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226 Chatham Island Oystercatcher Text and images extracted from Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (editors) 1993. Handbook of Australian , New Zealand &Antarctic Birds. Volume 2, Raptors to lapwings. Melbourne, Oxford University Press. Pages 648-649, 715, 734-739; plate 56. Reproduced with the permission of Bird life Australia and Jeff Davies. 648 C haradri ifo rmes Order CHARADRIIFORMES A large, diverse asse mblage of small to medium-large (1 2-75 em long) limicoline, pratincoline, aquatic or terrestrial birds. Cosmopolitan fro m Arctic to Antarctic regions; in all sorts of maritime, freshwater and open terrestrial habitats (including deserts ) with a few (woodcocks and snipes) even using dense forests. Once known as Limicolae or Laro-limicolae (e.g. Mayr & Amadon 195 1) ; colloquially, the assemblage (excluding alcids, sku as, gulls, tems and skimmers) is often referred to as waders (especially in Britain) or shorebirds (especially in North America). About 350 species in 19 fa milies, though taxonomic treatments vary. Following families recognized (mostly based on recent reviews of O rder [Sibley et al. 1988; Sibley & A hlquist 1990; Sibley & M onroe 1990]): Thinocoridae seedsnipes; fo ur species, S. America. Pedionomidae Plains-wanderer; monotypic, Aust. Scolopacidae sandpipers, snipes and allies; c. 85 species, cosmopolitan. Rostratulidae pa inted snipes; two species, s. America and O ld World. Jacanidae jacanas; seven species, pantropical. Chionididae sheathbills; two species, Antarctica and subantarctic islands. Burhinidae thick-knees, stone-curlews; nine species, widespread in Old World and two in Neotropics . Haematopod idae oystercatchers; c. 11 species, worldwide in tropics and temperate regions. Recurvirostridae avocets and stilts; about seven species, worldwide in tropical and temperate regions. Ibidiorhynchidae Ibisbill; monotypic, central Asia. Charadriidae plovers and lapwings; c. 60 species, cosmopolitan. Pluvianellidae Mage llanic Plover; monotypic, S. A merica. Dromad idae C rab Plover; monotypic, Arabian region. G lareolidae pratincoles, coursers, and Egyptian Plover; c. 15 species, widespread in Old W orld. Stercorariidae skuas and jaegers; about seven species, mostly in Arctic and Antarctic regions. Rhynchopidae skimmers; three species, pantropical. Laridae gulls; c. 47 species, cosmopolitan. Sternidae tems; c. 42 species, cosmopolitan. A lcidae auks; c. 20 species, Arctic and temperate regions of n. hemisphere. Apparently monophyletic. Pteroclididae (sa ndgrouse ) probably sister-group of Charadriiformes (e.g. Fjeldsa 1976, 1977; Sibley & Ahlquist 1990; BWP) , though whether best placed within Charadriiformes or in separate order is debated. Flamingoes (Phoenicopterid ae ) and di vers (Gaviidae ) have also been treated as Charadriiformes (Olson & Feduccia 198 1; Fjeldsa 1976, 1977 ) b ut DNA-DNA hybridization studies (Sibley & A hlquist 1990) inconsistent with these theories. Affinities to other orders still controversial; DNA-DNA h ybridization h as suggested closest links are to large waterbirds, such as storks, herons and allies, Pelicaniformes, Procellariformes, penguins, grebes, divers ( Gaviidae) and also Falconiformes. All these were combined in huge order C iconiiformes by Sibley & Ahlquist ( 1990). Taxonomy and relationships reviewed in Sibley & Ahlquist (1990), Christian etal. (1 992) and BWP (and references therein). Recent rev iews have included: patterning of downy young (J ehl1968; Fj eldsa 1976, 1977), osteology (Strauch 1978; Mickevitch & Parenti 1980; Olson &Steadman 1981 ), DNA- DNA hybridization (Sibleyetal.1988, Sibley &Ahlquist 1990) and electrophoresis of tissue proteins (Christian etal. 1992 ). The studies of allozymes, DNA-DN A hybridiza ti on and the most recent osteological study of the e ntire o rder (Strauch 1978) h ave agreed in finding two or three we ll-knit, monophyletic asse mblages within the Charadriifonnes: scolopacids and allies (Thinocoridae , Pedionomidae, Scolopacidae, Rostratulidae, Jacanidae ) and c haradrids and allies (Chionididae, Burhinidae, Haematopodidae, Recurvirostridae, Ibidorhyncidae, Charadriidae, Pluvianellidae, Dromadidae, Glareolidae, Stercorcariidae, Rhynchopidae, Laridae, Sternidae, A lcidae ); Strauch ( 1978) treated Alcidae as separate lineage, but skeletons may be so highly modified for foot-propelled diving that they do not reflect relations well (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990); gulls and allies have also been regarded as a separate lineage (Christian etal. 1992 ) or as allied to charadrids (e.g. Sibley & Ahlquist 1990). Further relationships within the O rder discussed in introductions to fa milies. Because the O rd er comprises so many species and adaptations are so diverse, few characters shared by all species; those that are shared are mostly anatomical fea tures of the skull, e.g. most or all have schizorhinal nostrils, schizognathous palates, well-developed vomer, lachrymals fused with ectethemoid and pre-frontal bones, well-developed supra-orbital grooves; see O lson & S teadman (1 981) fo r more information on osteological characters. Wings usually have 11 primaries, with p1 0 longest and p 11 minute; 15-24 secondaries; diastataxic except in Scolopax minor, as far as is known. Usually 12 tail-feathers. Necks usually rather long with 15- 16 cervical vertebrae. O il-gland bilobed and tufted. Syrinx, tracheo-bronchial; two carotids (type A- 1 of G lenny 1955 ); caeca present. Legs usually rather long; hind toe small or lacking in most but all toes greatly elongated in Jacanidae. Feathers w ith small thin afterfeathers. Normally two moults annually: complete post- Pedionomus torquatus 649 breeding and partial pre-breeding; some jacanas and alcids have fl ightless periods when moulting re miges. Young, downy, usually with intricate cryptic patterns on upperparts of three chief types: pebbly, spotted and striped , ma tching characters of habitat (Fjeldsa 1976, 1977): precocial, nidifugo us usually, self-feeding or not depending greatly on parents. Thirteen families recorded in HANZA B region, with 54 species breeding, 41 occurring as regular n on-breeding migrants and c. 38 as accidentals or probable accidentals. Scolopac idae, Stercorcariidae, Laridae and Stemidae will be dealt with in Volume 3 of HANZAB. REFEREN CES Chri sti an, P. O., et al. 1992. Aust. ). Zool. 40: 29 1- 302. O lson, S.L., & A. Feduccia. 1981. Smirhson. Contrib. Zool. 323: 1- 24. Fje ldsa, J. 1976. Videns/c Mecld. dansk. Natur. Foren. 139: 179-243. -, & O.W. Steadman. 198 1. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 337: 1- 25. - 1977. Guide to rh e Young of European Precocial Birds. Scarv Nature Sibley, CG., & J .E. A hlquist. 1990. Ph ylogeny and Classification of Birds Productions, Tisv ildeleje. of the World. Ya le Univ. Press, New Haven. Glenny, F.H . 1955. Proc. US natn. Mus. 103 (3346): 525-62 1. -, & B.L. Monroe. 1990. Diso-ibution and Taxonom)' of the Birds of the Jchl, j.L., Jr. 1968. Mem. San Diego Soc. nat. Hist. 3. World. Ya le Univ. Press; New Haven. Mayr, E., & D. A madon . 195 1. Am . Mus. Novit. 1496. - ,etal. 1988 . Auk 105:409- 423. Mickevich, M. F., & L.R. Parent i. 1980. Syst. Zool. 29: 108-113. Strauch, J.G ., Jr. 1978 . Trans. zool. Soc. Lond. 34: 263-345. 71 5 Family HAEMATOPODIDAE oystercatchers Rather large ( 40-49 em long) black or pied waders, heavily built, with sturdy legs, and long straight robust bills. About 21 species and subspecies, all in single genus Haematopus; almost worldwide on temperate and tropical coastlines. Species limits uncertain (Baker 1975, 1977); rather uniform structure and simple patterns of plumages not reflecting well any generic differentiation of allopatric species and subspecies; as few as three species and as many as twelve have been recognized. The relationships and arrangement of species or subspecies continues to be debated; we treat as fi ve species in our region, two endemic to Aust. and three to NZ and C hatham Is. Probably most closely related to Recurvirostridae (q.v.) ; intermediate anatomically and behaviourally between Scolopacidae and Laridae . Solidly built. Sexes similar; females slightly larger than m ales. N ecks stout; 15 cervical vertebrae. Wings, long and pointed; 11 primaries (pll minute), 18-20 secondaries and moderately large carpal knob. Tails, short and square; 12 rectrices. Bills, long and straight, laterally compressed; adapted for opening shells and chiselling molluscs off rocks, with muscles of jaw and neck strongly developed (Burton 1974 ). Bills range from blunt and square-tipped to pointed; length and shape of bill-tip varying in individuals according to choice of prey and feeding substrate (Hulscher & Ens 199 1 ). Nostrils, pervious; schizorhinal. Legs, stout and rather long; tarsi, reticulated with small hexagonal scales. Toes, stout, only transversely scutellated on distal half; slightly webbed at base, no hallux. Caeca present. No crop. Large supraorbital glands. Plumages, black or blackish brown, some species with white underparts, rump and wing-bars. Bills, legs and feet, orange or pink to red; irides, scarlet or ye llow; orbital rings, reddish (yellow in H. leucojJodus) . Two moults per cycle. Post-breeding moult, complete, primaries outwards; pre-breeding moult, partial but only in Euras ian O ystercatcher H . ostralegus do breeding and non-breeding plumages differ markedly. Young hatch in soft woolly down; most species, brownish grey, with white belly and vent, all with dark lines and spots above forming simple pebbled pattern, similar to that of Burhinidae. Juveniles, duller scalloped versions of adult with darker bare parts;
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