, II 190 11. Distribution of Plain Round-base Neolithic Pottery . 191 12. Radiocarbon Dates for Neolithic Pottery Styles in Southern England and Northern Ireland . 192 13. Radiocarbon Dates for Earthen Long Barrows and Chambered Tombs . • • 193 14. Knowth Basin Stone 194 viii Figure 15. New Grange Entrance Stone and Roof-box 195 16. Fine Beaker Ware 196 17. Early Bronze Age Gold Ornaments 197 18. Axehead Hold 198 19. Bronze Age Pottery 199 20. Typical Grave-goods of Megalithic Tombs 200 21. Bowl Food Vessel Burial from Cist at Carrickinah, Co. Down • • . • • • • 201 22. Grave Group in Cist, Kilskeery, Corkragh, Co. Tyrone • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • 202 2 3. Distribution of Stone Circles in Southwest Ireland 203 24. Drombeg, Co. Cork . 204 25. Reanascreena, Co. Cork • . .. 205 26. Plans of Four Stone Circles in Cork 206 27. Lisivigeen, Co. Kerry 207 28. The Lios, Co. Limerick 208 29. Plan of the Lios, Co. Limerick . 209 30. Athgreany, Co. Wicklow •••• 210 31. Plans of Three Stone Circles in Wicklow 211 32. Ballynoe, Co. Down • 212 33. Millin Bay, Co. Down • 213 34. New Grange Stone Circle, Co. Meath • 214 35. Beaghmore, Co. Tyrone 215 36. Plan of Circles at Beaghmore, Co. Tyrone •• 216 37. Graph of Diameters and Circumferences in Megalithic Yards • • •••••••• 217 ix Figure 38. Flattened Circles, Types A and B •. 218 39. Ellipse, Postbridge 219 40. A Type I Egg-shaped Circle, Woodhenge 220 41. A Type II Egg-shaped Circle, Borrowston Rig . 221 42. Avebury, Geometry of the Circle 222 43. The Celestial Sphere 223 44. The Sun's Daily Movement Through the Sky . 223 45. Celestial Equator and the Ecliptic . 224 46. The Sun at Summer Solstice 225 47. The Sun at Winter Solstice 226 48. The Sun at the Equinoxes . 227 49. Diagram of Internal Structure of New Grange 228 50. Histogram of Observed Declinations 229 51. Phases of the Moon . • 230 52. Movements of the Moon 231 53. The Moon at Major Standstill 232 54. The Moon at Minor Standstill • . 233 55. Northern and "southern Extremes of the Moon at Major Standstill . • • . 234 56. Northern and Southern Extremes of the Moon at Minor Standstill . • . • . 235 57. Major and Minor Standstills at Winter Solstice 236 58. Solar and Lunar Extremes in Azimuth 237 59. Boggeragh Mountains, Co. Cork 159 60. Sperrin Mountains, Cos. Londonderry and Tyrone . • . • . • • . • . • • • . • . • • 163 X ABSTRACT THE STONE CIRCLES OF IRELAND by Ellen Gail Boatwright Master of Arts in Anthropology This thesis is primarily an overview of the Irish stone circles. Successive paradigms by which they have been interpreted have been examined. Their Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age cultural contexts have been discussed. The circles have been described and their physical charac­ teristics, diameter and number of stones, and their associated features analyzed. Two hypothesized primary functions have been examined, that of astronomical observa­ tory and that of religious-ceremonial site. It was con­ cluded that the circles were not constructed to serve primarily as astronomical observatories, but rather that an astronomical orientation, present at many of the sites, indicates that observance of midwinter solstice was prob­ ably an integral part of the religion of their builders. xi A religious-ceremonial function was found to be the more likely primary function for the majority of the circles. Analysis was made of the distribution of the circles in relation to three models of social interaction (coopera­ tion, competition, or autonomy) among basic population units (extended families) and inferences drawn concerning the social organization of the builders. It was concluded that no one model alone could explain the distribution of the circles, but that different processes were operating in different areas in a transitional social evolutionary stage between the more egalitarian Neolithic and more hierarchi­ cal Middle Bronze Age. xii INTRODUC'riON The stone circles of Ireland (map, Figure 1) are a type of megalithic structure or monument. The term mega- lithic refers to the massive stones used in these construe- tions, built without the use of mortar, rather than to any particular group of people who constructed such monuments. Many peoples have built megalithic structures. Megalithic monuments in Europe consist of tombs (dolmens), single standing stones (menhirs), and stone circles. When one speaks of stone circles, Stoneheng.e, because it is so well known, immediately comes to mind. There is, however, a distinction between henges and stone circles. A stone circle is usually defined as a ring of stanq~ng.stones